Fluid Mechanics-II

Teacher/Instructor :Engr. Muhammad Sumair

B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering (UET Lahore 2014-2018)

M.Sc. Thermal Power Engineering (UET Lahore 2018-2020)
 Introduction to Turbomachinery
• There are two broad categories of turbomachinery, pumps and
turbines. The word pump is a general term for any fluid machine that
adds energy to a fluid. Some authors call pumps energy absorbing
devices since energy is supplied to them, and they transfer most of that
energy to the fluid, usually via a rotating shaft as shown in Figure 1
(a).The increase in fluid energy is usually felt as an increase in the
pressure of the fluid.
• Turbines, on the other hand, are energy producing devices—they
extract energy from the fluid and transfer most of that energy to some
form of mechanical energy output, typically in the form of a rotating
shaft (Fig. 1b). The fluid at the outlet of a turbine suffers an energy
loss, typically in the form of a loss of pressure.
 Introduction to Turbomachinery (Cont’d)

Figure 1: (a) Energy Absorbing Devices i.e.,

pumps and (b) Energy Producing Devices i.e.,
turbines
 Introduction to Turbomachinery (Cont’d)
• The pumps and turbines can be defined as follows:
“The purpose of a pump is to add energy to a fluid, resulting in an
increase in fluid pressure, not necessarily an increase of fluid speed
across the pump”.
• An analogous statement is made about the purpose of a turbine:
“The purpose of a turbine is to extract energy from a fluid, resulting in a
decrease of fluid pressure, not necessarily a decrease of fluid speed
across the turbine”.
 Introduction to Turbomachinery (Cont’d)
• Fluid machines that move liquids are called pumps, but there are
several other names for machines that move gases. A fan is a gas
pump with relatively low pressure rise and high flow rate. Examples
include ceiling fans, house fans, and propellers. A blower is a gas
pump with relatively moderate to high pressure rise and moderate to
high flow rate. Examples include centrifugal blowers and squirrel cage
blowers in automobile ventilation systems, furnaces, and leaf blowers.
• A compressor is a gas pump designed to deliver a very high-pressure
rise, typically at low to moderate flow rates. Examples include air
compressors that run pneumatic tools and inflate tires at automobile
service stations, and refrigerant compressors used in heat pumps,
refrigerators, and air conditioners.
 Turbines
• Turbines are defined as the hydraulic machines which convert
hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is
used in running an electric generator which is directly coupled to the
shaft of the turbine. Thus, the mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy. The electric power which is obtained from the
hydraulic energy (energy of water) is known as Hydroelectric power.
• At present the generation of hydroelectric power is the cheapest as
compared by the power generated by other sources such as oil, coal
etc.
 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
• The hydraulic turbines are classified according to the type of energy
available at the inlet of the turbine, direction of flow through the vanes
and head at the inlet of the turbine
1. According to the type of energy at inlet:
(a) Impulse turbine, and (b) Reaction turbine.
2. According to the direction of flow through runner :
(a) Tangential flow turbine, (b) Radial flow turbine, (c) Axial flow turbine,
and (d) Mixed flow turbine.
3. According to the head at the inlet of turbine :
(a) High head turbine, (b) Medium head turbine, and (c) Low head
turbine.
 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
(Cont’d)
• If at the inlet of the turbine, the energy available is only kinetic
energy, the turbine is known as Impulse (or velocity) Turbine. As the
water flows over the vanes, the pressure is atmospheric from inlet to
outlet of the turbine.
• If at the inlet of the turbine, the water possesses kinetic energy as well
as pressure energy, the turbine is known as Reaction (or pressure)
Turbine. As the waters flows through the runner, the water is under
pressure and the pressure energy goes on changing into kinetic energy.
The runner is completely enclosed in an air-tight casing and the runner
and casing is completely full of water.
• If the water flows along the tangent of the runner, the turbine is known
as tangential flow turbine.
 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
(Cont’d)
• If the water flows in the radial direction through the runner, the turbine
is called radial flow turbine.
• If the water flows from outwards to inwards, radially, the turbine is
known as inward radial flow turbine, on the other hand, if water
flows radially from inwards to outwards, the turbine is known as
outward radial flow turbine. If the water flows through the runner
along the direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner, the
turbine is called axial flow turbine.
• If the water flows through the runner in the radial direction but leaves
in the direction parallel to axis of rotation of the runner, the turbine is
called mixed flow turbine.
 Impulse Turbines
Introduction: An impulse turbine, as the name indicates, is a turbine
which runs by the impulse of water. In an impulse turbine, the water
from a dam is made to flow through a pipeline, and then through guide
mechanism and finally through the nozzle. In such a process, the entire
available energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy, by
passing it through nozzles; which are kept close to the runner. The water
enters the running wheel in the form of a jet (or jets), which impinges on
the buckets, fixed to the outer periphery of the wheel.
The jet of water impinges on the buckets with a high velocity, and after
flowing over the vanes, leaves with a low velocity; thus, imparting
energy to the runner.
 Impulse Turbines (Cont’d)
• The pressure of water, both at entering and leaving the vanes, is
atmospheric. The most common example of an impulse turbine is
Pelton wheel.
• The Pelton wheel or Pelton turbine is a tangential flow impulse
turbine. The water strikes the bucket along the tangent of the runner.
The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy.
The pressure at the inlet and outlet of the turbine is atmospheric. This
turbine is used for high heads.
• Fig.2 shows the layout of a hydroelectric power plant in which the
turbine is Pelton wheel. The water from the reservoir flows through
the penstocks at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted. The nozzle
increases the kinetic energy of the water flowing through the penstock.
 Pelton Wheel Turbine
• At the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out in the form of a jet
and strikes the buckets (vanes) of the runner.
• The main parts of the Pelton turbine are
1. Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement (spear),
2. Runner and buckets,
3. Casing, and
4. Breaking jet.
 Pelton Wheel Turbine (Cont’d)

Figure 2: A typical hydroelectric power plant

using Pelton wheel turbine
 Pelton Wheel Turbine (Cont’d)
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement. The amount of water
striking the buckets (vanes) of the runner is controlled by providing
a spear in the nozzle as shown in Fig.3
• The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand wheel
or automatically in an axial direction depending upon the size of the
unit. When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle the amount of
water striking the runner is reduced. On the other hand, if the spear is
pushed back, the amount of water striking the runner increases.
Pelton Wheel Turbine (Cont’d)

Figure 3: Nozzle with Spear arrangement for

controlling the flow rate of water
 Pelton Wheel Turbine (Cont’d)
2. Runner with Buckets. Fig.4 shows the runner of a Pelton wheel. It
consists of a circular disc on the periphery of which several buckets
evenly spaced are fixed.
• The shape of the buckets is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl.
As shown in Fig.5, each bucket is divided into two symmetrical parts
by a dividing wall which is known as splitter. The jet of water strikes
on the splitter. The splitter divides the jet into two equal parts and the
jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket. The buckets are shaped
in such a way that the jet gets deflected through 160° or 170°. The
buckets are made of cast iron, cast steel bronze or stainless steel
depending upon the head at the inlet of the turbine.
 Pelton Wheel Turbine (Cont’d)

Figure 4: Runner of a
typical Pelton wheel with
buckets along its periphery
 Pelton Wheel Turbine (Cont’d)

Figure 5: A typical double hemispherical bucket of Pelton wheel Bucket with splitter
 Pelton Wheel Turbine (Cont’d)

Figure 6: A view from the bottom of a running Pelton wheel showing the splitting and
turning of water. Jet is entering from left and wheel is turning towards right
 Pelton Wheel Turbine (Cont’d)
3. Casing. Fig.6 shows a Pelton turbine with a casing. The function of
the casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge
water to tail race. It also acts as safeguard against accidents. It is made
of cast iron or fabricated steel plates. The casing of the Pelton wheel
does not perform any hydraulic function.
4. Breaking Jet. When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the
spear in the forward direction, the amount of water striking the runner
reduces to zero. But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a
long time. To stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided
which directs the jet of water on the back of the vanes. This jet of water
is called breaking jet.
Pelton Wheel Turbine (Cont’d)

Figure 6: A typical Pelton wheel with casing and braking jet

 Velocity Triangles and Work done for
Pelton Wheel
• The jet of water, issuing from the nozzle, strikes the bucket at its
splitter. The splitter then splits up the jet into two parts. One part of the
jet glides over the inside surface of one portion of the vane and leaves
it at its extreme edge. The other part of the jet glides over the inside
surface of the other portion of the vane and leaves it at its other
extreme edge as shown in Fig. 1.
• The splitter is the inlet tip and outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip
of the bucket. The inlet velocity triangle is drawn at the splitter and
outlet velocity triangle is drawn at the outer edge of the bucket.
 Velocity Triangles and Work done for
Pelton Wheel (Cont’d)

Figure 1: Velocity triangles for Pelton wheel

turbine
Velocity Triangles and Work done for Pelton
Wheel (Cont’d)
Velocity Triangles and Work done for Pelton
Wheel (Cont’d)
Velocity Triangles and Work done for
Pelton Wheel (Cont’d)
 Velocity Triangles and Work done for
Pelton Wheel (Cont’d)
• The mass of water striking is paV1 . 'a' is the area of the jet which is
given as

• Now, the work done/s per unit weight of water striking/s

Velocity Triangles and Work done for
Pelton Wheel (Cont’d)
Velocity Triangles and Work done for
Pelton Wheel (Cont’d)
 Velocity Triangles and Work done for
Pelton Wheel (Cont’d)

Thus we see that hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel will be maximum

when the velocity of the wheel is half the velocity of the jet of water at
inlet. The expression for maximum efficiency will be obtained by
substituting this value of u in above equation.
Velocity Triangles and Work done for
Pelton Wheel (Cont’d)
 Efficiencies of Pelton Wheel
• Hydraulic Efficiency: It is the ratio of work done, on the wheel, to
the energy of the jet. We have just seen it as

• And maximum hydraulic efficiency comes out to be

• Mechanical Efficiency: It has been observed that all the energy
supplied to the wheel does not come out as useful work. But a part of
it is dissipated in overcoming friction of bearings and other moving
parts. Thus the mechanical efficiency is the ratio of actual work
available at the turbine to the energy imparted to the wheel.
 Efficiencies of Pelton Wheel
• Overall Efficiency: It is a measure of the performance of a turbine,
and is the ratio of actual power produced by the turbine to the energy
actually supplied by the turbine, i.e.

• Important Points to be remembered for Pelton wheel

▪ The velocity of the jet at inlet is given by
Where Cv is the coefficient of velocity=0.985 if not given
▪ The velocity of the wheel (u) is given by 𝐮 = 𝐒. 𝐑 𝟐𝐠𝐇
Where S.R is the speed ratio, taken as 0.46 if not given
 Important Points to be Remembered for
Pelton Wheel
▪ The angle of deflection of the jet through buckets is taken at 165° if no
angle of deflection is given
▪ The mean diameter or the pitch diameter D of the Pelton wheel is
given by

▪ Jet Ratio. It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter (D) of the
Pelton wheel to the diameter of the jet (d). It is denoted by 'm' and is
given as
 Important Points to be Remembered for
Pelton Wheel (Cont’d)
▪ Number of buckets on a runner is given by

▪ Number of Jets. It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow

through the turbine by the rate of flow of water through a single jet.
 Numerical Problems
• Problem 1: A Pelton wheel has a mean bucket speed of 10 meters per
second with a jet of water flowing at the rate of 700 liters/s under a
head of 30 meters. The buckets deflect the jet through an angle of
160°. Calculate the power given by water to the runner and the
hydraulic efficiency of the turbine. Assume co-efficient of velocity as
0.98. (Ans: 186.97 kW, 94.54%)
• Problem 2: A Pelton wheel is to be designed for the following
specifications : Shaft power = 11,772 kW ; Head = 380 meters ; Speed
= 750 r.p.m. ; Overall efficiency = 86% ; Jet diameter is not to exceed
one-sixth of the wheel diameter. Determine : (i) The wheel diameter,
(ii) The number of jets required, and (iii) Diameter of the jet. Take Cv
= 0.985 and S.R = 0.45 (Ans: (i) 989 mm, (ii)2, (iii) 165 mm)
 Numerical Problems (Cont’d)
• Problem 3: The penstock supplies water from a reservoir to the Pelton
wheel with a gross head of 500 m. One third of the gross head is lost in
friction in the penstock. The rate of flow of water through the nozzle fitted
at the end of the penstock is 2.0 m3/s. The angle of deflection of the jet is
165°. Determine the power given by the water to the runner and also
hydraulic efficiency of the Pelton wheel. Take speed ratio = 0.45 and Cv =
1.0. (Ans: 6363 kW, 97.31%)
• Problem 4: A Pelton wheel is having a mean bucket diameter of 1 m and is
running at 1000 r.p.m. The net head on the Pelton wheel is 700 m. If the
side clearance angle is 15° and discharge through nozzle is 0.1 m 3/s, find:
(i) Power available at the nozzle, and (ii) Hydraulic efficiency of the
turbine. (Ans: (i) 686.7 kW, (ii) 97.18%)
 Numerical Problems (Cont’d)
• Problem 5: A 137 mm diameter jet of water issuing from a nozzle
impinges on the buckets of a Pelton wheel and the jet is deflected
through an angle of 165° by the buckets. The head available at the
nozzle is 400 m. Assuming co-efficient of velocity as 0.97, speed ratio
as 0.46, and reduction in relative velocity while passing through
buckets as 15%, find : (i) The force exerted by the jet on buckets in
tangential direction, (ii) The power developed. (Ans:(i) 104 kN, (ii)
4246 kW)
• Problem 6: Two jets strike the buckets of a Pelton wheel, which is
having shaft power as 15450 kW. The diameter of each jet is given as
200 mm. If the net head on the turbine is 400 m, find the overall
efficiency of the turbine. Take Cv = 1.0. (Ans: 70.8%)
Thanks for Listening