sustainability

Review
Resilient and Sustainable Housing Models against Climate
Change: A Review
Michelle A. Ruíz 1 and Yazmin L. Mack-Vergara 2, *

1 Sustainable Construction UTP Research Group, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universidad Tecnológica de
Panamá, Panama City 0819-07289, Panama; [email protected]
2 Sustainable Construction UTP Research Group, Experimental Center for Engineering, Universidad
Tecnológica de Panamá, Panama City 0819-07289, Panama
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Most of the world’s population resides in urban areas, and it is expected that this will
continue to be the case in the future. These urban areas face enormous challenges such as climate
change, economic instability and inequality. Housing is considered a basic unit comprising cities,
and, as such, this study contextualized the concepts of urban resilience and sustainability against
climate change such that housing models that respond to these concepts could be identified. As a
result of an extensive literature review, three resilient housing models and four sustainable housing
models are presented and discussed with a focus on the main characteristics necessary for meeting
urban resilience and sustainability against climate change. When analyzing the housing models
considered resilient, the need to establish housing on safe land stood out and concrete was a common
building material among these housing models. In addition, the use of alternative sources of water
and energy supply was prioritized. On the other hand, sustainable housing models were developed
by local entities and certified by various initiatives. In addition, these models account for the climatic
specifications of their location, energy and water efficiency, and quality of the indoor environment,
and promote the use of local materials and resources. The use of durable materials was considered
a requirement for both resilience and sustainability. The results of this study are a contribution to
the process of strengthening housing against the challenge posed by climate change in a timely and
adequate manner considering both urban resilience and sustainability aspects.
Citation: Ruíz, M.A.; Mack-Vergara,
Y.L. Resilient and Sustainable Keywords: housing; urban areas; resilience; sustainability; climate change
Housing Models against Climate
Change: A Review. Sustainability
2023, 15, 13544. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su151813544
1. Introduction
Academic Editors: HyungKyoo Kim Understanding of the role of housing in urban development has evolved significantly
and Changyeon Lee in recent decades, now established as an essential component of the social fabric. Thus, the
Received: 30 July 2023
right to housing is enshrined in several international human rights instruments, such as the
Revised: 30 August 2023 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (art. 25.1) [1] and the International Covenant on
Accepted: 8 September 2023 Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (art. 11.1) [2], consequently defining the importance
Published: 11 September 2023 of adequate housing that has the security of tenure, availability of services, materials,
facilities, infrastructure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, safe location and cultural
adequacy [3].
Following this context, housing is highlighted as fundamental for human well-being
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. and integration into the economic and social spheres [4], since it comprises the largest
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. physical area within a city. However, as the world has entered the new millennium,
This article is an open access article development, urbanization and environmental alteration have converged and posed threats
distributed under the terms and to humanity’s quality of life [5], with developing countries increasingly feeling the effects of
conditions of the Creative Commons
phenomena such as climate change, resource depletion, food insecurity and socioeconomic
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
instability. Therefore, investing in the emergence of inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
cities is paramount.
4.0/).

Sustainability 2023, 15, 13544. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813544 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 13544 2 of 14

The general objective of this study is to identify housing models that respond to
the concepts of urban resilience and sustainability and discuss their main characteristics
against climate change. Following specific objectives, the first one is to define resilience and
sustainability in the urban context. The second one is to conduct a comparative analysis
of various housing models that meet the definitions of urban resilience and sustainability.
Finally, based on the results, the third objective seeks to discuss the characteristics of
resilient and sustainable housing in the context of climate change.
There are currently no studies focused on housing accounting for both resilience and
sustainability. Consequently, this study sought to fill this gap in the literature. For this
purpose, a qualitative methodology based on the systematic review of scientific informa-
tion was employed, providing context to international events in terms of the resilience
and sustainability of housing. As such, this study highlights significant scientific papers,
international agendas and global initiatives that promote participation in the global devel-
opment effort and urge cities to prepare for implementing plans for a more resilient and
sustainable urban future.

2. Background
2.1. Cities and Climate Change
Over time, cities have been located at the crossroads of trade routes, built as an expres-
sion of social order, serving as hubs of defense, physical security and social continuity [6].
Today, they continue to be the engines of growth, as they offer important opportunities to
improve human well-being [7] by constituting themselves as the main spaces of social and
economic reproduction [8] that catalyze development [9].
However, cities also face significant challenges, such as accelerated population growth,
poor urban planning, infrastructure deficit, pollution, overburdened urban services and the
increase in their vulnerability to catastrophes resulting from climate change [9]. Therefore,
this generation has the responsibility and opportunity to lead a change that incorporates
adaptation and mitigation measures in cities, from their basic unit, i.e., housing, urging
for consideration of the inherent weaknesses of current models and rebuilding them
differently [10], with an emphasis on urban resilience and sustainability.
In this context, several studies point out how these challenges have been influenced
and/or exacerbated by humankind. In terms of climate change, the Fifth Assessment
Report of the IPCC or AR5 [11] indicates that human influence on the climate system is
clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases have been the highest in
history. In 2020 alone, urban emissions from consumption-based accounting were estimated
at 29 GtCO2 -eq, representing between 67% and 72% of global CO2 and CH4 emissions,
respectively [12].
Currently, more than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas, and by 2030,
that number will increase to 60%, where developing countries will be home to 80% of
the urban population [13]. Such is the case of Latin America and the Caribbean, which
have undergone the process of very rapid urban expansion and are currently the most
urbanized developing regions in the world [14]. Nevertheless, developing countries are
characterized by high socioeconomic inequality, the presence of informal and precarious
human settlements, high degrees of land tenure insecurity and large segments of the
population dependent on the informal economic sector [15].
Consequently, this imbalance between development and the challenges faced by cities
will only increase their vulnerability and reduce their competitiveness from economic,
social and environmental points of view as externalities of productive activities [16]. As of
2022 alone, 32.6 million people were displaced as a result of climate change-related threats
such as storms, floods and others (Figure 1) [17].
Sustainability
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15, x13544
FOR PEER REVIEW 3 3ofof15
14

1. Internal
Figure 1.
Figure Internaldisplacements
displacementsin in
2022: breakdown
2022: breakdownby conflict, violence
by conflict, and disasters.
violence Source: Source:
and disasters. authors’
own elaboration
authors’ based on based
own elaboration the Global
on theReport onReport
Global InternalonDisplacement 2023 [17]. 2023 [17].
Internal Displacement

In this
In this sense,
sense, there
there isis aa need
need toto address
address new
new strategies
strategies forfor supporting
supporting developing
developing
countries relating
countries relating thetheissue
issueof ofhousing
housing withwith
a greater emphasis
a greater on resilience
emphasis and sustain-
on resilience and
ability. Thus, work
sustainability. Thus,iswork
beingiscarried
being out on the
carried outurban
on the future
urban from an integrated
future approach
from an integrated
that ensures
approach thatthe growththe
ensures and development
growth of the potential
and development of theofpotential
cities [10]ofand enriches
cities the
[10] and
dialogue around housing as a key component of the urban
enriches the dialogue around housing as a key component of the urban fabric. fabric.
Therefore, this
Therefore, this study
study considers
considers the the role
role of
ofhousing
housing in inthe
thefulfillment
fulfillmentofofglobal
globalagendas
agendas
that collaborate as comprehensive, multisectoral and multi-stakeholder
that collaborate as comprehensive, multisectoral and multi-stakeholder frameworks that frameworks that
seek to unlock the value of urbanization, ensure relevant human
seek to unlock the value of urbanization, ensure relevant human rights and empower rights and empower
cities. In
cities. Inaddition,
addition,this
thisstudy
studyputsputsurban
urbanhousing
housingas as the
the focus
focus ofof greater
greater attention
attention for
for the
the
successful implementation of resilient and sustainable
successful implementation of resilient and sustainable development. development.

2.2. Transition to Resilience and Sustainability

2.2. Transition to Resilience and Sustainability
In recent decades, there has been exponential growth in the funding and practice of
In recent
research, decades, and/or
frameworks there has been exponential
initiatives that seekgrowth in the funding
to contextualize and practice
the balance between of
research, frameworks and/or initiatives that seek to contextualize
urban development and the environment. This can be traced back to the promulgation of the balance between
urban development
the concept and thedevelopment,
of sustainable environment.introduced
This can bein traced back to the Commission
the Brundtland promulgationasofa
the concept
pathway to of sustainable
meeting development,
the needs of the presentintroduced
withoutincompromising
the Brundtland Commission
the as a
ability of future
pathway to meeting the needs of the present without compromising
generations to meet their own needs [18]. Likewise, new international agreements and the ability of future
generations
initiatives haveto meet
been their own together
tools that, needs [18]. Likewise, new
or individually, have international
had far-reaching agreements and
implications
initiatives have been tools that, together
for the management of rapid urbanization and climate change. or individually, have had far-reaching
implications
However, forintheterms
management
of housing, of rapid urbanization
the progress madeand hasclimate
focusedchange.
mainly on the legal-
However,
ization of informalin terms
human of settlements,
housing, thetheprogressgrantingmade has focused
of subsidies, mainly onof the
the promotion the
legalization of informal human settlements, the granting of subsidies,
construction and improvement of substandard housing through self-construction, and the the promotion of
the construction and improvement of substandard housing through
construction of housing in the category of social interest [19]. Therefore, it is necessary toself-construction, and
the construction
expand the way of wehousing in the category
are approaching of social
the subject and interest
include its[19]. Therefore,
resilience anditsustainability.
is necessary
to expand the way we are approaching the subject and
Thus, the development of ideas with an integral and transversal perspective becomes include its resilience anda
sustainability. Thus, the
pressing task, enabling development
the enrichment of research
of the ideas with aroundan housing.
integral and transversal
perspective becomes
It is therefore a pressing
necessary task, enabling
to address the enrichment
more integral concepts of theadaptation
than research around
or mit-
housing.
igation, where housing is the axis for the creation of solutions to urban vulnerabilities
It is therefore
to climate change [20]. necessary
Hence,tothe address
use of more integral ofconcepts
a perspective resilience than
andadaptation
sustainability or
mitigation,
applicable to where
urban housing
areas isisurged,
the axis for the
where creation
urban of solutions
resilience to urban
is considered vulnerabilities
as the measurable
to climateofchange
capacity any urban [20].system
Hence,tothe use ofcontinuity
maintain a perspective of resilience
through all shocksand andsustainability
stresses such
applicable
as floods, to urbanwinds,
strong areas islandslides
urged, where and urban
other resilience is considered
extreme weather events, as the
whilemeasurable
adapting
positively
capacity of and
any transforming
urban system toward to maintainsustainability
continuity[21]. Sustainability,
through all shocks on and the other hand,
stresses such
applies
as floods,to planning,
strong winds, development
landslides and construction
and other extreme processes that events,
weather drive thewhile
protection
adaptingand
efficient use of natural resources in order to reduce potential environmental
positively and transforming toward sustainability [21]. Sustainability, on the other hand, impacts [22].
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15

Sustainability 2023, 15, 13544 4 of 14

applies to planning, development and construction processes that drive the protection and
efficient use of natural resources in order to reduce potential environmental impacts [22].
Hence,by
Hence, by better
better understanding
understanding the the definitions
definitions of
of resilience
resilience and
and sustainability,
sustainability,aa close
close
link is identified. This link creates the opportunity to establish synergistic
link is identified. This link creates the opportunity to establish synergistic strategies to strategies to
tackle the impacts of climate change, disasters and other challenges affecting
tackle the impacts of climate change, disasters and other challenges affecting housing in housing in
urban areas. Housing is defined as an independent structure that has
urban areas. Housing is defined as an independent structure that has been built or reformed been built or
reformed
for for theofpurposes
the purposes permanent of or
permanent
temporaryoraccommodation
temporary accommodation
for people, andforthat
people,
couldand
be
that could orbecollective.
individual individual or collective.
Following FollowingFigure
this definition, this definition,
2 illustratesFigure
housing 2 illustrates
typology,
housing
where thetypology,
permanent where the permanent
individual individual type
type is highlighted, sinceisit highlighted,
specifies the since
type ofit housing
specifies
the type of housing
that guides this study. that guides this study.

Permanent Housing built with long-lasting

individual materials

Semi-permanent Housing built with materials of

individual medium or short duration

Individual Temporary housing or spontaneous

Improvised
Housing settlement

Independent dwelling within a

Apartment
building
TYPES OF
HOUSING
A room or rooms belonging to a
Tenement housing
dwelling, with a common entrance

A room not
A room or space not used as a
Collective intended for
dwelling, such as a boat, barn, garage,
housing habitation, but
etc.
used as a dwelling

Figure2.2. Panamanian
Figure Panamanian housing
housing as
as an
an example
example of
of housing
housing typology
typology that
that is
is used
used worldwide.
worldwide. Source:
Source:
authors’
authors’ own elaboration based on the document of definitions and considerationsof
own elaboration based on the document of definitions and considerations ofthe
the Population
Population
and
andHousing
HousingCensus
Censusofofthe
theRepublic
Republicof
ofPanama
Panama[23].
[23].

Therefore,
Therefore,totoimplement
implement aacomprehensive
comprehensive strategy
strategy covering
covering all
all dimensions
dimensions of of urban
urban
housing and a long-term perspective, this study used the definitions of resilience,
housing and a long-term perspective, this study used the definitions of resilience, sustain-
ability and permanent
sustainability individualindividual
and permanent housing discussed
housing in this section.
discussed Thus,
in this this study
section. serves
Thus, this
as a basis
study to identify
serves current
as a basis challenges
to identify andchallenges
current suggest the necessary
and suggest changes to strengthen
the necessary changes
housing in terms
to strengthen of resilience
housing and sustainability,
in terms helping
of resilience and advance thehelping
sustainability, agendasadvance
of equality
the
in its various dimensions and citizen rights.
agendas of equality in its various dimensions and citizen rights.
2.3. The Role of Housing against Climate Change
2.3. The Role of Housing against Climate Change
Housing is a key component in the construction of the social tissue. It is not an isolated
Housing is a key component in the construction of the social tissue. It is not an
human right, but a tool that conditions the enjoyment of several other human rights, partic-
isolated human right, but a tool that conditions the enjoyment of several other human
ularly in the spheres of work, health, social security, privacy and education [24]. However,
rights, particularly in the spheres of work, health, social security, privacy and education
the climate change crisis is having serious repercussions on all aspects of the enjoyment
[24]. However, the climate change crisis is having serious repercussions on all aspects of
of human rights worldwide [25,26], such that, damage, migration and/or displacement
the enjoyment of human rights worldwide [25,26], such that, damage, migration and/or
caused by the increased occurrence of extreme weather events or long exposure events are
displacement
becoming morecaused
frequentby[27],
the forcing
increased occurrence of of
the establishment extreme weather
substandard events
or even or long
inhumane
exposure events are
housing conditions [28]. becoming more frequent [27], forcing the establishment of
substandard or even inhumane housing conditions [28].
Given this reality, one must be aware of the extent to which housing contributes to the
Given this
exacerbation reality, change.
of climate one must bethe
All aware
phases of the
thatextent
maketo upwhich housing contributes
its construction, use and/or to
the exacerbation of climate change. All the phases that make up its
demolition have environmental repercussions since they are processes that consume re- construction, use
and/or (land
sources demolition haveenergy
use, water, environmental repercussions
and raw materials) since greenhouse
and produce they are processes that
gas emissions,
the main cause of climate change [11,29,30]. Likewise, once they are in use, their design
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13544 5 of 14

will have an impact on the contribution of greenhouse gases through their energy, water
and waste systems, among others [28].
Therefore, there is an evident need to develop clear and ambitious initiatives and
policies that promote innovative solutions with a vision to achieve fair housing [31], with a
particular focus on those that contribute to or are based on human rights and are resilient
and sustainable against climate change. In this regard, this study generates information
that facilitates an equitable and inclusive transition of housing against climate change
issues that govern cities and the world at large.

3. Materials and Methods

Literature Review
This study was developed within a qualitative framework, aimed at collecting and
deepening relevant data and information on housing and climate change, in order to
identify the state of housing in the context of resilience and sustainability and analyze
models for resilient and sustainable housing applicable to urban areas.
An extensive review of the specialized scientific literature published since 2015 was
carried out, following the year of the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals
promulgation [32]. After 2015, SDG 11 to make cities more inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable was established as the focus of various investigations. Therefore, using relevant
methodological references [33–37] and review studies (e.g., [38–41]) to collect and analyze
data, four concrete methodological steps were established to frame the development of this
study. One limitation of the literature review is the fact that not all papers and documents
that could be pertinent to the study were open access for the author’s use.
The first step of the study was to orient the study to the definitions of urban resilience
and sustainability applicable to housing that, together with the selection of keywords,
guided the selection of published papers and other relevant texts. In the second step, Scielo
and Google Scholar were used as search engines for scientific–academic literature since they
cover most scientific publications, and Google as a search engine for gray literature using a
combination of Spanish and English keywords, thus capturing all the breadth and richness,
as well as the emerging trends of the background at the international level through various
reports, papers and other documents.
Once the information was compiled, step three, made use of quality criteria such as
relevance, belonging and credibility for the inclusion and exclusion of papers and texts
from the final database. Compliance with the selected study time, the non-duplication of
information and the relationship of the texts with the objective of this study were verified.
Accordingly, a manual inspection was carried out, topic by topic, starting with 135 gen-
eral documents, of which 75 academic papers, books, book chapters and international
frameworks were concluded and delimited, as they explicitly included the established
criteria.
Finally, the fourth step employed qualitative content analysis as an adequate method
to develop conceptual categories (Table 1) in harmony with the indicators proposed by [42]
for resilient and sustainable housing, and textual data focusing on what is relevant and
influential for the execution of the study were interpreted.

Table 1. Conceptual categories used for the literature review. Source: authors’ elaboration.

Water and Resources

Energy Built Form Location Comfort
Sanitization Management
Resilient and
Innovative water Efficient use of Security assurance Understanding the
Energy assessment sustainable building
techniques applicable resources and waste and vulnerability physical–social
of the house regulations and
to housing management analysis environment
guidelines

Thus, the available selection of frameworks, scientific papers and government initia-
tives were integrated that serve as guides for evaluating and measuring the degree to which
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13544 6 of 14

housing meets conditions of resilience and sustainability. As a result, relevant studies to

analyze and discuss as the basis for resilient and sustainable housing models for urban
areas in the face of climate change were identified.
This study is focused on housing. It is recommended to expand the study to other
types of projects, such as infrastructure or technology development, which would also
contribute to the development of resilient and sustainable cities.

4. Results
When considering the current impacts, future effects and implications of adequate
housing, incorporating resilience and sustainability characteristics is denoted as fundamen-
tal for risk reduction and the strengthening of housing in urban areas. For this reason, this
exhaustive research of scientific papers, frameworks, indexes and standards applicable to
housing analyzed each of the conceptual categories and managed to establish resilient and
sustainable housing characteristics (Table 2), which already have proposed indicators [42].

Table 2. Key characteristics for resilience and sustainable housing according to the conceptual
categories used for the literature review.

Water and Resources

Energy Built Form Location Comfort
Sanitization Management
[43–51] [43,44,47,53,54] [57–59] [43–45,50,52,59–61]
[43–45,52] [43,44,47,53,55–57]
• Material Life
• Application Cycle
• Continuous of building Analysis
• Continuous
access codes and • Use of • Safe land
access
• Energy standards eco-friendly • Development • Adaptability and
• Water
efficiency • Resistant or reused of planned accessibility
efficiency
• Renewable materials materials sites
• Water reuse
energies • Housing • Efficient use
management of resources

It has been observed that cities are seen as the first line of trenches in the fight against
climate change [62]. Most studies focus on resilient and sustainable cities [62–68]. Regarding
housing specifically, the studies that were found are either focused on resilience [69] or
sustainability [43,70,71]. No studies on both resilient and sustainable housing were found.
Following this vision, some housing models were identified that meet the criteria of
resilience and sustainability according to certifying and/or international bodies. Under-
standing these is a means of encapsulating a complex reality, as they use their conditions,
but provide clarity and draw guidelines for countries interested in increasing their resilience
and sustainability. In this sense, the models selected to illustrate resilient and sustainable
housing are detailed below.

4.1. Resilient Housing Models

To understand the mechanisms used in other countries to comply with resilience
guidelines, housing that has obtained recognition for resilience to the effects of climate
change, such as floods, strong winds or natural disasters in general, is studied. The models
found are illustrated in Figure 3 and compared in Table 3.
Sustainability 2023,Sustainability
15, 13544 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14 7

Figure
Figure 3. Resilient 3. Resilient
housing models:housing models:
(A) Resilient (A)Antu
House Resilient
[72]; House AntuBamboo
(B) Spirited [72]; (B)[73];
Spirited Bamboo [7
(C) Re-
Resilient
silient Link House [74]. Link House [74].

Table 3. Characteristics of the resilient housing models found in the literature review. S
Table 3. Characteristics of the resilient housing models found in the literature review. Source: authors’
authors’ elaboration based on cited literature.
elaboration based on cited literature.
Resilient House Antu:
Spirited Bamboo: Caribbean Resilient Liaison House: P
Resilient House Caribbean
Antu: Countries Spirited Bamboo:
Characteristics Countries (Figure Resilient
3B) Liaison House:Rico (Figure 3C)
Characteristics Caribbean Countries(Figure 3A) Caribbean Countries
[73,75] Puerto Rico (Figure 3C) [74][74]
(Figure 3A) [72,75] [72,75] (Figure 3B) [73,75]
Footage Footage 43 m2 43 m2 50 m2 50 m2 50 m2 50 m2
This house
This house incorporates theincorporates
use the use of
of solar energy solar energy to supply electricity
to supply
electricity to thetohouse
the house
that, that, supported by
This house did not include This house has a portable so
This house did not include supported by passive
passivecooling This house
cooling measures with has a portable solar
Energy energy efficiency
energy efficiency measures or measures or
measures with the power plant with to the capaci
Energy the double-roof
double-roof system, power plant with
shade the capacity
alternative
alternative energy systems. energy systems.
system, shade and 1.5 kilowatts (kW) per day. (kW) per
store 1.5 kilowatts
andinsulation
insulation and storeincorporation
and incorporation of
of cross-ventilation, promotes
cross-ventilation, promotes
thermal comfort.
thermal comfort.
This house provides water a
This house includesThis house
the includesThis the collection
house provides water and a 200-gal
sanitation through
of rainwater
collection of rainwater for reuse
for reuse in a low-
sanitation through a 200-gallon
This house did not include water rainwater cistern that runs b
This house did not include in a low-pressure pressure drip irrigation
drip irrigation system
rainwater cistern that runs by
Water and Sanitation efficiency measures or alternative gravity, making it usable ev
Water and Sanitation water efficiency measures or system for cropsfor within
cropsthe field thegravity,
within making it usable even
field and/or
systems.
alternative systems. and/or with a UV filtration during power outages, as w
with a UV filtrationduring
systempower
for outages, as well
system for use as drinking as an underground an underground
greywater greywater
use as drinking water.
water. system. system.
This house respected the bu
This house respected the
building codes codes in in
in force force
the in the country
This house was This house wasThis
designed
house was designed
designed while considering the needs
This house was designed according country, while
to local capabilities and considering the
according to the according
realities of to local
the capabilities the user and the protection o
according to the realities of needs of the user and the
Location and Resistance to
Location and Resistance evidenced challenges,
and evidenced challenges, such such that it
terrain, local capacities and the
the terrain, local capacities protection of theenvironment. In addition t
environment.
to extreme eventsextreme events that it allows forallows
resistance to
for resistance to
and the challenges evidenced
challenges evidenced by In addition to considering
consideringthe the challenges
earthquakes and strong
earthquakes and strong hurricane
by hurricanes Irma and Maria.
hurricanes Irma and Maria. winds. challenges received by the
received by the island:
hurricane winds. island: hurricanes, strong winds
hurricanes, strong winds an
and floods.
floods.
This house uses common
This house uses common
materials and materials
low This house usesThis
and low maintenance: bamboohouse uses bamboo
and and usesThis
This house house uses common
common
maintenance: wood, concrete pillars as materials, with materials such
andas masonry a
Materials Materials wood, river
river stones concrete pillars as materials,
and concrete, materials such as masonry
stones and concrete, with a with a construction cost of USD concrete panels with structuralwith structu
a construction cost of USD concrete panels
with a construction cost of USD
construction cost of USD 8107.00. 8107.00. insulation on the roof.
insulation on the roof.
9962.00.
9962.00.
This house won the XVI Bie
This house won the XVI
This house was awarded as the of Architecture and Landsca
This house participated in the Biennial of Architecture and
Observation This house waswinnerawarded of as
thethe
Resilient Homes Architecture of Puerto Rico
This house participated in the Challenge.
Resilient Homes Landscape Architecture of
Observation winner of the Resilient
Challenge. Homes award, and the Green Build
Resilient Homes Challenge. Puerto Rico 2021 award, and the
Challenge. 2022 Green Home of the Yea
Green Builders 2022 Green
Home of the Year.
4.2. Sustainable Housing Models
Sustainable housing boomed in the late 1980s with the idea of sustai
development, but it is through organizations such as LEED [76], BREEAM [77] and G
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 13544 8 of 14

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15

4.2. Sustainable Housing Models

Sustainable housing boomed in the late 1980s with the idea of sustainable development,
Star [78],
but it is among
throughothers, and their
organizations suchenergy,
as LEEDwater and material
[76], BREEAM efficiency
[77] and Green Starcertifications,
[78], among that
have increased
others, theenergy,
and their qualitywater
of housing design,
and material construction
efficiency and operation.
certifications, that haveIn this context,
increased
four
thecase studies
quality of sustainable
of housing housing are
design, construction andillustrated
operation. in
In Figure 4 and
this context, compared
four in Table
case studies
4. of sustainable housing are illustrated in Figure 4 and compared in Table 4.

Figure 4. Sustainable
Figure 4. Sustainablehousing
housing models: (A)Harmony
models: (A) HarmonyHouse
House [79];
[79]; (B) (B) Caloundra
Caloundra [80]; [80]; (C)Owen
(C) The The Owen
Residence [81]; (D) Sapphire Passive House [82].
Residence [81]; (D) Sapphire Passive House [82].

Table 4. 4.
Table Characteristics
Characteristicsof
ofthe
the sustainable housingmodels
sustainable housing models found
found in the
in the literature
literature review.
review. Source:
Source:
authors’ elaboration based on cited literature.
authors’ elaboration based on cited literature.

HarmonyHouse:
House: The
The Owen
Owen Residence:Sapphire
Residence: Sapphire Passive
Passive House: House:
Harmony Caloundra: Australia
Caloundra: Australia
Characteristics Australia
(Figure 4B) [80]
Estados Unidos (Figure
Estados Unidos Australia
Australia
Characteristics Australia
(Figure(Figure 4A)
4A) [79,83] (Figure 4B) (Figure 4C) [84,85] (Figure 4D) [82,86] 4D)
4C) (Figure
Footage [79,83]
194 m2
[80]
150 m2 2
800 m[84,85] 238 m2[82,86]

Footage 194produces
m2 150 m2 800 m2 This house is 90 percent
238 m2
This house its
more energy efficient, with
electricity using a 14 kW This house implemented This house is 90
With the help of 42 solar an average use of 1.66 kWpercent
photovoltaic system. In the use of glass windows
This addition,
house produces its
it has a passive and doors with low
panels and the exclusive use per daymore energy efficient,
to run. However, it
of Energy Star appliances, has a zero-carbon
Energy electricity usingthat
solar design a 14 kW This housea 1.5
emissivity, implemented
kW With the help of 42 solar
this house does not consume
with an average use of
classification, supplying its
contemplates internal photovoltaic solar system
photovoltaic system. In the use of glass windowsenergy
panels
fromand the exclusive
the grid, even 1.66 kWwithin
consumption per day to run.
a 5 kW
thermal mass, cross-flow and the exclusive use of
addition, it has a passive and doors with low returning its surplus
use of Energy Star to it. photovoltaic solar system
However, it has a zero-
ventilation and strategic thrifty appliances.
with a 10 kW battery
Energy solarwindow
designplacement.
that emissivity, a 1.5 kW appliances, this house does carbon
storage system.classification,
contemplates internal photovoltaic solar systemOpted notforconsume
products energy
with from supplying its
thermal mass, cross-flow
This house has enough
and the exclusive use of the grid, even returning its consumption within a 5
efficiency certification in
everything related to
ventilation and
storage for strategic
27,000 L to thrifty appliances. surplus to it.
plumbing. The design
kW photovoltaic
Rainwater is collected fromsolar
meet placement.
window all water needs, The main water use is the roof in a 22,000-L
system with a 10 kW
included eight barrels of
without the need to kept to a minimum by rainwater tank, which is
rainwater to collect runoff battery storage
connect to the public incorporating a 5000-L connected to all internal system.
from the roof and
network. Domestic rainwater tank for reuse in Opted for products withfittings. The kitchen tap is
Water and Sanitation considered a landscape with
wastewater is processed bathrooms, laundry and the only tap connected to the
unirrigated,
efficiency certification in
by a worm farm septic gardens. In addition, main water supply.
drought-tolerant,
This system,
house thus
has providing
enough a high-efficiency plumbing everything related
site-appropriate landscaping to Rainwater
However, the entire is collected
chemical-free and is incorporated. plumbing system is
storage for 27,000 L to meet
relatively easy-to-maintain
The main water use is kept
andplumbing. The
a fully permeable design
lot to from the
highly efficient.
roof in a 22,000-
maximize stormwater
all water
method.needs, without to a minimum by included eight barrels of L rainwater tank, which is
absorption and
the need to connect to the incorporating a 5000-L reduce rainwater
runoff. to collect runoff connected to all internal
public network. Domestic rainwater tank for reuse in from the roof and fittings.
This house The kitchen tap is
considers
Water and Sanitation
wastewater
This houseis considers
processed by bathrooms, laundry and considered a landscape
This house considers the only adaptability
climatic zones, tap connected to
Location and This house considers the to local needs and lifestyle.
a
Resistance to extreme
worm farm
climatic septic
zones, system, gardens. In
climatic zones,addition, high- with unirrigated,
climatic zones and the
drought- the main water supply.
For example, it is the first
events thus adaptability
providing
and lifestyle.
to local needs
a chemical- adaptability to local needs
efficiency plumbing
and lifestyle.
is tolerant,
resources site-appropriate
of the locality. However,
Certified the entire
Passive House in
free and relatively easy-to- incorporated. landscaping and a fully Australia to meet the
plumbing system is highest
bushfire risk rating.
maintain method. permeable lot to maximize highly efficient.
stormwater absorption
and reduce runoff.
This house considers
climatic zones,
adaptability to local
This house considers
Location and This house considers This house considers the needs and lifestyle. For
climatic zones,
Resistance to extreme climatic zones, adaptability climatic zones and the example, it is the first
adaptability to local needs
events to local needs and lifestyle. resources of the locality. Certified Passive House
and lifestyle.
in Australia to meet the
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13544 9 of 14

Table 4. Cont.

Harmony House: The Owen Residence: Sapphire Passive House:

Caloundra: Australia
Characteristics Australia Estados Unidos Australia
(Figure 4B) [80]
(Figure 4A) [79,83] (Figure 4C) [84,85] (Figure 4D) [82,86]
This house model
This house is clad in considers the quality and
designer-finished fiber comfort of the inhabitants
cement, an easy and the environment by
Any excavated materials
maintenance material. In using paints and laminates
This house incorporates as were re-used on the site,
addition, the walls have a with low VOC, thermally
many recycled materials as with rocks also used for the
Materials ‘self-cleaning’ coating, more efficient materials
possible into the building and landscaping.
whereby silica particles and recycled materials, as
construction. Local materials were used as
absorb water molecules well as materials that can
much as possible.
from the air to form a be recycled, such that
protective film on the most of the house can be
surface of the house. disassembled or reused at
the end of its life span.
This house has been widely This house is the first
highlighted since its certified Passive House in
construction, with a LEED the Blue Mountains and the
This house illustrates a This house illustrates a Platinum certification, and is first certified Passive House
case study from “Your case study from “Your named one of three in Australia to also be built
Observation Home: Australia’s Guide Home: Australia’s Guide outstanding single-family to Bushfire Attack Level
to Environmentally to Environmentally homes by the U.S. Green Flame Zone (BAL-FZ)
Sustainable Homes.” Sustainable Homes.” Building Council (USGBC) regulations, and the first
in the 2018 LEED Homes house in New South Wales
Awards, where it also won to receive Healthy House
Project of the Year. Australia certification.

5. Discussion
Each of the resilient and sustainable housing models was analyzed to establish actions
and/or qualities in order to meet urban resilience and sustainability, such that there is
a guide to comply with the new international agreements and initiatives that strive to
strengthen populations in their search for sustainable development.
In this sense, when analyzing the housing models considered resilient [72–74], the
need to establish housing on safe land stood out. The use of locally manufactured and
quality materials was considered a requirement for resilience and sustainability. Regarding
adequate materials, concrete was present in all resilient housing models. In addition, the
use of alternative sources of water and/or energy supply was prioritized.
Sustainable housing models [79,80,82–86] were developed by local entities and have a
certification that accredits them as sustainable. In addition to standing out for taking into
account the climatic specifications of their location, they sought energy and water efficiency,
took care of the quality of the indoor environment, promoted the use of materials and
resources according to what is available locally and followed environmental regulations.
Therefore, the main characteristics that can be extracted are the use of renewable
energy as the main source of energy and the incorporation of design in the orientation of
the house to take advantage of natural light and ventilation that allow for energy savings,
as well as the search for water efficiency by implementing mechanisms for reuse, harvesting
and water treatment. Moreover, materials should come from sources with environmental
certifications and/or have recycled content. In addition, locally produced materials were
prioritized over imported materials, in order to reduce the carbon footprint of the house.
Overall, the housing models discussed in this study contribute not only to resilience
and sustainability against climate change, but also to the comfort, health and well-being of
their occupants.
It is essential to recognize that the focus on building resilient and sustainable housing
implies a paradigm shift in the construction industry, which implies overcoming traditional
practices and adopting new methods and technologies that promote energy efficiency,
emissions reduction and conservation of natural resources, among other actions. For this
reason, the implementation of resilience and sustainability features in housing comes with
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13544 10 of 14

significant challenges to overcome. The literature points out that although some countries
have introduced climate action policies, implementation efforts are inadequate or non-
existent [87], which leads to conflicts or technical ambiguities that hinder the widespread
adoption of these policies.
Technical challenges linked to sector professionals are identified, as there is a lack
of access to specialized training and resistance to change, which hinders the task of fully
integrating housing considerations [88–90]. It is important to note that this barrier is cross-
cutting in nature, as it can be linked to regulatory requirements or economic performance.
The implementation of local measures must be aligned to the local context. There are
cultural challenges as well [91], such as denial or resistance to change, which prevents the
inclusion and diversification of actions in favor of the environment. This situation prevents
the appropriation and demand for initiatives that seek to mitigate and adapt to climate
change from social foundations, such as housing.

6. Conclusions
It was established that housing is fundamental for human well-being and quality of
life, including health, security and development in general. Therefore, this study helps
establish the lines to follow for the implementation of local measures at a public and private
level for resilient and sustainable housing.
Considering climate change and its impact on cities, especially housing, this study
framed efforts to identify resilient and sustainable housing models and a comparative
analysis of housing models that integrate these characteristics was presented.
It is expected that the results of this study will serve as a basis for the establishment
of safe and efficient measures for urban housing from the incorporation of characteristics
such as location on safe land, application of building codes and standards, use of durable
materials, continuous access to water and energy, efficiency in the consumption of resources,
water and energy, comfort, health and adaptability to climate change, among others.
Likewise, by considering the challenges due to climate change and involving the
principles of urban resilience and sustainability, not only were the principles of adequate
housing established by international law strengthened, but also actions to achieve the
Sustainable Development Goals, the climate objectives of the Paris Agreement and work
on the acceleration of cities that think of its basic unit, i.e., housing, were achieved.
Throughout the study, housing is highlighted as a fundamental axis for people’s lives,
health, safety and development in general. The challenges or barriers that prevent the
establishment and implementation of local measures from governance systems to private
innovation in this area are also discussed and used to compare the perceptions of the
industry or civil society.
Alongside that, this study serves as inspiration for professionals from other disciplines
who would like to follow up with complementary research in fields such as social, economic
and/or political sciences.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.L.M.-V. and M.A.R.; methodology, Y.L.M.-V. and M.A.R.;
investigation, M.A.R.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.R.; writing—review and editing,
Y.L.M.-V. and M.A.R.; supervision, Y.L.M.-V.; funding acquisition, Y.L.M.-V. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The APC was funded by the Sistema Nacional de Investigación (SNI) of Panama.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All the data in this manuscript could be found using the cited references.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the support of the Secretaria Nacional de Ciencia,
Tecnología e Innovación (SENACYT).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13544 11 of 14

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