C emistry

forCSEC@
Anne Tindale

ElizabetlyRitchie
Dianne Luttig
Sarah Chapman
Jennifer Murray
Anna Bowman

INCLUDES

2nd Edition CD
Chemistry
forCSECS
Anne Tindale
2nd Edition Elizabeth Ritchie
Dianne Luttig
Sarah Chapman
Jennifer Murray
Anna Bowman

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

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Text O
Anne Tindale, Elizabeth Ritchie, Dianne Luttig, Sarah Chapman 2014
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Acknowledgements
Cover photograph: iStockphoto
Illustrations: GreenGate Publishing and Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead
Page make-up: Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead
Thanks are due to Anna Bowman and Jennifer Murray for their contributims in the
development this book.

Photo credits: Alamy/Helene Rogers 2.2.2, IPhotoshot Holdings Ltd 20.5.6; Anne
Tindale 1.1.2, 1.2.10m 1.2.10b, 1.29. 1.3.2, 2.1.3c, 2.2.3b, 25.2, 2.5.3, 5.5.4m 81.1b, 8.1.5,
8.2.1, 8.4.2, 8.4.8, 9.1.2, 9.3.1, 9.3.2a, 9.3.2b, 15.1.9, 16.1.4, 16.2.12a, 16.2.12b, 17.1.2, 17.3.1,
Corbis 20.41; Corel (Nr)
18.3.1, 18.3.2, 18.3.4, 18.3.5, 19.2.1, 20.4.3, 20.6.1, 21.2.2, 22.2.2;
4.4.2; Corel 340 (NT) 5.5.4b; Corel 501 (NT) Fotolia 20.5.3; Greg Evans
20.4.2•,
(gr•[email protected]) 2.1.3a; Ingram PL VI CD2 (Nr) 19.1.1; iStockphoto 15.3.10,
15.3.8; James Lauritz/Digita1 Vision C (NT) 18.3.7; Leslie Garland Picture Gallery/
Andrew Lambert 4.4.1c; Martyn Chillmaid 1.1.3, 2.2.1a, 17.2.2, 20.5.1, 21.1.4; Mike
van der volk 2.2.1b, 2.2.3a, 2.5.1, 10.5.2, 16.1.5, 17.1.1, 17.1.3, 183.3, 183.8, 20.4.4, 20.4.5;
PA Photos 4.4.1a, /Shirley Bhadur/AP 14.1.4; Sandy Marshall 20.3.4; Science Photo
Library/Andrew Lambert Photography 6.1.2, 8.1.1a, 84.6, 1721, 22.1.1, IAstrid and
Harms-Frieder Michier 11.2.4, /JERRY MASON 181.1, [LAGUNA DESIGN 15.3.5,
[Maximilian Stock Ltd 4.41b, [Pascal Goetgheluck 3.3.2, /Sue Baker 20.5.2; Shawn
Banton 9.1.1; Shutterstock 2.1.3b, 21.2.1; www.tropix.co.uk[V. and M. Birley 3.3.3.
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this work.
 Contents

Introduction 1 A5.5 Structure and properties of solids 80

Key concepts 86
Section A Principles of chemistry 2 Practice exam-style questions 88

A1 States of matter 2 A6 Chemical equations and reactions 89

A1.1 The particulate nature of matter 2
A6.1 Writing and balancing chemical
A1.2 Evidence for the particulate 89
equations
theory of matter 4 96
A6.2 Types of chemical reactions
A1.3 The three states of matter 9 99
Key concepts
Key concepts 14
Practice exam-style questions 100
Practice exam-style questions 15
A7 The mole concept 101
A2 Mixtures and their separation 16
A7.1 The mole and mass 101
A2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures 16
A7.2 The mole and gas volumes 106
A2.2 Solutions, suspensions and colloids 19
A7.3 The mole and concentration of
A2.3 Solubility 22
solutions 108
A2.4 Separating mixtures 25
A7.4 The mole and chemical formulae 111
A2.5 Extraction of sucrose from
A7.5 The mole and chemical reactions 113
sugar cane 30
Key concepts 119
Key concepts 32
Practice exam-style questions 120
Practice exam-style questions 33

A3 Atomic structure 34 A8 Acids, bases and salts 121

A3.1 The structure of atoms 34 A8.1 Properties and reactions of acids 121
A8.2 Properties and reactions of bases 128
A3.2 The electronic configuration of
an atom A8.3 Strength of acids and alkalis 132
40 A8.4 Salts 135
A3.3 Isotopes and radioactivity
44 A8.5 Neutralisation reactions 145
Key concepts
45 A8.6 Volumetric analysis 148
Practice exam-style questions
Key concepts 152
A4 The periodic table and periodicity 46 Practice exam-style questions 154
A4.1 Arrangement of elements in the
periodic table 46 A9 Oxidation—reduction reactions 156
A4.2 Trends in Group II of the periodic A9.1 Oxidation and reduction an
table 51 introduction 156
A4.3 Trends in Group VII of the A9.2 Oxidation numbers 159
periodic table 55 A9.3 Oxidising and reducing agents 164
A4.4 Trends in Period 3 of the periodic Key concepts 170
table 60 Practice exam-style questions 171

Key concepts 62
64 AIO Electrochemistry 173
Practice exam-style questions
AIO.I The electrochemical series 173
A5 Structure and bonding 65 AIO.2 Electrical conduction 176
A5.1 Chemical bonding 65 AIO.3 Electrolysis 179
A5.2 Formation of ionic bonds 69 AIO.4 Quantitative electrolysis 188
A5.3 Writing chemical formulae of AIO.5 Industrial applications of
ionic compounds 72 electrolysis 191
A5.4 Formation of covalent and Key concepts 195
metallic bonds 76 Practice exam-style questions 197
iii
Contents

All Rates of reaction 198 C18 Reactivity, extraction and uses of

A11.1 Measuring rates of reaction 198 metals 294
A11.2 Factors affecting rates of reaction 202 C18.1 The reactivity of metals 294
Key concepts 209 C18.2 The extraction of metals 299
Practice exam-style questions 210 C18.3 Uses of metals and their alloys 302
Key concepts 307
A12 Energetics 212 Practice exam-style questions 308
A 12.1 Energy changes during reactions 212
A 12.2 Calculating energy changes 217 C19 Metals in living systems and the
Key concepts 223 environment 309
Practice exam-style questions 224 C19.1 The corrosion of metals 309
C19.2 The impact of metals on living
systems and the environment 311
Section B Organic chemistry 226
Key concepts 313
B13 Introduction to organic chemistry 226 Practice exam-style questions 315
B13.1 Organic compounds 226
B13.2 Homologous series 230 C20 Non-metals 316
236 C20.1 Physical properties of non-metals 316
Key concepts
237 C20.2 Chemical properties and
Practice exam-style questions
reactions of non-metals 318
B14 Hydrocarbons — alkanes and alkenes 239 C20.3 Laboratory preparation and uses
B14.1 Sources and extraction of of gases 321
hydrocarbons 239 C20.4 The uses of non-metals 324
B14.2 Alkanes: CnH2n+2 242 C20.5 Harmful effects of non-metals
B14.3 Alkenes: cnH2n and their compounds 326
Key concepts 251 C20.6 Green chemistry 330
Practice exam-style questions 253 Key concepts 334
Practice exam-style questions 336
B15 Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters 255
B15.1 Alcohols•CHn 2n+1 OH
. 255 C21 Water 338
n 2n+1 COOH
B15.2 Alkanoic acids•CH . 260 C21.1 The unique properties of water 338
B15.3 Esters: RCOOR' 263 C21.2 The treatment of water for
269 domestic purposes 342
Key concepts
271 Key concepts 345
Practice exam-style questions
Practice exam-style questions 346
B16 Polymers 272
272
C22 Qualitative analysis 347
B16.1 Addition polymers
C22.1 Identification of cations 347
B16.2 Condensation polymers 275
C22.2 Identification of anions 351
Key concepts 279
C22.3 Identification of gases 354
Practice exam-style questions 281
Key concepts 356
Practice exam-style questions 358
Section C — Inorganic chemistry 282
The periodic table 360
C17 Characteristics of metals 282
C17.1 Physical properties of metals 282 Index 361
C17.2 Chemical properties and
reactions of metals 283
C17.3 Reactions of metal compounds 288
Key concepts 291
Practice exam-style questions 293
 Introduction

To the student To the teacher

Chemistry for CSEC@ is a comprehensive course designed to help The writing of Chemistry for CSEC@ has been driven by experienced
you achieve your best in the examination. It has been written by Cari bbean science educators to ensure that both the req uirements of
experienced teachers who have included features to make it easier the CSECS syllabus are met, and that the content is appropriate and
for you to master the key concepts. relevant for Caribbean students.

The Chemistry syllabus is divided into three sections; Section A, It provides a complete coverage of the CSEC@ syllabus with the

Principles of Chemistry, Section B, Organic Chemistry, and material presented in the order of the syllabus and divided into
Section C, Inorganic Chemistry. Chapters 1-12 of this book cover chapters based on the topics in the syllabus. To help the students
topics in Section A, Chapters 13-16 cover topics in Section B, and grasp important concepts, and for you as a teacher to manage your
Chapters 17-22 cover topics in Section C. teaching, each chapter is then broken down into several clearly
defined units, each of which develops one of these important
Key terms are highlighted throughout the text to help you to 'home
concepts.
in' on the key concepts. Important definitions and laws which you
must be able to quote are given in Key fact boxes. Each chapter also All important definitions and laws which the students are expected
includes Did you know? boxes which contain facts to stimulate to be able to quote are given in 'Key fact' boxes for students to clearly
your interest, and Exam tip boxes which contain valuable tips to identify and then learn.

help you pass your examination. A range of practical activities which closely relate to those suggested
You will also find a large number of clear diagrams and colour in the syllabus can be found throughout the text. You can use these
photographs to enliven and enrich your learning, and a wide to help you develop a practical approach to your teaching and also to
range of different practical activities. These activities have been assess the School-Based Assessment (SBA) skills of your students.

designed to help you develop your practical skills and to enhance Clear, explanatory diagrams and colour photographs which are
your learning using a 'hands-on' approach. Your teacher may also designed to help students gain a better understanding of each topic
use some of these activities to assess your School-Based Assessment are found in all chapters.
(SBA) skills.
'Did you know?' boxes with facts to stimulate the student's interest,
Each chapter broken down into several clearly defined units.
is and 'Exam tip' boxes containing valuable tips to prepare students for
The learning objectives for each unit are clearly given at the their examination appear throughout the text.
beginning of the unit so that you can see what you are expected to
Each unit begins with a list of learning objectives for students to
learn in the unit. These learning objectives relate fully to the specific
clearly see what they are expected to master in the unit. These relate
objectives given in the syllabus. Fach unit then ends with a selection
fully to the specific objectives in the syllabus.
of summary questions to test your comprehension of the material
covered in the unit. Revision questions are provided at the end of each unit which are
designed for students to consolidate their knowledge of the key
At the end of each chapter you will find a list of the key concepts
material found in the unit.
to help you to revise the important content of the chapter. This list
isfollowed by a variety of multiple-choice questions and usually A list of key concepts is given at the end of each chapter to help
two exam-style questions to help you to apply the knowledge you students revise the key conten t of the chapter.
gained in the chapter to answer the different question types that you Multiple-choice, structured and extended response q uestionssimilar
will encounter during your examination. The first of the exam-style to those on the CSECS Examination are included at the end of each
questions is a structured question requiring short answers and in chapter for students to test their knowledge and understanding of
your CSECS Examination you will be given spaces on the question the material covered in the chapter and hone their examination
paper for your answers. The second is an extended response question skills.
requiring a greater element of essay writing in your answers. The
marks allocated for the different parts of each question are clearly A complete 60-question multiple-choice test with answers is to
be found on the CD. This will enable your students to test their
given.
knowledge and understanding of the material covered in the entire
On the CD you will find a complete multiple-choice test composed of text.
60 questions to test your knowledge and understanding of material
taken from all sections of the syllabus. If you work through all the A Data Analysis section on the CD provides information on answering
end of chapter questions and the complete multiple-choice test you the Data Analysis question together with three practice questions for
will be well prepared for your examination.
students to develop the skills required in answering this question.

The CD also includes a section which provides detailed information

On the CD you will also find a on Data Analysis which
section
about SBA for students to gain an understanding of what is required
provides you with details about the Data Analysis question you
will be required to answer as well as three questions with mark
from them over their two-year programme of study.
allocations for you to practise. There is also a section which gives Chemistry [or CSECP adopts a practical approach wherever possible.
you information about what is required from you in terms of Each with a suggestion indicating how the
practical activity begins
School-Based Assessment (SBA). It is extremely important that activity may be used as a basis for SBA. The table which follows the
you read this section before you embark on your two-year course SBA section provides the location in the book of the activities which
of study. may be used for the different types of assessment.
 Section A

States of matter

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will matter. Everything around us ismade of matter. Matter
be able to:
has both mass and volume. Air, water, sand, human
give a definition of matter beings and animals are all matter. Matter exists in
give the four main ideas of the
particulate theory of matter
various states. The three main states of matter are solid,
explain why scientists find the liquid and gas.
particulate theory of matter
useful
identify the three main states of Alul The particulate nature of matter
matter
explain the relationship Matter
between temperature and the
motion of particles. As far back as 460 BC a Greek philosopher called Democritus developed the
idea that matter consisted of particles. He asked this question: 'If you cut
a piece of matter, for example, a piece of gold, in half and then cut it in
half again, how many cuts will you have to make before you can cut it no
Exam tip further?' Democritus thought that it ended at some point, the smallest bits
of matter, and that these smallest bits of matter, or particles, would be the
It is important that you know the basic building blocks of matter. Today scientists have added to Democritus'
definitions of key terms used in idea and now describe matter and its properties using the particulate theory
Chemistry. These definitions are of matter.
provided for you in the 'Key fact'
boxes throughout the book.
The particulate theory of matter
The particulate theory of matter states that all matter is made of particles.
This theory is very useful because it helps us to explain both the physical
Key fact properties of matter and also the differences between the three states of matter.

Matter is anything that has mass We will be looking at the three states of matter in detail in Unit A1.3.
and occupies space. The particulate theory of matter has four main ideas:
all matter is made of particles
o the particles are in constant, random motion
Key fact
there are spaces between the particles
The particulate theory of matter there are forces of attraction between the particles.
states that all matter is made up of
particles.

ooo 00
ooo 000
0000
ooo
matter is made particles are in there are spaces
of particles constant motion between particles

A Figure 1.1.1 The particulate theory of matter

The particulate theory of matter can be used to explain many physical

phenomena that we observe in our everyday lives. Examples of some of these
are given on the next page. It explains:
States of matter The particulate nature of matter

The difference in density of solids, liquids and gases, e.g. why pebbles
sink and bubbles rise in water.

How cooling a liquid can cause it to change into a solid, e.g. when water
is placed in a freezer it forms ice.

Why a smell can move throughout a room, e.g. when chicken is frying,
it can be smelt at the other side of the kitchen.
Why the pressure of a gas increases with an increase in temperature,
e.g. car tyres get harder as you drive.

Why certain vegetables become crisper when soaked in water,

e.g. raw potatoes.
Surface tension in liquids, e.g. certain insects can 'walk' on water. A Figure 1.1.2 Pebbles sink in water

States of matter
Matter can exist in various forms or states. The three states of matter that are
the most common are the solid, liquid and gaseous states. The difference
between these states lies in the energy and arrangement of the particles.

Particles in the solid statehave the least amount of energy, they simply
and they are packed closely together. Particles
vibrate in their fixed position
in the liquid state have medium amounts of energy, they move about slowly
and they have small spaces between them. Particles in the gaseous state have
the greatest amount of energy, they move about rapidly and they have large
spaces between them. You will study this in greater detail in Unit 1.3.

The energy of the particles is directly related to the temperature of the

particles and matter can change from one physical state to another by
changing its temperature. This change of state occurs because increasing
the temperature of a substance increases the kinetic energy of the particles
in the substance. The greater the kinetic energy the particles possess, the
faster they move.

Changing state by changing temperature is a physical change. A physical

change occurs when the form of the substance is changed without changing
its chemical composition, for example, water as a solid, i.e. ice, has exactly

the same chemical particles as water in the liquid state and as water in the A Figure 1.1.3 The drinks illustrate the
gaseous state, i.e. water vapour. three states of matter

Summary questions
1 State the three main ideas of the particulate theory of matter.

2 If a crystal of potassium manganate@l) is dropped into a beaker of

water, the purple colour spreads throughout the water. What features
of the particulate theory of matter does this observation provide
evidence for?

3 Explain why scientists find the particulate theory of matter useful.

4 What are the three states of matter?

5 What is the relationship between temperature and the movement of

particles?
Evidence for the particulate theory of matter States of matter

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: In the previous unit we mentioned that scientists find the particulate theory
of matter very useful because it allows them to explain the physical properties
explain evidence which
of matter. At the same time though, scientists have to provide evidence to
supports the particulate theory
support their ideas. There are simple practical activities involving diffusion
of matter
and osmosis which we can perform to provide evidence for the existence
explain the processes of
and movement of particles.
diffusion and osmosis
describe experiments which
demonstrate diffusion and Diffusion
osmosis We have all had experience of being aware of a smell, whether it is walking
explain the uses of salt and into a bakery, a cosmetic shop or climbing into a car that contains an air
sugar to control garden pests freshener. All of these smells are produced at a point in the shop or but
car,
and preserve food items. the smell seems to travel through the air. This process of the smell travelling
through the air is as a result of diffusion. Diffusion occurs because particles
of matter are in constant motion and will move from a region of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration.
Key fact
Diffusion is the movement of Practical activity
particles froman area of higher
concentration to an area of lower Investigating the particulate theory of matter
concentration until they are evenly Your teacher may use this activity to assess:
distributed.
observation, recording and reporting
analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with a straw, a beaker containing distilled water and a
potassium manganate(vll) crystal.

Method
1 Place the straw vertically in the beaker of water until it touches the
bottom of the beaker.
2 Drop the crystal of potassium manganate@l) into the straw without
moving the straw.

3 Very carefully remove the straw trying to disturb the water as little as
possible.

4 Observe how the purple colour immediately begins to spread throughout

Exam tip the water.

It is very important when answering

5 Leave the beaker and observe after a few days. Note that the purple
questions in tests or examinations to colour has spread throughout all the water in the beaker. What
distinguish between observations conclusion can you draw about:
and conclusions. If you are asked the spaces between the water particles
to give your observations, then you
b the movement of the potassium manganate(w) particles?
must describe what you would
see while the experiment is being
performed. If you are asked to state The potassium manganate(vll) crystal and the water used in the experiment
what you would conclude from the illustrated in Figures 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 are both composed of minute particles.
experiment, then you must give The particles in the crystal are packed closely together and those in the water
what you can deduce from the
have very small spaces between them. When the crystal is in the water, the
observations. A deduction is made
minute crystal particles slowly separate from each other and diffuse into the
by using data from the experiment
spaces between the water particles. This continues until all the particles have
a conclusion.
to arrive at
separated from the crystal and have diffused between the water particles.
States of matter Evidence for the particulate theory of matter

straw

beaker
of water

the water becomes a

potassium purple colour throughout
manganate(vll)
crystal

A Figure 1.2.1 Potassium manganate(vll) A Figure 1.2.2 After a while the purple
water
crystal being placed in colour spreads throughout the water

The crystal gradually dissolves and an aqueous solution is formed, i.e. a

solution where water is the solvent. Figure 1.2.3 illustrates the process of
diffusion occurring in the experiment.

water water particles moving crystal particles separate

atrandom with small from each other and
spaces between 0
spaces
diffuse into the
between the water
crystal particles particles
potassium packed closely
manganate(vll) together
crystal
before dissolving after dissolving < figure 1.2.3 Explanation of diffusion

Practical activity

Investigating diffusion in gases

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

analysis and interpretation.

Your teacher will perform the following experiment:

Method
1 Place a glass tube at least 1 m in length between two retort stands.

2 Soak separate pieces of cotton wool in concentrated ammonia solution and concentrated hydrochloric acid and
place them simultaneously at each end of the glass tube.
3 Seal the ends of the glass tube with rubber stoppers.

4 Allow time for the ammonia and hydrogen chloride vapours to diffuse. Observe any changes.
5 Use your observations to explain what happened during the experiment.

During the experiment and 1.2.5, the ammonia

illustrated in Figures 1.2.4
solution gives off a gas called ammonia gas and the hydrochloric acid gives
off a gas called hydrogen chloride gas. The ammonia and hydrogen chloride
through the air in the glass tube towards each other. When
particles diffuse
the particles meet, they collide and react to form a white solid known
as ammonium chloride. The ammonium chloride forms a ring inside the
glass tube.
Evidence for the particulate theory of matter States of matter

cotton wool soaked in We can represent the reaction between the ammonia and hydrogen chloride
hydrochloric acid as a chemical equation where (g) and (s) indicate the state of the chemicals
cotton wool soaked involved, (g) indicating a gas and (s) a solid:
in ammonia
ammonia + hydrogen chloride ammonium chloride
NH3(g) + HC1(g) NH4C1(s)
The ammonium chloride forms closer to the cotton wool soaked in
glass tube hydrochloric acid because the ammonia particles are lighter than the
A Figure 1.2.4 Ammonia and hydrogen hydrogen chloride particles. Therefore, the ammonia particles move much
chloride gas diffuse towards each other faster through the air than the hydrogen chloride particles.

cotton wool soaked in This experiment provides the following evidence for the particulate theory
hydrochloric acid of matter:
cotton wool soaked o Particles are able to move - the ammonia and hydrogen chloride
in ammonia
particles must have moved towards each other to form the white ring.

o There are spaces between particles there must have been spaces
between the air, ammonia and hydrogen chloride particles to allow
them to move between each other.
white ring forms

A Figure 1.2.5 After a while a white ring

Osmosis
forms inside the glass tube
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion, which involves the movement of
water molecules through a differentially permeable membrane from a
region with a lot of water molecules to a region with fewer water molecules.
Key fact A differentially permeable membrane is a membrane that allows some
Osmosis is the movement of water substances to pass through but not others. You may also find the membrane
molecules from a region with a lot being called a semi-permeable or selectively permeable membrane. The cell
of water molecules, e.g. a dilute membrane that surrounds biological cells is differentially permeable.
solution or pure water, to a region
with fewer water molecules, e.g. a
A differentially permeable membrane contains minute pores. Water molecules
concentrated solution, through a
are able to pass through these pores. However, the particles of many
other substances, which may be dissolved in the water, are unable to pass
differentially permeable membrane.
through. When two solutions, e.g. sucrose solutions, which have different
concentrations, are separated by a differentially permeable membrane,
the water molecules will diffuse through the pores in the membrane from
the more dilute solution to the more concentrated solution. The sucrose
molecules, however, do not move because they are unable to pass through
the pores in the membrane. The volume of the more dilute solution decreases
and the volume of the more concentrated solution increases.
differentially permeable membrane
0 0 0 00 0 0 000 sucrose molecule
0 00 cannot pass
00000000 000 0 00
through the
0000 00
ooo 00
differentially permeable
0000000 00 membrane

00 0008000
000 0000000
0 0
0 00
000 0
0 0 000 0 0
00 0000 000 800000000 water molecule
000000000 00 000 diffuses through
the differentially
00 0 00 0 0000 00000 0 000000 permeable
o oo ooo o membrane
0000000
0000000000005 0000 0000%
dilute sucrose concentrated sucrose
solution solution

figure 1.2.6 Theoretical explanation net movement of

of osmosis water molecules
States of matter Evidence for the particulate theory of matter

Practical activity

Investigating osmosis in green paw-paw

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

manipulation and measurement

analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with a piece of green paw-paw (the experiment may be done with potato or yam), one beaker
filled with distilled water and one beaker filled with concentrated sodium chloride solution.

Method
1 Cut the piece of green paw-paw into six strips of equal length.

2 Measure and record the length of each strip.

3 Place three of the strips into the beaker containing distilled water and place the other three strips into the beaker
containing the concentrated sodium chloride solution.
4 Allow the strips to remain in the solutions for one hour.
5 Remove the strips from the beakers. Feel the strips and take note of the texture of each strip.

6 Measure and record the length of each strip.

7 Explain why the paw-paw strips placed in distilled water become more rigid and have increased in length
(consider the direction in which the water molecules move, from the paw-paw into the distilled water or from the
distilled water into the paw-paw).
8 Explain why the paw-paw strips placed in concentrated sodium chloride solution become floppy and softer and
decrease in length (consider the direction in which the water molecules move, from the paw-paw into the sodium
chloride solution or from the sodium chloride solution into the paw-paw).

distilled
water
concentrated
beaker sodium
chloride
paw-paw solution Figure 1.2.7 Paw-paw strips in
strips
water and concentrated
distilled
sodium chloride solution

concentrated sodium
distilled water chloride solution

paw-paw strips paw-paw strips

increase in size decrease in size

A Figure 1.2.8 After a while the strips in water increase in length and those in

the concentrated sodium chloride solution decrease in length

Did you know?
During the experiment illustrated in Figures 1.2.7 and 1.2.8, the cell
Osmosis works in the same way in
membranes of the paw-paw cells act as differentially permeable membranes. your cells as does in the paw-
it

Water can pass through the cell membranes, either into or out of the cells: paw. If you sweat a lot you lose
e Distilled water has a higher water content (or lower sodium chloride water. This lowers the amount of
concentration) than the paw-paw cells, therefore water moves into the cells water in your blood and osmosis
by osmosis, resulting in the paw-paw strip becoming longer and more rigid. takes place and starts to pull water
out of your cells. For this reason it is
e The paw-paw cells have a higher water content than the concentrated
very important to drink lots of water
sodium chloride solution, therefore water moves out ofthe cells by on a hot day or when you exercise.
osmosis, resulting in the paw-paw strip becoming shorter and softer.
Evidence for the particulate theory of matter States of matter

Practical uses of osmosis

We use the principles of osmosis in various ways. These include controlling
garden pests and preserving food items.

Controlling garden pests

Slugs and snails, being herbivores, are serious garden pests which ravage
many of our precious plants. The skin of these pests is a lot more permeable
than the skin of most other animals. This means that they need to keep
themselves moist to prevent water evaporating from their bodies causing
them to dehydrate and die. We make use of these facts to control slugs and
snails in our gardens by using sodium chloride (table salt).

A Figure 1.2.9 Snails are serious garden pests

Sodium chloride is deliquescent, which means that it absorbs water readily

and dissolves. When sodium chloride is sprinkled on slugs and snails, it
absorbs some ofthe moisture surrounding their bodies and dissolves forming
a concentrated solution. This causes water inside their bodies to move out
and into the solution by osmosis. If the slugs and snails lose more water than
their bodies can tolerate, they die from dehydration.

Preserving food items

Both sodium chloride and sugar are used to preserve food items, e.g. meat,
fish, fruits and vegetables. We are all familiar with salt fish, salt pork,
crystallised fruits, guava jelly and glacé cherries. Both salt and sugar work in
the same way to preserve foods:
They withdraw water from the cells of the food items by osmosis. This
makes the water unavailable for the chemical reactions in cells which cause
decay. Without these reactions occurring, the food items do not decay.
They also withdraw water from the microorganisms that bring about
decay, e.g. bacteria and fungi. This prevents these organisms from
growing and causing the food items to decay.

(a) (b)

A Figure 1.2.10 (a) Salt fish and (b) crystallised fruits are examples of preserved food items
States of matter The three states of matter

Summary questions
1 For each of the experiments described below, state the feature(s) of the
particulate theory of matter for which the experiment provides evidence:
a If a crystal of potassium manganate(vll) is dropped into a beaker of
water, the purple colour spreads throughout the water.
b If bottles of concentrated ammonia solution and concentrated
hydrochloric acid are opened and placed next to each other, a white
cloud forms between the two bottles.

2 State any similarities and differences between osmosis and diffusion.

3 Why do we say that osmosis is a special case of diffusion?

4 When a 5.0 cm long raw potato chip was placed in water and left for
30 minutes, its length was found to have increased to 5.5 cm. Use your
knowledge of the particulate theory of matter to explain this.

5 Explain how sodium chloride is used:

a to control slugs in a garden
b to preserve fish.

A1.3 The three states of matter Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
You have learnt already that matter exists in three states: solid, liquid be able to:
and gas. The three states of matter have noticeable differences in their
explain the difference
physical properties. Physical properties are characteristics that can be between the three states of
observed or measured without changing the chemical composition of a
matter in terms of energy and
substance. Shape, volume, density, compressibility, solubility, melting
arrangement of particles, and
point and boiling point are all examples of physical properties. The
forces of attraction between
different physical properties of the three states can be explained by the
particles
particulate theory of matter.
account for the physical
Table 1.3.1 summarises the physical properties of the three states of matter properties of the three states of
and the arrangement of particles in the three states. matter in terms of energy and
arrangement of particles, and
We can use the arrangement of particles in the three states of matter to
forces of attraction between
explain the physical properties of the different states:
particles
Solids have a fixed shape because their particles are arranged in a regular explain the changes of
way and they are unable to move out of their fixed positions. state in terms of energy and
o Solids have a fixed volume and are very difficult to compress because arrangement of particles
their particles are packed very closely together and cannot be pushed understand melting,
any closer together. evaporation, boiling,

e Liquids flow because their particles are able to move past each other. condensation, freezing and
sublimation
Liquids can be compressed slightly because their particles have small understand and interpret
spaces between them enabling them to be pushed closer together. heating and cooling curves.
Gases take the shape and volume of the container they are in because
their particles move freely and rapidly. They have only weak forces of
attraction between them, therefore they spread out to fill any available
space.
Gases are easy to compress because their particles have large spaces
between them, therefore they can be pushed closer together.
 The three states of matter States of matter

V Table 1.3.1 The properties of the three states of matter

Property I Solid Liquid I Gas

Shape and volume Solids have a fixed Liquids do not have Gases do not have a
shape and a fl)Gd a fixed shape, but fixed shape or volume.
volume. they have a definite A gas will take up the
volume. Liquids take space of the container it
the shape of the part of is placed in. The shape

the container that they and volume of a gas

occupy and the surface is, therefore, the shape

is alV4RYS horizontal. and volume of the entire

contairer it is in.

Density Most solids have a high The density of liquids is Gases have a low
density. usually lower than the density.
density of solids.

Compressibility Solids are very difficult Liquids can be Gases are easy to
to compress. compressed very compress.
slightly when pressure
is applied.

Arrangement of the The particles are The particles are The particles are
particles packed closely randomly arranged randomly arranged
together, usually in a and have small spaces and have large spaces
regular pattern. between them. between them.

Forces of attraction The particles have The forces of attraction The particles have
between the particles very strong forces of between the particles very weak forces of
attraction between are not as strorg as attraction between
them. those between the them.
particles of a solid.

Energy and movement Particles in a solid have Particles in a liquid have Particles in a gas have
of the particles very small amounts more kinetic energy large amounts of kinetic
of kinetic energy. The than particles in a solid. energy. The particles
particles vibrate in their The particles move move about freely and
fixed position. about slowly. rapidly.

Arrangement of
particles
000000 bd0bdd b
ÖOÖxÖOÖ 'O
ÖÖOÖÖÖ Q dÄQ90
Qb40; ofo

Changing state
9 Did you know?
Matter can be changed from one state to another by heating or cooling.
SCUBA divers make use of the A change of state is, therefore, caused by a change in temperature and
fact that are very consequently a change in the kinetic energy of the particles. For example, in
to compress. An average sized order to change water into ice we need to put the water into the freezer, i.e.
SCUBA diving tank holds about we need to remove heat energy. Changing the state of a substance without
2250 litres of compressed air. changing its chemical composition is a physical change. The different
To understand this, think of a milk changes of state are summarised in Figure 1.3.1.
carton. Most milk cartons hold one
add heat
litre of milk, therefore, a SCUBA

diving tank holds the same volume

evaporates/
of air as 2250 empty milk cartons! melts
SOLID
freezes condenses
sublimates

sublimates

Figure 1.3.1 Summary of the changes

of state remove heat

We will now look in more detail at each of the processes that cause the
changes in state in Figure 1.3.1.

10
States of matter The three states of matter

Melting
When a solid is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy and begin to vibrate Key fact
more vigorously. Eventually the particles are able to overcome the strong
Melting point is the constant
forces of attraction between them and they move more freely and further temperature at which a solid
apart forming a liquid, i.e. the solid melts. The temperature remains constant changes into a liquid.
while the solid is melting because all the heat energy being supplied is used to
overcome the forces of attraction between the solid particles. This constant
temperature is known as the melting point.

Evaporation
When a liquid is and move faster.
heated, the particles gain kinetic energy ? Did you know?
Some of the particles near the surface of the liquid have enough kinetic
energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them and are able to When we sweat and the water in
the sweat evaporates from our
leave the liquid and become a vapour. These particles are said to evaporate.
skin, it takes energy with it causing
The particles that leave the liquid take lots of energy with them, leading to a
our bodies to feel cooler. If we put
cooling of the liquid.
alcohol on our skin, it evaporates
even faster than water
Boiling
it has a lower boiling point than

When a liquid is heated its temperature eventually reaches a certain point water. This makes our skin feel
where it starts to boil. At this point the liquid particles have gained enough even colder than when we sweat.
kinetic energy and started to move fast enough to change into a gas both
within the liquid and at its surface. The temperature remains constant
while the liquid is boiling because the heat energy being supplied is used to
overcome the forces of attraction between the liquid particles.This constant
Key fact
temperature is known as the boiling point. Boiling point is the constant
Boiling differs from evaporation in two ways. temperature at which a liquid

changes into a gas.

e Boiling occurs at a specific temperature, whereas evaporation can take
place at any temperature.
Boiling takes place throughout the liquid, whereas evaporation takes
place only at the surface of the liquid.
Exam tip

If you are asked to give a difference

Condensation
between two things, it is essential
When the temperature of a gas is lowered, the particles lose kinetic energy that you describe the specific
and begin to move more slowly. The forces of attraction between the particles property of each, using the word
become stronger causing the particles to move closer together forming a 'whereas' to link the two. Do not
liquid, i.e. the liquid condenses. describe just one.

Freezing
When the temperature of a liquid is lowered, the particles lose kinetic energy
and begin to move more slowly. The forces of attraction between the particles Key fact
become stronger causing the particles to move even closer together forming
Freezing point is the constant
a solid, i.e. the liquid freezes. The temperature at which this occurs is called
temperature at which a liquid
the freezing point. changes into a solid.
The freezing point of a pure substance has the same value as the melting
point, e.g. water has a melting point and a freezing point of 0 oc.

Sublimation
When the forces of attraction between the particles in a solid are weak, the
addition of a small amount of heat can cause the solid to change directly into
a gas, without passing through the liquid state. If the gas is then cooled it will
change directly back to the solid. When a substance changes directly from a
solid to a gas or a gas to a solid it is said to sublime.

11
 The three states of matter States of matter

Examples of substances which undergo sublimation are iodine, carbon

dioxide (known as 'dry ice'), ammonium chloride and naphthalene. Moth
balls or camphor balls are made of naphthalene. Solid air fresheners also
sublime releasing their fragrances into the air.

cue:
solid

Figure 1.3.2 Solid air fresheners sublime

(a) Practical activity

cotton wool
Observing sublimation in iodine
test tube
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

O observation, recording and reporting.

iodine crystals
iodine vapour
You will be supplied with a test tube, a small iodine crystal, a piece of
cotton wool and a pair of tongs.

Method
1 Place the iodine crystal into the test tube and place the cotton wool into
the mouth of the test tube.

2 Hold the test tube with tongs at a 450 angle and heat the bottom of

Bunsen bumer the tube in the flame of a Bunsen burner until all the iodine crystal has
sublimed.

3 Observe what happens as the iodine is heated.

4 Remove the tube from the flame and let it cool.

(b)
5 Observe what happens as the tube is cooling.

iodine crystals During the experiment illustrated in Figure 1.3.3, as the iodine crystal is
heated, it sublimes and forms purple iodine vapour which diffuses up the test
tube. The top of the tube is much cooler and when the vapour reaches the top,
A Figure 1.3.3 Iodine sublimes (a) when it sublimes back to a solid, forming a ring of iodine crystals around the inside

heated and (b) when cooled of the tube.

Heating and cooling curves

Ifthe temperature of a pure solid is measured at intervals as it is heated and
changes state to a liquid and then to a gas, and the temperature is plotted
on a graph against time, a heating curve is obtained. The heating curve for
water is shown in Figure 1.3.4.

The curve shows thatas heating occurs, the temperature of the substance
increases.However, the graph has two horizontal sections where the
temperature remains constant for a period of time even though heating
12
States of matter The three states of matter

continues. These happen when there is a change of state. The first change of
state is where melting occurs and the temperature remains constant at the
melting point of the substance until all the substance has melted, e.g. for
water this is 0 oc. The second change of state is where boiling occurs and the
temperature remains constant at the boiling point of the substance until all
the substance has boiled, e.g. for water this is 100 oc.

140
120 gas (steam)
gas and liquid
100 point
80
60
liquid
40
E 20
solid and liquid
melting point
-20 solid (ice)

Time as heat is added

A Figure 1.3.4 The heating curve for water

Ifthe temperature of a gas is measured at intervals as it is cooled and changes

and then to a solid, and the temperature is plotted on a graph
state to a liquid
against time, a cooling curve is obtained. The cooling curve for water is
shown in Figure 1.3.5. The independent variable (X-axis) is time
140
and the dependent variable (Y-axis) is
gas (steam)
120
gas and liquid
temperature.
100 boiling point
80 When we add impurities to the pure substance, the
melting point of solid is decreased because
o
60 liquid
impurities weakens the lattice structure of solids
40
due to which it become less stable and melts before
E 20
liquid and solid its original melting point.
melting point

the impurity added to pur cyclohexane was naphthalene,

-20 solid

based on the cooling curve, it was noticed the melting

Tme as heat is removed
point of the impure cyclohexane has decreased compared
A Figure 1.3.5 The cooling curve for water to the pure cyclohexane. as the melting point of pure
cyclohexane was 300*C-570*C while the impure
cyclohexane
Like heating curves, cooling curves have two horizontal sections. The was
first 360*C-420*C.
is

where the state changes from gas to liquid and the second is where it changes
from liquid to solid.

Summary questions
1 Complete the table below. The first row is completed as an example of
what is required.

Change of Name given to change Energy added or removed to

state of state change state
Solid to liquid Melting Added
Liquid to gas

Gas to liquid
Liquid to solid

Solid to gas

2 What are the main differences between evaporation and boiling?

Explain what occurs during sublimation.

b Give three examples of solids which undergo sublimation.

4 Explain what a heating curve shows.

13
 The three states of matter States of matter

Key concepts
Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space.
The properties of matter can be explained by the particulate theory of
matter, which states that:
all matter made of particles
is

the particles are in constant, random motion

there are spaces between the particles
there are forces of attraction between the particles.
Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas.
The difference between the three states is due to the arrangement and
energy of the particles.
The energy of the particles is directly related to the temperature of the
particles.
Diffusion and osmosis provide evidence to support the particulate
theory of matter.
Diffusion the movement of particles from an area of higher
is

concentration to an area of lower concentration until they are evenly

distributed.

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region with a

lot of water molecules, e.g. a dilute solution or pure water, to a region
with fewer water molecules, e.g. a concentrated solution, through a
differentially permeable membrane.
The principles of osmosis are used to control garden pests with sodium
chloride and preserve food items with sodium chloride and sugar.
The energy and arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gases
account for the physical properties of the three states.
Matter can change from solid to liquid to gas with the addition of heat.
Matter can change from gas to liquid to solid with the removal of heat.
The names given to the processes which cause the change from one state
to another are melting, evaporation, boiling, condensation, freezing and
sublimation.

Melting and boiling occur at specific temperatures known as the melting

point and the boiling point, respectively.
Evaporation of a liquid occurs at any temperature and leads to the
cooling of the liquid.
Sublimation is the change in state straight from a solid to a gas, or vice
versa, without passing through the liquid state. It occurs in compounds
with weak forces of attraction between their molecules.
When the temperature of a pure substance is measured as it is heated and
changes state from solid to liquid to gas, and the temperature is plotted
against time, a heating curve is obtained.
When the temperature of a pure substance is measured as it is cooled and
changes state from gas to liquid to solid, and the temperature is plotted
against time, a cooling curve is obtained.

14
States of matter Practice exam-style questions

i) State what you would expect to have happened

Practice exam-style questions to the level of the sucrose solution in the thistle
funnel after 30 minutes. (1 mark)
Multiple-choice questions ii) Explain the reason for your observations.
1 Which of the following provide(s) evidence that matter (4 marks)
is made of particles? iii) Name the process occurring in the apparatus.
I Osmosis (1 mark)
II
Decomposition b A second student measured the temperature of an
111 Diffusion unknown substance X as it was heated from the solid
A and 111
1, 11
state through the liquid state to the gaseous state. Her
B II and Ill only results are plotted in Figure 2. Use the information in
C I and Ill only the Figure to answer the following questions.
D I only
80
2 Particles in a solid:
70
A are packed closely together
60
B are capable of random movement
50
C have large spaces between them
40
D have weak forces of attraction between them.
30
3 Liquids differ from gases in that: E 20
A the particles in a liquid can move more freely than 10
those in a gas
B the particles in a gas are closer together than those in
-10
a liquid
-20
C the particles in a liquid possess more kinetic energy 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
than those in a gas Tme (min)
D the particles in a gas have weaker forces of attraction
A Figure 2 Graph showing the temperature of substance
between them than those in a liquid.
X during heating against time
4 The conversion of a gas to a liquid is described as: What state is X in at 68 oc?
i) (1 mark)
A melting
ii) Over what temperature range does X exist in the
B evaporation
liquid state? (2 marks)
C condensation
From the time X starts to melt, how long does it
iii)
D boiling.
take until it has completely melted? (1 mark)

5 Which of the following lists consist of substances which iv) Describe, in terms of energy and behaviour of
show sublimation ? particles, what is happening to substance X as it

A Aluminium chloride, iodine, carbon dioxide. melts. (3 marks)

B Ammonium chloride, iodine, carbon monoxide. v) Using o to represent a particle of substance X,
C Ammonium chloride, naphthalene, iodine. draw TWELVE particles as they would appear in
D Aluminium sulfate, carbon dioxide, naphthalene. X at -15 oc. (2 marks)

Total 15 marks
Structured question
6 a In order to investigate the particulate nature of Extended response question
matter, a student set up the apparatus shown in
Figure 1 below and left it for 30 minutes.
Describe TWO pieces of evidence to support the
particulate theory of matter. (4 marks)
glass thistle funnel b Water can exist as a solid, a liquid and a gas. Explain
the differences between these three states in terms
of arrangement of their particles, forces of attraction
between them and their kinetic energy. (6 marks)
original level of sucrose solution
c By reference to particles, explain clearly the reason
15% sucrose solution for EACH of the following:
i) steam can be converted to liquid water by
35% sucrose solution
reducing its temperature (3 marks)
glass beaker differentially permeable membrane ii) a crystal of potassium chloride has a very definite
shape. (2 marks)
Figure 1 Apparatus used to investigate the particulate nature
of matter Total 15 marks

15
 Mixtures and their separation

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will everyday When we wrap our food in aluminium
lives.
be able to:
foil we are using an element. When we place salt on
between pure
distinguish our food we are eating a compound. When we drink a
substances and mixtures
explain the difference between
cold soda we are drinking a mixture. may be useful to It

an element, a compound and a know how to separate some of these mixtures into their
mixture
component parts. An example of this is the purification
give examples of elements,
compounds and mixtures of drinking water.
explain the difference between
a homogeneous and a
heterogeneous mixture. A2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures
Matter can be classified into two main groups: pure substances and mixtures.
Pure substances have the following general characteristics.
They have a fixed, constant composition.
Their properties are fixed and constant.
The component parts of a pure substance cannot be separated by
physical means.

Mixtures have the following general characteristics.

They have a variable composition.
Their properties are variable since their components retain their own,
individual properties.
e The component parts ofmixtures can be separated by physical means.
Pure substances can be further classified into elements and compounds.
Mixtures can be further classified into homogeneous mixtures and
heterogeneous mixtures. The tree diagram in Figure 2.1.1 shows the
breakdown of these groups.
matter

pure
substances mixtures

elements compounds

homogeneous heterogeneous
mixtures mixtures
A Figure 2.1.1 Classification of matter

Pure substances
pure substance is composed of only one type of material and has the
following fixed properties:
a sharply defined, constant melting point or freezing point

a sharply defined, constant boiling point

a constant density.

16
Mixtures and their separation Elements, compounds and mixtures

To determine if a substance is pure or not, its melting point or boiling point is

determined. Any impurities in a pure substance will usually lower its melting ? Did you know?
point and cause it to melt over a wider temperature range. Impurities will
usually raise the boiling point of a pure substance and cause it to boil over a In many countries where snow and
ice pose a problem on the roads in
wider temperature range.
winter, rock salt (sodium chloride)
Paper chromatography (Unit 2.4) may also be used. If a substance is pure it is spread on the roads to melt the
will produce only one single spot on a chromatogram. If it is not pure it will ice. The salt dissolves in the film

produce more than one spot. of water on the surface of the ice,
this lowers its freezing point to
below the temperature of the ice
Practical activity and the ice starts to melt. Salt can
lower the freezing point of water to
Comparing the boiling points of pure water and sodium about —18 oc, the freezing point of
chloride solution saturated sodium chloride solution.

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

o observation, recording and reporting.

Your teacher will perform the following demonstration.

Method
1 Place 2 cm3 of distilled water in a test tube.

2 Place an inverted closed end capillary tube into the test tube with the
open end facing downwards.
3 Place a thermometer in the tube.

4 Half fill a 250 cm3 beaker with oil and place the above test tube
assembly in the oil bath so that the surface of the water in the test tube
is beneath the surface level of the oil.

5 Heat the beaker gently over a Bunsen burner, stirring constantly to

ensure that heating is even. Continue heating until a rapid stream
of bubbles emerges from the capillary tube. This stream of bubbles
indicates that the water in the test tube is boiling.
thermometer
6 Remove the heat source and observe the stream of bubbles. When the
closed end capillary tube
last bubble emerges from the capillary tube, record the temperature.
stirring rod
7 Reheat the oil bath and repeat the cooling process twice more. test tube

Record the temperature reading after each trial and average all three beaker
temperatures. This is the boiling point of distilled water. oil

distilled water or
8 Repeat the procedure using a sodium chloride solution in place of
sodium chloride solution
the water.

9 What conclusion can you draw about the boiling points of pure water heat

and sodium chloride solution? A Figure 2.1.2 Determining the boiling

point of a liquid

Elements
Key fact
element is the simplest form of matter. It cannot be broken down into An element is a pure substance
that cannot be broken down into
anything simpler by ordinary chemical or physical means. We say 'ordinary
any simpler substances by any
chemical means' to exclude nuclear reactions. The smallest particle in
ordinary chemical or physical
an element that has the same properties as the element is an atom. Each
means.
element is composed of only one kind of atom.
17
 Elements, compounds and mixtures Mixtures and their separation

Examples of elements are iron (Fe), which is composed of only iron atoms,
copper (Cu), which is composed of only copper atoms and oxygen (02),
which is composed of only oxygen atoms.

Compounds
Key fact Compounds are composed of more than one kind of atom. These atoms

A compound is a pure substance

are combined together chemically, they are always present in the same
that containstwo or more different proportions by mass and they cannot be separated by physical means. A
types of element which are bonded compound can be represented by a chemical formula, which indicates the
together chemically in fixed elements that the compound is made up of and the ratio in which they have
proportions and in such a way that combined, e.g. the chemical formula of water is H20.
their properties have changed.
Examples of compounds are water, which is composed of hydrogen and
oxygen in a ratio of 2: 1, sodium chloride (NaCl), which is composed of
sodium and chlorine in a ratio of 1 1 and methane (CH4), which is composed
:

of carbon and hydrogen in a ratio of 1 4. :

The properties of a compou nd are fixed and are different from the properties
of the individual elements that form the compound. For example,
hydrogen and oxygen are both gases at room temperature, however, water
is a liquid.

Mixtures
Key fact
Mixtures are composed of two or more substances which are not chemically
A mixture consists of two or more combined, therefore their components can be separated by physical
substances (elements and/or means. Some of the physical methods for separating mixtures, which we
compounds) physically combined will be investigating in Unit 2.4, are filtration, evaporation, crystallisation,
together in varying proportions. distillation, fractional distillation and chromatography. In a mixture the
Each component retains its own component parts are not in a fixed ratio and they retain their own, individual
independent properties and has
undergone no chemical reaction physical properties.
with any other substance in the
Homogeneous mixtures
mixture.
homogeneous mixture is one in which the properties and composition

are uniform throughout the mixture. The component parts cannot be

distinguished from each other. A solution is a homogeneous mixture.

Examples of homogeneous mixtures are air, salt dissolved in water and metal
alloys such as brass, a mixture of copper and zinc.

Heterogeneous mixtures
heterogeneous mixture is a non-uniform mixture, for example, a mixture
in which the component parts are in different states. The component parts
can be distinguished from each other, although not always with the naked
(a)
eye. Suspensions and colloids are heterogeneous mixtures.

Examples of heterogeneous mixtures are salt and sand, mayonnaise, and

muddy water.
The diagrams in Figure 2.1.4 show how elements, compounds and mixtures
can be distinguished by looking at the particles that make up the substance.
• If there is only one kind of atom, then it is an element.
If there are two or more kinds of atoms joined together in the same ratio,
A Figure 2.1.3 Gold is an example
(a)
then it is a compound.
of an element, (b) copper sulfate is an
If there is a combination of two or more elements and/or compounds,
example of a compound and (c) muddy
water is an example of a mixture. then it is a mixture.
18
Mixtures and their separation Solutions, suspensions and colloids

In Figure 2.1.4, elements are represented in diagrams D, E and H, compounds

are represented in diagrams B, and G and mixtures are represented in
C
diagrams A, F and I. I is a mixture and not a compound because the blue
atoms are not arranged regularly among the green atoms.

c D

In the diagrams shown the atoms of different

elements are represented by O and O

Figure 2.1.4 Elements, compounds and mixtures

Summary questions
1 Copper is described as an element. What does this tell us about copper?
2 What is a compound?
3 What are the differences between a pure substance and mixture?

4 What is the difference between a homogeneous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture?

A2.2 Solutions, suspensions and colloids Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
Solutions, suspensions and form part of our everyday lives. For
colloids be able to:
example, sea water is a solution, muddy water is a suspension and milk and
explain the terms solvent,
fog are both colloids.
solute and solution
identify different types of
Solutions
solutions
solution homogeneous mixture. The major component of a solution
is a distinguish between a solution,
is known as the solvent and the minor component is known as the solute. a suspension and a colloid
Some solutions may contain more than one solute, e.g. sea water. The solute describe some of the
and solvent can be gases, liquids or solids. When a gas or a solid dissolves in distinguishing properties of a
a liquid, the liquid is always the solvent, e.g. in a mixture of salt in water, solution, a suspension and a
salt is the solute and water is the solvent. colloid

give examples of solutions,

Table 2.2.1 gives examples of various types of solutions.
suspensions and colloids.
V Table 2.2.1 Examples of different types of solutions

Solute Solvent Example Components of the solution

solid liquid sea water sodium chloride in water Key fact

gas liquid soda water carbon dioxide in water
A solution is a homogeneous
solid solid brass zinc in copper
mixture consisting of two or more
liquid liquid white rum ethanol in water components, one of which is

gas gas air oxygen, water vapour, argon and carbon dioxide in nitrogen
usually a liquid.

19
 Solutions, suspensions and colloids Mixtures and their separation

A saturated solution is one that contains as much solute as can be dissolved

at a particulartemperature in the presence of undissolved solute. You will
study saturated solutions in more detail in Unit 2.3.

Suspensions
suspension is a heterogeneous mixture
containing minute particles which are
(b)
visible to the naked eye. If left undisturbed,
A Figure 2.2.1 (a) Soda water and
(b) brass are examples of solutions
the particles in a suspension eventually
settle. The components of a suspension

can be separated by filtration.

Key fact
Examples of suspensions
A suspension is a heterogeneous
Dust in air is a suspension of a solid
mixture in which minute, but visible,

particles are dispersed in another

in a gas.
e Powdered chalk in water is an example
A Figure 2.2.2 Muddy water is an
substance, usually a liquid.
example of a suspension
of a suspension of a solid in a liquid.
e Muddy water is another example of a solid suspended ina liquid.

Colloids
colloid is a heterogeneous mixture containing particles that are
intermediate in size between those of a solution and those of a suspension.
The particles in a colloid cannot be seen even with a microscope, and if left
undisturbed they do not settle. The properties of a colloid are intermediate
Key fact between those of a solution and those of a suspension.
A colloid a heterogeneous
is

mixture which the particles of

in Examples of colloids
one substance are dispersed in
Smoke in air is a colloid ofa solid in a gas, also known as a solid aerosol.
another substance, usually a liquid.
The dispersed particles are smaller Fog and aerosol sprays in air are colloids of a liquid dispersed in a gas,
than those of a suspension, but also known as liquid aerosols.
larger than those of a solution. Milk and mayonnaise are colloids of a liquid dispersed in a liquid, also
known as emulsions.
Gelatine and jelly are colloids ofa solid dispersed in a liquid, also known
as gels.
Did you know? A comparison of the distinguishing properties of solutions, suspensions and
1 nanometre = 10-6 millimetres colloids is given in Table 2.2.2.
1 000000 nanometres = 1 millimetre
V Table 2.2.2 A comparison of the properties of solutions, colloids and suspensions
Property I Solution I Colloid I Suspension
Particle size very small (less than one nanometre greater than that of a solution but they large enough so that they are visible
in diarneter) are not visible to the naked eye (between to the naked eye (greater than
1 and 1000 narometres in diameter) 1000 narometres in dianneter)

Type of mixture homogeneous heterogeneous heterogeneous

Appearance generally transparent usualhy opaque, some are translucent opaque
Can the components be no no yes
separated by filtration?

Do the components separate no no yes

out after the mixture has been
standing for a while?

Transmission of light transmits light appearirg transparent will scatter light does not transmit light; it is opaque

20
Mixtures and their separation Solutions, suspensions and colloids

Practical activity Rttonrfttgttd

PULL
Comparing the properties of a solution, a suspension and CREAM
a colloid
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

manipulation and measurement.

You will be supplied with two beakers, a filter funnel held in a retort stand,
(a
filter paper, distilled water, calcium hydroxide powder, copper(ll) sulfate
and gelatine.

Method
1 Half fill the beaker with water.

2 Place a large spatula full of calcium hydroxide powder into the water and Mabel;
mix vigorously.

3 Hold the mixture up to the light and look through it. Is it transparent or
opaque?
(b)

4 Place the filter paper in the filter funnel and place the second beaker below A Figure 22.3 (a) Milk and

it. Filter half the mixture. Could you separate the components by filtering? (b) mayonnaise are examples of colloids

5 Leave the other half of the mixture for two hours. Does the mixture
settle out?
solution colloid •g. suspension,
6 Using your answers from points 3 4 and 5, decide whether the mixture
is a solution, a suspension or a colloid.

7 Repeat the experiment with the copper(ll) sulfate and gelatine, making increasing particle size

sure that you stir each of the mixtures until there is no longer any solid A Figure 2.2.4 A comparison of the size
of particles in solutions, colloids and
remaining. You may need to heat the gelatine gently.
suspensions
8 Record your findings in a table.

Summary questions
1 How does the particle size of:
a a solution compare with that of a suspension

b a suspension compare with that of a colloid?

2 Which of the following is true of a solution, a suspension or a colloid?

a does not transmit light

b can be separated by filtration

c will not settle out after standing?

3 Classify each of the following as a solution, a suspension or a colloid:

mayonnaise
b chalk dust in water
c fog
d white vinegar.
Solubility Mixtures and their separation

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: The solubility of a solute is an indication of how much of the solute can
dissolve in a fixed mass of solvent at a particular temperature. For example,
define the term solubility
we can find the solubility of sodium chloride in water by determining
explain what a saturated
how much sodium chloride can dissolve in 10 cm3 of water at a particular
solution is
temperature. When no more solute can be dissolved in the solvent, the
explain the effect of
solution reaches saturation point and we say the solution is saturated. If
temperature on solubility
any more solute is added to the solvent, the solute will remain in solid form
describe the solubility of a
and will be mixed with the saturated solution. The solubility of a solute in
substance from a solubility
water is usually measured as the mass of solute that will saturate 100 g of
curve
water. Each solute and solvent combination has a specific solubility at a
perform calculations using a
given temperature.
solubility curve.
The solubility of a solute in a solvent is determined by the structure of the
solute and solvent, and the temperature.

Key fact
Solubility is the mass of solute that
The effect of temperature on solubility
will saturate 100 g of solvent at a For most solid solutes in water, solubility increases as temperature increases.
given temperature. This means that as the temperature increases, a greater mass of solute
will saturate a fixed mass of water. A solution which is saturated at one
temperture will not be saturated at a higher temperature, and if a solution
Key fact which is saturated at one temperature is cooled, crystals of the solute will
form since less of the solute can dissolve at a lower temperature.
A saturated solution is a solution
which contains as much solute You learnt earlier in this unit that solubility in water is usually measured as
as can be dissolved at a given the mass of solute which will saturate 100 g of water. The unit for solubility
temperature, in the presence of is g per 100 g water. However, it is not practical to weigh 100 g of water.
undissolved solute. In determining solubility of a solute in water in the laboratory, we make
use of the fact that pure water has a density of 1 gcm-3. In other words,
1 cm3 of water has a mass of 1 g, or 1 g of water has a volume of 1 cm3
0 70 This means that 100 g of water has a volume of 100 cm3, and it is easy to
60 measure 100 cm3 of water in the laboratory.
8 50
When we plot solubility of a solute against temperature, we draw a graph
40
known as a solubility curve. The solubility curve for potassium chlorate(v),
e 30 KC103, is shown in Figure 2.3.1.
20
Looking at the solubility curve in Figure 2.3.1, you can see that the solubility
10
of potassium chlorate(v) increases with an increase in temperature.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Solubility curves such as this can be used to obtain various useful pieces of
Temperature (oc) information, for example:
A Figure 2.3.1 Graph showing the
The solubility of a solid at any temperature within the range of the
solubility of potassium chlorate(v)
against temperature
graph.

Exam tip Example

What is the solubility of potassium chlorate(v) at 78 oc?
Before reading any graph you must
ensure that you can interpret the Solubility of KC103 at 78 oc = 35 g per 100 g water.
scale of each axis. The scales of
The temperature at which crystals would just start to form if an
the two axes will not necessarily be
unsaturated solution containing a fixed mass of solute is cooled to the
the same.
point where it is just saturated.
Mixtures and their separation Solubility

Example
At what temperature would crystals just begin to form if an unsaturated
solution of potassium chlorate(v) containing 20 g of potassium chlorate(v)
dissolved in 100 g of water is cooled from 80 oc?

Temperature at which 20 g of KC103 saturates 100 g of water = 55 oc.

temperature at which crystals just begin to form = 55 oc.

The mass of solute that would crystallise out of a saturated solution if its
temperature is decreased.

Example
What mass of potassium chlorate(v) would crystallise out of a saturated
solution containing 100 g of water when the temperature of the solution
is decreased from 64 oc to 22 oc?

At 64 oc, 25 g of KC103 saturates 100 g of water.

At 22 oc, 7 g of KC103 saturates 100g of water.

mass of KC103 crystallising out of a saturated solution containing 100 g

of water = 25 g — 7 g = 18g.

The mass of solute to be added to resaturate a solution if its temperature

is increased.

Example
What mass of potassium chlorate(v) must be added to resaturate a solution
containing 250 g of water if the temperature of the saturated solution is

increased from 32 oc to 82 oc?

At 32 oc, 10 g of KC103 saturates 100 g of water.

At 82 oc, 38 g of KC103 saturates 100 g of water.

mass of KC103 to be added to resaturate a solution containing 100g

of water = 38 g — = 28 g

and mass of KC103 to be added to resaturate a solution containing

28
250 g of water = - x 250g = 70g.
100
The minimum mass of water required to dissolve a fixed mass of solute at
a given temperature.

Example
What is the minimum mass of water required to dissolve 40 g of potassium
chlorate(v) at 74 oc?

At 74 oc, 32 g of KC103 saturates 100 g of water.

40 g of KC103 saturate — 100

32
x 40 g of water = 125 g of water.

Minimum mass of water required = 125 g.

23
 Solubility Mixtures and their separation

Practical activity

Investigating the effect of temperature on solubility

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting
manipulation and measurement.

You will be placed in groups by your teacher and each group will be
supplied with a boiling tube, a thermometer, a beaker with water (for a
water bath), a burette, a balance and potassium nitrate.

Method
Each group will determine the temperature at which a specific mass of
potassium nitrate, varying from 6 g to 16 g, just saturates 1 Og of water. Your
teacher will tell you the mass that your group is to use. You will then share
your results with the class.

1 Using the balance, weigh your group's mass of potassium nitrate.

2 Using the burette, place 10 cm3 of distilled water in the boiling tube (this

is equivalent to 10 g).
3 Add the potassium nitrate you weighed to the boiling tube and,
using the thermometer, stir the solution carefully to dissolve as much
potassium nitrate as possible.
4 Carefully heat the solution in the water bath, stirring it constantly until

all the potassium nitrate has just dissolved.

5 Take the boiling tube out of the water bath and stir the solution gently.

6 Observe the solution as you stir it and as Look for signs of

it cools.
crystallisation, especially at the bottom of the tube as that is where it is

easiest to see the crystals forming.

7 Note the temperature at which the crystals just start to form.

8 To ensure that your temperature is accurate, reheat the solution and cool
it again and note the temperature at which the crystals just start to form.
9 Average your two temperature readings and record it in the table
outlined on the board by your teacher (the table is given below).

Temperature (oc)

Mass of KN03 saturating 1 Og of water (g)

Solubility of KN03 (g per 100g water)

10 Once all the results from the class have been recorded, copy the table
and calculate the mass of potassium nitrate that dissolved in 100 g of
water at each temperature, i.e. the solubility of potassium nitrate at
each temperature. Record these solubilities in your table.
11 On a sheet of graph paper, draw a solubility curve for potassium nitrate.

Summary questions
1 Define solubility.

2 What effect does temperature have on the solubility of solids in liquids?

3 What is the unit used for measuring solubility?

24
Mixtures and their separation Separating mixtures

A2.4 Separating mixtures Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
Since mixtures form a part of our everyday lives, the separation of these be able to:
mixtures into their component parts is important. Examples include the
identify suitable techniques to
and the making of filter coffee. If you were
purification of drinking water
separate the components of
stuck on a desert island without any drinking water, your knowledge of
mixtures
separating mixtures could help you to make pure water from sea water.
describe the types of mixtures
Mixtures are a type of matter where the components can be separated by separated by filtration,
physical means. The method by which a mixture can be separated into its evaporation, crystallisation,
component determined by the physical properties of these parts,
parts is simple distillation, fractional
e.g. particle size, boiling point, solubility. Table 2.4.1 summarises the a separating funnel
distillation,
methods of separation that you will be studying, together with the physical and chromatography
properties of the component parts that allows the mixtures to be separated describe the processes
by each method. involved in separating
mixtures by
V Table 2.4.1 A summary of the methods used to separate mixtures filtration,

evaporation, crystallisation,
Separation method Physical properties of component parts
simple distillation, fractional
filtration A mixture of a solid and a liquid where the solid does not dissolve in the a separating funnel
distillation,
liquid. The components are separated based on their different particle sizes.
and chromatography
Evaporation and A mixture of a solid which is a liquid where the boiling point of
dissolved in
explain the terms filtrate,
crystallisation the liquid is lower than that of the The methods only allow for collection
solid.
residue and distillate
of the solid. The components are separated based on their different boiling
points.
e explain the difference between
miscible and immiscible
Simple distillation A mixture of a solid which is dissolved in a
where the boiling point of
liquid
the liquid is lower than that of the solid.liquid and the solid can be
Both the liquids.
collected. The components are separated based on their different boilirg
points.

Fractional distillation A mixture of two (or more) miscible liquids which have different boiling
points, i.e. a difference in volatility. Miscible liquids are ones that mix
there is

completely. The comporents are separated based on their different boilirg

points.

Separating funrel A mixture of two (or more) immiscible liquids which have different densities.
Immiscible liquids are liquids which do not mix. The components are
separated based on their different densities.

Chromatography A mixture of dissolved substances which will travel through a material. The
comporents are separated based on their different solubilities in a solvent
and attraction to the material.

Filtration
Filtration used to separate a mixture of a solid and a liquid where the solid
is
filter paper
does not dissolve in the liquid, i.e. it is used to separate the components of
a suspension. Filtration makes use of filter paper to separate the solid from filter funnel
the liquid. The filter paper works like a sieve, keeping back the solid particles.
The solid particles are too big to pass through the filter paper, whereas the the solid remains
in the filter paper as
liquid particles are small enough to pass through.
the residue

The part of the mixture that stays behind in the filter paper is called the
residue The part of the mixture that passes through the filter paper is called
.
support
the filtrate.

Filtration is one of the steps used in the purification of drinking water. Most
the liquid filters
simple water purification devices that you might use in your homes use through: it is
filtration as their main method of purifying the water. They separate the called the filtrate

solid impurities from the water. A coffee machine makes use of a filter in the
form of filter paper to separate the coffee granules from the coffee. A Figure 2.4.1 Filtration apparatus

25
 Separating mixtures Mixtures and their separation

solvent Evaporation
evaporates quickly Evaporation is used to separate a solution of a solid dissolved in a liquid, but it
into the air
only allows the solid to be collected. During evaporation, the solution is boiled
allowing the liquid to vaporise into the air. The solute is left behind in the
boiling solution
container. Evaporation is a fairly rapid process and if all the liquid evaporates,
the solid remaining lacks any crystalline structure. The method is not suitable
heat if the solid to be collected is decomposed by heat. Evaporation is useful to

obtain the sodium chloride from a sodium chloride solution.

Crystallisation
solute is left

behind Like evaporation, crystallisation is used to separate a solution ofa solid dissolved
in a liquid, and it only allows the solid to be collected. Unlike evaporation, the
A Figure 2.4.2 Evaporation
solution not boiled, it is left in a container at room temperature for the liquid
is

to vaporise into the air. Crystallisation is a slow process and the solid remaining
has a distinct crystalline structure. It is used if a hydrated solid containing
———— solvent evaporates
slowly at room
water of crystallisation is required. Water of crystallisation is water that is
temperature incorporated within the crystalline structure and you will learn more about
this in Unit 8.4. Crystallisation is useful to obtain hydrated copper(ll) sulfate
filter paper to prevent
impurities entering crystals (CuS04.5H20) from a copper(ll) sulfate solution.
solution
evaporating basin

Simple distillation
Simple distillation used to separate a solution of a solid dissolved in a
is also
crystals of the solute
liquid. It allows both the solid and the liquid to be collected. Simple distillation is
are left behind
an appropriate method of separation only ifthe liquid has a lower boiling point
A Figure 2.4.3 Crystallisation
than the solid, i.e. the liquid becomes a vapour before the solid. One of the
key components of the apparatus used in distillation is a Liebig condenser.
The method by which the distillation apparatus works is as follows:
The mixture is heated in the distillation flask until it boils and
vaporisation occurs.
e The vapour rises up the distillation flask and as it passes into the Liebig
condenser it cools and condenses back to a liquid. The liquid passes
down the condenser and is collected as the distillate.
The concentration of the solution in the distillation flask gradually
increases and when most of the liquid has vaporised, the solution can be
poured into an evaporating basin and left to crystallise to obtain crystals
of the solute if required.
Figure 2.4.4 Apparatus for simple
distillation
thermometer
records boiling
point of liquid

Liebig condenser

distillation
flask
—water out

anti-bumping
granules
assist smooth 00

boiling
receiver
cold water in

distillate

heat

26
Mixtures and their separation Separating mixtures

The thermometer is used to monitor the temperature of the vapour entering

the condenser. If the temperature remains constant at the boiling point of
the pure liquid, then the distillate is pure.

Distillation is a very useful method of separation if you need to collect both

the solid and the liquid after separation. However, it is also used to make
Exam tip
distilled water from tap water and can be used to obtain pure water from sea
It is very important that you are
water. In both these cases, any solution remaining in the distillation flask is
able to draw line diagrams of the
discarded since it is not required. apparatus used in the different
separation processes.
Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of two or more liquids
which are miscible and have
different boiling points that are close together.
Miscible liquids are liquids that are able to mix. The apparatus used in fractional
distillation is similar to that used in simple distillation. However, a fractionating
co lumn is attached between a round-bottomed flask and the Liebig condenser.
Fractional distillation can be used to separate a solution of ethanol and water
since the boiling point of ethanol is 78 oc and that of water is 100 oc.
figure 2.4.5 Fractional distillation

The fractionating column has a large using a fractionating column

surface area. Vaporisation followed thermometer.
by condensation of the vapour takes The temperature remains
place many times on the surface of the constant at the boiling point of
fractionating column. Vapours of the each liquid as it distils separately
liquid with the lowest boiling point reach
the top of the column first and enter the water out
condenser
Liebig condenser

cold
water in

distillation flask
receiver.
A fresh receiver
anti-bumping isused to catch
granules each distillate

heat

Did you know?

The process of fractional
The method by which the apparatus for fractional distillation works is as distillation isused in several
follows.
industries that you might have

e The mixture boils and vapours of both liquids enter and move up the
come across. It is used in the rum
industry to separate the ethanol
fractionating column where they condense and vaporise many times.
from the fermentation mixture
e As the mixture of vapours moves up the fractionating column, it becomes (Unit 15.1 and in the petroleum
increasingly richer in the more volatile component, i.e. the one with the industry to separate crude oil into
lower boiling point (ethanol), until the vapour reaching the top of the different fractions such as gasoline,
column consists only of the more volatile component. This vapour passes kerosene and diesel (Unit 14.1
into the condenser, condenses and is collected as the distillate. Also can be fractionally
liquid air

distilled into oxygen and nitrogen

e The vapour of the less volatile liquid, i.e. the one with the higher boiling
gases which have various uses
point (water), condenses in the fractionating column and returns to the
(Unit 20).
round-bottomed flask.
27
 Separating mixtures Mixtures and their separation

When almost all of the more volatile liquid has distilled over, the
temperature begins to rise, showing that a mixture of both vapours is
reaching the top of the column and distilling over. This is collected in a
second container and discarded.
Once the temperature reaches the boiling point of the less volatile
liquid, that liquid is then distilled into a third container.

Separating funnel
A separating funnel is used to separate a mixture ofliquids that are immiscible
and have different densities. Immiscible liquids are liquids which are unable
oil
liquid to mix. A separating funnel is a containerthat has a tap at the bottom, allowing
interface
water oil one liquid to be drained off before the other. It is usually conical in shape to
reduce the amount of liquids lost at the interface of the two liquids. Oil and
water are two liquids that are immiscible and they have different densities. If
a mixture of oil and water is placed in a separating funnel, the oil with a lower
density floats on the water which has a higher density.
The method by which the separating funnel works is as follows:
e The tap is opened to allow the liquid with the higher density (water) to
run into the container below.
The tap is closed as the liquid interface almost reaches it and the first
water runs out
container is replaced with a second.
of funnel e The tap is opened again to allow a very small amount of the liquid with
A Figure 2.4.6 Separation using a the lower density (oil) to run into the container and then closed. The
separating funnel contents of the second container are discarded.

Paper chromatography
Paper chromatography used to separate a mixture of dissolved
is
Did you know? substances which are coloured or can be coloured, and which will
travel through a material, e.g. filter paper. The substances are separated
Chromatography is used
based on:
extensively by forensic scientists
in their work. For example, they how soluble they are in the solvent used
use it to analyse body fluids for the how strongly they are attracted to the paper.
presence of illegal drugs, to analyse
blood from crime scenes, and, at
Many inks and food colourings are mixtures of two or more dyes, which can
airports, to detect residues from be separated by paper chromatography.
explosives. If the spots that form The method by which paper chromatography works is as follows:
a locating agent is
are colourless, A drop of the dye mixture is placed 1 cm from the bottom of a rectangular
sprayed on the chromatogram. This
piece of absorbent paper, e.g. filter paper. The paper is then hung in a
reacts with the colourless spots,
beaker containing solvent so that the lower edge is below the surface of
making them coloured.
the solvent and the dye is above.
The solvent moves up the paper and dissolves the dyes in the mixture,
carrying them with it. However, the different dyes travel up the paper at
different rates.
The dyes that are the most soluble in the solvent and least attracted to
the paper travel the fastest and the furthest distance.
The dyes that are the least soluble in the solvent and most attracted to
the paper travel the slowest and the least distance.
Once the solvent has completed its movement up the paper, the paper
is allowed to dry. There will be a pattern of different coloured dyes on

the paper, each one representing a part of the mixture. This pattern is
known as a chromatogram.
28
Mixtures and their separation Separating mixtures

Practical activity

Separating mixtures using chromatography

Your teacher may use this activity to assess: drop of dye
mixture, e.g. ink
o observation, recording and reporting
manipulation and measurement. datum line

You will be supplied with a piece of filter paper, a beaker, a capillary tube, solvent

two water-based markers of different colours and food colouring.

Method solvent front —
edge of solvent
1 Measure the depth of the beaker with a ruler. The depth will be the fastest

moving
length of your filter paper. different
dye
coloured
2 Cut the filter paper into a rectangular strip, 4 cm wide and the length as dyes
slowest
measured in point 1 above. datum line
moving
dye
3 Draw a pencil line across the strip 2 cm up from the bottom and mark
the line at 1 cm intervals with a pencil dot.
A figure 2.4.7 Separation using paper

4 chromatography
Attach the top of the strip to a glass rod so that it can be suspended in

the beaker with its lower edge just above the bottom of the beaker.

5 Make a dot with one of the markers on the first pencil dot. Make a dot
with the second marker on the second pencil dot. Use the capillary tube
to place a drop of food colouring on the third pencil dot.

6 Place enough water into the beaker so that when the strip of filter paper
is hung in the beaker, the bottom of the strip will be immersed in the Did you know?
water, but the coloured dots will be above the water.
Using chromatography it can be

7 Hang the strip of filter paper in the beaker so that the water wets the shown that the green pigment in
bottom of the paper and watch the colours in the three dots separate plants, known as chlorophyll, is

and spread up the filter paper as the water rises up the paper. actually made of three different
coloured pigments, orange, yellow
8 Compare the results from your two markers. Did they contain any and green.
colours in common?

9 If members of the class used different coloured markers from you,

compare your results with theirs to see if different coloured markers had
any colours in common with yours.

Summary questions
1 Which properties of the components of a mixture are considered when
deciding on a separation technique?

2 What is the main difference between using distillation and evaporation

as a separation method?

3 For each of the following mixtures, explain how you would separate
them into their component parts:
a a mixture of salt, black pepper and water
b a mixture of oil, sugar and water.
Extraction of sucrose from sugar cane Mixtures and their separation

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Sugar cane was first introduced to the Caribbean by the Dutch in about 1625
and has been a very important part of its economy ever since. The production
describe the extraction of
of sucrose from the sugar cane plant is an industrial process that makes use of
sucrose from sugar cane
several separation techniques.
e draw a flow diagram showing
the steps which are involved in The processes involved in the separation of sucrose from sugar cane are as
the separation of sucrose from follows:
sugar cane.
The sugar cane stalks are harvested, transported to the factory, cleaned
and cut into small pieces by revolving knives in the shredder.
The pieces are then crushed in the crushers as water is sprayed on them
to dissolve the sugar present. This produces cane juice and cane fibre, or
bagasse. The bagasse is taken to the boiler furnace where it is burnt to
DEMERARA
supply heat for the boilers.

The cane juice, which is acidic and contains impurities, enters the
clarifier where precipitation occurs. The juice is heated and calcium
hydroxide is added which neutralises any acids in the juice and causes
the impurities to precipitate out, i.e. they are converted into larger,
insoluble particles.
tbO

GENUINE The juice then moves into the rotary filter where continuous filtration
D MERARA takes place to remove the insoluble impurities. This produces factory
ES GAR mud and clarified juice. The factory mud is returned to the fields.
The clarified juice, which is about 85% water, goes into a series of three
or four boilers or evaporators where vacuum distillation occurs. These
boilers are under successively lower pressures so that as the juice passes
A Figure 2.5.1 Sugar from one to the next it boils at successively lower temperatures. In this
way the water evaporates and the juice is concentrated but not charred
or caramelised by the boiling process. The juice from the last boiler is a
thick syrup containing about 35% water.

A Figure 2.5.2 Sugar cane in flower A Figure 2.5.3 Andrew's Sugar Factory in Barbados
Mixtures and their separation Extraction of sucrose from sugar cane

The thick syrup moves into the crystalliser where crystallisation takes
place. Here the syrup is evaporated until it is saturated with sugar. As
soon as the saturation point is exceeded, small grains of sugar, called
'seed', are added to serve as nuclei for the formation of sugar crystals. As
the crystals form, the remaining syrup becomes thick and viscous and is
called molasses. The mixture of crystals and molasses forms massecuite.

e The sugar crystals and molasses in the massecuite are then separated by
centrifugation in the centrifuges. Each centrifuge contains a perforated
basket. The massecuite is placed in the basket and this revolves at high
speed. The molasses are forced out through the holes in the basket and
are collected in the outer drum of the centrifuge. The sugar crystals
remain behind in the basket.
The damp, unrefined sugar crystals are collected and dried by being
tumbled through heated air.

sugar cane

(1) shredder

(2) crushers
bagasse —t
(fibre)

O
(3)
clarifier
(4) filter

cane juice

heat

water

molasses seed
crystal thick

syrup

(8)
collectors
(6) (5) boiler
crystalliser

heat
raw sugar
(7) centrifuge

A Figure 2.5.4 Flow diagram of the various stages in the extraction of sucrose

Summary questions
1 Draw a simple flow diagram of the steps which are involved in the
separation of sucrose from sugar cane.

2 Why is it important to use a series of boilers in the extraction of sucrose

from sugar cane?

31
 Extraction of sucrose from sugar cane Mixtures and their separation

Key concepts
Matter can be classified into pure substances and mixtures.
A pure substance is composed of only one type of material. It has a fixed,
constant composition, its properties are fixed and constant and the
component parts cannot be separated by physical means.
Pure substances can be classified into elements and compounds.
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into any
simpler substances by any ordinary chemical or physical means.
A compound is a pure substance that contains two or more different
types of element which are bonded together chemically in fixed
proportions and in such a way that their properties have changed.
A mixture consists of two or more substances combined together in varying
proportions. Fach component retains its own independent properties
and has undergone no chemical reaction with any other substance in the
mixture. The components of mixtures can be separated by physical means.
Mixtures can be classified into homogeneous mixtures and
heterogeneous mixtures.
A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the properties and
composition are uniform throughout the sample and the components
cannot be distinguished from each other.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture consisting of two or more
components, one of which is usually a liquid. The particles in a solution
are extremely small.
A heterogeneous mixture is a non-uniform mixture.
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which minute, but visible,
particles are dispersed in another substance, usually a liquid.
A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which the particles of one
substance are dispersed in another substance, usually a liquid. The
dispersed particles are smaller than those of a suspension, but larger
than those of a solution.
Solubility is a measure of the mass of solute which will saturate a fixed
mass of solvent at a given temperature. The unit of solubility is g per
100 g water.
A saturated solution is a solution that contains as much solute as can be
dissolved at a given temperature, in the presence of undissolved solute.
Temperature also affects solubility. The solubility of most solids in water
increases as temperature increases.
A solubility curve is a graph showing how the solubility of a solute
varies with temperature.
The physical properties of the component parts of a mixture are used to
determine the method by which a mixture can be separated.
Possible separation methods are filtration, evaporation, crystallisation,
simple distillation, fractional distillation, a separating funnel and
chromatography.
The extraction of sucrose from sugar cane involves the following
processes: crushing, precipitation, filtration, vacuum distillation,
crystallisation and centrifugation.

32
Mixtures and their separation Practice exam-style questions

iv) At what temperature are the solubilities of

Practice exam-style questions X and Y the same? (1 mark)
v) What is the solubility of X at 46 oc? (1 mark)
Multiple-choice questions What mass of Y would crystallise out of a saturated
vi)
1 Which of the following is correct? solution containing 100 g of water if this solution
A The components ofa mixture can be separated by is cooled from 62 oc to 24 oc? (3 marks)
physical means. b Figure 2 shows the main steps in the extraction of
B A mixture contains two or more pure substances sucrose from sugar cane.
chemically combined together.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
C A mixture has a fixed melting point.
D The component parts ofa mixture are in a fixed ratio. Cutting and
Precipitation
2 The solubility of a solid in water usually: crushing

A increases as temperature increases

B increases as temperature decreases
C remains constant as temperature increases
D decreases as temperature increases Step 6 step 5 Step 4

3 The following are all colloids except:

Vacuum
A fog Centrifugation distillation
B air
C milk
D mayonnaise
A Figure 2 Flow chart showing the extraction of sucrose
from sugar cane
4 The process of fractional distillation depends on a
difference in the: i) Complete the chart by labelling the boxes in steps
A melting points of the components ofthe mixture 3 and 5. (2 marks)
B densities of the components of the mixture ii) Describe the process taking place in step 2.

C solubilities of the components of the mixture in water (2 marks)

D boiling points of the components of the mixture iii) Why is it necessary to have the boilers under
successively lower pressures in step 4? (1 mark)
5 The best way to separate sodium chloride solution and
sand is by: Total 15 marks
A evaporation
B carefully pouring off the sodium chloride solution Extended response question
C filtering the mixture 7 Chemical substances can combine in various ways to form
D simple distillation
mixtures, the components of which can be separated by
various means.
Structured question
a What do you understand by the term 'mixture'?
6 a Figure 1 shows the solubility curves for two ionic
(2 marks)
solids, X and Y. Use this information to answer the b Solutions, suspensions and colloids are examples of
following questions. mixtures. Explain the differences between these three
mixtures in terms of particle size, sedimentation when
90 left to stand and transmission of light. (6 marks)
80 c You are given a mixture of three solid chlorides:
70 sodium chloride, lead chloride and silver chloride.
8 60 The solubilities of these three chlorides in water are
x given in the table below.
50
e 40 Compound Solubility in cold Solubility in hot

— 30
water water
sodium chloride sduble soluble
20
lead chloride insoluble soluble
10
silver chloride insoluble insoluble
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Temperature (oc)
i) Use the information given in the table to
devise a scheme to separate the mixture into its
A Figure 1 Solubility curves for ionic substances X and Y
component parts. (5 marks)
i) Define the term 'solubility'. (2 marks) ii) Draw a labelled diagram to show one of the
ii) Temperature has the greatest effect on the pieces of apparatus you used in your separation
solubility of which compound? (1 mark) scheme. (2 marks)
iii) Explain how you arrived at your answer to part ii)
Total 15 marks
above. (2 marks)
 Atomic structure

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will consisted of the four basic elements: earth, fire, air and
be able to:
water. Scientists now know that the smallest identifying
give the atomic symbols of the
particle of matter an atom. Atoms are the basic
is
common elements
describe the structure of an building blocks of matter. On a macroscopic scale we
atom classified matter into mixtures and pure substances; we
give the relative charge and
mass of a proton, a neutron are now going to investigate matter on a microscopic
and an electron scale by looking at the structure of the atom.
define the terms atomic
number and mass number
represent atoms by nuclear A3.1 The structure of atoms
notation
interpret nuclear notation Regardless of whether you have one kilogram, one gram or one atom of a
to determine the number of particular element, all these masses will exhibit the same properties. For
subatomic particles in an atom. example, if one gram of gold
broken into smaller parts, it will still be gold.
is

The smallest identifying particle of an element is an atom.

Elements can be classified into metals and non-metals. The properties of
metals and non-metals are given in Units 4.4, 17.1 and 20.1. Each element
Key fact can be represented by an atomic symbol, which represents one atom of the
element. The atomic symbols of some of the commonest elements are given
An atom is the smallest component
in Tables 3.1.1 and 3.1.2.
of an element that can exist and still

have the same chemical properties V Table 3.1.1 The atomic symbols of the common metals
the element.
Metals
Element Atomic symbol Element Atomic symbol
Aluminium Lithium Li

Barium Magnesium Mg
Beryllium Be Mangarese Mn
Calcium Mercury
Chromium Cr Nickel

Cobalt Co Potassium

Copper cu Silver Ag
Gold Sodium Na
Iron Tin Sn
Lead Zinc Zn

V Table 3.1.2 The atomic symbols of the common non-metals

Non-metals
Element Atomic symbol Element Atomic symbol
Argon Neon
Boron Nitrogen
Exam tip Bromine Oxygen
Carbon c Phosphorus
It is essential that you know the Chlorine a Silicon Si
atomic symbols of all the common Fluorine Sulfur s
elements and that you write them
Helium
with care, making sure that you
Hydrogen
form your capital and common
lodire
letters correctly.
Krypton Kr
Atomic structure The structure of atoms

We cannot see atoms because they are incredibly small. Compared to the
thickness of a human hair, an atom is more than a million times smaller. Did you know?
The average diameter of an atom is about 2.5 x 10-7 mm, which means
that, on average, an atom is 25 million times smaller than a millimetre. The atomic symbols of some of

However, there are particles that are even smaller than an atom. These the elements are derived from the
Latin name of the element. For
fundamental particles are called subatomic particles and atoms are made
example, the Latin name for iron is
up of these particles.
ferrum and the symbol for iron is Fe,
copper is cuprum and its symbol is
Subatomic particles Cu, lead is plumbum and its symbol
is Pb, and silver is argentum,
Atoms are made up of three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and symbol Ag.
electrons.
Protons and neutrons are found in the centre of an atom in an area
electrons orbit
known as the nucleus. Protons and neutrons are collectively known as the nucleus
nucleons. Nearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus. o
Electrons are found at quite a distance from the nucleus, spinning
around the nucleus in a series of levels known as energy shells O
(sometimes just called shells). Most of the atom is in fact empty space,
but the movement of the electrons around the nucleus constitutes the o
volume of an atom. When chemical reactions occur, it is the electrons
that are involved in the reaction.
o
o
Mass and charge of subatomic particles
the nucleus
o
Protons are positively charged particles and electrons are negatively charged. contains protons
The size of the charge on a proton is equal to the size of the charge on an and neutrons
electron. Neutrons are electrically neutral so have no charge. In an atom, the A figure 3.1.1 The structure of an atom
number of protons is always the same as the number of electrons. Therefore,
an atom is electrically neutral and has no charge.
The mass of a proton is equal to the mass of a neutron. The mass of a proton is
extremely small, only 1.67 x 10 24 g. The mass of an electron is even smaller.
Comparing the mass of a proton to that of an electron, a proton is about
1836 times heavier than an electron.

The properties of a proton, neutron and electron are summarised in

Table 3.1.3.

V Table 3.1.3 The properties of a proton, a neutron and an electron

Subatomic particle Relative charge Relative mass

Proton

Neutron

1
Electron
1836

Atomic number
Key fact
The number of protons in an atom is atomic number and
known as the
is unique to a particular element, i.e. there are no two elements in the Atomic number is the number of
world that have the same atomic number. For example, the atomic number protons in the nucleus of one atom

of hydrogen is 1, which means that every hydrogen atom has 1 proton. of an element.
The atomic number of calcium is 20, therefore, every calcium atom has
20 protons.
 The structure of atoms Atomic structure

In an atom, since the number of electrons is always equal to the number of

protons, the number of electrons is equal to the atomic number.

Mass number
Key fact The number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as the mass
Mass number is the total number number. The mass number is not unique to a particular element, for example
of protons and neutrons in the polonium and astatine both have a mass number of 210.
nucleus of one atom of an element.
The number of neutrons can be calculated by subtracting the atomic number
from the mass number, i.e.

number of neutrons = mass number — atomic number

Nuclear notation
We can represent an atom (or ion) of an element using the nuclear notation:

where X = atomic symbol, A = mass number and Z = atomic number.

This notation is very useful because it allows us to calculate the number of

protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom.

The number of protons is equal to Z.

o The number of neutrons is equal to A — Z.
The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons, which is
equal to Z.

Examples are given in Table 3.1.4.

V Table 3.1.4 The number of subatomic particles in the atoms of three elements

Number of
Element Nuclear notation
Protons Neutrons (A-Z) Electrons

Nitrogen 14N 7 7 7

Aluminium 27 A1 13 14 13
13

Chlorine 17 20 17

The nuclear notations for all elements can be found in the periodic table of
elements on page 360.

Summary questions
Which particle(s) in the atom is/are responsible for the:
a mass of the atom b volume of the atom?
2 Define the following terms:
atomic number, mass number.
3 For each of the following nuclear notations, give the number of protons,
electrons and neutrons.
40
a 151B

36
Atomic structure The electronic configuration of an atom

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
Electrons spin around the nucleus of an atom in a series of levels known as be able to:
energy shells. Each energy shell is a fixed distance from the nucleus of the
atom and the electrons in the same shell have the same amount of energy. give the maximum number of
electrons allowed in the first
The electrons are arranged in the energy shells in a specific way. We can
represent the arrangement of electrons in an atom, known as the electronic
three energy shells of an atom
work out the electronic
configuration (or structure), using another scientific model.
configuration of the first 20
electron elements
proton represent the electronic
configuration of an atom in

writing
represent the electronic
energy configuration of an atom by a
shells
shelldiagram
explain the term valence
electron.
neutron

nucleus

A Figure 3.2.1 Model of the arrangement of electrons in an atom

In this scientific model, the energy shells are drawn as concentric circles
around the nucleus, but as this is only a model, this is not how they actually Did you know?
look. The shells are numbered according to their distance from the nucleus.
The shell closest to the nucleus is assigned number 1, the next furthest away The maximum number of electrons
is number 2, and so on. that an energy shell can hold is
given by the formula 2n2, where n
Each shell can hold up to a certain maximum number of electrons: is the shell number. Shell number

shell number 1 can hold a maximum of 2 electrons 3 can, therefore, actually hold a
maximum of 18 electrons and shell
shell number 2 can hold a maximum of 8 electrons number 4 can hold a maximum
shell number 3 maybe considered to hold a maximum of of 32 electrons. However, when
8 electrons. filling up shell number 3, something

unusual happens. When 8 electrons

Further shells hold more electrons, but it is not necessary to know their have been placed in shell number
maximum numbers you will not have to work out the electron
since 3, the next 2 electrons are placed

configuration of an atom with more than 20 electrons. in shell number 4. Only after these

2 electrons have been placed in

The negative electrons are constantly being attracted to the positive nucleus shell number 4 are any remaining
by an electrostatic force of attraction. The electrons maintain their spin electrons (up to 10) placed in shell
around the nucleus and from the nucleus because of the
their distance number 3.

energy they possess. Electrons in the shells closest to the nucleus have less
energy than those in the shells further from the nucleus. In fact, electrons
can only occupy a specific shell if they have the required energy.
Key fact
The chemical properties of an element depend on the arrangement of
electrons in an atom of that element, in particular, the number of electrons An electrostatic force of
attraction is the force that exists
in the outermost energy shell.
between two oppositely charged
particles.

37
The electronic configuration of an atom Atomic structure

Shell diagrams
Key fact The electronic configuration of an atom of an element can be represented
The electronic configuration of by drawing a shell diagram or in writing using numbers. In order to draw a
an atom is the arrangement of shell diagram of an atom, the following steps must be followed.
electrons in the energy shells of the
1) Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom
atom.
using the atomic number and mass number (Unit 3.1).
2) Draw a small circle for the nucleus and write the number of protons and
neutrons inside this circle.

3) Work out the electronic configuration by filling up the shells with

electrons, in order, i.e. fill up shell 1 first and, when that is full, start to fill
up shell 2, and so on.
4) Represent the electronic configuration by drawing concentric circles
around the nucleus. The number of circles you should draw is determined
by the number of shells that you are going to fill or partially fill. Use crosses
or dots to represent the electrons. Draw the 2 electrons in shell number 1
as a pair. Draw the electrons in the other shells as pairs when the shell
contains 5 or more electrons.

Examples
1 The structure of a carbon atom, I{C.

A carbon atom has:

6 protons
6 neutrons (12 — 6)
6 electrons.

carbon,
12
6C
V Table 3.2.1 Determining the electronic configuration of a carbon atom

Shell number Maximum number of electrons Number of electrons in carbon

A Figure 3.2.2 Electronic configuration
of a carbon atom 2 2

2 8 4

The electronic configuration of a carbon atom can be written by writing

the symbol of the element followed by the number of electrons in each
shell separated by commas, i.e. C (2,4).

2 The structure of a potassium atom, 313K.

A potassium atom has:

19 protons
20 neutrons (39 - 19)
19p 19 electrons.
20n

V Table 3.2.2 Determining the electronic configuration of a potassium atom

Shell number Maximum number of electrons Number of electrons in potassium

2 2
39
potassium,
19
K 2 8 8

A Figure 3.2.3 Electronic configuration 3 8 8

of a potassium atom
4 not necessary

The electronic configuration of a potassium atom is K (2,8,8, 1).

Atomic structure The electronic configuration of an atom

3 The structure of other atoms. Element Electronic configuration

Examples of the electronic configurations of atoms of other elements are hydrogen

given in the shell diagrams in Figure 3.2.4 and are written in Table 3.2.3. boron B (2,3)

oxygen o (2,6)
sodium

argon
Ip 5p calcium ca
On
A Table 3.2.3 Written electronic
configurations of the atoms shown in

11 16 Figure 3.2.4
hydrogen, boron, 5B oxygen, 80

llp 18p 20p

12n 22n 20n

Exam tip

It is important that you can draw

23
sodium,
11
Na argon,
18
Ar calcium,
20
Ca diagrams of atoms of atomic
shell
numbers 1 to 20, i.e. hydrogen to
A Figure 3.2.4 Shell diagrams showing the electronic configurations of atoms of calcium in the periodic table.
different elements

Valence electrons
The electrons in the outermost energy shell are known as valence electrons.
For example, potassium (2,8,8,1) has one valence electron.

The outermost electrons are the ones that are involved in chemical
reactions, i.e. the valence electrons. A diagram of an atom can be drawn that
shows only the valence electrons. Examples are given in Figure 3.2.5.

boron, B oxygen, O sodium, Na argon, Ar

A figure 3.2.5 Diagrams of boron, oxygen, sodium and argon atoms showing the
valence electrons only

Summary questions
1 What is the maximum number of electrons allowed in shell number 2?
2 Represent the electronic configuration of each of the following atoms
using both a shell diagram and writing:
a magnesium, 2f92Mg b chlorine, c neon, #8Ne.
3 For each of the elements in question 2, give the number of valence
electrons.

39
Isotopes and radioactivity Atomic structure

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Isotopy
The atomic number is unique to a particular element. For example, all atoms
define the terms isotope and
of magnesium have an atomic number of 12, i.e. they all have 12 protons and,
isotopy
therefore, 12 electrons. The number of neutrons in atoms of the same element
define relative atomic mass
is not unique. For example, most magnesium atoms have 12 neutrons, however,
explain what is meant by a
some have 13 neutrons and others have 14 neutrons. Atoms with the same
radioactive isotope
number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons are called
describe the uses of
isotopes. The occurence of these different isotopes is known as isotopy.
radioactive isotopes.
In other words, isotopes have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers. Isotopes have:
Key fact the samechemical properties and electrical properties because they have
the same number and arrangement of electrons, e.g. if the different isotopes
Isotopes are different atoms of the
of magnesium react with oxygen, the chemical reaction would be the same
same element that have the same
number of protons and electrons o slightly different physical properties because of the different numbers
but different numbers of neutrons. of neutrons, e.g. the different isotopes of magnesium have slightly
different masses.

Most elements have more than one isotope, but not all of these isotopes
Key fact are stable. The unstable ones decay into other isotopes. The percentage of
each isotope of an element in a sample of the element is referred to as the
Isotopy is the occurrence of atoms abundance of the isotope.
of the same element that have
the same number of protons and Examples
electrons but different numbers of
1 Carbon
neutrons.
Carbon, atomic number 6, has three naturally occurring isotopes, one with
a mass number of 12, one with a mass number of 13 and one with a mass
number of 14. There are two main methods of representing these isotopes:
Using nuclear notation:
12C 13
6
C 14C

By name:
carbon-12 or C-12
carbon-13 or C-13
carbon-14 or C-14.
Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, carbon-13 has 7 neutrons and carbon-14, which
is unstable, has 8 neutrons. Carbon- 12 is the most abundant carbon isotope.

In fact 98.89% of all naturally occurring carbon is the carbon-12 isotope.

Did you know? 2 Hydrogen

Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes.
The deuterium isotope of hydrogen
is heavier than normal hydrogen
since it has an extra neutron. Water
made from deuterium in place o
of normal hydrogen is known as
heavy water. This heavy water is
used in nuclear reactors to slow
or protium or deuterium IH or tritium
down the fast-moving neutrons, IIH

thus enabling a sustained chain A Figure 3.3.1 The three isotopes of hydrogen
reaction.
Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes.
These are given in Figure 3.3.1. Protium, or normal hydrogen as it is usually
Atomic structure Isotopes and radioactivity

called, It is the most abundant hydrogen

has a single proton in its nucleus.
isotope, making up 99.985% of all naturally occurring hydrogen.
3 Chlorine
Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes, #CI, or chlorine-35, and
f?/Cl, or chlorine-37. Approximately 75% of naturally occurring chlorine

is the chlorine-35 isotope and 25% is the chlorine-37 isotope.

Relative atomic mass

Chemists could use grams to measure the mass of atoms, but because the
mass of an atom is so small, it becomes very clumsy. They needed a much
smaller unit than a gram to measure the mass of atoms. They designed a
system that gives us numbers that are easier to work with, but they had to
ensure that these numbers are representative of the mass of each atom and
in the same ratio as the actual masses of atoms.

To design this system the carbon-12 isotope was chosen as a basis to work
from because of its great stability and abundance in nature.
To make the numbers representative of the mass, they chose the number for
carbon-12 to be 12, because carbon-12 has a mass number of 12, i.e. it has 6
protons and 6 neutrons. They defined this new unit as one-twelfth the mass
of a carbon-12 atom. A carbon-12 atom was assigned a mass of 12.00 atomic
mass units or amu. Therefore, one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom has Key fact
a mass of 1.00 amu.
Relative atomic mass, Ar, is the
The mass an atom of an element compared to one-twelfth the mass of a
of average mass of one atom of an
carbon-12 atom was then assigned a value known as relative atomic mass. element compared to one-twelfth
Relative atomic mass is given the symbol Ar the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

Relative atomic mass, therefore, compares the mass of an atom of an element

to one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Because it is a comparative
value, relative atomic mass has no units. Key fact
When calculating the relative atomic mass of an element, the relative
A radioactive isotope has an
abundance of each isotope is taken into account. For example, the relative unstable nucleus which decays
atomic mass of chlorine, which is 35.5, is the average mass of the two isotopes spontaneously to a more stable
of chlorine according to their relative abundance. In a sample of chlorine form by emitting particles and
gas, approximately 75% of the sample consists of the chlorine-35 isotope radiation.
and 25% consists of the chlorine-37 isotope.
Relative atomic mass of chlorine = —x
(17050
35 + —x
(12050
37 = 35.5

Relative atomicmass gives a rough idea of the number of nucleons (protons

Did you know?
and neutrons) an atom has. However, because we are looking at a mixture of The three main types of particles
isotopes when calculating relative atomic mass, the relative atomic mass is and radiation emitted by radioactive
not a whole number, e.g. the relative atomic mass of carbon is 12.011, but no isotopes are:
real atom of carbon has 12.011 nucleons. alpha which
(a) particles,
consist of2 protons and 2
Radioactivity neutrons and have a charge of

Some isotopes have unstable nuclei. These are known as ra dioa ctive isotopes. beta (13) particles, which
These isotopes undergo radioactive decay by spontaneously ejecting particles consist of an electron and have
and radiation from their nuclei. Radioactive isotopes eject these particles a charge of —1
to become more stable and in the process they may produce an atom of a gamma (y) radiation, which
different element. is a form of high energy
electromagnetic radiation and
The time taken for half of the nuclei in a sample of a radioactive isotope to
has neither mass nor a charge.
undergo radioactive decay is known as the half-life of the isotope.
41
 Isotopes and radioactivity Atomic structure

Uses of radioactive isotopes

Carbon-14 dating
Carbon-14 dating is used to determine the age of plant and animal remains,
up to about 60000 years old, which have been discovered in places such as
archeological sites. It makes use of the fact that the half-life of radioactive
carbon-14 is 5700 years.
All living organisms contain carbon-14 and carbon-12 in a specific ratio by
mass. This is the same ratio as in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. As the

carbon-14 present in a living organism's body decays, it is replaced because

the organism constantly takes in molecules containing carbon in the form
of food (animals) or carbon dioxide (plants).

When a living organism dies, it stops taking in these carbon containing

molecules and the carbon- 14 is not replaced as it decays. The ratio of carbon-14
to carbon-12, therefore, decreases. The age of a specimen can be determined
by comparing the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in the specimen with the
expected ratio for that organism if it was alive. For example, if the amount
A Figure 3.3.2 Carbon-14 dating is used of carbon-14 was half of the expected amount, then the specimen would be
to determine the age of some fossils 5700 years old, if it was a quarter of the expected amount, then the specimen
would be 11 400 years old.

Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy uses radiation to cure or control cancer. Cancerous growths or
tumours are composed of rapidly dividing cells and these cells are particularly
sensitive to damage by radiation. They can be controlled or eliminated by
irradiating the area containing the growth with external or internal radiation.

External irradiation can be carried out by directing a beam of gamma

radiation from a radioactive cobalt-60 source at the cancerous growth.
Internal irradiation involves either injecting a radioactive isotope, usually a
gamma or beta emitter, into the target area, or placing a radiation source in
a tiny protective capsule or wire (a radioactive seed) directly at the site of the
A Figure 3.3.3 Radiotherapy is used to cancerous tumour. For example, iodine-131 is used to treat thyroid cancer
treat cancerous growths and radioactive seeds containing iridium- 192, palladium-103 and iodine- 125
are used to treat breast and prostate cancer and brain tumours.

Tracers

Radioactive isotopes are used as tracers in the medical field as a diagnostic

tool.These tracers generally have a short half-life so they do not remain in the
body for very long. A small amount of the tracer is usually injected into the
bloodstream and as it moves around the body it emits gamma rays which can
be observed using special equipment. This allows the physician to observe the
functioning of specific organs. Examples of medical tracers are:
Technetium-99 is used to produce images and carry out functional
studies of most organs in the body, especially the brain, heart muscle,
skeleton, lungs, liver, gall bladder and kidneys.
Iodine-131 is used to image and carry out functional studies of the
thyroid gland.
Another example of the use ofradioactive tracers is in determining the uptake of
atmospheric carbon dioxide by plants. Plants can be grown in an environment
containing radioactive carbon dioxide, i.e. carbon dioxide that has been made
by replacing the carbon-12 atoms in the molecules with carbon-14 atoms.
42
Atomic structure Isotopes and radioactivity

Using a Geiger counter (a machine that detects radiation) the parts ofthe plant
that absorb the radioactive carbon dioxide can be identified.

Energy generation
Radioactive isotopes are used to generate electricity in nuclear power stations.
The isotopes used are ones that release very large amounts of energy when
they undergo nuclear fission, i.e. when the nucleus splits, usually into two
smaller nuclei. Nuclear power stations use uranium-235 or plutonium-239. If
an atom of either uranium-235 or plutonium-239 is struck by a free neutron,
it splits into two smaller atoms and releases two or three neutrons and a large

amount of energy. The released neutrons can then strike other atoms, which
also split releasing more neutrons and energy. This sets up a chain reaction
which releases enormous amounts of energy.
Did you know?
(0
3 One type of atom bomb derives
neutrons
1
(0 its destructive force from nuclear
fission. Only two atom bombs have
neutron (0
energy ((0 -.............+ 235U energy (0 9 neutrons been used during warfare, both by
Kr (0 the USA towards the end of World
War II. The first, a uranium fission
(0
bomb, code named 'Little Boy' ,

(0 was exploded over the Japanese

city of Hiroshima on 6 August,
A Figure 3.3.4 The chain reaction in splitting a uranium atom
1945. The second, a plutonium
fission bomb, code named
Ifthe chain reaction is controlled, the energy produced can be used to
generate electricity. If the chain reaction is not controlled, it results in a 'Fat Man', was detonated over

nuclear explosion such as occurs in an atom bomb. Nagasaki in Japan three days laten

Heart pacemakers

pacemaker is a medical device that is used to regulate the beating of

the heart. It is implanted under the skin just below the collar bone and is Did you know?
connected to the heart muscle by electrodes.
It is thought that only about 50
In the early 1970s, some pacemakers were developed that were powered by to 100 people living today have
batteriescontainingplutonium-238.Astheplutonium-238undergoesnatural pacemakers that are powered
radioactive decay, it emits energy. In the pacemaker battery, this energy is used by plutonium-238 batteries. Their

to generate an electric current which delivers about 0.2 milliwatt of power. never really developed
Pacemakers powered by chemical batteries have a lifespan of about 10 years. for several reasons, one of the
To replace the batteries, the pacemaker has to be surgically removed and then main ones being the reluctance of
people to have a device containing
replaced. Since the half-life of plutonium-238 is about 87 years, pacemakers
radioactive plutonium in their body
powered by plutonium-238 batteries should be able to deliver current for a
for life.
patient's lifetime without having to be replaced.

Summary questions
1 Define the following terms:
a isotope b relative atomic mass.
2 Give the similarities and differences between the two isotopes of
sodium, Na-23 and Na-22.
3 Explain why relative atomic mass has no units.

4 Explain what a radioactive isotope is.

5 How is carbon-14 used in the dating of fossil samples?

Isotopes and radioactivity Atomic structure

Key concepts
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. An atom is the smallest
identifying particle of an element that has the properties of the element.
Atoms consist of three fundamental particles, known as subatomic
particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.

Protons and neutrons are found in the centre of the atom in an area
known as the nucleus Protons and neutrons are collectively known as
.

nucleons.
Electrons are found at quite a distance from the nucleus in a series of
levels known as energy shells. Electrons in the same shell have the same
amount of energy.
Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and
neutrons have no charge.
The size of the charge on a proton is equal to the size of the charge on
an electron. In an atom, the number of protons equals the number of
electrons.

The mass of a proton is equal to the mass of a neutron. An electron has a

mass of the mass of a proton or a neutron.
Protons and neutrons are responsible for the mass of an atom. Electrons
are responsible for the volume of an atom.

The number of protons in an atom is known as the atomic number.

The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as the
mass number.
The electrons are arranged in the energy shells in a specific way known
as the electronic configuration.
Each electron shell can hold up to a certain maximum number of
electrons.

Shells closest to the nucleus fill up first.

The electronic configuration of an atom can be represented in writing
using numbers or by a shell diagram.
Electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence electrons.
The chemical properties of an element depend on the arrangement of
electrons in the atoms of the element.

Isotopes are different atoms of the same element that have the same
number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons.
They have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Isotopy is the occurrence of atoms of the same element that have
the same number of protons and electrons but different numbers of
neutrons.
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties but different
physical properties.
The relative atomic mass, Ar, is a number that compares the average
mass of an atom with one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Some isotopes have unstable nuclei. These are known as radioactive
isotopes.
Radioactive isotopes have many uses. Some of these are carbon-14
dating, radiotherapy, tracers, energy generation and pacemakers.
Atomic structure Practice exam-style questions

Structured question
Practice exam-style questions
i) Complete the following table by filling in the
Multiple-choice questions gaps.

1 Ifthe mass number of an atom is 59 and the number Particle Mass Atomic Number Number
of neutrons in the nucleus of the atom is 32, then the number number of of
neutrons electrons
atomic number is:
A 27 56Fe 26
B 32 58Fe
c 59
(7 marks)
D 91
ii) A sample of iron was found to contain a mixture
2 A potassium atom is written as 313K. Which of the of S6Fe and S8Fe in a ratio of 7 to 3. Calculate the
following statements about a potassium atom are true? relative atomic mass of the sample of iron.
I It has an atomic number of 19. (2 marks)
II It has 20 neutrons. b Students were asked questions based on the
Ill It has 19 electrons. information given in the table below.
IV The total number of protons and electrons is 39.
Element Mass Atomic Electron
A and IV only
I number number configuration
B II and Ill only 25
C I, II and Ill only 17 8
D I, Ill and IV only
The following statements were taken from one
3 Which of the following is the electronic configuration of of the student's exercise books. These statements
fluorine, IT? areINCORRECT. In each case, explain why the
A 2,8,8,1
statement is incorrect and then give the correct
statement.
c 2,8
i) INCORRECT STATEMENT:
D 2,7
'The atomic number of element A is 2 because it

4 Isotopes of an element have: has 2 valence electrons.'

I the same atomic number but different mass numbers - Explain why the statement is incorrect.
II the same number of electrons but different numbers - Give the correct statement. (3 marks)
of neutrons ii) INCORRECT STATEMENT:
Ill the same physical properties but different chemical 'The electron configuration of element B is 2,8,7

properties
because it has a mass number of 17.'
- Explain why the statement incorrect.
A I only
is

- Give the correct statement (3 marks)

B land II only
.

Total 15 marks
C II and Ill only
D 1,11and111
Extended response question
5 Which ofthe following is not a use of radioactive
The following nuclear notations refer to atoms of
isotopes?
aluminium and fluorine:
A energy generation
B carbon dating 13 and
C chemotherapy Draw shell diagrams to show the structure of an
D radiotherapy aluminium atom and a fluorine atom. (4 marks)
b A naturally occurring element X consists of 85%
{lox and 150/0 fix.

i) What can you deduce about naturally occurring

element X? (2 marks)
ii) Determine the relative atomic mass of naturally
occurring element X. (2 marks)
c i) What is a radioactive isotope? (2 marks)
ii) Explain how:
- uranium-235 is used to generate electricity
- carbon- 14 is used to determine the age of plant
and animal remains. (5 marks)
Total 15 marks
 The periodic table and
periodicity

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will order of atomic number. The arrangement of the
be able to:
elements in specific rows and columns provides a
describe the historical wealth of information about the properties of elements
development of the periodic
table in the same group and in the same period of the
explain how elements are periodic table. One of the main values of the periodic
arranged in the modern
table is the ability to predict the chemical properties of
periodic table
identify metals, non-metals and an element based on its location in the table.
metalloids in the periodic table
explain the difference between
groups and periods A4.1 Arrangement of elements in the
give the similarities in the
periodic table
electronic configuration of
elements in the same group Everyone is familiar with the periodic table of elements as most chemistry
give the similarities in the labs have one on the wall. The periodic table is a classification of all the
electronic configuration of elements and it is incredibly important to chemists. It shows the symbol, full
elements in the same period name, mass number and atomic number of each element and it organises
explain how the properties of the elements into columns and rows based on the structure of their atoms
elements change down a group and their properties.
and along a period.
Elements in the periodic table show periodicity. When all the elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number, elements that are physically
and chemically similar to each other occur at regular intervals, i.e. those
with similar properties recur periodically throughout the series.
Key fact
Periodicity is the recurrence of Historical development of the periodic table
elements with similar physical and Early in the 19th century, scientists started to try to classify elements based on
chemical properties at regular
the similarities between them. Four scientists made important contributions
intervals in the periodic table.
to the development of the modern periodic table: Johann Döbereiner, John
Newlands, Dmitri Mendeleev and Henry Moseley.

Johann Döbereiner
In 1829, Johann Döbereiner noted that certain groups of three elements
possessed similar chemical and physical properties, e.g. he found that lithium,
sodium and potassium were all soft, reactive metals. He also observed that if
the three elements in a group were arranged in order of increasing relative
atomic mass, then the relative atomic mass of the middle element was close to
the average of the other two elements. He called these groups triads.
V Table 4.1.1 Döbereiner's triads of elements

Elements and their relative atomic masses Average relative atomic mass

lithium sodium potassium

23.0
7.0 23.0 39.0

calcium strontium barium

88.5
40.0 88.0 137.0

chlorine bromine iodine

81.25
35.5 80.0 127.0
The periodic table and periodicity Arrangement of elements in the periodic table

John Newlands
In 1865, John Newlands put forward his Law of Octaves. He arranged the 56
elements that had been discovered at the time in increasing order of relative
atomic mass and discovered that similar chemical and physical properties
recurred every eighth element. For example, starting with lithium and
arranging the elements in increasing order of relative atomic mass, he found
that sodium was the eighth element and both lithium and sodium showed
similar properties.

Li Be B C N O F Na Mg A1 Si P S Cl

A Figure 4.1.1 Newlands' octaves of elements

Dmitri Mendeleev
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleevpublished his 'Periodic Classification of Elements'
inwhich he arranged elements in increasing relative atomic mass and placed
elements with similar chemical and physical properties together in vertical
columns. His table was widely accepted at the time for two reasons:
he left gaps when it seemed that the corresponding elements had not yet
been discovered
he occasionally ignored the order suggested by relative atomic mass
and switched adjacent elements to better classify them into chemical
families. For example, he placed tellurium, relative atomic mass 128,
before iodine, relative atomic mass 127, so that iodine fell in the same
group as fluorine, chlorine and bromine, all of which showed similar
chemical properties.

Using his table, Mendeleev was able to predict the properties of the missing
elements, e.g. he predicted the properties of gallium, which was not
discovered until 1875. Mendeleev is credited with being the creator of the
first version of the periodic table.

Henry Moseley
In 1914,Henry Moseley rearranged the elements in the table based on their
atomic numbers instead of their relative atomic masses. In this new order,
elements with similar chemical properties all fell in the same groups.

The modern periodic table

The modern periodic table consists of 103 elements arranged in order of
increasing atomic number. A copy of the periodic table can be found on
page 360.
Elements in the modern periodic table can be divided into metals and
non-metals. The properties of metals and non-metals are given in
Unit 4.4. Looking at the periodic table in Figure 4.1.2, the solid line which
runs from above aluminium (A1) stepping down to astatine (At) divides
the metals and the non-metals. All the elements to the left of the line,
excluding hydrogen (H), are metals and the elements to the right of the
Arrangement of elements in the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity

line, including hydrogen, are non-metals. Some of the elements which

border the line are known as metalloids. The properties of metalloids are
intermediate between those of metals and non-metals. The metalloids
include boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony
(Sb), tellurium (Te) and polonium (Po).

metals non-metals

1
IV VI VII

2 Be B c N o

transition metals Si p s Ar

4 Cr Mn Fe co cu Zn Ga Se

Ta W Re os Ir po

metals Elements on or near this line are non-metals

metalloids; they have some
metallic characteristics and some
non-metallic characteristics.

A figure 4.1.2 Metals and non-metals in the periodic table

The periodic tabledivided into vertical columns called groups and

is

Did you know? horizontal rows called periods.

The periodic table found in Groups

most textbooks consists of 103
Groups are vertical columns of elements. There are 18 groups in the periodic
elements. To date, however,
118 elements have actually table. Eight of these are numbered using Roman numerals from I to VII,
been discovered or synthesised. with the last group being Group 0. Elements in the same group show similar
Elements up to and including properties and, because of this, some groups have been assigned special
californium, atomic number 98, names:
exist naturally, the rest have been Group I- alkali metals
synthesised in laboratories or
nuclear accelerators. In some
Group II alkaline earth metals

cases only very few atoms of the Group VII j- halogens

element have been synthesised. Group 0- noble gases.
Between Groups II and Ill there are ten groups of elements called the
transition elements or transition metals.

Periods

Did you know? Periods are horizontal rows of elements numbered using Arabic numerals from
1 toMoving along a period, the properties of the elements gradually change
7.
Naming newly discovered or from metals on the left-hand side to non-metals on the right-hand side.
synthesised elements is controlled
by the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry Electronic configuration and the periodic table
(IUPAC). Many are named after
Looking at the electronic configuration of the elements in the periodic table,
famous scientists or places,
immediately we can see similarities between elements in the same group and
e.g. einsteinium and californium.
between elements in the same period.
The periodic table and periodicity Arrangement of elements in the periodic table

Figure 4.1.3 summarises the electronic configuration of the first 20 elements

in the periodic table.

Groups Figure 4.1.3 The electronic

configuration of the first 20 elements
VI VII
in the periodic table
He
1
(2)

Li Be c o
2
(2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6) (2,7) (2,8)

Na Mg Si p s a
3
(2,8,4)

Ca
4

Groups
The similarities in the electronic configuration of elements in the same
group are as follows:
all elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in
their outermost electron shell, i.e. they have the same number of valence

electrons, for example, beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg) and calcium

(Ca) are all same group and they all have two valence electrons
in the
the number of valence electrons is the same as the group number, for
example, sulfur (S) has six valence electrons and is in Group VI
e allelements in Group 0 have a full outermost electron shell, for example,
helium (He) has two electrons in shell number 1 which is the maximum
number of electrons this shell can hold, neon (Ne) has eight electrons in
shell number 2, once again the maximum this shell can hold.

Moving down any group, each element has one more electron shell than
the element directly above it. For example, lithium (Li) has two shells and
sodium (Na) has three shells.

Periods

The similarities in the electronic configuration of elements in the same

period are as follows:
all elements in the same period have their valence electrons in the
same electron shell, for example, sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg) and
aluminium (A1) are all in the same period and they all have their valence
electrons in shell number 3
the number of occupied electron shells, i.e. the number of shells that

contain electrons, is the same as the period number, for example,

calcium (Ca) has four shells that contain electrons and it is in Period 4.

Moving along any period, each element has one more valence electron
than the element directly before it. For example, silicon (Si) has four valence
electrons and phosphorus (P) has five valence electrons.

Determining the electronic configuration of atoms

The electronic configuration of an atom can be determined from the group
number and the period number, remembering that:
the number of valence electrons is the same as the group number
the number of occupied electron shells is the same as the period number.
49
Arrangement of elements in the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity

For example, if you know that phosphorus is in Group V and Period 3 of the
Exam tip periodic table, you can determine that a phosphorus atom has five valence
electrons and three occupied electron shells. Therefore, the electronic
Correctly representing the structure of a phosphorus atom is (2,8,5).
electronic configuration of atoms
of elements extremely important.
is
Alternatively, thegroup number and period number of an element can be
It is used to determine the determined if its electronic configuration is known. For example, if you
reactivity of an atom and the type know that the electronic configuration of a calcium atom is (2,8,8,2), you
of bonding an atom will be involved can determine that calcium is in Group II and Period 4 of the periodic table.
in when it forms a compound.
General trends in the periodic table
In Unit 3.2 you learnt that the chemical properties of an element depend
on the arrangement of electrons in the atoms of the element, in particular,
the number of valence electrons they have. The elements in the periodic
table are arranged in such a way that there are trends in the physical and
chemical properties of the elements in a particular group or in a particular
period. These trends are directly related to electronic configurations of
elements in the same group and elements in the same period. These trends
can be summarised as follows.
Moving down a group, the metallic nature of the elements increases.
8 non-metallic nature increases e e Moving down a group, the non-metallic nature of the elements decreases.
Moving along a period, the metallic nature of the elements decreases.
Moving along a period, the non-metallic nature of the elements
.2 increases.

These trends are shown in Figure 4.1.4.

metallic nature increases It isimportant to note that elements in Group 0 are chemically unreactive.
Their atoms all have full outer electron shells and, because of this, they have
Francium (Fr) is the most a stable electronic configuration. Atoms of all other elements do not have full
reactive metal
outer electron shells and are, therefore, unstable. In order to become stable,
Fluorine (F) is the most they need to attain the electronic configuration of a noble gas, i.e. a full outer
reactive non-metal electron shell. They can do this by losing or gaining valence electrons.
A Figure 4.1.4 Trends in the periodic
table
The willingness of an atom of an element to lose or gain valence electrons is

a strong indication of its metallic or non-metallic nature. Metals tend to lose

valence electrons and non-metals tend to gain electrons into their valence
shell when they react.
When atoms lose or gain valence electrons they form positively or negatively
Key fact known as ions. They are said to have ionised. The ease with
charged particles
An ion an electrically charged
is
which atoms lose or gain valence electrons, known as ease of ionisation,
particle formed when an atom loses determines how reactive they are.
or gains electrons.
In general:
The ease with which metal atoms lose electrons increases going down a
group and going from right to left along a period. The reactivity of metals,
therefore, increases going down a group and going from right to left
along a period.
The ease with which non-metal atoms gain electrons increases going up
a group and going from left to right along a period. The reactivity of non-
metals, therefore, increases going up a group and going from left to right
along a period.
You will be studying the reasons for this in more detail in the next three
units.
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Group II of the periodic table

Summary questions
1 Name three scientists who made important contributions to the
development of the periodic table.

2 What is the name given to the following elements in the periodic table?
Group II b Group VII c Group 0
3 For elements in Group II of the periodic table, give the similarities and
differences in their electronic configuration.

4 For elements in Period 3 of the periodic table, give the similarities and
differences in their electronic configuration.

Give the electronic arrangement of an atom of potassium, given that

it is in Group and Period
I 4.
b Give the group number and period number of sulfur, given that its

electronic configuration is S (2,8,6).

6 How does the metallic nature of elements change when moving down a
group and along a period?

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
Group II of the periodic table is composed of the following elements: be able to:
beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium. These
give the general properties of
elements are all metals which display very similar properties. They are
chemically very reactive and are collectively known as alkaline earth Group II elements
give the chemical properties of
metals. Because they are so reactive, they are never found naturally in their
free state but are always found in nature combined with other elements in
Group elements
II

compounds. The elements Group II are listed in Figure 4.2.1, together

in
compare the reactivity of Group
II elements with oxygen, water
with their symbols, atomic numbers and electron arrangements.
and dilute hydrochloric acid

beryllium predict the properties of

4Be unknown elements in Group II

(2,2) based on group trends

explain why elements in
magnesium
Group show similar chemical
II

12 g
properties
explain why the reactivity of
calcium Group II elements increases
20 a going down the group.

strontium

389
(2,8,

barium

56 Ba

radium

88Ra

A Figure 4.2.1 Group II elements and their electronic configurations

51
 Trends in Group II of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity

General properties of Group II elements

Group II elements have the following general properties in common.
They are fairly soft metals.
They are shiny, silvery-white when freshly cut, but turn dull very quickly
as they react with the oxygen in the air. This reaction forms a dull oxide
layer on the surface of the metal.
Key fact
They have fairly high melting points and boiling points.
A cation is a positively charged ion Their atoms have two valence electrons.
frmed when a metal atom loses
electrons.
Their atoms lose their valence electrons readily to form metal cations
with a charge of +2, e.g. Mg2+, Ca2+ and Ba2+ (see Unit 5.2).
Going down the group, the radii of the atoms (atomic radii) increase and
it becomes easier for the atoms to lose their two valence electrons.

Chemical reactivity of Group II elements

Group II elements have the following chemical properties in common.
They react with oxygen to form basic oxides (see Unit 8.2).
They react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
They react with dilute hydrochloric acid to form salts known as metal
chlorides (see Unit 8.4) and hydrogen gas.

The ease with which the metals react with oxygen, water and dilute
hydrochloric acid is, however, different for the different metals and is known
as the reactivity of the metal. If we rank the metals from the most reactive to
the least reactive, based on how fast or how vigorouslythey react, the reactivity
increases going down the group. Beryllium, at the top of the group, is the least
reactive and radium, at the bottom of the group, is the most reactive.

Practical activity

Comparing the reactivity of magnesium and calcium

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

O observation, recording and reporting.

You will be supplied with test tubes, strips of freshly cleaned magnesium ribbon, pieces of freshly cleaned calcium,
dilute hydrochloric acid and distilled water.
Method
1 Pour 2 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into each of two test tubes. Add a piece of magnesium ribbon to the first

tube and a piece of calcium to the second tube. Compare the strength of effervescence occurring in the two tubes.

2 Pour 2 cm3 of distilled water into each of two test tubes. Add a piece of magnesium ribbon to the first tube and
a piece of calcium to the second tube. Compare the strength of effervescence occurring in the two tubes.
You might need to leave the tubes for a while and observe them periodically.
3 Based on the relative strength of effervescence that you observed in steps 1 and 2, which metal would you
consider is more reactive, magnesium or calcium?
4 If you added beryllium to dilute hydrochloric acid and distilled water, would you expect the effervescence to be
more vigorous or less vigorous than with magnesium?
5 If you added barium to dilute hydrochloric acid and distilled water, would you expect the effervescence to be
more vigorous or less vigorous than with calcium?

52
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Group II of the periodic table

A comparison of the reactivity of magnesium, calcium and barium

with oxygen, water and dilute hydrochloric acid is given in Table 4.2.1.
Examples of the chemical equations for the reactions with magnesium
are given. Similar equations can be written for the reactions with calcium
and barium. You have already come across (g) and (s) to indicate a gas and
a solid in a chemical equation. In these equations, (l) indicates a liquid
and (aq) indicates an aqueous solution, i.e. a solution where water is the
solvent.

V Table 4.2.1 Reactions of magnesium, calcium and barium

Reaction Magnesium (Mg) Calcium (Ca) Barium (Ba)

Oxygen (or air) Reacts slowly to form a coating of magnesium oxide (MgO) on Reacts readily to form a Reacts very readily to
exposure to air. If ignited, magnesium burns with a blinding white coating of calcium oxide form a coating of barium
flame, producing white, solid magnesium oxide. (CaO) on exposure to air. oxide (BaO) on exposure
if ignited, calcium burns to air. If ignited, barium
magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
Wth a brick red flame, burns with an apple green
2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s) producing white, sdid flame, producing white,
calcium oxide. solid barium oxide.

Water V€ry clean magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water, Reacts vigorously with Reacts very vigorously
producing magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) and hydrogen gas (H2). cold water, producing Wth cold water,
calcium hydroxide producing barium
magnesium
magnesium water + hydrogen (Ca(OH)2) and hydrogen hydroxide and
hydroxide
gas (H2)• hydrogen gas (H2).
Mg(s) + 2H20(l) + H2(g)

Dilute hydrochloric acid Reacts vigorously to produce magnesium chloride (MgC12) and Reacts very vigorously to Reacts violently to

hydrogen gas (H2). produce calcium chbride produce barium chloride

(CaC12) and hydrogen gas (BaC12) and hydrogen gas
hydrochloric magnesium
magnesium + + hydrogen
acid chloride

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgC12(aq) + H2(g)

From the trends in the reactivity of the Group II metals, we can predict the
reactivity of beryllium, strontium and radium. We would expect beryllium to Did you know?
react less vigorously than magnesium, radium to
even more vigorously react
than barium, and the reactivity of strontium to be more vigorous than Group II metals are often used in

calcium, but less vigorous than barium. fireworks because they burn in

air or oxygen producing coloured

flames. Magnesium is used to
produce a bright white light
effect and calcium produces a
brick red colour. Compounds of
Group II metals may also be used,
e.g. strontiumcarbonate produces
a crimson red colour and barium
chloride produces an apple green
colour.

A Figure 4.2.2 Compounds of Group II elements are often used as fireworks

Trends in Group II of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity

An explanation of the trends in Group II

Elements in Group II all have very similar chemical properties because their
atoms all have two valence electrons. Being metals, when they react they
ionise by losing their two valence electrons and form positively charged
ions, i.e. cations. In doing this, their outer electron shell is now full.

Since all the elements have the same number of electrons to lose, i.e. 2,
they all have very similar chemical properties, however, moving down
Group II the reactivity of the elements increases. Moving down the group,
the number of occupied electron shells increases. As a result:
o the atomic radii get bigger due to the extra filled electron shells,
therefore, the valence electrons become further away from the
attractive pull of the positive nucleus

the valence electrons become more shielded from the positive nucleus
by the extra full electron shells.

The combination of these two factors means that the valence electrons are
less attracted to the positive nucleus going down the group and it becomes
easier for the atoms to lose their valence electrons. The ease of ionisation,
therefore, increases going down the group.

Beryllium atoms, being the smallest, ionise the least easily. Beryllium is,
therefore, the least reactive Group II element. Radium atoms, being the
largest, ionise the most easily. Radium is, therefore, the most reactive Group
II element.

The electronic structure of the first three elements in Group II is given in

Figure 4.2.3.

A Figure 4.2.3 Shell diagrams of the first three elements in Group II

Summary questions
1 What is the collective name for the elements in Group II?

Does the reactivity of the elements in Group II increase or decrease

going down the group?
b Give the reason for your answer to a above.
3 Compare the reactivity of beryllium and calcium.
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Group VII of the periodic table

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
Group VII in the periodic composed of the following elements:
table is be able to:
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. These elements are all non-
give the general properties of
metals. They display similar properties and are chemically very reactive. They
are collectively known as the halogens. The elements in Group VII are listed
Group VII elements
give the chemical properties of
in Figure 4.3.1, together with their symbols, atomic numbers and electron
Group VII elements
arrangements.
explain why elements in
fl uorine Group VII show similar

chemical properties
(2,7) explain why the reactivity of the
elements in Group VII increases
chlorine
going up the group
describe displacement
(287)
reactions of elements in
bromine Group VII
35Br explain the term oxidising
strength
iodine predict the properties of

53
unknown elements in Group VII
based on group trends.

astatine

85At

A Figure 4.3.1 Group VII elements and their electronic configurations

General properties of Group VII elements

Group VII elements have the following general properties in common.
They are poisonous elements.
They exist as non-polar, diatomic molecules, e.g. F2, C12, Br2 and 12.
They are generally soluble in non-polar solvents and slightly soluble in
water.

They have low melting points and boiling points. Key fact
Their atoms have seven valence electrons.
An anion is a negatively charged
Their atoms readily accept an electron into their valence shells to form non- ion formed when a non-metal atom
metal anions witha charge of —1, e.g. F-,CI , Br- and I- (see Unit 5.2). gains electrons.
They share an electron readily with other non-metal atoms (see Unit 5.4).
Group VII elements have different colours and states at room temperature, as
summarised in Table 4.3.1.

V Table 4.3.1 Some physical properties of the first four elements in Group VII
Element I State at room temperature I Colour
fluorine gas pale yellow

chlorine gas yellow green

bromine fiquid red-brown — the liquid evaporates readily at room

temperature forming an orange vapour

iodine solid grey-black — the solid sublimes readily when

heated forming a purple vapour
 Trends in Group VII of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity

Chemical reactivity of Group VII elements

Group VII elements react with most metals to form ionic compounds (Unit
5.2) and they react with most other non-metals to form covalent compounds
(Unit 5.4).

Examples
1 Chlorine reacts with sodium to form sodium chloride.

Sodium + chlorine sodium chloride

2Na(s) + C12(g) 2NaC1(s)

2 Chlorine reacts with hydrogen gas to form hydrogen chloride gas.

Hydrogen + chlorine --—.-.> hydrogen chloride
H2(g) + C12(g) 2HC1(g)

The reactivity of the Group VII elements increases going up the group.
Fluorine, at the top of the group, is the most reactive and astatine, at the

bottom of the group, is the least reactive.

An explanation of the trends in Group VII

Elements in Group VII all have very similar chemical properties because their
atoms all have seven valence electrons. Being non-metals, when they react
they ionise by gaining one valence electron and they form negatively charged
ions, i.e. anions. In doing this, their outer electron shell is now full.

Since all the elements have the same number of electrons to gain, i.e. 1, they
allhave very similar chemical properties. However, moving up Group VII
the reactivity of the elements increases. Moving up the group, the number of
occupied electron shells decreases. As a result:
the radii of the atoms get smaller due to the decrease in number of filled
electron shells, therefore, the valence electrons become closer to the
attractive pull of the positive nucleus

o the valence electrons become less shielded from the positive nucleus by
the inner full electron shells.

The combination of these two factors means that the valence electrons are
more attracted to the positive nucleus going up the group, as are any electrons
being gained by the atoms. It becomes easier for the atoms to gain an electron
Key fact
into their valence shell going up the group. The ease of ionisation, therefore,
Electronegativity is a measure increases going up the group.
of how strongly an atom attracts
Fluorine atoms, being the smallest, ionise the most easily. Fluorine is,
electrons.
therefore, the most reactive Group VII element. Astatine atoms, being
the largest, ionise the least easily. Astatine is, therefore, the least reactive
Group VII element.
The tendency for atoms to attract electrons is known as electronegativity.
The electronegativity of the atoms, therefore, increases going up Group VII.
Fluorine is the most electronegative element and astatine is the least
electronegative.

A Figure 4.3.2 Shell diagrams of the first

The electronic structure of the first two elements in Group VII is given in
two elements in Group VII Figure 4.3.2.
56
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Group VII of the periodic table

The melting points and boiling points of the Group VII elements can also be
explained by looking at the relative size of the molecules. Fluorine, having
the smallest atoms, has the smallest molecules. The forces of attraction
between these small molecules, known as intermolecular forces, are the
weakest, which means that the melting point and boiling point of fluorine
are the lowest. Astatine, having the largest atoms, has the largest molecules.
The intermolecular forces between the large astatine molecules are the
strongest, which means that the melting point and boiling point of astatine
are the highest.

F F fluorine (F2)

Cl chlorine (C12)

bromine (Br2)

iodine (12)

A figure 4.3.3 Comparing the sizes of the first four halogen molecules

Displacement reactions
displacement reaction occurs when an element in its free state takes
the place of another element in a compound. A more reactive element will
displace a less reactive element from a compound containing the less reactive
element. However, a less reactive element will not displace a more reactive
element from a compound.

For example, if chlorine gas is bubbled into a solution of potassium bromide,

the chlorine will displace the bromine from the potassium bromide forming
potassium chloride and bromine:

chlorine + potassium bromide potassium chloride + bromine

C12(g) + 2KBr(aq) 2KC1(aq) + Br2(aq)
However, if bromine is added to potassium chloride solution, the bromine
willnot displace the chlorine and no reaction occurs:

bromine + potassium chloride no reaction

To determine whether a displacement reaction has occurred, an aqueous
solution of a halogen is mixed with a sodium or potassium halide solution
and the colour of the resulting solution is observed. The halide solutions
are all colourless, e.g. potassium chloride (KCI), potassium bromide (KBr)
and potassium iodide (KI) are all colourless. If a displacement reaction
occurs and a different halogen forms, it can be identified by its distinctive
colour. Chlorine is yellow-green, bromine is red-brown and iodine will range
from a brown solution to a grey-black precipitate depending on the amount
produced.
57
Trends in Group VII of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity

Practical activity

Investigating displacement reactions of the halogens

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

O observation, recording and reporting.

You be supplied with test tubes and aqueous solutions of chlorine,

will

bromine, iodine, potassium chloride, potassium bromide and potassium

iodide.

Method
1 Pour 2 crn3 of potassium bromide solution into a test tube and 2 cm3 of
potassium iodide solution into another test tube. Carefully add chlorine
solution to each tube and shake. Observe any colour changes.
2 Pour 2 cm3 of potassium chloride solution into a test tube and 2 cm3 of
potassium iodide solution into another test tube. Carefully add bromine
solution to each tube and shake. Observe any colour changes.
3 Pour 2 cm3 of potassium chloride solution into a test tube and 2 cm3 of
potassium bromide solution into another test tube. Carefully add iodine
solution to each tube and shake. Observe any colour changes.
4 Record your results in a table.

5 Using your results, place the elements in increasing order of reactivity.

From the practical activity above we can see that:

Chlorine displaces bromine from potassium bromide producing
potassium chloride and bromine:

chlorine + potassium bromide potassium chloride + bromine

Br2(aq)
potassium
2KBr(aq) 2KC1(aq) red-brown
bromide
chlorine
solution
solution Chlorine displaces iodine from potassium iodide producing potassium
chloride and iodine:
chlorine + potassium iodide potassium chloride + iodine
12(aq)
C12(aq) + 2K1(aq) 2KC1(aq) brown

Bromine displaces iodine from potassium iodide producing potassium

bromide and iodine:
solution of bromine and
potassium chloride
bromine + potassium iodide potassium bromide + iodine
12(aq)
Br2(aq) + 2K1(aq) 2KBr(aq) brown
A Figure 4.3.4 Chlorine solution is
added to potassium bromide solution
No displacement reaction occurs between bromine and potassium
chloride.

Exam tip No displacement reactions occur with iodine.

From the trends in the displacement reactions involving chlorine, bromine
Ifa question asks you to describe
and iodine, we can predict that fluorine, at the top of Group VII, will displace
a chemical reaction, you must
all the other halogens from compounds containing them. However, astatine,
provide all observations, including
at the bottom of Group V II, will not displace any of the other halogens from
any colour changes.
their compounds.
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Group VII of the periodic table

Displacement reactions and oxidising strength

Displacement reactions can be explained by considering the relative
oxidising strengths of the Group VII elements. Oxidising strength is
a measure of how easily one substance takes electrons from another
substance. The oxidising strength of the elements in Group VII increases
Key fact
moving up the group because the ability to ionise by gaining an electron
increases moving up the group. An oxidising agent brings about
the oxidation of another reactant
Comparing the relative oxidising strengths of chlorine, bromine and iodine, by causing an atom or ion in that
we see that chlorine has the strongest oxidising strength and iodine has the
reactant to lose electrons. In the
weakest. We say that chlorine is the strongest oxidising agent and iodine is
process, the oxidising agent gains
the weakest. electrons.

A stronger oxidising agent will accept electrons from a weaker oxidising

agent. This is why chlorine displaces the bromide ions in the potassium
bromide. Each chlorine atom in a chlorine molecule accepts an electron from
a bromide ion (Br- ion). As a result, each chlorine atom forms a chloride ion
(Cl- ion) and each bromide ion forms a bromine atom. IWo bromine atoms
then pair to form a bromine molecule:

chlorine bromide chloride bromine

molecule ion ion molecule
C12(aq) + —e 2C1-(aq) + Br2(aq)

Chlorine is said to have oxidised the potassium bromide. In the other

displacement reactions, both chlorine and bromine oxidised the potassium
iodide. You will learn a lot more about oxidation reactions in Unit 9.

Again, from the trends in the displacement reactions involving chlorine,

bromine and iodine, we can predict that fluorine, at the top of Group VII,
will be a stronger oxidising agent than chlorine and astatine, at the bottom of
Group V II, will be a weaker oxidising agent than iodine.

Summary questions
1 What is similar in the electronic configuration of the elements in

Group VIP
Does the reactivity of the elements in Group VII increase or decrease
going up the group?
b Give the reason for your answer to a above.
3 What is meant by the term 'oxidising strength'?

4 List the elements in Group VII in order of increasing oxidising strength.

What would you observe if an aqueous solution of chlorine is added

to potassium iodide solution?
b Give a reason for your answer to a above.

59
Trends in Period 3 of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Period 3 in the periodic table is composed of the following elements:

sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine

give the properties of metals
and argon. The physical and chemical properties of these elements change
and non-metals
moving along the period. Moving from left to right, the metallic nature of
describe how the properties of
the elements decreases and the non-metallic nature increases. The elements
the elements change moving to the left are metals, those to the right are non-metals and silicon, in the
along Period 3 middle, is a semi-metal or metalloid.
explain why the properties
of the elements change from
metal to non-metal moving Physical properties of metals and non-metals
along Period 3. Metals have the following physical properties in common.
They are solid at room temperature, except mercury, which is a liquid.

They have high melting points and boiling points.

Did you know? They have high densities.
They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Silicon is the second most
They are shiny in appearance.
abundant element on Earth after
oxygen, making up 28% of the They are malleable, i.e. they can be hammered into different shapes, and
Earth's crust. a semiconductor,
It is
ductile, i.e. they can be drawn out into wires.

a property which has led to its They are sonorous, i.e. they make a ringing sound when hit.
use in the manufacture of silicon
chips which are found in electronic
Non-metals have the following physical properties in common.
devices from pocket calculators They are usually gases at room temperature, however, some are solid and
to computers. The first computer bromine is a liquid.
using silicon chips made its debut
They have low melting points and boiling points.
in 1 961. The silicon chip forms the
foundation of modern computer They have low densities.
technology and without its invention They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
such devices would not exist today.
In the solid state they are dull in appearance.
In the solid state they are brittle.
In the solid state they make a dull sound when hit.
A summary of the trends of the elements in Period 3 is given in Table 4.4.1.
V Table 4.4.1 Trends in Period 3

Na Si

Group number II VI VII

Atomic number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Electronic (2,8,4)
configuration

Loses/gains/shares loses le- loses 2e- loses 3e- shares 4e- gains 3e- gains 2e- gains le- none
electrons

State at 25 oc solid solid solid solid solid solid gas gas

Electrical conductivity conductor conductor conductor semi - insulator insulator insulator insulator
conductor

Metal/non-metal metal metal metal metalloid ron-metal ron-metal ron-metal ron-metal

Ease d ionisation increasing ease of ionisation increasing ease of ionisation

The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Period 3 of the periodic table

A Figure 4.4.1 (a) Magnesium burning in sparklers, (b) sulfur around a volcano vent and (c) chlorine gas

An explanation of the trends in Period 3

As you learnt in Unit the ease with which atoms lose or gain valence
4.1,
electrons is a strong indication of their metallic or non-metallic nature.
Metals tend to lose electrons and non-metals tend to gain electrons. Moving
along Period 3, the metallic nature of the elements decreases because their
ability to lose electrons decreases and their non-metallic nature increases
because their ability to gain electrons increases.
Each element in Period 3 has its valence electrons in the same electron shell,
i.e. shell number 3. However, moving from left to right along the period,

each element has one more electron and one more proton than the element
before it. As a result:
e the number of positive protons in the nuclei of the atoms gets greater,
causing the attraction between the positive nucleus and the valence
electrons to get stronger
the radii of the atoms get smaller due to the increasing number of
positive protons in the nucleus, pulling the outer electrons closer to the
nucleus.

The combination of these two factors means that the valence electrons are
more attracted to the positive nucleus going along the period. It becomes
harder for the atoms to lose their valence electrons and easier for them to
gain electrons into their valence shell moving along the period. In other
words, the electronegativity of the elements increases along Period 3.

Since metal atoms ionise by losing electrons, the ease of ionisation of the
metals sodium, magnesium and aluminium decreases along the period.
Sodium is the largest of the three atoms and has 11 protons in its nucleus.
Aluminium is the smallest and has two more protons in its nucleus, i.e. 13
(see Figures 4.4.2 and 4.4.3). Sodium ionises the most easily and is the most
reactive. Aluminium ionises the least easily and is the least reactive.

Non-metal atoms ionise by gaining electrons, therefore, the ease of

ionisation of the non-metals phosphorus, sulfur and chlorine increases
along the period. Phosphorus is the largest of the three atoms and has 15
protons in its nucleus. Chlorine is the smallest and has two more protons,
i.e. 17. Phosphorus ionises the least easily and is the least reactive. Chlorine

ionises the most easily and is the most reactive.

Argon is a non-metal found to the right of chlorine. However, its valence

electron shell contains eight electrons. Because of this, argon
is full, i.e. it

has a stable electronic configuration, it does not ionise and it is chemically

unreactive.
61
 Trends in Period 3 of the periodic table The periodic table and periodicity

Silicon is found in Group IV and is a metalloid because it has a combination

of metallic and non-metallic properties. It has four valence electrons and
usually reacts by sharing electrons with other non-metal atoms. It does not

usually ionise.

The electronic structure of the elements in Period 3 is given in Figure 4.4.2.

llp 12p 13p 14 p 15p 16p 17p 18p

sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

Mg Si s
Figure 4.4.2 Electronic configuration of the elements in Period 3

0.20

0.18

0.16

014

0.12

0.10

0.08

Na Mg A1 Si P S Cl Ar
Element

A Figure 4.4.3 Trends in the atomic radii of the elements in Period 3

Summary questions
1 Chlorine and magnesium are both elements which are found in Period 3
One is a metal and one is a non-metal.
of the periodic table.
a Which one is the metal? Give THREE reasons for your answer.
b Which one is the non-metal? Give THREE reasons for your answer.
2 How does the metallic nature and the non-metallic nature of elements in

Period 3 change from left to right?

Which is more reactive, sodium or magnesium?

b Give the reason for your answer to a above.
Which is more reactive, sulfur or chlorine?
b Give the reason for your answer to a above.
5 Which element in Period 3 has the greatest metallic nature?

62
The periodic table and periodicity Trends in Period 3 of the periodic table

Key concepts
Scientists started classifying elements in the early 19th century.
Dmitri Mendeleev is credited with being the creator of the first version
of the periodic table in 1869.
Periodicity is the recurrence of elements with similar physical and
chemical properties at regular intervals in the periodic table.
The elements in the modern periodic table are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number.
The periodic table consists of vertical columns called groups and
horizontal rows called periods.
All elements in the same group have the same number of valence
electrons. This number is the same as the group number.
All elements in the period have the same number of occupied electron
shells. This number is the same as the period number.

The chemical properties of an element are determined by the

arrangement of electrons, in particular, the number of valence electrons.
Elements in Group II have very similar properties because they all have
two valence electrons.
Group II elements all have similar reactions with oxygen, water and
dilute hydrochloric acid.

The reactivity of Group II elements, being metals, depends on the ability

of their atoms to lose their valence electrons.

The reactivity of Group II elements increases going down the group

because the ability of their atoms to lose their valence electrons increases
going down the group.
Elements in Group VII have very similar properties because they all have
seven valence electrons.
The reactivity of Group VII elements, being non-metals, depends on the
ability of their atoms to gain an electron into their valence shell.
The reactivity of Group VII elements increases going up the group
because the ability of their atoms to gain an electron increases going up
the group.
The elements in Group VII undergo displacement re actions. A more
element will displace a less reactive element from a compound
reactive
containing the less reactive element.
Displacement reactions of Group VII elements depend on the relative
oxidising strength of the elements, where oxidising strength is
a measure of how easily a substance takes electrons from another
substance.

The oxidising strength of Group VII elements increases going up the

group.
Going along Period 3 from left to right, the metallic nature of the
elements decreases because their ability to lose electrons decreases.
Going along Period 3 from left to right, the non-metallic nature of the
elements increases because their ability to gain electrons increases.
The electronegativity of elements in Period 3 increases going from left
to right.
Practice exam-style questions The periodic table and periodicity

Practice exam-style questions

Multiple-choice questions
Na Mg Si
1 Elements in the modern periodic table are arranged in
Ca Br Kr
order of increasing:
A chemical reactivity The periodic table showing the position of some elements
B atomic number
C mass number a i) Name two elements which occur in the same
D relative atomic mass period. (1 mark)
ii) State the reason for placing these two elements in
2 An element of atomic number 20 is expected to be: the same period. (1 mark)

I in Group II of the periodic table

b i) Name two elements which occur in the same
II a transition element group. (1 mark)

Ill in Period 4 of the periodic table ii) State the reason for placing these two elements in
IV a metal the same group. (1 mark)
c Element X has 3 valence electrons and 4 electron
A land Ill only
shells. Place element X in its correct position in the
B I, II and IVonly
figure above. (1 mark)
C I, Ill and IV only d Give the electronic configuration of a calcium atom.
D Ill and IV only (1 mark)
e Both magnesium and calcium react with
3 Which element shows very similar chemical properties
hydrochloric acid.
to barium?
i) Which element would you expect to react more
A sodium
vigorously? (1 mark)
B aluminium
Explain your answer toe
ii) i) above. (2 marks)
C sulfur
D magnesium f i) What would you expect to observe if an aqueous
solution of chlorine is added to an aqueous
4 X is an element below calcium in Group II of the solution of potassium bromide? (1 mark)
periodic table. X would be expected to: ii) Explain the reason for your observation in
I react very vigorously with cold water f i) above. (2 marks)
II ionise more readily than calcium g Explain the reason for the fact that, when moving
Ill react slowly with hydrochloric acid from left to right along Period 3, the metallic nature
A I only of the elements decreases and the non-metallic
nature increases. (3 marks)
B land II only
C II and Ill only Total 15 marks
D 1, 11 and 111
Extended response question
5 In which group of the periodic table are the halogens
Outline the contributions of Döbereiner and
found?
Mendeleev to the development of the periodic table.
A Group I
(4 marks)
B Group 11 b The reactivity of elements in Group II of the periodic
C GroupV11 table increases going down the group. Support this
D Group 0 statement by reference to the reactions of magnesium
and calcium with oxygen, water and hydrochloric
6 Which of the following is the most electronegative? acid. (6 marks)
A chlorine c Element X was found to displace iodine from
B silicon potassium iodide solution, but was found to have no
C sulfur reaction with potassium chloride solution.
D phosphorus i) Place the following elements in order as they
would be found going down Group V II: element
X, chlorine, iodine, fluorine. (2 marks)
Structured question ii) Explain, in terms of oxidising strength, why X
7 The position ofcertain elements in the periodic table was able to displace iodine from the potassium
is given in the figure below. Use the information in the iodide solution. (3 marks)
figure to answer the following questions. Total 15 marks
 A5 Structure and bonding

Most substances occur as compounds in nature. Objectives

Compounds are formed when atoms combine By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
chemically with each other. The compounds which
are formed are more stable than the free elements explain why atoms form
chemical bonds
were. The noble gases are an exception to this; e state how atoms form chemical
they do occur in nature as atoms. The electronic bonds
name the three types of
configuration of the noble gases is the reason
chemical bonding
behind their stability. describe three types of
chemical formulae
work out the empirical formulae
of binary compounds from their
names.
A5.1 Chemical bonding
Introduction to chemical bonding
When atoms bond with each other, only the outermost electrons, known
as valence electrons, are usually involved in the process. Atoms combine
with each other to attain the most stable electronic configuration (Unit
3.2). The noble gases are stable atoms because their outermost electron
shell is full and this gives them a stable electronic configuration. This
is called the noble gas configuration. Atoms, therefore, bond with each
other to fill their outermost electron shell or valence shell. Figure 5.1.1
shows the electronic configuration of the first three noble gases.

Atoms gain they attain the noble gas configuration of the

stability if

nearest noble gas to them

in the periodic table, i.e. the element that is
closest by atomic number. For example, the nearest noble gas to sodium
is neon and the nearest noble gas to chlorine is argon. This is illustrated

in Figure 5.1.2.

A Figure 5.1.1 The electronic structures

Na
of helium, neon and argon

A figure 5.1.2 Comparing the electronic structure of sodium and chlorine to their
nearest noble gases, neon and argon

Atoms can achieve a noble gas configuration by bonding with other atoms
during a chemical change. This can occur in three ways. They can:

e donate one or more valence electrons to another atom

e gain one or more valence electrons from another atom

e share valence electrons with another atom.

65
 Chemical bonding Structure and bonding

During chemical bonding, chemical bonds are formed between the atoms
Key fact involved. These bonds are forces of attraction between the atoms which
are caused by the redistribution of their electrons, and they join the atoms
A chemical bond is a force of together. There are three main types of chemical bonding:
attraction between atoms that
• ionic bonding, which occurs when a metal bonds with a non-metal
results from the redistribution of
their electrons. covalent bonding, which occurs when two or more non-metals bond
• metallic bonding, which occurs within metals.

Ionicand covalent bonding both result in the formation of chemical

compounds.

Chemical formulae of compounds

by atomic symbols, compounds formed
Just as elements can be represented
by bonding can be represented by chemical formulae.
ionic or covalent
Chemical formulae are important because they tell us which elements
are found in a compound as well as the ratio between the elements in the
compound. There are various types of chemical formulae. The three main
types are given below.
The molecular formula, which uses subscripts to give the actual
number of atoms of each element present in one molecule of a
compound. For example, the molecular formula of water is H20, which
means one molecule of water contains 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen
atom. Other molecular formulae include C02 for carbon dioxide and
C6H1206 for glucose.
The structural formula, which is a diagrammatic representation of one

molecule of the compound using lines between the atoms to represent

bonds. For example, the structural formula for carbon dioxide is
O =C=O which shows us that there are two bonds between each oxygen
atom and the carbon atom.
The empirical formula, which gives the simplest whole number
ratio between the elements in the compound using subscripts. The
compound consists of multiples of these smallest units. For example, the
empirical formula for magnesium chloride is MgC12, which tells us that
magnesium and chlorine are present in a ratio of 1 to 2.

Example
The three types of chemical formulae for ethane are:.
o Molecular formula: C2H6
e Structural formula: H H

H H
Empirical formula: CH3
Key fact
Writing empirical formulae of binary compounds
Valence number (valency) is the
binary compound composed of two different elements only. We can
is
maximum number of bonds an
atom can form when it bonds with compounds using the concept of
write the empirical formulae of binary
valence number or valency, which is the maximum number of bonds an
other atoms.
atom can form.
66
Structure and bonding Chemical bonding

The number of valence electrons an atom has determines its valence number.
This is because it is the valence electrons which participate in the formation
of chemical bonds. Since atoms lose, gain or share their valence electrons
in forming bonds, the valence number can be thought of as the number of
electrons anatom has to lose, gain or share during bonding. The valence
number of an element is related to its position in the periodic table as shown
in Table 5.1.1.

V Table 5.1.1 Valence numbers

Group number II transition metals Ill VI VII

Valence number 2 variable, often 2 3 4 3 2

In other words:

valence number of elements in Groups I to IV = the group number

valence number of elements in Groups V to VII = 8 — the group number.

Since both types of atom forming a compound must lose, gain or share the
same number of valence electrons, the sum of the valence numbers of each
element in the compound must be equal.

Example
The chemical formula of aluminium oxide is A1203
e Number of atoms of each element present: A1 = 2,
0=3.
Valence number of each element: A1 = 3 (Group Ill),

O = 2 (Group VI).
e Sum of the valence numbers: A1 = 2 x 3 = 6,

i.e. the sum of the valence numbers of the two elements is equal.
To write the chemical formula of a binary compound, follow the steps given
below.
1) Determine the valence numbers of the two elements present.
2) Write down the symbol of the first element. If a metal is present, write its
symbol first.
3) Write the valence number of the second element as a subscript after the
symbol of the first element.
4) Write the symbol of the second element directly after the subscript.
5) Write the valence number of the first element as a subscript after the
symbol of the second element.

Points to note

e There must be no spaces between the symbols and subscripts.

e Ifthe valence number is one, write only the symbol without the number
1 as a subscript (see example 2).
Some of the transition metals have more than one valence number.
The valence number of these is indicated in the name of the compound
by a Roman numeral placed in brackets after the name of the metal,
e.g. copper(ll) indicates that copper has a valence number of 2 (see

example 3).
67
Chemical bonding Structure and bonding

The valence number of hydrogen and the transition element, silver, is 1.

o To write the empirical formula, if the ratio of the subscripts is not in its
simplest form, then cancel to its simplest form (see example 4).

Examples
1 Magnesium nitride
Determine the valence numbers of the two elements present:
Mg = 2 (Group 11),
N = 3 (Group V).
Write down the symbol of the first element: Mg
Write the valence number of the second element as a subscript after
the symbol of the first element: Mg3
Write the symbol of the second element: Mg3N
Write the valence number of the first element as a subscript after the
symbol of the second element: Mg3N2
The empirical formula of magnesium nitride is Mg3N2.

2 Potassium sulfide
e Valence numbers of the elements: K= 1 (Group I),
S = 2 (Group VI).
Empirical formula of potassium sulfide is K2S.

3 Iron(lll) bromide
Valence numbers of the elements: Fe = 3 (given in the name),
Br = 1 (Group VII).
Empirical formula of iron(lll) bromide is FeBr3.

4 Carbon dioxide
e Valence numbers of the elements: C= 4 (Group IV),
O= 2 (Group VI).
e Empirical formula of carbon dioxide is C02. (C204 is cancelled to its

simplest ratio.)

Summary questions
Explain why atoms form compounds.
2 Explain how atoms form compounds.
3 Name the three types of chemical bonding.
4 Using your periodic table to help you, write the formula of each of the
compounds:
following binary
a sodium oxide
b copper(ll) bromide
c tetrachloromethane, a compound formed between carbon and
chlorine
d aluminium sulfide

ammonia, a compound formed between nitrogen and hydrogen.

Structure and bonding Formation of ionic bonds

A5.2 Formation of ionic bonds Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electrons from metal atoms to be able to:
non-metal atoms. Compounds formed by ionic bonding are known as ionic
explain the principles of ionic
compounds.
bonding
The principles of ionic bonding are explained as follows. explain how metal atoms form
Metals are found to the left of the periodic table and most have 1, 2 or 3 cations and non-metal atoms
valence electrons. If they lose their valence electrons they can attain a form anions
noble gas configuration. name ionic compounds
describe the formation of ionic
o Non-metals are found to the right of the periodic table and most have
bonds
5, 6 or 7 valence electrons. If they gain electrons into their valence shell
represent ionic bonding using
they can attain a noble gas configuration.
shell diagrams
e When an atom loses or gains electrons it forms an ion. The ions formed deduce the empirical formulae
are now charged particles because they no longer contain the same of ionic compounds
number of electrons as the number of protons. describe the structure of a
When a metal atom loses electrons, the ion formed has more protons sodium chloride crystal.
than electrons. The ion has a positive charge and is called a cation.

When a non-metal atom gains electrons, the ion formed has more
electrons than protons. The ion has a negative charge and is called an
anion.

Examples
1 Lithium is Group I of the periodic table and has one valence electron.
in
When bonding with a non-metal, lithium loses its valence electron and
now has one more proton than electron. Therefore it carries a single
positive charge, + and is represented as Li+. It is known as the lithium
,

ion or Li+ ion.

3p 3p an electron
4n

lithium atom lithium ion

Li (2,1)

A Figure 5.2.1 Formation of a lithium ion, Li

2 Nitrogen is in Group V of the periodic table and has five valence

electrons. When bonding with a metal, nitrogen gains three electrons
and now has three more electrons than protons. Therefore it carries a
triple negative charge, 3—, and is represented as N3-. It is known as the
nitride ion or N3- ion.

3-

+ three electrons

nitrogen atom nitride ion

N (2,5) NO- (2,8)

A Figure 5.2.2 Formation of a nitride ion, N3-

69
 Formation of ionic bonds Structure and bonding

When naming the negative anions formed when non-metal atoms gain
Key fact electrons, the name changes from that of the atom. The name of the anion
always ends in 'ide'. For example, the chloride ion (Cl-), the oxide ion (02-)
Ionic bonds are chemical bonds and the bromide ion (Br-).
created by the electrostatic
forces of attraction between the In the compounds formed by ionic bonding, there are strong electrostatic
positivelycharged cations and forces of attraction between the positive cations and negative anions.
negatively charged anions in ionic These forces of attraction are known as ionic bonds and they hold the ions
compounds. together. The strength of the ionic bonds accounts for the properties of ionic
compounds (Unit 5.5).

Examples to show the formation of ionic compounds

The formation of sodium chloride, magnesium fluoride, aluminium oxide
and potassium nitride by ionic bonding is shown next by means of dot and
cross diagrams.

Sodium chloride

Sodium is a metal with one valence electron. It loses this electron to form a
positive sodium ion which has a single positive charge, i.e. Na+. Chlorine
is a non-metal with seven valence electrons. It gains one electron to form a
negative chloride ion which has a single negative charge, i.e. Cl-. For each
sodium atom that loses one electron there will need to be one chlorine
atom to accept this electron. The empirical formula of sodium chloride is,

therefore, NaC1.

Figure 5.2.3 shows how to use shell diagrams to represent the ionic bonding
in sodium chloride.

1 sodium atom 1 chlorine atom 1 sodium ion 1 chloride ion

(CIO
? Did you know?
A Figure 5.2.3 Ionic bonding in sodium chloride
The term 'lattice' refers to
a regular, three-dimensional important to note that NaCl is not a separate, individual entity. NaCl simply
It is

arrangement of particles.
represents the ratio of Na+ ions to Cl- ions in sodium chloride, i.e. it is the
empirical formula. It can also be called the formula unit of sodium chloride.

Sodium chloride that we sprinkle on our food is

composed of tiny crystals that are cubic in shape. Each
of these crystals is made up of millions of Na+ ions
and millions of Cl- ions in a ratio of one Na+ ion to
one Cl- ion. These ions are arranged in a very regular
way; they occur alternately in rows and columns.
Each Na+ ion is bonded to six Cl- ions and each Cl
ion is bonded to six Na ions by strong ionic bonds.
This three-dimensional, ordered arrangement of ions
strong ionic bonds
forms a crystal lattice.

between oppositely
charged ions
Figure 5.2.4 Crystal lattice of sodium chloride
70
Structure and bonding Formation of ionic bonds

Magnesium fluoride

Magnesium is a metal with two valence electrons. It loses these electrons to

form a positive magnesium ion which has a double positive charge, i.e. Mg2+.
Fluorine is a non-metal with seven valence electrons. It gains one electron
to form a negative fluoride ion which has a single negative charge, i.e. F
For each magnesium atom that loses two electrons there will need to be two
fluorine atoms to accept these two electrons since each fluorine atom only
accepts one electron. The empirical formula or formula unit of magnesium
fluoride is, therefore, MgF2

Mg Mg

1 magnesium 2 fluorine 1 magnesium 2 fluoride

atom, Mg atoms, F ion, Mg2+ ions, F¯

A figure 5.2.5 Ionic bonding in magnesium fluoride

Aluminium oxide
Aluminium is a metal with three valence electrons. It loses these electrons to
form a positive aluminium ion which has a triple positive charge, i.e. A13+
Oxygen is a non-metal with six valence electrons. It gains two electrons to
form a negative oxide ion which has a double negative charge, i.e. 02 Since
each aluminium atom has to lose three electrons and each oxygen atom
has to gain two electrons, two aluminium atoms will be needed to lose a
total of six electrons and three oxygen atoms will be needed to gain these
six electrons. The empirical formula or formula unit of aluminium oxide is,
therefore, A1203.

To simplify the diagrams, sometimes only the valence electrons are shown,
as in Figure 5.2.6.

2-

2-

2 aluminium 3 oxygen 2 aluminium ions, 3 oxide ions,

atoms, A1 atoms, O A13+

A figure 5.2.6 Ionic bonding in aluminium oxide

 Writing chemical formulae of ionic compounds Structure and bonding

Potassium nitride

Potassium has one valence electron. It loses this electron to form a positive
potassium ion with a single positive charge, i.e. K +. Nitrogen has five valence
electrons. It gains three electrons to form a negative nitride ion which has
a triple negative charge, i.e. N3-. Three potassium atoms are needed to lose
three electrons to one nitrogen atom. The empirical formula or formula unit
of potassium nitride is, therefore, K3N.

3-

N --------------+

3 potassium 1 nitrogen 3 potassium ions, 1 nitride ion,

atoms, K atom, N
A Figure 5.2.7 Ionic bonding in potassium nitride

Summary questions
1 Explain what happens during ionic bonding.

2 Use shell diagrams to represent the ionic bonding between:

sodium and oxygen to form sodium oxide, Nap
b magnesium and nitrogen to form magnesium nitride, Mg3N2.
3 Calcium forms an ionic compound with fluorine.
a Give the name of the compound.
b Give the formula unit of the compound.
4 Describe the structure of the crystal lattice of sodium chloride.

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: compounds
give the names and formulae compounds are represented using empirical formulae. The empirical
Ionic
of the common cations and compound is also known as the formula unit of the
formula of an ionic
anions compound. There are important points to note when writing formulae of
work out the formula of an ionic compounds.
compound from the name
ionic Metals generally lose electrons forming positive cations. Non-metals
name of an ionic
write the generally gain electrons forming negative anions.
compound from the formula. The magnitude of the charge on an ion is the same as the valence number.
Therefore, when writing formulae of ionic compounds, the magnitude of
the charge on the ion can be used in place of the valence number.
Not all ions are formed from one atom. Many ions are made from several
atoms bonded together. These ions are known as polyatomic ions (these
were previously known as radicals).
72
Structure and bonding Writing chemical formulae of ionic compounds

When writing the formula of an ionic compound, the sum of the

positive charges must equal the sum of the negative charges, since both
types of atom or group of atoms bonded together must lose or gain the
same number of electrons.
The names and formulae of the ions that you are required to know are given
in Tables 5.3.1 and 5.3.2.

V Table 5.3.1 Common cations

Monovalent cations Divalent cations Trivalent cations

hydrogen magnesium Mg2+

lithium calcium ca2+ aluminium A13 +

sodium barium Ba2+

potassium iron(")

copper(l) copper(u) Cu2+

silver Ag+ zinc

ammonium NH + tin(u)

lead (II) Pb2+

V Table 5.3.2 Common anions

Monovalent anions Divalent anions Trivalent anions

fluoride oxide nitride

chloride sulfide phosphate P043-

bromide carbonate

iodide sulfite (sulfate(w))

hydride sulfate (sulfate(v))

02072—
hydroxide dichromate@l)
Exam tip
nitrite

Success in chemistry depends on

nitrate (nitrate(v)) N00
being able to write the names and
manganate@ll) Mn04-
formulae of compounds. Knowing
hydrogensulfate 4 the formulae of ions is a very
hydrogencarbonate HCOa- important step towards achieving
ethanoate this success.
CHaCOO-

In order to write the chemical formula of an ionic compound from the name,
follow the steps given below.
1) Write down the formulae ofthe two ions that are involved from Tables 5.3.1
and 5.3.2.
2) Rewrite the formula of the cation, omitting its charge.
3) Write the magnitude of the charge on the anion as a subscript after the
formula of the cation. If it is a polyatomic cation and more than one is
required, place the polyatomic cation in brackets and write the subscript
outside the bracket (see example 4).

4) Write the formula of the anion directly after the subscript, omitting its

charge.
5) Write the magnitude of the charge on the cation as a subscript after the
formula of the anion. If it is a polyatomic anion and more than one is
required, place the polyatomic anion in brackets and write the subscript
outside the bracket (see example 5).

73
Writing chemical formulae of ionic compounds Structure and bonding

Points to note
Ifthe magnitude of the charge is one, do not write the number 1 as a
subscript (see examples 2 and 3).

o If the ratio of the subscripts is not in its simplest form, then cancel to its
simplest form (see example 6).

Examples
1 Aluminium sulfide
Write down the ions involved: A13+ S2-
Write down the formula of the cation without its charge: A1
Write the magnitude of the charge on the anion as a subscript after
the formula of the cation: A12
o Write the formula of the anion without its charge: A12S
o Write the magnitude of the charge on the cation as a subscript after
the formula of the anion: A12S3

The formula unit of aluminium sulfide is A12S3.

2 Calcium iodide
e Ions involved: Ca2+ I

Magnitude of the charges: Ca2+ — 2 1

• Formula unit of calcium iodide is Ca12.

3 Sodium phosphate
e Ions involved: Na+, 1)043-
e Magnitude of the charges: Na+ = 1, 1)043- 3
e Formula unit of sodium phosphate is Na3P04.

4 Ammonium sulfate
e Ions involved: NH4+, S042-
Magnitude of the charges: NH4+ = 1, S042- =2
e Formula unit of ammonium sulfate is (NH4)2S04

(The polyatomic ammonium ion, NH4+, is placed in brackets with the

subscript outside.)

5 Copper(ll) nitrate

o Ions involved: Cu2+, NO 3

e Magnitude of the charges: Cu2+ 2, N03- = 1

o Formula unit of copper(ll) nitrate is

(The polyatomic nitrate ion, N03-, is placed in brackets with the

subscript outside.)

6 Magnesium carbonate
e Ions involved: Mg2+, C032-
Magnitude of the charges: Mg2+ = 2, C032- = 2
• Formula unit of magnesium carbonate is MgC03.

is cancelled to its simplest ratio.)

Structure and bonding Writing chemical formulae of ionic compounds

Naming ionic compounds

The name of an ionic compound is built from the cation and anion names.

Examples
1 is composed of the aluminium cation and hydroxide anion. Its
name is aluminium hydroxide.
2 K20 is composed of the potassium cation and the oxide anion. Its name
is potassium oxide.

3 is composed of the calcium cation and phosphate anion. Its

name is calcium phosphate.

Ifthe cation is that of a transition metal, determine the magnitude of its
charge by looking at the subscript after the anion and use this to determine
its name.

Examples
1 Fecu
• The subscript after the chloride ion is 2.

• The magnitude of the charge on the iron ion must be 2.

• The cation must be the iron(ll) ion, Fe2
• The name of the compound is iron(ll) chloride.

e The subscript after the nitrate ion is 3.

e The magnitude of the charge on the iron ion must be 3.

e The cation must be the iron(lll) ion, Fe3+.
e The name of the compound is iron(lll) nitrate.

Summary questions
1 Write the chemical formula of each of the following ionic compounds:
a iron(lll) sulfide
b calcium hydroxide
c sodium sulfate
d ammonium phosphate
silver oxide
zinc nitrate

g potassium manganate(vll)
h copper(ll) carbonate
2 Write names for each of the following compounds:

b AgCl
zn12
d
FeBr3
FeS04
g cup
h

75
 Formation of covalent and metallic bonds Structure and bonding

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Covalent bonding
describe the formation of Covalent bonding involves the sharing of valence electrons between non-
covalent bonds metal atoms. Compounds formed by covalent bonding are known as
represent covalent bonding covalent compounds.
using shell diagrams
write formulae of covalent Non-metals are found to the right of the periodic table and have 4, 5, 6 or
7 valence electrons. They need to gain electrons into their valence shell to
compounds
describe the formation of attain a noble gas configuration.

metallic bonds Since all the atoms involved in covalent bonding need to gain electrons, they
relate the properties of metals
achieve this by approaching each other so thattheir outermost electron shells
to the bonding in metals. overlap. Any valence electrons that were not in pairs in the original atoms
are then shared, in pairs, between the two overlapping atoms. Each shared
pair of electrons forms a covalent bond and the electrons in a covalent bond
are known as a bondingEach bonding pair spends time with both
pair.
Key fact atoms, orbiting around each nucleus. Each atom now has a completed outer
electron shell and is stable. Two atoms may share one, two or three pairs of
A covalent bond is a chemical
electrons between them.
bond formed by the sharing of
a pair of electrons between two Two or more non-metal atoms can bond together by sharing electron
atoms.
pairs. When they do this, they form separate, individual entities known as
molecules. The atoms within a molecule are held together by the strong
electrostatic forces of attraction between the nuclei of the atoms and the

Key fact bonding pair or pairs of electrons. Atoms of the same element or of different
elements may bond together by covalent bonding.
A molecule is a group of two or
more atoms which are covalently
bonded together strongly enough
to behave as a single unit in a Examples to show the formation of covalent
chemical reaction. substances
The formation of a variety of substances by covalent bonding is shown next
by means of dot and cross diagrams.

Chlorine gas

Chlorine is a non-metal with seven valence electrons. It needs one more

electron to fill its valence electron shell and attain a noble gas configuration.
During the formation of a chlorine molecule, two chlorine atoms come close
enough for their outer electron shells to overlap. The two atoms share one
pair of electrons between them. The shared pair orbit around both atoms
forming a single covalent bond between the two atoms. The formula for
chlorine is C12.

2 chlorine atoms, Cl 1 chlorine molecule, C12

A Figure 5.4.1 Covalent bonding in chlorine

76
Structure and bonding Formation of covalent and metallic bonds

Water
Water is a compound formed from hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Hydrogen
is a non-metal with one valence electron. It needs one more electron to fill

its valence electron shell. Oxygen is a non-metal with six valence electrons.

It needs two more electrons to fill its valence electron shell. IWo hydrogen

atoms are needed to provide the two electrons required by oxygen. Each
hydrogen atom shares one electron pair with the oxygen atom. The formula
for water is H20.

2 hydrogen 1 oxygen 1 water molecule, H20

atoms, H atom, O
A figure 5.4.2 Covalent bonding in water

Methane
Methane is a compound formed from carbon and hydrogen. Carbon is a non-
metal with [our valence electrons. It needs four electrons to fill its valence
electron shell. Hydrogen needs one electron to fill its valence electron shell.
Four hydrogen atoms are needed to provide the four electrons required by
carbon. Each hydrogen atom shares one electron pair with the carbon atom.
The formula for methane is CH4

Oxygen gas
Oxygen needs two electrons to fill its valence electron shell. During the
formation of an oxygen molecule, two oxygen atoms come close enough
for their outer electron shells to overlap. The two atoms share two pairs of
electrons between them, forming a double covalent bond. The formula for
oxygen is 02.

1 methane molecule, CH4 1 oxygen molecule, 02

A figure 5.4.3 Covalent bonding in methane and oxygen

Carbon dioxide
Carbon needs four electrons and oxygen needs two electrons to fill their
valence electron shells. IWo oxygen atoms are needed to provide the four
electrons required by carbon. Each oxygen atom shares two electron pairs
with the carbon atom, forming a double covalent bond. The formula for
carbon dioxide is C02
 Formation of covalent and metallic bonds Structure and bonding

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is needs three more
a non-metal with five valence electrons. It

electrons to fill its valence electron shell. During the formation of a nitrogen
molecule, two nitrogen atoms come close enough for their outer electron
shells to overlap. The two atoms share three pairs of electrons between them,

A
1 carbon dioxide molecule,

Figure 5.4.4 Covalent bonding

C02

in
öö
1 nitrogen molecule, N2

carbon dioxide and nitrogen

The drawing of dot and cross diagrams to represent covalent bonding can be
simplified by showing only the valence electrons. Examples of this type of
shell diagram are shown in Figure 5.4.5.

Exam tip
1 water molecule 1 carbon dioxide molecule 1 nitrogen molecule
It is very important that you are able
to draw dot and cross diagrams
A Figure 5.4.5 Covalent bonding in water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen showing
valence electrons only
to show the bond formation in
compounds. To do this, you must Structural formulae may also be used to represent molecules in which each
first decide if compound is
the covalent bond is shown by a line between the two atoms. Examples of
ionic or covalent. If the compound structural formulae of molecules are given in Figure 5.4.6.
isformed from a metal and a
non-metal it will be ionic, if it is
formed from non-metals only it
will be covalent. Remember that a
CI—CI H—O 0=0 =o
metal usually has 1 2 or 3 valence,

electrons and a non-metal usually

has 4, 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons. chlorine water methane oxygen carbon dioxide nitrogen

Figure 5.4.6 Structural formulae of chlorine, water, methane, oxygen, carbon dioxide
and nitrogen
Element Valence Number of covalent
number bonds formed
In Unit 5.1 you learnt that the number of bonds that an atom can form when
1 1
hydrogen itbonds with other atoms is known as its valence number. This is shown
fluorire clearly bythese dot and cross diagrams. Hydrogen has a valence number of one
chlorine and the diagrams show it forming one covalent bond. Oxygen has a valence
bromine
number of two and the diagrams show it forming two covalent bonds. The
valence numbers and number of covalent bonds formed by the common non-
iodine
metals when bonding to form covalent compounds are given in Table 5.4.1.
oxygen 2 2

sulfur 2 2
Polar and non-polar covalent molecules
nitrogen 3 3
Molecules may be polar or non-polar as a result of the electronegativity of
carbon 4 4
the atoms in the molecule. Electronegativity is a measure of how strongly an
A Table 5.4.1 Valence number and atom attracts electrons. Oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine and chlorine are more
number of covalent bonds formed by strongly electronegative than atoms of other elements.
non-metal atoms

78
Structure and bonding Formation of covalent and metallic bonds

In a polar molecule, the atoms at each side ofa covalent bond attract the
electrons in the bond with different strengths.The result is that one side
of the molecule has a slightly positive charge and one side has a slightly
negative charge. Water (H20), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen chloride (HCI), 6-
ethanol (C2H50H) and glucose (C6H1206) molecules are all polar. o
e Ina non-polar molecule, the atoms at each side of a covalent bond
attract electrons with equal strengths such that the molecule does not
have any charged sides. Oxygen (02), nitrogen (NJ, chlorine (C12),
carbon dioxide (C02) and methane (CH4) molecules are all non-polar. A figure 5.4.7 A polar water molecule

Formulae of covalent compounds

The formula of a covalent compound gives the exact number of atoms of
each element in one molecule of the compound, i.e. it is the molecular
Prefix I Number of atoms
formula. In some covalent compounds the molecular formula and the ratio
mono
of elements are the same, e.g. water (H20), carbon dioxide (COO, ammonia
di 2
(NH3) and methane (CH4). In these compounds the molecular and empirical
formulae are the same. In other compounds they are not the same, e.g. the tri 3

molecular formula of glucose is CO-11206 but its empirical formula is CH20. tetr 4

pent 5
The name of a covalent compound can sometimes indicate its molecular
hex 6
formula. This is done by using the prefixes di, tri, tetr, and so on. These are
placed before the name of the element to which they are referring. These A Table 5.4.2 Prefixes sometimes used
prefixes are given in Table 5.4.2. in naming covalent compounds

Examples
CO is the formula for carbon monoxide.
o S02 is the formula for sulfur dioxide.
S03 is the formula for sulfur trioxide.
CCL is the formula for carbon tetrachloride, more correctly known as
tetrachloromethane.
o N204 is the formula for dinitrogen tetroxide.

It is a good idea to learn the molecular formulae of covalent compounds as

you come across them, especially since some cannot be derived from their
names, e.g. ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4).

positive ions
Metallic bonding
Metals have very distinct chemical and physical properties as a result of the
type of bonding that occurs between the metal atoms. The type of bonding
between metal atoms in a metal is known as metallic bonding.
The atoms in a metal are packed very closely together to form a metal lattice.
Because ofthis tight packing, the outer electron shells overlap and the valence
electrons become delocalised, i.e. they are no longer associated with any 'delocalised' electrons

particular atom. These delocalised electrons, also known as mobile electrons

A figure 5.4.8 The structure of metals
form a 'sea' of electrons which move around within the metal lattice and
belong to the lattice as a whole. Positive metal cations are formed from the
metal atoms when the electrons become delocalised. The metal lattice is held Key fact
together by the strong electrostatic force of attraction, known as the metallic
bond, which exists between the positive cations and the moving, delocalised, The metallic bond is the chemical
negative electrons. Figure 5.4.8 illustrates the bonding in metals. bond created by the electrostatic
force of attraction between the
It is important to note that metals are still made up of atoms and not ions
positive cations and the moving,
because the valence electrons have not been lost. They are still there in the
delocalised negative electrons.
structure even though they are no longer attached to a particular atom.
79
Structure and properties of solids Structure and bonding

The way in which the metal atoms are bonded in metal lattices helps us to
understand some of the properties of metals given in Unit 4.4. These are
explained below.
o Metals have high melting points and boiling points because of the
strong forces of attraction between the cations and delocalised electrons.
Large amounts of heat energy are required to separate the atoms.
Metals have high densities because the atoms are packed very closely
together.
Metals are good conductors of electricity because the delocalised
electrons are free to move. The moving electrons act as charge carriers,
which allows an electric current to be carried through the metal.
e Metals are good conductors of heat because of the delocalised electrons.
These moving electrons act as heat carriers, which allows heat to be
carried through the metal.
Metals are malleable and ductile because the atoms in a metal are all of
the same type, therefore, all of the same size. If force is applied to the
metal, the atoms can roll over each other into new positions without
breaking the metallic bond.

Summary questions
1 Use shell diagrams to represent covalent bonding in the following:
a hydrogen, H2 b phosphorus trifluoride, PF3
c hydrogen bromide, HBr d carbon disulfide, CS2.
2 Draw the shell diagram of the covalent bonding between carbon and
chlorine and give the formula of the compound.
3 Explain the terms 'delocalised electron' and 'metallic bond'.

4 Explain why metals are electrical conductors.

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: A5.5 Structure and properties of solids

describe the structure and give The properties of an element or compound, whether it is composed of
examples of ionic crystals atoms, molecules or ions, depend on the forces of attraction between the
relate the properties of sodium individual particles. This means that the properties depend on the type of
chloride to its structure chemical bond between the particles. In addition, the properties depend on
describe the structure and give the arrangement of the particles, for example, if the particles are packed very
examples of simple molecular tightly together, the element or compound will have a high density.
crystals
distinguish between ionic and When considering solids, we can identify four different structures based on
the way in which the particles are bonded within the solid. They are known
simple molecular crystals
as crystals because their particles are arranged in a three-dimensional,
describe the structure and give
ordered pattern throughout the structure. The four types of solid are:
examples of giant molecular

crystals ionic crystals

describe the structure of simple molecular crystals
diamond and graphite
giant molecular crystals
relate the properties and uses
metallic crystals.
of diamond and graphite to
their structures We have already studied the structure and properties of metals in Unit 5.4.
explain the term allotropy. We will be studying the structure and properties of the other three in this
unit.
Structure and bonding Structure and properties of solids

Ionic crystals
Ionic crystals are solids formed as a result of ionic bonding. An ionic
crystal is composed of an ionic lattice in which the cations and anions are
held together in a regular, repeating, three-dimensional arrangement by
strong electrostatic forces of attraction called ionic bonds. Ionic crystals
are represented by empirical formulae or formula units. All compounds
formed by ionic bonding have an ionic crystal structure, for example,
sodium chloride.

The structure and properties of sodium chloride

In Unit 5.2 you studied the ionic bonding between sodium and chlorine to
form sodium chloride. You may remember that the sodium chloride crystal
lattice is composed of millions of sodium ions or Na+ ions and millions of
chloride ions or Cl- ions held together by strong ionic bonds. Also that the
ions are in a ratio of 1 Na+ ion to 1 Cl- ion and that the empirical formula or
formula unit for sodium chloride is NaCl.

O = Na+ ion

O= Cl- ion

ionic bonds

A Figure 5.5.1 Crystal lattice of sodium chloride

a) Solid sodium chloride
The sodium chloride can be explained by its structure,
properties of
i.e. the arrangement and bonding of its particles, as summarised in
Table 5.5.1.

V Table 5.5.1 Properties of sodium chloride

Property Explanation

High The high melting point is due to the very strong electrostatic forces bewveen
point— about the sodium ions and chloride ions. A large amount of heat energy is needed
801 oc to weaken these forces and separate the ions from each other, allowing the
solid to melt.

Hard and The sodium and chloride ions are closely packed and held together by strong
brittle electrostatic forces makirg the solid hard. When pressure is applied to the
crystal lattice, move slightly with respect to each other and
the ion layers
ions with the same charges come to lie next to each other. Repulsion occurs
between the like charges and the lattice breaks apart, i.e. it is brittle.

Soluble in IMnen sodium chloride added to water the ions can separate resulting in
is

water sodium chloride being soluble in water. The partial positive ends of the polar

water molecules attract the negative chloride ions and the partial negative
ends attract the positive sodium ions. This pulls the ions out of the lattice
and the crystal dissolves. The ions become surrounded by the water
molecules and new forces of attraction now exist between the ions and the
water molecules. b) Sodium chloride dissolved

Conducts For a substance to conduct an electric current it must contain charged

electricity particles which are able to move. In molten (melted) sodium chloride, the ions
when molten, are no lorger held together by ionic bonds and they are able to move allowing
i.e. NaCl(l), or sodium chloride to conduct electricity inthe liquid state. When sodium water
dissolved in chloride dissolves in water, the ions move freely throughout the water, allowirg molecule
water, an aqueous solution of sodium chloride to conduct an electric current.

i.e. NaCl(aq)
A Figure 5.5.2 What happens when
sodium chloride dissolves in water
81
 Structure and properties of solids Structure and bonding

Simple molecular crystals

Simple molecular crystals are solids composed of small molecules. Each
molecule is composed of only a few atoms bonded together by strong covalent
bonds. These molecules are then arranged in a regular, three-dimensional way
to create a simple molecular lattice. The molecules within the lattice have
weak forces of attraction between them known as intermolecular forces.
These intermolecular forces hold the small molecules together. Molecular
formulae are used to represent simple molecular crystals.

Examples of simple molecular crystals include:

e ice, composed of water molecules, molecular formula H20
iodine, composed of iodine molecules, molecular formula 12

e dry ice, composed of carbon dioxide molecules, molecular formula C02

glucose, composed of glucose molecules, molecular formula C6H1206.

Distinguishing between ionic and simple molecular

solids
Ionic and simple molecular solids have very different properties because of
the different way in which their particles are bonded. These differences are
summarised in Table 5.5.2.

V Table 5.5.2 Comparison of the properties of ionic and simple molecular solids

Property Ionic solids Simple molecular solids

Examples: NaCl, KBr Examples: 12, C02, H20

Type of chemical Ionic bonds are found between ions. Covalent bonds occur between the
bond These are very strong. atoms in the molecules. These bonds
are very strong. Intermolecular forces
of attraction are found between the
molecules. These are weak.

Melting point Have a high melting point because of Have a low melting point because
the strong ionic bonds between the of the weak intermdecular forces
ions.A large amount of heat energy is bewveen the molecules. Not
needed to weaken these bonds and much heat erergy is needed to
separate the ions from each other, weaken these forces and separate
allowing the solid to melt. the molecules from each other,
allowing the solid to melt. Some
simple molecular solids sublime
when heated, e.g. iodine and
carbon dioxide.

Solubility Due to being composed of positive Follow the rule 'like dissolves like'.

and negative ions, most are soluble Polar substances dissolve in polar
in polar solvents, e.g. water, but solvents, e.g. glucose dissolves in
are insoluble in non-polar sdvents, water. Non-polar substances dissolve
e.g. kerosene, tetrachloromethane, in non-polar solvents, e.g. iodine
gasolene and other organic solvents. dissolves in tetrachloromethare.

Conductivity Do not conduct electricity when solid Do not conduct electricityin any

because the ions are held together by statebecause they do rot have any
strong ionic bonds and are not free charged particles which are free
to move. Theydo conduct electricity to move.
when molten (melted) or dissolved in
water because the ions are no longer
held together by ionic bonds and
they are free to move, which allows
an electric current to be carried.

82
Structure and bonding Structure and properties of solids

Practical activity

Investigating the solubility and electrical conductivity of

ionic and simple molecular solids

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

manipulation and measurement.

You will be supplied with sodium chloride (ionic solid), glucose and iodine
(simple molecular solids), distilled water (polar solvent), tetrachloromethane
(non-polar solvent) and the apparatus used to test electrical conductivity
shown in Figure 5.5.3.

Method
1 Investigate the solubility of sodium chloride, iodine and glucose by
following the instructions below.
Place 5 cm3 of distilled water into each of three test tubes.
Add a small spatula of sodium chloride to the first tube, a small spatula switch

second tube and a crystal of iodine to the third tube.

of glucose to the
o Shake the tubes thoroughly and observe if each substance
dissolves or not.
O Repeat the experiment using tetrachloromethane instead of
distilled water.

2 Investigate the electrical conductivity of solutions using the apparatus beaker

shown in figure 5.5.3 and by following the instructions below. carbon

electrodes
Make three solutions by adding three small spatulas of sodium solution
chloride to 25 cm3 of distilled water, three small spatulas of glucose to be tested
to 25 cm3 of distilled water and one crystal of iodine to 25 crn3 of A Figure 5.5.3 Apparatus to measure
tetrachloromethane in three separate beakers. the electrical conductivity of a solution
Place the electrodes into the sodium chloride solution and close the
switch. If the ammeter registers a reading, the solution conducts an
electric current, does not register a reading, then the solution does
if it

not conduct an electric current.Remove the electrodes and clean

them, and test the other two solutions for electrical conductivity.
3 Draw up a table to record all your results.
4 What can you conclude about:
O the type of solid (ionic or simple molecular) and
the type of solid and its electrical conductivity?
its solubility
Did you know?
Silicon dioxide, also known
as silica, is the most abundant
Giant molecular crystals mineral in the Earth's crust. It is a
Giant molecular crystals are composed of non-metal atoms bonded by component of almost every rock
strong covalent bonds in a regular, three-dimensional arrangement to form type and is the main component
a giant molecular lattice. The covalent bonds exist between the atoms of sand. Almost all of this silica

throughout the lattice such that a giant molecular crystal is also known as occurs in a crystalline form known
a macromolecule, i.e. it is a molecule composed of millions of atoms. The as quartz. Quartz that is almost
pure forms large and beautiful
empirical formula is used to represent giant molecular crystals.
These are very popular
crystals.
Examples of giant molecular crystals include: as ornamental stones and semi-
diamond, composed of carbon atoms, empirical formula C precious gemstones. For example,
amethyst is purple quartz, citrine
e graphite, also composed of carbon atoms, empirical formula C is

yellow orange and rose quartz is a

silicon dioxide, composed of silicon and oxygen atoms, empirical pink to rose-red variety.
formula Si02.
Structure and properties of solids Structure and bonding

Structure and properties of diamond

Diamond is composed of carbon atoms. Each atom is bonded covalently
to four other carbon atoms arranged in a tetrahedron around it. A crystal of
diamond consists of millions of these carbon atoms bonded to one another
throughout the crystal by strong covalent bonds. Because of the strength of
the bonds, diamond is extremely hard and has a very high melting point.
The properties of diamond can be explained by its structure, as summarised
in Table 5.5.3.

V Table 5.5.3 Properties of diamond

Property Explanation

Very high melting The covalent bonds between the carbon atoms are very strong. A very large
point — about amount of heat energy is needed to weaken these forces and separate the atoms
3550 oc from each other, allowirg the solid to melt.

Extremely hard Diamond is solid. The hardness is due to the high

the hardest naturally occurring
strength of the covalent bonds between the carbon atoms. This property is very
useful in industry as diamond is often used in cuttirg and drillirg.
Did you know? Does not conduct The valence electrons of the carbon atoms are all shared between the atoms.
electricity Carbon does not have any 'free' electrons to conduct an electric current.
The word 'diamond' comes from
the ancient Greek word 'adåmas' ,

which means 'unbreakable'.

Because diamond is so hard, a
diamond is cut using the corner
of another diamond, a technique
known as bruiting. After cutting,
the diamond is then polished
using diamond powder to create
beautiful, sparkling gems used to
make jewellery.

A Figure 5.5.4 (a) A cut diamond and (b) an uncut diamond

Did you know?
Most diamonds we see today covalent bonds
were formed millions (If not billions)
of years ago at depths of about
150 kilometres below the Earth's
surface in the molten rock of the
carbon atom
Earth's mantle where the pressure
and temperature are both extremely
high. Powerful magma eruptions
then brought the diamonds to the
Earth's surface.
A figure 5.5.5 Structure of diamond

Structure and properties of graphite

Graphite is also composed of carbon atoms. Each atom is bonded covalently
to three other carbon atoms, forming hexagonal rings of atoms which link up to
form flat sheets or layers of carbon atoms. The fourth electron of each atom is
not bonded to another atom and becomes delocalised. These layers of carbon
atoms then lie on top of each other. The covalent bonds between the carbon
atoms in the layers are very strong, however, the layers are held together by
weak forces of attraction. The properties of graphite can be explained by its
structure, as summarised in Table 5.5.4.
Structure and bonding Structure and properties of solids

Table 5.5.4 Properties of graphite

Property I Explanation
very high melting The covalent bonds between the carbon atoms are very strong. A very large
point - about amount of heat energy is needed to weaken these forces and separate the atoms
3600 oc from each other, allowing the solid to melt. Because of this, graphite can be used
in containers for molten metals, e.g. crucibles.

Soft and The weak forces between the layers of carbon atoms allow the layers to slide
lubricating over each other resulting in a 'soft' crystal which feels slippery. Because of this,
graphite can act as a lubricant.

Good conductor lhe fourth electron of each carbon atom is delocalised allowing it to move within
d electricity the crystal. These moving electrons can carry electricity through the crystal.
Because of this, graphite is used as electrodes during electrolysis.

ooo Did you know?

Graphite is a more stable form of
carbon than diamond.

one graphite layer

covalent bond

carbon atom

weak forces
between layers

how graphite
layers fit together Figure 5.5.6 Structure of graphite

Practical activity

Constructing models of sodium chloride, diamond and

graphite Exam tip
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:
It is important that you can draw

o manipulation and measurement. and describe the structure of

You will be supplied with toothpicks and small, different coloured pieces of sodium chloride, diamond and
plasticine (or similar round, soft material to use as atoms or ions). graphite and that you can relate
their properties and uses to their
Method structures.
Using the diagrams in Unit 5.5 to help you, make models of the following to
show their structure:
O sodium chloride
O diamond
graphite.

Use the plasticine to represent atoms or ions and the toothpicks to

represent the bonds between them.
Structure and properties of solids Structure and bonding

Allotropy
Key fact Diamond and graphite are known as allotropes of carbon. This is because
Allotropes are different structural they are both made out of the same element, carbon, but, in the solid state,
forms of the same element in the their carbon atoms are bonded differently. The occurence of these different
same physical state. allotropes is known as allotropy.

Because diamond and graphite are both composed of carbon atoms, they have
the same chemical properties. However, their atoms are bonded differently,
Key fact therefore, they have different crystal structures which result in them having
different physical properties.
Allotropy is the existence of
Several other elements exhibit allotropy. These include sulfur and
different structural forms of the
same element in the same physical
phosphorus, when in the solid state, and oxygen, when in the gaseous state.
State.

Summary questions
1 What type of crystal structure does each of the following have?
Did you know? Potassium bromide
b Iodine
Converting inexpensive graphite
to diamond has been a long held c Ice
dream of scientists throughout d Graphite
the world. However, the extremely e Calcium carbonate
high pressures and temperatures
2 Why can sodium chloride dissolve in water?
required to force carbon to change
bonding structure
its have meant 3 Compare the melting points of an ionic solid and a simple molecular solid.
that the process is extremely time- 4 Why are diamonds extremely hard?
consuming and energy-intensive.
Consequently it has not yet been 5 Why can graphite conduct an electric current?
achieved with any real success.

Key concepts
Atoms bond with each other to attain a more stable electronic
configuration, i.e. that of the nearest noble gas in the periodic table.

Atoms can lose, gain or share valence electrons to attain a stable

electronic configuration.

o There are three main types of chemical bonding: ionic, covalent and
metallic.

A chemical bond is a force of attraction between atoms that results from

the redistribution of their electrons.

Chemical compounds formed as a result of ionic or covalent bonding

can be represented by chemical formulae.
There are three main types of chemical formulae: molecular formulae,
structural formulae and empirical formulae.

Valence number or valency is the number of bonds an atom can

form with other atoms. Valence number can be used to write empirical
formulae of compounds composed of two different elements.
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons from metal atoms to
non-metal atoms, forming ions.
o Metal atoms form positive ions called cations and non-metal atoms
form negative ions called anions.
Structure and bonding Structure and properties of solids

In ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between

the positive cations and negative anions, known as ionic bonds, hold
these ions together in a crystal lattice.
A crystal lattice is a three-dimensional regular arrangement of particles.
Ionic compounds are represented using an empirical formula or formula
unit, both of which give the ratio of the ions present.
Many ions in ionic compounds are made from several atoms bonded
together. These ions are known as polyatomic ions.

Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between non-

metal atoms to form molecules. A shared pair of electrons forms a
covalent bond.
A molecule is a group of atoms which are bonded together strongly
enough to behave as a single unit in a chemical reaction.
Atoms within a molecule are held together by the strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between the nuclei of the atoms and the bonding
pair or pairs of electrons.

In metals, the valence electrons become delocalised and are able to move
between the metal cations which remain. These delocalised electrons are
also known as mobile electrons.

The strong electrostatic force of attraction between the delocalised

electrons and the positive cations forms the metallic bond which holds
the metal lattice together.

The properties of metals are due to the bonding within the metal lattice.
Four different solid structures can be identified based on the way the
particles arebonded within the solids.
The properties of the different solid
structures depend on the bonding
between their particles and the arrangement of the particles.
Ionic crystals result from ionic bonding. They are composed of an ionic
lattice inwhich the cations and anions are held together in a regular,
repeating, three-dimensional arrangement by strong ionic bonds.

Simple molecular crystals are composed of small molecules arranged

in a regular, three-dimensional way to create a simple molecular
lattice. Weak intermolecular forces between the molecules hold them

together.
Ionic crystals have high melting points, most dissolve in polar solvents
and they conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water.
Simple molecular crystals have low melting points, most dissolve in non-
polar solvents and they do not conduct electricity in any state.

Giant molecular crystals are composed of non-metal atoms bonded by

covalent bonds in a regular, three-dimensional arrangement to form a
giant molecular lattice, also known as a macromolecule.

Diamond and graphite are examples of giant molecular crystals.

Diamond and graphite are allotropes. They are composed of the same
element, carbon, but their atoms are bonded differently.
Diamond is very hard, has a high melting point and does not conduct
electricity.

Graphite is 'soft' and lubricating, has a high melting point and does
conduct electricity.
87
Practice exam-style questions Structure and bonding

7 Diamond and graphite are:

Practice exam-style questions A isotopes of carbon
B isomers of carbon
Multiple-choice questions C allotropes of carbon
1 Which of the following is the correct formula for D allomers of carbon
calcium phosphate?
Structured question
8 The table gives the mass number and atomic number of
C Ca3P04
four different elements.
D
Element Mass number I
Atomic number
2 The formula of the compound formed between atoms fluorine 19 9
X and Y would be:
neon 20 10
aluminium 27 13

phosphorus 31 15

x a i) Which element would not be capable of forming

compounds? (1 mark)
ii) Give a reason for your answer. (2 marks)
b FIÅvo elements in the table are capable of bonding to

A XY form an ionic compound.

B X3Y i) Name these elements. (1 mark)
ii) Give the formula of this compound. (1 mark)
C XY3
iii) By means of a dot and cross diagram, show how
D X7Y3
compound is formed.
this (3 marks)
3 Ionic bonding occurs between: c elements in the table are capable of bonding to
FIÅvo

A two metals form a covalent compound.

B a metal and a non-metal i) Name these elements. (1 mark)
C a metalloid and a non-metal ii) Give the formula of this compound. (1 mark)

D two non-metals iii) Draw a dot and cross diagram to show the
bonding in this compound. (2 marks)
4 An atom with an atomic number of 15 and an atom with
an atomic number of 9 would:
d i) Describe the bonding in aluminium. (2 marks)
ii) Why is aluminium able to conduct an electric
A form a covalent compound current? (1 mark)
B form an ionic compound
C form a metallic lattice Total 15 marks
D not bond with each other
5 Ionic compounds can only conduct electricity when in Extended response question
aqueous solution because: With the aid ofa diagram in EACH case, describe the
A water molecules conduct electricity lattice structure of:

B electrons become free when they are in aqueous i) sodium chloride (3 marks)
solution ii) graphite. (3 marks)
C the ions become free when they are in aqueous b With reference to the structure and type of bonding,
solution explain each of the following:
D protons become free when they are in aqueous i) sodium chloride is able to conduct electricity
solution when molten (2 marks)
ii) graphite is able to conduct electricity in the solid
6 Which of the following is/are the properties of a simple state (2 marks)
molecular compound? iii) both sodium chloride and graphite have high
I They are usually soluble in water. melting points. (3 marks)
II They conduct electricity in any state. c Some types of sand consist of silica, Si02. Silica is
Ill They have low melting points. does not conduct electricity in any
relatively hard,

A I and II only and has a high melting point. Describe the

state
bonding which you would expect to find in silica.
B land Ill only
(2 mark)
C II and Ill only

D Ill only Total 15 marks

 Chemical equations and
reactions
Chemical equations use symbols and formulae to Objectives
represent chemical change. There are universal By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
standards for writing chemical equations which make it
possible for chemists all over the world to interpret the understand the different
conventions used when writing
equations written by others. The theory behind chemical chemical equations
reactions is very important in the chemical industry. It write balanced chemical

equations
reduces the risk of accidents, can improve productivity
predict whether a compound is
and can increase the yield of chemicals. soluble or insoluble in water
write balanced ionic equations.

A6.1 Writing and balancing chemical equations

A chemical equation is a shorthand representation of a chemical reaction
using symbols and formulae. The chemicals that are reacting, i.e. the
reactants, are shown on the left side of the equation and the chemicals
formed during the reactions, i.e. the products, are shown on the right side.
The reactants and products are separated by an arrow:
reactants products

Understanding chemical equations

Chemists all use the same conventions when writing chemical equations so
that any person reading a chemical equation will understand exactly what it

means. The conventions used when writing chemical equations are as follows:
e The symbol or chemical formula of each reactant is placed on the left
side of the equation and the symbol or formula of each product is placed
on the right side.
e An arrow is used to separate the reactants from the products.
The arrow means 'produces'.
A plus sign (+) is used to separate each reactant and each product. The
plus sign on the left means 'reacts with' and on the right it means 'and'.

e A state symbol is written in brackets after the symbol or formula of each

reactant and product. This indicates the physical state of the reactants
and products. The state symbols used are as follows:
(s) = solid

(l) liquid
(g) = gas
(aq) = aqueous solution, i.e. a solution where water is the solvent.
e Any conditions which are required for the reaction to occur can be
written above the arrow, e.g. a specific temperature, a specific pressure
or a specific catalyst. A catalyst is a chemical substance which speeds up
a reaction without being used up in the reaction. You will learn more
about catalysts in Unit 11.2. For example,
898 oc
CaC03(s) CaO(s) + C02(g)
This shows that calcium carbonate requires heating to 898 oc for it to
decompose into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
89
Writing and balancing chemical equations Chemical equations and reactions

If the reaction is reversible, a double arrow is used. For example,

NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HC1(g)

You will learn more about reversible reactions in Unit 6.2.
The equation must balance so that the number of atoms or ions of each
element on each side of the arrow is the same. You will learn how to
balance equations in the sections that follow.

When reading an equation, each part represents a word or a statement.

Consider the following example:

AgN03(aq) + KCl(aq) AgC1(s) + KN03(aq)

The equation reads as follows: 'silver nitrate solution reacts with potassium
chloride solution to produce solid silver chloride and potassium nitrate
solution'.

Balancing chemical equations

You should have noticed that in the three chemical equations above, the
atoms are not changed during the reactions. The way in which the atoms are
bonded to each other changes, but there is the same number of atoms of each
element on both sides of each equation. In other words, atoms are neither
created nor destroyed in chemical reactions, they are only rearranged.

When writing a chemical equation, you must ensure that the number of
atoms of each element on the right side of the equation is the same as the
number on the left side. A chemical equation that conforms to this is known
asa balanced chemical equation.

You learnt about writing chemical formulae in Unit 5. To help you to

understand how to balance chemical equations, consider the following:
2H 2H represents two atoms of hydrogen, not bonded together
H2 represents one molecule of hydrogen, consisting of two atoms of
hydrogen bonded together
21--12 represents two molecules of hydrogen and, in total, four atoms of

hydrogen
3 C02 represents three molecules of carbon dioxide. In total, the number
of atoms of each element is 3C and 60 atoms
represents one formula unit of calcium which consists
nitrate,
of one Ca2+ ion and two NOE
ions; therefore, the number of atoms of
OO 2H2 OO each element is ICa, 2N and 60.
represents two formula units of calcium nitrate. In total, the
A Figure 6.1.1 Different representations
number of atoms of each element is 2Ca, 4N and 120.
of atoms and molecules
The number in frontof each formula in the list above is called the coefficient.
A coefficient of one is not written. Coefficients are used when balancing
equations. Consider the reaction between hydrogen gas and chlorine gas
to produce hydrogen chloride gas. We can summarise this reaction using
formulae as follows:

H2(g) + C12(g) HC1(g)

Studying this equation we can see that there are two atoms of hydrogen on
the left side, but only one atom on the right side. Also, there are two atoms of
chlorine on the left side, but only one atom on the right side. The equation
is, therefore, not balanced. If a coefficient, 2, is placed in front of the formula
Chemical equations and reactions Writing and balancing chemical equations

for hydrogen chloride, this now gives two atoms of hydrogen and two atoms
of chlorine on the right side:
H2(g) + C12(g) 2HC1(g)
The equation is now balanced.
It isvery important to note that when balancing equations the formulae
cannot be changed. The number of atoms of the elements can only be
changed by changing the coefficient in front of a formula. The subscripts
after the elements must always remain the same.

How to write balanced chemical equations

When writing and balancing chemical equations, the guidelines outlined
below should be followed.
Write the correct chemical formula for each reactant and product, taking
note of the following:
j- Seven of the common elements exist as diatomic molecules when in

and 12. In reactions

their free state. These are H2, N2, 02, F2, C12, Br2
involving any of these elements, write the formula for the diatomic
molecule.
- In reactions involving other elements in their free state, write the
atomic symbol of the element, e.g. if a reaction involves magnesium,
write Mg.
Separate the reactants and products by an arrow.
Separate each reactant and each product by a plus sign.
Write the state symbol after each reactant and product.
Start balancing the elements in the product immediately after the arrow
first.

Any polyatomic ion which appears unchanged from one side to the
other can be balanced as a unit, e.g. if S042- appears at both sides, Exam tip
consider it as a single unit (see Example 4).
It is essential that you can write
Ifany compounds contain hydrogen or oxygen, balance hydrogen
balanced chemical equations for
second from last and balance oxygen last (see Examples 2 and 3).
all the reactions you will encounter.

If any elements occur in their free state, leave these until the very last to Always check that you have the
balance, e.g. Fe, Ca, C12, 02. same type and number of atom
Use coefficients in front of each formula to balance the number of atoms of each element on both sides of

of each element on the left and right sides. The formulae must not be the arrow, and that you have given
the correct state symbol for each
changed.
reactant and product.
Check that the coefficients are in the lowest possible ratio.

Examples
1 Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction in which magnesium
burns in oxygen to form magnesium oxide as the only product.
Write the chemical formulae of the reactants and products together with
their state symbols. After doing this, determine the number of atoms of
each element on each side of the arrow:

Mg(s) + 02(g) MgO(s)

Reactants Products
Mg = 1 Mg = 1
0=2 0=1
91
 Writing and balancing chemical equations Chemical equations and reactions

O does not balance. Balance by placing a 2 in front of the MgO.

Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s)
Reactants Products

0=2 0=2
Now Mg does not balance. Balance by placing a 2 in front of the Mg.
2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s)
Reactants Products

0=2 0=2
The equation is now balanced.

2 Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between propane

gas (C3H8) and oxygen to form carbon dioxide and steam.

Write the chemical formulae of the reactants and products together with
their state symbols and determine the number of atoms of each element
on each side of the arrow:
C3H8(g) + 02(g) C02(g) + H20(g)
Reactants Products

0=2
None of the elements balance. Balance the carbon and hydrogen first,
leaving the oxygen in its free state until last. Balance the C by placing a 3
in front of the C02. Balance the H by placing a 4 in front of the H20.
C3H8(g) + 02(g) 3C02(g) + 4H20(g)
Reactants Products

0=2 10

O still does not balance. Balance by placing a 5 in front of the 02.

C3H8(g) + 502(g) 3C02(g) + 4H20(g)
Reactants Products

o= 10 0=6+4- 10
The equation is now balanced.

3 Balance the following equation:

Ca(HC03)2(aq) + HCl(aq) CaC12(aq) + C02(g) + H20(1)

Determine the number of atoms of each element on each side of the arrow:

+ HCl(aq) CaC12(aq) + C02(g) + H20(1)

Reactants Products
Ca=l Ca=l
H-2+1=3

92
Chemical equations and reactions Writing and balancing chemical equations

Startby balancing the elements in the product immediately after the

arrow. Ca balances, but Cl does not balance. Balance by placing a 2 in
front of the HCI.

+ 2HC1(aq) CaC12(aq) + C02(g) + H20(1)

Reactants Products

H = 2+2=4

0=6 0=2 +1=3

Balance the carbon and hydrogen next. Balance the C by placing a 2 in
front of the C02. Balance the H
by placing a 2 in front of the H20.
+ 2HC1(aq) CaC12(aq) + 2C02(g) + 2H20(1)
Reactants Products

H = 2+2=4

0=6

The equation is now balanced.

4 Balance the following equation

+ NaN03(aq)
In this reaction, the NOE and the OH ions are polyatomic ions which
remain unchanged from one side to the other. They are, therefore,
treated as single units when determining the number of atoms of each
element at each side of the arrow.

+ NaN03(aq)
Reactants Products
A1-I A1 = 1
N03 = 3 N03 = 1
Na=l
OH = 1 OH = 3
Startwith the product immediately after the arrow. OHdoes not balance.
Balance by placing a 3 in front of the NaOH. Move on to the next product.
N03 does not balance. Balance by placing a 3 in front of the NaN03.
+ 3NaN03(aq)
Reactants Products
A1 = 1 A1 = 1
N03 = 3 N03 = 3

OH = 3 OH = 3
The equation is now balanced.

State symbols of ionic compounds

In Unit 5.5 you learnt that most ionic compounds are soluble in water. Some
ionic compounds are, however, insoluble in water. When writing equations
involving ionic compounds, it is very important to know whether the ionic
compound is soluble or insoluble in water. If it is insoluble, then it would
93
Writing and balancing chemical equations Chemical equations and reactions

always be given the state symbol (s). If it is soluble it would usually be given
the state symbol (aq). Table 6.1.1 gives the solubility rules for determining
the solubility of ionic compounds in water.

V Table 6.1.1 Solubility of ionic compounds in water

Solubility rule Exceptions

Allcompounds of Group metals are

I None.
soluble, e.g. compounds of lithium, sodium
and potassium.

All ammonium compounds are soluble. None.

Most nitrates and ethanoates are soluble. Silver etharoate (CHaCOOAg) is only slightly soluble.

Most chlorides, bromides and iodides are Those of lead and silver are insoluble. Lead(ll) chloride
soluble. (PbC12) and lead(ll) bromide (PbBr2) are moderately
soluble in hot water.

Most sulfates are soluble. Those of lead and barium are insoluble. Calcium sulfate
(CaS04) and silver sulfate (AgS04) are slightly soluble.

All hydrogencarbonates are soluble. None.

Exam tip Most carbonates and phosphates are Those of Group metals and ammonium are
I soluble.
insoluble.
It is essential that you learn the
Most metal hydroxides are insoluble. Those of Group metals and ammonium are
I soluble.
solubility rules so that you can Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2) is moderately soluble,
give the correct state symbols calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is slightly soluble and
when writing chemical equations. magresium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) is very slightly soluble.

This is particularly important when Most metal oxides are insoluble. Those of Group metals, calcium and barium, react
I

writing ionic equations. with water to form the equivalent hydroxides.

Writing ionic equations

Ionic equations show only the atoms or ions which actually take part in a
reaction and, as a result, end up in a different state from the one in which
they started. For example,
two ions in solution may join to form an insoluble compound within
the solution,known as a precipitate
two ions may form a covalent compound composed of molecules
an ion maybe converted to an atom, i.e. it maybe discharged
an element in its free state may be converted to an ion, i.e. it may
be ionised.

The following steps should be followed when writing ionic equations.

1) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

2) Rewrite the equation, but show any ions that are present in solution as
A Figure 6.1.2 Example of a precipitate individual ions.
formed in a solution
3) Delete any ions which remain unchanged, i.e. which are in solution on
both sides of the equation. These are called spectator ions and they do
not take part in the reaction.

4) Rewrite the ionic equation showing only the atoms or ions which
change, i.e. those which actually take part in the reaction.

5) Cancel the coefficients to the lowest possible ratio if necessary.

important to note that when acids, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)),

It is

nitric acid (HN03(aq)) and sulfuric acid (H2S04(aq)), are in aqueous solution
they ionise to form hydrogen ions, or H + ions, and negative anions.
Chemical equations and reactions Writing and balancing chemical equations

Examples
1 Write the ionic equation for the reaction between lead nitrate solution and sodium
chloride solution to produce insoluble lead chloride and sodium nitrate solution.

1) Write the balanced chemical equation:

Pb(N03)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) PbC12(s) + 2NaN03(aq)

2) Rewrite the equation showing ions present in solution as individual ions:

Pb2 (aq) + 2N03-(aq) + 2Na (aq) + 2C1-(aq) PbC12(s) + 2Na (aq) + 2N03-(aq)
3) Delete the Na+(aq) and N03-(aq) ions since they remain unchanged:

Pb2 (aq) + 2NOHaqT+ 2C1 (aq) PbC12(s) +2Na-faqT+ zsos-fa-q)

4) Rewrite the ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) PbC12(s)

2 Write the ionic equation for the reaction between potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid
(H2S04(aq)) to produce potassium sulfate and water.

1) 2KOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) K2S04(aq) + 2H20(1)

2) 2K (aq) + 20H (aq) + 2H (aq) + S042-(aq) 2K (aq) + S042-(aq) + 2H20(1)

3) 20H (aq) + 2H (aq) +so+--ta-qT 2K--(--aqT+ SO*-taqT + 2H20(1)

4) 20H-(aq) + 2H+(aq) 2H20(1)

5) OH-(aq) + H (aq) H20(1) Key fact

3 Write the ionic equation for the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid It is extremely
(HCl(aq)) to produce magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas. important that you
give the correct
1) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgC12(aq) + H2(g) state symbols
when writing ionic
2) Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2C1-(aq) + H2(g)
equations and
3) Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) +2C1-faqj Mg2+(aq) +2C1--faqj+ H2(g) that the equations
balance.
4) Mg(S) + 2H+ (aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

Summary questions
1 Write balanced equations for the following reactions:
Aluminium + oxygen aluminium oxide
b N2(g) + H2(g) NH3(g)
c CH4(g) + 02(g) C02(g) + H20(g)
d The reaction between potassium and water to produce potassium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
The reaction between aluminium hydrogencarbonate and hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq))
to produce aluminium chloride, carbon dioxide and water.
The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to produce steam.
2 State whether the following compounds are soluble or insoluble in water:

Agl Na2C03 KMn04 (NH4)3P04

3 Balance the following equations and then write the ionic equation for each reaction:
a Na2C03(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + C02(g) + H20(l)
b KOH(aq) + K2S04(aq) + NH3(g) + H20(l)
c + NaS04(aq) BaS04(s) + NaN03(aq)

95
Types of chemical reactions Chemical equations and reactions

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Chemical reactions form an integral part of our lives, from reactions
that take place in our bodies, such as respiration which changes glucose
identify the seven main types
into energy, to complex reactions, which produce pharmaceutical
of chemical reactions
products. There are seven main types of chemical reactions which are
give examples of the main
described below.
types of chemical reactions
write balanced equations for
the different types of chemical Synthesis reactions
reactions.
Synthesis reactions are reactions in which two or more substances combine
chemically to form a single product.

A synthesis reaction is generally symbolised by:

Examples of synthesis reactions are as follows:

2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s)

2FeC12(s) + C12(g) 2FeC13(s)

Decomposition reactions
Did you know? Decomposition reactions are reactions in which a single reactant is broken
Many islands of the Caribbean, down into two or more products. A decomposition reaction will occur if the
being coral islands, are composed compound is unstable, if the compound is heated (thermal decomposition)
largely of calcium carbonate. or if an electric current is passed through the compound when in the liquid
When the sugar industry first state or dissolved in aqueous solution (electrolysis).
started in Barbados, a coral island,
calcium carbonate was quarried
A decomposition reaction is generally symbolised by:
and roasted in lime kilns to produce
calcium oxide. The calcium oxide
was then used to clarify the cane Examples of decomposition reactions are as follows:
juice during the extraction of heat
sucrose from sugar cane, which CaC03(s) CaO(s) + C02(g)
at one time was a major industry heat
2PbO(s) + 4N02(g) + 02(g)
within the island (Unit 2.5).

Single displacement reactions

single displacement reaction involves the reaction between an element
in and a compound. The element in its free state takes the place
its free state

of (displaces) another element in the compound. A more reactive element

will always displace a less reactive element from a compound. Displacement
reactions can be divided into two types.

o A metal may displace another metal from a compound or it may

displace the hydrogen from an acid.
This type of single displacement reaction can generally be symbolised by:

A + BX AX + B
Examples of this type of single displacement reaction are as follows:

Mg(S) + CuS04(aq) MgS04(aq) + cu(s)

zn(s) + 2HC1(aq) ZnC12(aq) + H2(g)
Chemical equations and reactions Types of chemical reactions

Writing these as ionic equations:

Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Zn(s) + (aq) -••—.> Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
In the above examples, magnesium is more reactive than copper and zinc
appears above hydrogen in the reactivity series (see Unit 18.1).

e A non-metal may displace another non-metal from a compound.

This type of single displacement reaction can be generally symbolised by:
X + AY AX + Y
An example of this type of single displacement reaction is as follows:
C12(g) + 2KBr(aq) 2KC1(aq) + BrÅaq)
Writing this as an ionic equation:

C12(g) + 2C1-(aq) + Br2(aq)

In this example, chlorine is more reactive than bromine.

Ionic precipitation reactions

Ionic precipitation reactions are sometimes referred to as double
displacement reactions. They usually involve two compounds which are in
solution, where the compounds exchange ions.

An ionic precipitation reaction is generally symbolised by:

AX + BY AY + BX
To have a successful ionic precipitation reaction, one or both of the products
must be incapable of undergoing the reverse reaction. This is generally Key fact
because they form one product which is insoluble, known as a precipitate.
A precipitate is an insoluble solid
Examples of ionic precipitation reactions are as follows: that forms in a solution, often as a
result of a chemical reaction.
AgN03(aq) + KBr(aq) AgBr(s)+ KN03(aq)
BaC12(aq) + Na2S04(aq) BaS04(s) + 2NaC1(aq)

Writing these as ionic equations:

Ag (aq) + Br-(aq) AgBr(s)

Ba2+ (aq) + S042¯ (aq) BaS04(s)

Neutralisation reactions
Neutralisation reactions are reactions between a base (or an and an
alkali)
acid. The acid is neutralised by the base (or alkali) and the products formed
are a salt and water.
An example of a neutralisation reaction is:
NaOH(aq) + HC1(aq) NaC1(aq) + H20(1)

Writing this as an ionic equation:

OH (aq) +H (aq) H20(1)

Redox reactions
Redox reactions, or oxidation-reduction reactions, are chemical reactions
in which one reactant is reduced and the other reactant is oxidised. Redox
reactions will be covered in more detail in Unit 9.
97
Types of chemical reactions Chemical equations and reactions

Reversible reactions
Reversible reactions occur when the direction of a chemical change
can be reversed the products can react to produce the original
easily, i.e.
reactants again. Most reactions are not reversible; they can only proceed in
one direction.

If a reaction is reversible, a double arrow G—) is used. In a reversible

reaction, we refer to the forward reaction as proceeding from left to right and
the reverse or backward reaction as proceeding from right to left.

A reversible reaction is generally symbolised by:

C+D
For example,when ammonium chloride is heated, it decomposes into
ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases:
white ring of NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HC1(g)
ammonium chloride
forms near the top Ifthe ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases are cooled (or mixed at room
temperature) they react to form ammonium chloride:

NH3(g) + HC1(g) NH4C1(s)

ammonium
chloride The reaction is, therefore, reversible and the equation can be written as
follows:

NH4C1(s) NH3(g) + HC1(g)

In Figure 6.2.1, as the ammonium chloride is heated it forms ammonia and

hydrogen chloride gases, which diffuse up the test tube. The top of the tube
is much cooler and when the gases reach here, they react and form a ring of
Bunsen burner
ammonium chloride around the inside of the tube.
In many reversible reactions, the reaction can proceed in both directions at
the same time such that the reaction always contains a mixture of reactants
and products. If the reaction occurs in a sealed system where no substances
can enter or leave, then a stage is reached where the rates of the forward and
A Figure 6.2.1 Heating ammonium backward reactions are equal. The reaction does not stop and is said to have
chloride reached dynamic equilibrium.

Summary questions
1 Balance the following equations, then classify the reactions as synthesis,
decomposition, single displacement, ionic precipitation or neutralisation
reactions:

a MgO(s) + N02(g) + 02(g)

b Fe(s) + C12(g) FeC13(S)

c zn(s) + HCl(aq) ZnC12(aq) + H2(g)

d NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) NaS04(aq) + H20(l)

AgN03(aq) + MgBr2(aq) AgBr(s) +

Chemical equations and reactions Types of chemical reactions

Key concepts
Chemical equations are representations of chemical reactions using
symbols and formulae.
The reactants are shown at the left of an equation and the products on
the right.
The state of each reactant and product is given after its formula using (s)
for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas and (aq) for aqueous solution.
In a balanced chemical equation there must be the same number of
atoms of each element on both sides of the equation.

Coefficients are numbers placed in front of formulae. They are used

when balancing equations. Formulae must never be changed.
There are solubility rules which can be used to determine the solubility
of ionic compounds in water. These are useful in determining state
symbols of ionic compounds.
Ionic equations show only the atoms or ions which actually take part in
end up in a different situation from the one in
a reaction and, as a result,
which they started.
Writing ionic equations involves writing the full equation first, but
showing any ions that are present in solution as individual ions to
determine which ions do not change in any way.
Spectator ions are the ions which do not take part in a reaction and,
remain unchanged. These are left out of the final ionic
therefore,
equation.
There are seven main types of chemical reactions: synthesis,
decomposition, single displacement, ionic precipitation, neutralisation,
redox and reversible reactions.
synthesis reaction is any reaction in which two or more reactants
combine to form a single product.
A decomposition reaction is any reaction where a single reactant is
broken down into two or more products.
single displacement reaction any reaction between an element
is

in its free state and a compound where the element displaces another
element from the compound.
ionic preci pitation reaction usually involves two compounds in
aqueous solution reacting to produce a precipitate.
A precipitate is an insoluble solid that forms in a solution, often as a
result of a chemical reaction.
A neutralisation reacti on occurs when an acid reacts with a base (or
alkali) to form a salt and water.
A redox reaction occurs when one reactant is reduced and the other is
oxidised.

reversible reaction occurs when the direction of a chemical change

can be reversed easily, i.e. the products can react to produce the original
reactants again.
 Practice exam-style questions Chemical equations and reactions

Equations to write
Practice exam-style questions
6 Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the
Multiple-choice questions following reactions.

1 Which of the following correctly represents the a The reaction between aluminium and chlorine to
chemical reaction between sodium hydroxide and produce aluminium chloride as the only product.
sulfuric acid to produce sodium sulfate and water? b The reaction between aluminium oxide and sulfuric
A NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) NaS04(aq) + H20(l) acid (H2S04(aq)), which produces aluminium sulfate
and water.
B 2NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) Na2S04(s) + 2H20(l)
c The reaction between potassium carbonate solution
C 2NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) Na2S04(aq)
and hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)) to produce
+ 2H20(l)
potassium chloride, carbon dioxide and water.
D + H2S04(aq) NaS04(aq) d The reaction between ethane (C2H6(g)) and oxygen to
+ 2H20(1)
make carbon dioxide and steam.
2 Which of the following compounds is soluble in water? e The reaction between aqueous solutions of lead(ll)
A copper(ll) sulfate nitrate and potassium sulfate to make lead(ll) sulfate

B magnesium carbonate and potassium nitrate.

C zinc hydroxide f The reaction between potassium hydroxide solution
and ammonium sulfate solution to form potassium
D calcium phosphate
sulfate, ammonia gas and water.
3 Aqueous solutions of which of the following compounds
g The reaction between calcium and hydrochloric
would react to form a precipitate when mixed? acid (HCl(aq)), which makes calcium chloride and
A sodium chloride and copper(ll) nitrate hydrogen.
B zinc sulfate and magnesium chloride h The reaction between sodium and water to produce
C potassium hydroxide and sodium nitrate sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.
D lead nitrate and ammonium carbonate i The reaction between magnesium
hydrogencarbonate solution and nitric acid
4 Consider the following reaction: (HN03(aq)), which produces magnesium nitrate,
+ 2HCl(aq) MgC12(aq) carbon dioxide and water.
+ 2C02(g) + 2H20(l)
j The reaction between sodium hydroxide solution
The best ionic equation for this reaction is: and sulfuric acid (H2S04(aq)) to make sodium sulfate
A + 2HC03-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
Mg2+(aq)
and water.
Mg2+(aq)
+ 2C02(g) + 2H20(1) 7 Write balanced ionic equations for the reactions in c, e,
B 2HC03-(aq) + 2H+(aq) 2C02(g) + 2H20(1) f, g, i and j in question 6 above.

C HC03-(aq) + 2H+(aq) C02(g) + H20(1)

D HC03-(aq) + H + (aq) --—.> C02(g) + H20(1)
5 What type of reaction would you consider the following
to be?

2Al(s) + 3H2S04(aq) + 3H2(g)

A a neutralisation reaction

B a single displacement reaction

C a double displacement reaction
D a synthesis reaction

100
 The mole concept

Objectives
substance required to produce a product. For example, By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
how much ammonia and nitric acid are required to
define the terms relative atomic
produce 1 kg of the fertiliser ammonium nitrate? The
mass, relative molecular mass
mass of an atom
so small that chemists have had
is and relative formula mass
to devise another method of measuring the amount of calculate relative molecular and
formula masses
substances; this method uses the mole. define the terms mole and
molar mass
give Avogadro's constant
A7.1 The mole and mass
perform calculations involving
moles, masses and number of
Relative atomic, molecular and formula masses particles.
You mass of atoms is extremely small,
learnt in Unit 3.3 that because the
scientists use a much gram to compare their masses,
smaller unit than a
known as relative atomic mass. They designed a system which compares
the mass of an atom with one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
A carbon-12 atom was assigned a mass of 12.00 atomic mass units or
amu, therefore, one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom has a mass of
1.00 amu.

Relative atomic mass, therefore,compares the mass of an atom of an

element to one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Because it is a
comparative value, relative atomic mass has no units. Relative atomic
mass is given the symbol Ar.

In the definition of relative atomic mass given in the Key fact box, we use the
Key fact
word 'average' because relative atomic mass takes into account the relative Relative atomic mass, Ar, is the
abundance of each isotope. The relative atomic mass of an element, to the average mass of one atom of an
nearest whole number, can be found in the periodic table on page 360. For element compared to one-twelfth
example, the relative atomic mass of calcium is 40 and of fluorine is 19. the mass of an atom of carbon-1 2.

When calculating the masses of covalent and ionic compounds we use the
same logic by comparing their masses to the carbon-12 atom.
Key fact
Molecular elements and compounds formed by covalent bonding are
Relative molecular mass, Mr, is
composed of molecules. We use the term relative molecular mass to
the average mass of one molecule
compare the mass of a molecule of a molecular element or compound with
of an element or compound
one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Relative molecular mass is given compared to one-twelfth the mass
the symbol Mr. of an atom of carbon-12.

Compounds formed by ionic bonding are represented by formula units. We

use the term relative formula mass to compare the mass of a formula unit of
an ionic compound with one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Key fact
To determine the relative molecular mass or relative formula mass, we Relative formula mass is the
average mass of one formula unit
add together the relative atomic masses of all the elements present in the
of a compound compared to one-
compound. Since relative molecular and formula masses are comparative
twelfth the mass of an atom of
values, they have no units.
carbon-12.

101
 The mole and mass The mole concept

Examples
1 Calculate the relative molecular mass of nitrogen, N2.

N2 consists of 2 atoms of N.

relative molecular mass ofN2 = (2 x 14) = 28.

2 Calculate the relative molecular mass of glucose, C6H1206.

C6H1206 consists of 6 atoms of H, 12 atoms of H and 6 atoms of O.
molecular mass of
relative
C6H1206 = (6 x 12) + (12 x 1) + (6 x 16) = 180

3 Calculate the relative formula mass of magnesium carbonate, MgC03.

MgC03 consists of 1 atom of Mg, 1 atom of C and 3 atoms of O.
relative formula mass of
MgC03 = (1 x 24) + (1 x 12) + (3 x 16) = 84.

The mole
We use different terms to represent a fixed amount of something, e.g. a dozen
apples represents 12 apples and a pair of gloves represents two gloves. The
same concept is used in chemistry. The mole represents a fixed number. It
can be used to describe anything, e.g. a mole of apples, a mole of gloves, a
mole of atoms or a mole of molecules. However, a mole represents a very
large number and is, therefore, used mainly as a measurement of atomic

Key fact sized particles.

Like relative atomic mass, the mole has been defined using the carbon-12
A mole is the amount of a
isotope because of its high abundance and stability. It was found that 12.00 g
substance that contains the same
of carbon-12 contains 6.0 x 1023 atoms of carbon-12. One mole represents
number of particles as there are
atoms in 12.00g of carbon-12.
the number of atoms in 12.00 g of carbon-12, i.e. 6.0 x 1023. This number is
known as Avogadro's constant,
In other words, a mole is the amount of a substance that contains 6.0 x 1023
particles of the substance.

Looking at the definition of a mole in the Key fact box:

e 'amount' can refer to the mass ofa substance or the volume of a
substance if the substance is a gas
o 'particles' can refer to atoms, molecules, formula units or ions.

In the same way that it was found that 12.00g of carbon-12 contains
6.0 x 1023 carbon-12 atoms, it was found that:

0 40 g of calcium (Ca) contains 6.0 x 1023 Ca atoms

0 28 g of nitrogen (N2) contains 6.0 x 1023 N2 molecules
0 180 g of glucose (C6H1206 ) contains 6.0 x 1023 C6H1206 molecules
0 84 g of magnesium carbonate (MgC03) contains 6.0 x 1023 MgC03
formula units.

If we look at the masses given above we see that each mass has the same
numerical value as the relative mass of the element or compound and each
is the mass of one mole of particles of the substance.

NB When writing the mole as a unit, it is usually abbreviated to mol.

102
The mole concept The mole and mass

Molar mass
The mass of one mole of a substance is known as its molar mass,
Key fact
The molar mass of an element or a compound is given the unit grams Molar mass, M, is the mass, in
grams, of one mole of a substance.
per mole or gmol-l. For example, because 12.00g of carbon contains
6.0 x 1023 carbon atoms, or 1 mol of carbon atoms, the molar mass of carbon
is 12 g mol-l.

The molar mass of different elements and compounds will be different even
though they are all the mass of one mole, just as the mass of one dozen
apples will be different from the mass of a dozen grapes even though they
are both a dozen. This is because the mass of the atoms of each element is
different, just as themass of an apple is different from the mass of a grape.

Calculating molar mass

Looking at the findings above, it can be seen that:
because 40 gof calcium contains 6.0 x 1023 Ca atoms, or 1 mol of
Ca atoms, the molar mass of calcium is 40 g mol-l
because 28 gof nitrogen contains 6.0 x 1023 N2 molecules, or 1 mol of
N2 molecules, the molar mass of nitrogen is 28 g mol-l
because 180g of glucose contains 6.0 x 1023 C6H1206 molecules, or 1 mol
of C6H1206 molecules, the molar mass of glucose is 180 g mol-l

because 84 g of magnesium carbonate contains 6.0 x 1023 MgC03

formula units, or 1 mol of MgC03 formula units, the molar mass of
magnesium carbonate is 84 gmol-l.
Therefore, the molar mass of an element or compound is the relative atomic,
molecular or formula mass amount expressed in grams per mole.

More examples
M(H20) = (2 x 1) + 16 = 18gm01-1
M(CuS04) = 64 + 32 + (4 x 16) = 160gm01-1
= (3 x 40) + (2 x 31) + (8 x 16) = 310gm01-1
= (2 x 14) + (8 x 1) + 12 + (3 x 16) = 96gm01-1

Moles and mass

Molar mass gives us the relationship between the number of moles and the
mass of an element or compound. We can use the molar mass to calculate
the mass or number of moles of an element or compound.

Examples
1 Calculate the number of moles in 10 g of calcium carbonate, CaC03.

First calculate the molar mass of CaC03.

M(CaC03) = 40 + 12 + (3 x 16) = IOOgm01-1

i.e. mass of 1 mol CaC03 = 100 g
10
number of moles in I()g = —mol = 0.1 mol
100

103
 The mole and mass The mole concept

2 Calculate the mass of 0.2 mol of sulfuric acid, H2S04.

Exam tip
First calculate the molar mass of H2S04.
When performing calculations
M(H2S04) = (2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x 16) = 98 gmol 1
in chemistry, including those
involving the mole, it is essential i.e. mass of 1 mol H2S04 = 98 g
that you show each step of your
mass of 0.2 mol of H2S04 = 0.2 x 98 g = 19.6g
working clearly by making a clear
statement. You must not just put
down a set of numbers without
Moles and number of particles
stating what you are calculating.
The number of particles in one mole is always 6.0 x 1023. Using this fact we
can calculate the number of particles in any number of moles. Remember
that the type of particle in a substance depends on the type of bonding in
the substance.
If a substance is an element, e.g. metals and the noble gases, then the
particles are individual atoms.

e If a substance is a molecular element, e.g. oxygen, or a covalent

compound, e.g. water, then the particles are molecules made up
of atoms.

o If a substance is an ionic compound, e.g. sodium chloride, then the

particles are formula units made up of ions.

Examples
1 Calculate the number of atoms in 0.5 mole of copper, Cu.
1 mol Cu contains 6.0 x 1023 atoms.

0.5 mol Cu contains 0.5 x 6.0 x 1023 atoms = 3.0 x 1023 atoms

2 Calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide, C02, that contain

2.0 x 1023 carbon dioxide molecules.

1 mol C02 contains 6.0 x 1023 molecules.

number of moles in 2.0 x = 2.0 x 1023

1023 molecules mol
6.0 x 1023
0.33

We can extend our calculations of moles and particles to look at the

number of moles or particles inside a compound. For example:
e 1 mol of water, H20, consists of: 1 mol of H20 molecules, or 2 mol of
H atoms and 1 mol of O atoms
2 mol of potassium carbonate, K2C03 consists of: 2 mol of K2C03
formula units, or 4 mol of K+ ions and 2 mol of C032- ions.
Exam tip
Example
It is you place the
essential that
correct unit after each value given Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms in 1.5 mol of methane, CH4.
your calculations, especially your
in
1 mol CH4 contains 4 mol H atoms.
answers. The only values that
final

have no units are relative atomic, 1.5 mol CH4 contains 1.5 x 4 mol H atoms = 6 mol H atoms.
molecular and formula masses.
Your answer is incorrect if it has the
1 mol H atoms contains 6.0 x 1023 atoms.

wrong unit or no unit, unless it is 6 mol H atoms contains 6 x 6.0 x 1023 atoms = 3.6 x 1024 atoms
the value for relative mass.

104
The mole concept The mole and mass

Moles, mass and number of particles

We can now combine our calculation of moles and mass, and moles and
number of particles.

Examples
1 Calculate the number of molecules in 1.8 g of water, H20.
M(H20) = (2 x 1) + 16 = 18gm01-1
i.e. mass of 1 mol H20 = 18 g

number of moles in 1.8 g = —

1.8
18
mol = 0.1 mol

1 mol H20 contains 6.0 x 1023 molecules

0.1 mol H20 contains 0.1 x 6.0 x 1023 molecules
— 6.0 x 1022 molecules

2 Calculate the mass of 1.5 x 1023 molecules of hydrogen chloride, HCI.

1 mol HCI contains 6.0 x 1023 molecules
number of moles in 1.5 x 1023 molecules = 1.5 x 1023
mol = 0.25
6.0 x 1023
M(HCI) = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5gm01 -1
i.e. mass of 1 mol HCI = 36.5 g
mass of 0.25 mol HCI = 0.25 x 36.5 g = 9.13 g

3 Calculate the number of aluminium ions, A13+, in 40.8 g of aluminium

oxide, A1203.

M(A1203) = (2 x 27) + (3 x 16) = 102 gmol -1

mass of mol A1203 = 102g

i.e. 1

number of moles in 40.8 g = — 40.8

102
mol = 0.4 mol

1 mol A1203 contains 2 mol A13+ ions.

0.4 mol A1203 contains 0.4 x 2 mol A13+ ions
— 0.8 mol A13+ ions.
1 mol A13+ ions contains 6.0 x 1023 ions

0.8 mol A13+ ions contains 0.8 x 6.0 x 1023 ions

— 4.8 x 1023 ions.

Summary questions
1 Calculate themass of:
a 0.25 mol of sodium sulfate, NaS04 b 1.2 mol of glucose, C6H1206.

2 Calculate the number of moles in:

20 g of neon b 63.0g of magnesium carbonate.

3 Calculate the number of molecules in 1.5 mol of hydrogen chloride, HCI.

4 Calculate the mass of 2.5 x 1023 formula units of calcium phosphate,

5 Calculate the number of molecules in 34 g of ammonia, NH3.

6 Calculate the number of chloride ions in 6.8 g of zinc chloride, ZnC12.

105
 The mole and gas volumes The mole concept

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Gases have very small masses because of their low densities, so chemists have
investigated the relationship between the number of moles of a gas and the
state Avogadro's law
volume occupied by the gas.
define molar volume
perform calculations involving In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro noticed that all gases under the same conditions
moles and volumes of gases. of temperature and pressure, and occupying the same volume, contain
the same number of molecules. He proposed Avogadro's law.

As an example, using Avogadro's law, we can say that 100 cm3 of oxygen gas
Key fact at a temperature of 25 oc and pressure of 101.3 kPa has the same number of
molecules as 100cm3 of nitrogen gas at 25 oc and 101.3 kPa.
Avogadro's law states that equal
volumes of all gases, under the Ifthenumber of molecules in each gas is 6.0 x 1023, i.e. 1 mol, it follows that
same conditions of temperature 1mol of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
and pressure, contain the same must occupy the same volume.
number of molecules.

Molar volume
The volume of one mole ofa gas is known as its molar volume, or vm
Key fact
Molar volume is, therefore, the volume of a gas which contains
Molar volume, Vm is the volume 6.0 x 1023 molecules of the gas.
occupied by 1 mol of a gas.
Since temperature and pressure both affect the volume of a gas, molar
volume will depend on both of these. Chemists mostly work with two sets
of conditions.

Standard temperature and pressure, or stp, which equates to a

temperature of OOC (273 K) and a pressure of 101.3 kPa (1 atmosphere).

Molar volume at stp is 22.4 dm3 or 22 400 cm3

Room temperature and pressure, or rtp, which equates to a

temperature of 25 oc (298 K) and a pressure of 101.3 kPa (1 atmosphere).

Molar volume at rtp is 24.0 dm3 or 24000 cm3

Molar volume gives us the relationship between the number of moles and
the volume of a gas. We can use the molar volume to calculate the volume or
number of moles of a gas.

Examples
1 Calculate the volume occupied by 0.25 mol nitrogen, N2, at stp.

Volume of 1 mol ofN2 at stp = 22.4 dm3

volume of 0.25 mol ofN2 at stp = 0.25 x 22.4 dm3 = 5.6dm3

2 Calculate the number of moles in 2.4 dm3 of oxygen gas, 02, at rtp.

Volume of 1 mol of 02 at rtp = 24.0dm3

number of moles in 2.4 dm3 of 02 at rtp = mol = 0.1 mol
24.0

We can now combine our calculations with those in Unit 7.1 to involve
moles, mass, volume and number of particles.

106
The mole concept The mole and gas volumes

Examples
1 Calculate the volume occupied by 6.4 g of oxygen, 02 at stp.
Calculate the molar mass of 02 gas.
M(02) = 2 x 16 = 32 gmol-l
i.e. mass of 1 mol of02 = 32 g

number of moles in 6.4 g = —

6.4
32
mol = 0.2 mol

volume of 1 mol 02 at stp = 22.4 dm3

volume of 0.2 mol 02 gas at stp = 0.2 x 22.4 dm3 = 4.48 dm3

2 Calculate the mass of 600 cm3 of carbon dioxide, C02, at rtp.

Volume of 1 mol C02 at rtp = 24 000 cm3

600
number of moles in 600 cm3 mol
24 ooo
0.025 mol
M(C02) = 12 + (2 x 16) = 44 gmol-l
i.e. mass of 1 mol C02 = 44 g
mass of 0.025 mol C02 0.025 x 44 g
1.1 g

3 Calculate the number of molecules in 6.72 dm3 of ammonia, NH3, at stp.

Volume of 1 mol NH3 at stp = 22.4 dm3

6.72
number of moles in 6.72 dm3 = mol
22.4
0.3 mol
1 mol NH3 contains 6.0 x 1023 molecules

0.3 mol NH3 contains 0.3 x 6.0 x 1023 molecules

— 1.8 x 1023 molecules

4 Calculate the volume occupied by 4.5 x 1022 molecules of hydrogen

chloride gas, HCI at rtp.
1 mol HCI contains 6.0 x 1023 molecules.

number of moles x = 4.5 X 1022

in 4.5 1022 molecules mol
6.0 x 1023
0.075 mol
volume of 1 mol HCI at rtp = 24 dm3
volume of 0.075 mol HCI at rtp 0.075 x 24.0 dm3
1.8 dm3

Summary questions
1 Calculate the mass, volume and number of molecules in 2.5 mol of

ammonia, NH3.
2 Calculate the number of atoms in 4.8 dm3 of neon gas at rtp.

3 Calculate the volume of 16 g of sulfur dioxide, S02, at stp.

4 Determine the mass of 840 cm3 of oxygen gas, 02, at rtp.

107
 The mole and concentration of solutions The mole concept

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: You have already come across ways of describing solutions such as dilute,
concentrated and saturated. However, we can express the concentration
explain what is meant by
of a solution in more precise ways, which allow us to perfume calculations
concentration of a solution
involving solutions. The concentration of a solution is a measure of the
explain the terms mass quantity of a solute dissolved in a fixed volume of the solution. The volume
concentration and molar
of solution usually used is 1 dm3, i.e. 1000 cm3.
concentration
define the term standard Concentration of a solution can be expressed in two ways.
solution Mass concentration, which gives the mass of solute dissolved in 1 dm3
perform calculations involving of solution. The unit for mass concentration is grams of solute per cubic
concentrations of solutions. decimetre of solution or g -3 dm
Molar concentration, which gives the number of moles of solute
dissolved in 1 dm3 of solution. The unit for molar concentration is moles
of solute per cubic decimetre of solution or moldm 3

It is very important to note that concentration is expressed as the quantity of

solute in 1 dm3 of solution and not in 1 dm3 of solvent.

Example
A solution of sodium hydroxide contains 10.0g of sodium hydroxide
Did you know? dissolved in 1 dm3 of solution. Express the concentration of the solution in
gdm 3 and moldm -3
Molar concentration may also
The solution contains 10.0 g of NaOH in 1 dm3.
be called molarity. The unit for
molarity is M. A solution with a Therefore, mass concentration = 10.0 gdm 3
concentration of 1 mol dm-3 may
be described as a '1 molar solution' To determine the molar concentration, find the number of moles of sodium
or '1 M solution'. hydroxide present:
M(NaOH) = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 gmol-l
i.e. mass of 1 mole NaOH = 40 g
Key fact
number of moles in 10.0 g NaOH = —
10
40
mol
A standard solution is one whose
concentration is known accurately.
0.25 mol
Therefore, molar concentration = 0.25 moldm 3

A standard solution
A solution whose concentration is known accurately is referred to as a standard
meniscus of the solution solution. A standard solution is made in a volumetric flask as shown in Figure
These flasks come in various sizes, e.g. 100 cm3, 250 cm3, 500 cm3 and
7.3.1.
etched line indicating 1dm3. A known mass of solute is added to the flask and distilled water is then
volume, e.g. 250cm3 added until the solution reaches the mark on the neck of the flask.
To make a standard solution which does not have a volume of 1 dm3, the
mass of solute required must be calculated first.
volumetric flask contains
a fixed volume of solution
when the meniscus is on Example
the etched line,

e.g. 250cm3
Determine the mass of potassium carbonate which must be dissolved in
distilled water to make 250 cm3 of potassium carbonate solution with a
concentration of 0.2 mol dm -3

A Figure 7.3.1 A volumetric flask 1000 cm3 (1 dm3) of the required solution contains 0.2 mol K2C03.
108
The mole concept The mole and concentration of solutions

0.2
1 cm3 of the required solution contains mol K2C03
1000
and 250 cm3 of the required solution contains
0.2
x 250 mol K2C03= 0.05 mol K2C03
1000
Therefore 0.05 mol K2C03 is required to make the solution.

M(K2C03) = (2 x 39) + 12 + (3 x 16) = 138 gmol-l

i.e. mass of 1 mol K2C03 = 138 g

mass of 0.05 mol K2C03 = 0.05 x 138 g = 6.9 g

Therefore the mass of K2C03 required is 6.9 g.

Practical activity

Making a standard solution

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

manipulation and measurement.

You are going to make 250 cm3 of sodium carbonate solution with a concentration of 0.1 mol dm-3.
You will be supplied with sodium carbonate, distilled water, a balance, a sheet of weighing paper, a 100 crn3 beaker,
a glass rod and a 250 cm3 volumetric flask.

Method
1 Calculate the mass of sodium carbonate required to make the solution. (Use the calculation given in the example
above to help you.)

2 Weigh a sheet of weighing paper on a balance.

3 Weigh the mass of sodium carbonate you determined in your calculation on the sheet of weighing paper.

4 Carefully transfer the sodium carbonate to the beaker, making sure it is all transferred.
5 Add some distilled water and stir the solution with the glass rod until all the sodium carbonate has dissolved completely.

6 Transfer the solution to the volumetric flask.

7 Rinse the glass rod with distilled water over the beaker and transfer the washings to the flask. Wash the beaker
with distilled water three times and transfer these washings to the flask each time.

8 Add distilled water to just below the line in the volumetric flask. Add the final quantity of distilled water drop by
drop until the bottom of the meniscus is on the line.

9 Place the stopper on the flask. Holding the stopper in place, invert the flask three times to mix the solution.

Calculations
We can extend our calculations involving solutions as shown in the examples
below.

Examples
1 Calculate the molar concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid,
HCI, which has a mass concentration of 9.125 g dm-3.
M(HCI) = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5gm01-1
i.e. mass of 1 mol HCI = 36.5 g
9.125
number of moles HCI in 9.125 g — mol = 0.25 mol
36.5
109
 The mole and concentration of solutions The mole concept

i.e. number of moles HCI in 1 dm3 = 0.25 mol

Therefore, molar concentration = 0.25 moldm 3

2 Calculate the molar concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide

which contains 6 g of sodium hydroxide dissolved in distilled water to
make 200 cm3 of solution.
Calculate the molar mass of sodium hydroxide, NaOH.
M(NaOH) = 40 g mol-l
i.e. mass of 1 mol of NaOH = 40g
number of moles in 6 g NaOH = 6 mol = 0.15 mol —
40
200 cm3 of solution contains 0.15 mol NaOH

1 cm3 of solution contains —

0.15
200
mol NaOH
0 15
and 1000 cm3(1 dm3) of solution contains —t— x 1000m01 NaOH
200
0.75 mol NaOH

Therefore the molar concentration = 0.75 moldm 3

3 Determine how many moles of sodium sulfate are present in 250cm3 of a

sodium sulfate solution which has a molar concentration of 0.2 mol dm -3
1 dm30f solution contains 0.2 mol Na2S04,
i.e. 1000 cm3 of solution contains 0.2 mol Na2S04.
0.2
1 cm3 of solution contains mol NaS04
1000
0.2
and 250 cm3 of solution contains x 250 mol Na2S04
1000
0.05 mol NaS04
Therefore, number of moles of sodium sulfate present = 0.05 mol

4 You wish to make a sodium chloride solution with a molar

concentration of 0.25 mol dm-3, but you only have 11.7 g of sodium
chloride. What is the maximum volume of solution you can make?
Calculate the molar mass of sodium chloride, NaCl.
M(NaC1) = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5g mol-l
mass of 1 mol = 58.5 g.
—
i.e.

11.7
number of moles in 11.7 g= mol
58.5
0.2 mol
Required solution has a molar concentration of 0.25 mol dm -3
i.e. 0.25 mol NaCl is contained in 1 dm3 of solution
or 0.25 mol NaCl is contained in 1000 cm3 of solution.
1000
1 mol NaCl is contained in cm3 of solution
0.25
1000
and 0.2 mol NaCl is contained in x 0.2 cm3 of solution
0.25
— 800 cm3 of solution
Therefore, the maximum volume of solution which can be made is 800 cm3

110
The mole concept The mole and chemical formulae

Summary questions
1 Define the terms 'molar concentration' and 'standard solution'.

2 Calculate the mass concentration and molar concentration if 2.8 g of potassium hydroxide is dissolved in

distilled water to make up 500 cm3 of solution.

3 What mass of calcium chloride, CaC12, needs to be weighed to make a solution of volume 200 cm3 and
concentration 0.1 mol dm-3?

4 How many moles of sodium carbonate are present in 400 cm3 of sodium carbonate solution, which has a
concentration of 0.25 mol dm-3?

A7.4 The mole and chemical formulae Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
Empirical and molecular formulae be able to:
In terms of moles, a chemical formula shows how many moles of each explain the terms empirical
element combine to form one mole of the compound. For example, H20 formula, molecular formula and
represents 2 mol of hydrogen atoms combined with 1 mol of oxygen atoms. percentage composition
In Unit 5.1 you learnt that chemical formulae can be written in three main determine the empirical and
ways. We will be considering two of these ways here. molecular formulae of a
The empirical formula, which gives the simplest whole number mole compound
ratio between the atoms or ions in the compound. determine the percentage
The molecular formula, which gives the actual number of moles of composition of a compound.
atoms of each element present in one mole of the compound.
Ionic compounds are always represented by empirical formulae, which give
the ratio of the ions within the compound.

Covalent compounds are represented by molecular formulae. The empirical

and molecular formulae of covalent compounds may be the same, e. g. water
(H20), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CHO, or the molecular formula
may be a simple whole number multiple of the empirical formula, e.g. the
molecular formula of butene is C4H8 and its empirical formula is CH2.

If we know the proportions of the elements, by mass, in a compound, then

we can use this to work out the empirical formula of the compound. If the
molecular formula of a compound is different from the empirical formula
and we know the molar mass of the compound, we can use this to work out
its molecular formula.

To determine the empirical formula, we need to calculate the number of

moles of each element present and then determine the simplest mole ratio
of these elements.

Examples
1 A sample of a solid is decomposed and found to contain 6.52 g of
potassium, 4.34 g of chromium and 5.34 g of oxygen. What is the
empirical formula of the compound?

mass (g) 6.52 4.34 5.34

molar mass (gmol-l) 39 52 16

number of moles
6 52 = 0.167 4 34
= 0.083
534 =
-2— 0.333
39 52 16
simplest mole ratio 2 4

111
 The mole and chemical formulae The mole concept

The empirical formula is K2Cr04.

Note: To determine the simplest mole ratio, divide the number of moles
of each element by the smallest number, i.e. 0.083.

2 On analysis, a sample of glucose was found to contain 40.0% carbon,

6.7% hydrogen and 53.3% oxygen. The molar mass of the compound is
180 gmol 1. Determine the molecular formula of glucose.

Ifthe mass of the sample is assumed to be 100 g, then the percentage of

each element can be expresses in grams.

mass (g) 40 6.7 53.3

molar mass (g mol-l) 12 16

number of moles —
40 =
12
3.3
67 =
1
6.7
533 =
16
3.3

simplest mole ratio 1 2 1

The empirical formula of glucose is CH20.

To determine the molecular formula, calculate the molar mass of CH20:
M(CH20) = 12 + (2 x 1) + 16 = 30 gmol-l
M(glucose) = 180 g mol-l
180
Ratio between M(glucose) and M(CH20) = 6
30
the molecular formula is 6 x the empirical formula.
The molecular formula of glucose is C6H1206

Percentage composition
The percentage composition of a compound indicates the percentage,
by mass, of each element in the compound. For example, the percentage
composition of water shows what percentage of the mass of a water molecule
is made up of hydrogen and what percentage is made up of oxygen.

If we know the formula of a compound, the percentage composition, by

mass, of each element present can be calculated by calculating the mass of
1 mol of the compound and the mass which each element contributes to

1 mol of the compound.

Examples
1 Calculate the percentage composition of hydrogen and oxygen in water.
M(H20) = (2 x 1) + 16 = 18 gmol -1
i.e. mass of 1 mol H20 = 18 g
Mass of hydrogen in 1 mol H20 = 2 x 1 = 2g

percentage hydrogen = —
2 x 100%
18
11.11%
Mass of oxygen in 1 mol H20 = 16 g

percentage oxygen = —
16
18
x 100%

88.890/0
112
The mole concept The mole and chemical reactions

2 Calculate the percentage, by mass, of nitrogen in ammonium

phosphate, (NH4)3P04.
= (3 x 14) + (12 x 1) + 31 + (4 x 16) = 149 gmol -1
i.e. mass of 1 mol (NH4)3P04 = 149 g
Mass of nitrogen in 1 mol (NH4)3P04 = 3 x 14 g

42 g

percentage nitrogen =
42 x 100%
149
—
28.19%

Summary questions
1 On analysis a compound was found to contain 11.64 g of sodium, 16.20 g of sulfur and 12.15 g of oxygen.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

2 A liquid used in rocket fuel is found to consist of 3.04 g of nitrogen and 6.94 g of oxygen. The molar mass of the
compound is 92 g mol-l. Determine the molecular formula of the compound.
3 Calculate the percentage composition of hydrogen, sulfur and oxygen in sulfuric acid, H2S04.
4 Determine the percentage, by mass, of carbon in aluminium carbonate,

A7n5 The mole and chemical reactions Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
The Law of Conservation of Matter be able to:

In Unit 6.1 you learnt that atoms are neither created nor destroyed in state the Law of Conservation
chemical reactions, they are only rearranged, and that when writing a of Matter

chemical equation the number of atoms of each element on the right apply the mole concept to
side of the equation must be the same as the number on the left side. balanced chemical equations
This is summed up in the Law of Conservation of Matter given in the using masses
Key fact box. apply the mole concept to ionic
equations
Since the atoms that were present at the beginning of the reaction are
all
apply the mole concept to
present at the end ofthe reaction, it follows that the total mass ofthe products
balanced chemical equations
must be the same as the total mass of the original reactants.
using volumes of gases
We can prove this using the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to make apply the mole concept to
water. The balanced equation for the reaction is: balanced chemical equations
using concentration of solutions.
2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g)
This means:

2 molecules of H2 + 1 molecule of 02 2 molecules of H20

Or, on a bigger scale, the coefficients show the number of moles of each
reactant and product. The equation, therefore, means: Key fact
2 mol of H2 + 1 mol of 02 2 of H20
The Law of Conservation of
If we now take this a step further and use our mole/mass relationship, Matter states that matter can
it means: neither be created nor destroyed
during a chemical reaction.
x 1) + 16) g of 02 x 1) + 16)1 gof H20
4g of H2 + 32 g of 02 36g of H20
113
 The mole and chemical reactions The mole concept

We can clearly see that the mass of the water produced is the same as the
total mass of the original reactants, hydrogen and oxygen, i.e. 36 g.

We can use balanced chemical equations to determine the quantities of

unknown reactants and products in a reaction. Ifthe quantity of one reactant
or product is known, it is possible to calculate the quantities of any of the
other reactants and products.

Mass and chemical reactions

When answering questions involving masses of reactants and products, you will
always be given the mass of one reactant or product and be asked to determine
the mass of another reactant or product. To do this we use our mole/mass
relationship and the mole ratio from the balanced equation for the reaction.

The steps involved in solving mass-mass problems are as follows:

1) Calculate the number ofmoles of the known reactant or product using
its given mass and its molar mass. The known reactant or product is the

one whose mass you have been given in the question.

2) Use the balanced chemical equation to determine the mole ratio
between the known and the unknown reactants and/or products. The
unknown reactant or product is the one whose mass you are calculating.
3) Use the number of moles of the known reactant or product found in step
1), and the mole ratio found in step 2), to calculate the number of moles

of the unknown reactant or product.

4) Use the number of moles of the unknown reactant or product found in
step 3), and its molar mass, to determine its mass.

Note: If you have not been given the equation for the reaction, you must
write the balanced chemical equation before you begin your calculation.

Examples
1 Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide formed by burning 12 g of
magnesium in excess oxygen.
The balanced equation for the reaction is:
2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s)
The mass of the reactant, magnesium is known. The mass of the product,
magnesium oxide, is to be determined.
1) Find the number of moles of Mg using its mass and molar mass:
Calculate the molar mass of Mg.
M(Mg) = 24 g mol-l
i.e. mass 1 mol of Mg = 24 g
number of moles in 12 g of Mg —
= 12 mol = 0.5 mol
24
2) Use the balanced chemical equation to determine the mole ratio
between Mg and MgO:
2 mol Mg form 2 mol MgO.
1 mol Mg forms 1 mol MgO.
3) Use the number of moles of Mg from 1), and the mole ratio from 2),
to calculate the number of moles of MgO produced:
0.5 mol Mg forms 0.5 mol Mgo
114
The mole concept The mole and chemical reactions

4) Use the number of moles of MgO from 3), and its molar mass, to
determine the mass of MgO produced.
M(MgO) = 24 + 16 = 40 gmol-l
i.e. mass of 1 mol ofMgO = 40g
mass of 0.5 mol of MgO = 0.5 x 40 g = 20 g

2 Determine the mass of sodium carbonate required to produce 23.4 g

of sodium chloride, when the sodium carbonate reacts with excess
hydrochloric acid.

The balanced equation for the reaction is:

Na2C03(s) + 2HC1(aq) 2NaC1(aq) + C02(g) + H20(1)

The mass of the product, sodium chloride, is known. The mass ofthe
reactant, sodium carbonate, is to be determined.

1) M(NaC1) = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 gmol -1

mass of mol NaCl = 58.5 g
—
i.e. 1

23.4
number of moles in 23.4 g = mol = 0.4 mol
58.5
2) 1 mol Na2C03 forms 2 mol NaC1.

3) - x 0.4 mol Na2C03 forms 0.4 mol NaC1 = 0.2 mol Na2C03
4) M(Na2C03) = (2 x 23) + 12 + (3 x 16) = 106gm01-1
i.e. mass of 1 mol Na2C03 = 106 g
mass of 0.2 mol = 0.2 x 106 g = 21.2 g
3 Determine the decrease in mass that would occur when 21.0 gof
magnesium carbonate is heated until its mass remains constant.
The balanced equation for the reaction is:
MgC03(s) MgO(s) + C02(g)
The decrease in mass is due to the loss of carbon dioxide, therefore, to
find the decrease in mass, the mass of carbon dioxide produced must be
determined.

The mass of the reactant, magnesium carbonate, is known. The mass of

the product, carbon dioxide, is to be determined.
1) M(MgC03) = 24 + 12 + (3 x 16) = 84gm01 -1
i.e. mass of 1 mol MgC03 = 84 g
number of moles in 21.0g = —
21.0
84
mol = 0.25 mol
2) 1 mol MgC03 forms 1 mol C02.
3) 0.25 mol MgC03 forms 0.25 mol cm.

4) M(C02) = 12 + (2 x 16) = 44gm01-1

i.e. mass of 1 mol C02 = 44 g
mass of 0.25 mol C02 = 0.25 x 44 g = 11.0 g
Therefore, the decrease in mass is 11.0 g.

We can also apply the mole concept to ionic equations using the same
four steps.
115
 The mole and chemical reactions The mole concept

Example
Calculate the mass of lead(ll) hydroxide that could be produced when a
solution containing 3.4 g of hydroxide ions reacts with a solution containing
excess lead ions.

The ionic equation for the reaction is:

Pb2 (aq) + 20H (aq)

The mass of the hydroxide ions present in the solution is known. The mass
of the product, lead(ll) hydroxide, is to be determined.

1) M(OH 16+1 = 17 gmol 1

i.e. mass of 1 mol OH- ions = 17 g

3.4
number of moles in 3.4 g = —mol
17
= 0.2mol
2) 2m01 OH ions form 1 mol
3) 0.2 molOH ions form 0.1

4) = 207 + (2 x 16) + (2 x 1) = 241 gmol 1

i.e. mass of 1 mol Pb(OH)2 = 241 g

mass of 0.1 mol = 0.1 x 241 g = 24.1g

Gas volumes and chemical reactions

Exam tip A balanced chemical equation for a reaction which involves gases can also be
used to determine the unknown volume of a reactant or product using the
You must pay very careful attention
to the conditions under which
mole/volume relationship and the mole ratio from the balanced equation
for the reaction.
reactions involving gases occur,
i.e. stp or rtp, to ensure that you When answering questions involving volumes of gases, use the same four
use the correct value for molar
steps as are used in solving mass-mass problems.
volume.

Example
Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to produce ammonia. Calculate the minimum
volume of hydrogen that would be required to react completely with 6.0 dm3
of nitrogen at rtp.

The balanced equation for the reaction is:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
The volume of the reactant, nitrogen, is known. The volume of the other
reactant, hydrogen, is to be determined.

1) Volume of 1 mol N2 at rtp = 24 dm3

6.0
-
number of moles in 6.0 dm3 — —mol = 0.25 mol
24
2) 1 mol N2 reacts with 3 mol 1-12.

3) 0.25 mol N2 reacts with 3 x 0.25 mol H2 = 0.75 mol 112.

4) Volume of 1 mol H2 at rtp = 24.0 dm3
volume of 0.75 mol H2 at rtp = 0.75 x 24.0 dm3 = 18.0 dm3
Problems can also be solved involving both mass and volume using the same
four steps.

116
The mole concept The mole and chemical reactions

Example
Calculate the volume of sulfur trioxide gas formed at rtp when 9.6 g of oxygen
reacts with excess sulfur dioxide.

The balanced equation for the reaction is:

2S02(g) + 02(g) 2S03(g)

The mass of the reactant, oxygen, is known. The volume of the product, sulfur
dioxide, is to be determined.

1) M(02) = 32 gmol-l
i.e. mass of 1 mol 02 = 32g
number of moles in 9.6 g = —
9.6
32
mol = 0.3 mol

2) 1 mol 02 forms 2 mol S03.

3) 0.3 mol 02 forms 2 x 0.3 mol S03 = 0.6 mol sm.

4) Volume of 1 mol SC)3 at rtp = 24.0 dm3

volume of 0.6 mol S03 at rtp = 0.6 x 24.0dm3 = 14.4dm3

Molar concentration and chemical reactions

A balanced chemical equation for a reaction which involves a solution whose
volume and molar concentration are known can also be used to determine
the mass of the other reactant, or the mass or volume of a product, using the
same four steps as for solving mass and volume problems.

Examples
1 To prepare the salt, sodium sulfate, a student adds 50cm3 of sodium
hydroxide solution with a concentration of 2.0 mol dm-3 to excess
sulfuric acid. Calculate the mass of sodium sulfate that would form.

The balanced equation for the reaction is:

2NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) NaS04(aq) + 2H20(1)
The volume and molar concentration of the reactant, sodium hydroxide,
are known. The mass of the product, sodium sulfate, is to be determined.

1) 1000cm3 (1 dm3) NaOH(aq) contains 2 mol NaOH

2
1 cm3 NaOH(aq) contains mol NaOH
1000
2
and 50 cm3 NaOH(aq) contains x 50 mol NaOH = 0.1 NaOH
1000
2) 2 mol NaOH forms 1 mol NaS04.

3) 0.1 mol NaOH forms - x 0.1 mol Na2S04 = 0.05 mol Na2S04

4) M(Na2S04) = (2 x 23) + 32 + (4 x 16) = 142gmol-1

i.e. mass of 1 mol Na2S04 = 142 g
mass of 0.05 mol Na2S04 = 0.05 x 142g = 7.1 g

117
 The mole and chemical reactions The mole concept

2 What volume of carbon dioxide, measured at stp, would be produced

when 20 cm3 of hydrochloric acid with a concentration of 1.5 mol dm -3
reacts with excess aluminium carbonate?

The balanced equation for the reaction is:

2AIC13(aq) + 3C02(g) + 3H20(1)

The volume and molar concentration of the reactant, hydrochloric

acid, is known. The volume of the product, carbon dioxide is to be
determined.

1) IOOOcm3 HC1(aq) contains 1.5 mol HCI.

15
1 cm3 contains —t— mol HCI
1000
1.5
and 20 cm3 contains x 20m01 HCI - 0.03 mol HCI.
1000

2) 6 mol HCI form 3 mol C02.

2 mol HCI form 1 mol C02.

3) 0.03 mol HCI forms- x 0.03 mol C02 = 0.015 mol C02

4) Volume of 1 mol C02 at stp = 22.4 dm3

volume of 0.015 mol C02 atstp = 0.015 x 22.4 dm3
0.336 dm3

Summary questions
1 Ethene (C2H4) burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and steam
according to the following equation:

C2H4(g) + 3026) 2C02(g) + 2H20(g)

If 2.8g of ethene burn in excess oxygen,

a calculate the number of moles in 2.8g of ethene
b calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide formed
c calculate the mass of carbon dioxide formed

d calculate the volume of carbon dioxide formed at stp.

2 Calcium carbonate decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide

when heated. Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide released when 300 g
of calcium carbonate is heated.

3 Carbon monoxide gas reacts with oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide
gas. Calculate the volume and mass of carbon monoxide gas required to
produce 4 dm3 of carbon dioxide gas at rtp.

4 Potassium carbonate reacts with nitric acid (HN03) to produce potassium

nitrate, carbon dioxide and water. Calculate the mass of potassium
chloride formed when 40 cm3 of potassium carbonate solution with a
concentration of 0.5 mol dm-3 reacts with excess nitric acid.

118
The mole concept The mole and chemical reactions

Key concepts
Relative atomic mass, molecular massand formula mass compare the
masses of atoms, molecules and formula units with one-twelfth the mass
of a carbon-12 atom.
Relative atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass have no units.
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of
particles as there are atoms in 12.00 g of carbon-12.
The number of particles in a mole is 6.0 x 1023, which is also known as
Avogadro's number or NA.
Molar mass is the mass, in grams, of one mole of a substance.
The molar mass of an element or compound is the relative atomic mass,
molecular mass or formula mass amount expressed in grams per mole.
Molar mass is given the unit gmol-l.
Avogadro's law states that equal volumes of all gases, under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure, contain the same number of
molecules.
Molar volume is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas. The
molar volume is the same for all gases under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure.
Molar volume at standard temperature and pressure (stp) is 22.4 dm3.
Molar volume at room temperature and pressure (rtp) is 24 dm3.
The concentration of a solution is a measure of the quantity of a solute
dissolved in a fixed volume of the solution.
Mass concentration gives the mass of solute dissolved in 1 dm3 of
solution. Mass concentration is given the unit g dm
-3

Molar concentration gives the number of moles of solute dissolved in

1 dm3 of solution. Molar concentration is given the unit mol dm-3

A standard solution is one whose concentration is known accurately.

A standard solution is made using a volumetric flask.
The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest mole ratio
between the atoms or ions in the compound.
The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of
moles of atoms of each element present in one mole of the compound.
Ifthe proportions of the elements, by mass, in a compound are
known, then its empirical formula can be determined. If the molecular
formula of a compound is different from the empirical formula and the
molar mass of the compound is known, its molecular formula can be
determined.
The percentage composition of a compound indicates the percentage,
by mass, of each element in the compound.
The Law of Conservation of Matter states that matter can neither be
created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction.
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation give the mole ratios
between the reactants and the products.
Balanced chemical equations can be used to determine quantities of
unknown reactants and products in a reaction. If the quantity of one
reactant or product known, it is possible to calculate the quantities of
is

any of the other reactants and products.

119
 Practice exam-style questions The mole concept

b Calcium hydrogencarbonate reacts with nitric acid

Practice exam-style questions according to the following equation:
Ca(HC03)2(s) + 2HN03(aq) + 2C02(g) + 2H20(l)
Multiple-choice questions
During an investigation in the laboratory, a student
1 The mass mol of potassium carbonate is:
added 8.1 g of calcium hydrogencarbonate to excess
A 24.75g
nitric acid.
B 34.5g
i) Determine the number of moles of calcium
C 38.5g
hydrogencarbonate used by the student.
D 552.0g
(2 marks)
2 A mass of 32 g of oxygen: ii) Determine the number of moles of carbon
A contains 6.0 >< 1023 oxygen atoms dioxide made. (2 marks)
B contains 2 mol of oxygen iii) Determine the volume of carbon dioxide made
C contains 6.0 >< 1023 molecules of oxygen at rtp. (1 mark)
D contains the same number of molecules of oxygen as c Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to
35.5 g of chlorine produce magnesium chloride and hydrogen. In
another investigation, a student reacted 20 cm3
3 What is the massof448cm3 of carbon dioxide at stp? of hydrochloric acid with a concentration of
A 0.88g 1.5 mol dm-3 with excess magnesium.
B 224g i) Write a balanced chemical equation for the
C 448g reaction. (2 marks)
D 880g ii) Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric
acid used. (1 mark)
4 You are required to make 250 cm3 of a solution of
iii)Determine the number of moles of magnesium
sodium hydroxide which has a concentration of
chloride produced. (2 marks)
0.1mol dm-3. What mass of sodium hydroxide would
iv) Calculate the mass of magnesium chloride
you need to weigh out?
produced. (2 marks)
A 0.1g
d On analysis a compound was found to contain
B I.og
24.45 g of iron and 10.55 g of oxygen. Determine the
C 4.0g
empirical formula of the compound. (2 marks)
D 25.0g
Total 15 marks
5 A compound was found to consist of 30 g of element
W combined with 7 g of Z. the relative atomic mass
If Extended response question
of W 40 and the relative atomic mass of Z
is whichis 14,

of the following is the correct empirical formula for the

i) What do you understand by the term 'standard
solution'? (1 mark)
compound?
A WZ ii) You wish to prepare 250 cm3 of potassium
carbonate solution of concentration
0.8mol dm-3 in the laboratory. Determine the
c vv2Z3
mass of potassium carbonate required.
(3 marks)
6 Hydrogen reacts with oxygen according to the following iii) Name the piece of apparatus you would use to
equation: make your solution in. (1 mark)

2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g) b A student wishes to make a sample of the insoluble

salt, lead(ll) chloride, in the laboratory. Determine
What volume of steam could be produced at stp if 12.8 g
the mass of lead(ll) chloride which could be made by
of oxygen reacts with excess hydrogen?
reacting a solution containing excess lead(ll) nitrate
A 8.96dm3
B 12.8dm3 with a solution containing 23.4 g of sodium chloride.
C 17.92dm3 (6 marks)
D 25.6dm3 c Ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate are used
extensively by gardeners as fertilisers to supply plants
with the nitrogen they need to make protein for use
Structured question in growth. By calculating the percentage, by mass, of
nitrogen in each of the fertilisers, determine which
7 This question is concerned with the mole and its
would be the better value for money if they both cost
application.
the same per kilogram. (4 marks)
a Give a definition for the term 'mole'. (1 mark)
Total 15 marks

120
 Acids, bases and salts

Objectives
for a very long time; as early as the 17th century. By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
As our knowledge of chemistry has developed, the
classification of a compound as an acid, a base or a salt explain the ionisation of acids
when dissolved in water
has been refined. Acids, bases and salts are used in all e define an acid in terms of
aspects of our lives. protons
give the general properties of
aqueous acids
A8.1 Properties and reactions of acids describe the reactions
of acids with reactive
People have always known that vinegar and lemon juice taste sour, but it metals, carbonates,
was not until a few hundred years ago that it was discovered that these have hydrogencarbonates and bases
something in common, they both contain acids. An acid can be defined as a e describe the ways in which
substance that reacts with a base to form a salt and water. acids can be classified

Acids in their anhydrous form, not dissolved in water, are composed of

i.e.
define acid anhydrideand give
examples of acid anhydrides
covalent molecules and they may be solid, liquid or gas at room temperature.
give examples of acids in living
and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Liquids
Solids include citric acid, tartaric acid
include sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Gases include hydrogen chloride gas. systems.

All acids have hydrogen in their formulae, e.g. nitric acid, HN03 and sulfuric
acid, H2S04. Table 8.1.1 gives the names and formulae of some common
acids.

V Table 8.1.1 Some common acids

Name Formula

hydrochloric acid

sulfuric acid H2S04

nitric acid H N03
phosphoric acid H3P04
methanoic acid HCOOH
ethanoic acid CHOCOOH

Jüi&e
x

ouhs
Vinega

o.sl• Vitamin

(a) (b)

A Figure 8.1.1 (a) Some common laboratory acids, (b) some common household acids

121
Properties and reactions of acids Acids, bases and salts

Ionisation of acids in water

When an acid added to water, the acid molecules ionise, i.e. they form
is

ions. Acids always ionise to form hydrogen ions, or ions, and negative
anions. The H + ions then become attached to the polar water molecules
forming hydronium ions or 1130+ ions (sometimes called hydroxonium
ions).

Using the ionisation of hydrogen chloride gas to form hydrochloric acid as

an example:
water H (aq) + Cl-(aq)
H (aq) + H20(1) H30 (aq)
hydronium ion

the overall reaction can be summarised as:

HC1(g) + H20(1) H30 (aq) + Cl-(aq)

For simplicity, it is usual to represent the reaction as follows:

HCl(aq) H (aq) + Cl-(aq)

Other examples that show the ionisation of acids in water are:

HN03(aq) H (aq) + N03-(aq)

H2S04(aq) 2H (aq) + S042-(aq)

H3P04(aq) 3H (aq) + P043-(aq)

CH3COOH(aq) x—. CH3COO (aq) +H (aq)

A hydrogen atom, {H, has one proton in its nucleus and one electron spinning
around the nucleus in the first energy shell. A hydrogen ion is, therefore, a
single proton since formed by a hydrogen atom losing its one valence
it is
Key fact electron, leaving only the nucleus containing the one proton. The ability of
An acid is a proton donor.
an acid to donate its hydrogen ions, or protons, to another reactant can be
used to define an acid as being a proton donor.

When an acid reacts, the hydrogen ions, or protons, formed when it

dissolves in water, can be given to the other reactant. For example, when
an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide,
the hydrochloric acid gives its H + ions, or protons, to the OH- ions of the
sodium hydroxide, formingwater. This can be summarised by the following
ionic equation:

OH (aq) +H (aq) H20(1)

General properties of aqueous acids

The presence of H aqueous solution gives acids their characteristic
ions in
properties. Aqueous solutions of acids are described as being acidic and they
have the following common properties:
they have a sour taste
they change blue litmus to red
they have a pH value of less than 7
Acids, bases and salts Properties and reactions of acids

they are corrosive

they are electrolytes, i.e. they conduct an electric current.

Chemical reactions of aqueous acids

Since all acids form hydrogen ions when in aqueous solution, acids have
common reactions with certain other reactants. In all of these reactions, the
hydrogen ions in the acid are replaced by metal ions or ammonium ions to
form a salt. A salt is, therefore, a compound formed when the hydrogen ion
in an acid is replaced by a metal ion or an ammonium ion.

The reactions of acids are discussed in detail below.

Acids react with reactive metals

Acids, except nitric acid, react with reactive metals to produce a salt and
hydrogen. Reactive metals are those above hydrogen in the reactivity series
of metals (see Unit 18.1), i.e. potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium,
aluminium, zinc, iron and lead.

This reaction can be summarised by the following general word equation:

reactive metal + acid salt + hydrogen

When with acids, effervescence (bubbling) is seen
reactive metals react
as hydrogen gas is evolved, and the reactions become hotter because they
produce heat, i.e. the reactions are described as being exothermic.

It is important to remember that nitric acid does not react in this way. When
nitric acid reacts with metals it produces oxides of nitrogen, e.g. nitrogen
dioxide (NO), and not hydrogen.

Example
Magnesium reacts with sulfuric acid to produce magnesium sulfate and
hydrogen:

Mg(S) + H2S04(aq) MgS04(aq) + H2(g)

The ionic equation for this reaction is:

Mg(S) -F 2H+ (aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

Acids react with metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates

Acids react with metal carbonates and metal hydrogencarbonates to produce

a salt, carbon dioxide and water.

These reactions can be summarised by the following general word equations:

carbon
metal carbonate + acid salt + + water
dioxide
metal carbon
+ acid salt + + water
hydrogencarbonate dioxide

When metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates react with acids,

effervescence is seen as carbon dioxide gas is evolved.

123
 Properties and reactions of acids Acids, bases and salts

Examples
1 Potassium carbonate reacts with nitric acid to produce potassium
nitrate, carbon dioxide and water:

K2C03(aq) + 2HN03(aq) 2KN03(aq) + C02(g) + H20(1)

The ionic equation for this reaction is:

C032-(aq) + 2H (aq) C02(g) + H20(1)

2 Calcium hydrogencarbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce

calcium chloride, carbon dioxide and water:

Ca(HC03)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaC12(aq) + 2C02(g) + 2H20(1)

The ionic equation for this reaction is:

HC03- (aq) + H (aq) C02(g) + H20(1)

Acids react with bases

Did you know? Acids react with bases to produce a salt and water. These are known as
neutralisation reactions. It is important to note that a base is a metal oxide
Any reactive metals, insoluble
or a metal hydroxide.
carbonates and insoluble bases
that react with acids to form soluble These reactions can be summarised by the following general word
salts appear to dissolve because
equations:
the salt produced dissolves.
metal oxide + acid salt + water
metal hydroxide + acid salt + water
When bases react with acids, the reactions become warmer because they are
exothermic reactions.

Examples
1 Copper(ll) oxide reacts with sulfuric acid to produce copper(ll) sulfate
and water:

CLIO(s) + H2S04(aq) CuS04(aq) + H20(1)

Ionic equation:

CLIO(S) + 2H+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + H20(l)

Exam tip
In this reaction, the black copper(ll) oxide appears to dissolve slowly
It is extremely important that you
and a blue solution forms. This is because soluble copper(ll) sulfate is
can write balanced chemical produced and the solution contains blue Cu2+ ions.
equations for the reactions of
acids. To help you to do this, it is a 2 Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium
good idea to memorise the general chloride and water:
word equations given in this section
so that you know the general NaOH(aq) + HC1(aq) -—-- NaC1(aq) + H20(1)
products for each type of reaction.
You must also learn the formulae of Ionic equation:
the common acids.
OH (aq) +H (aq) H20(1)
124
Acids, bases and salts Properties and reactions of acids

Practical activity

Investigating reactions of acids

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

o analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with magnesium ribbon, zinc, sodium hydrogencarbonate,

copper(ll) carbonate, calcium hydroxide, copper(ll) oxide, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric
acid, nitric acid, lime water, test tubes and a wooden splint.

Method
1 Reactions between an acid and metals:
a Place 2 cm2 of hydrochloric acid in a test tube and add a piece of
magnesium ribbon. Observe the reaction. Feel the bottom of the tube to see
if it becomes hotter.

b Place a burning splint at the mouth of the test tube to test for the presence
of hydrogen gas. If hydrogen is being produced, the splint will make a
squeaky pop and the flame will be extinguished.
c Repeat the experiment using a small piece of zinc.
2 Reaction between an acid and a hydrogencarbonate: delivery tube

a Place 2 cm3 of sulfuric acid in a test

cork/bung test tube
tube and add a spatula of sodium
hydrogencarbonate. Observe the
reaction.
b Cork the test tube with a delivery tube
running through the cork into a test tube dilute
sulfuric acid
of colourless lime water, as shown in

Figure 8.1.2, to test for the presence sodium lime water

of carbon dioxide. If carbon dioxide is hydrogencarbonate (calcium hydroxide
solution)
being produced, a white precipitate will

form in the lime water.

A Figure 8.1.2 Reaction between
sulfuric acid and sodium
3 Reaction between an acid and a carbonate: hydrogencarbonate
a Place 2 cm3 of sulfuric acid in a test tube
and add a spatula of copper(ll) carbonate. Observe the reaction.
b Test for the presence of carbon dioxide as in step 2.
Observe any colour changes occurring during the reaction.
4 Reactions between an acid and bases:
Place 2 cm3 of nitric acid in a test tube and add a spatula of calcium

hydroxide. Shake the tube and observe the reaction. Feel the bottom of the
tube to see becomes hotter.
if it

b Repeat the experiment using a spatula of copper(ll) oxide instead of calcium

hydroxide. This time shake the tube periodically until no further changes
occur. Observe any colour changes.
5 Record all your observations for each reaction, including the results of the tests
for hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
6 Write a balanced chemical equation for each reaction.

7 Explain any colour changes you observed in steps and 4b, and any heat
changes you felt in steps la and 4a.

125
 Properties and reactions of acids Acids, bases and salts

During the experiment, you learnt how to test for the presence of hydrogen
and carbon dioxide gases.
If hydrogen is produced in a reaction, it causes a burning splint to make a

squeakypop and to be extinguished. The 'pop' is the sound of a small explosion

as the hydrogen reacts explosively with oxygen in the air to form steam:

2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g)

If carbon dioxide is produced in a reaction, it forms a white precipitate when
bubbled into lime water. This is because the lime water is a solution of
calcium hydroxide, and the carbon dioxide reacts with this forming white,
insoluble calcium carbonate and water. The calcium carbonate forms the
white precipitate:

+ C02(g) CaC03(s) + H20(1)

Classification of acids
Acids can be classified in a variety of ways.

Inorganic and organic acids

Did you know? Acids can be classified as inorganic acids or organic acids.

Inorganic compounds are An inorganic acid contains a non-metallic element or polyatomic

of geological origin. Most group as well as hydrogen. Examples of inorganic acids are given in
do not contain carbon, the Table 8.1.2.
exceptions being carbonates, Most organic acids contain the carboxyl group, i.e. COOH. In these
hydrogencarbonates and carbon acids it is the hydrogen at the end of the carboxyl group which forms the
dioxide. Organic compounds are H + ion when the acid dissolves in water. Examples of organic acids are
mainly of biological origin, e.g. from
given in Table 8.1.3.
plants and animals. They always
contain carbon and most contain V Table 8.1.2 Common inorganic acids V Table 8.1.3 Common organic acids
hydrogen.
Acid Formula Acid Formula

hydrochloric acid methanoic acid HCOOH

nitric acid HN03 etharoic acid CHOCOOH
sulfuric acid H2S04 lactic acid

phosphoric acid HaP04 ascorbic acid C6H806

nitrous acid HN02 citric acid

sulfurous acid H2S03

carbonic acid H2C03

Monobasic, dibasic and tribasic acids

Acids can also be classified according to the number of H + ions they produce
Key fact per molecule when dissolved in water, known as their basicity.

Basicity is the number of H + ions A monobasic acid produces one H+ ion per molecule when it dissolves
produced per molecule of acid in water. Hydrochloric acid (HCI), nitric acid (HN03) and ethanoic acid
when it dissolves in water. (CH3COOH) are examples of monobasic acids.
A dibasic acid produces two H + ions per molecule when it dissolves in
water. Sulfuric acid (H2S04) is an example of a dibasic acid.

A tribasic acid produces three H + ions per molecule when it dissolves in

water. Phosphoric acid (H3P04) is an example of a tribasic acid.
126
Acids, bases and salts Properties and reactions of acids

Dilute and concentrated acids

Acids can also be classified based on the quantity of water present.
? Did you know?
e A dilute acid is one that contains a lot of water, e.g. hydrochloric acid, A concentrated acid is always
which has a concentration of 0.1 mol dm-3, is dilute. diluted by adding the acid slowly
e A concentrated acid is one that contains very little water, e.g. hydrochloric to the distilled water. When an acid
acid, which has a concentration of 12 mol dm-3, is concentrated. ionises on being added to water, the
reaction gives off a lot of heat energy,

Strong and weak acids i.e. the reaction is exothermic. This

can cause spattering and can be
Acids can also be classified based on the degree of ionisation that occurs dangerous. If the acid is added
when the acid is dissolved in water. slowly to the water, the larger volume
e A strong acid is fully ionised when dissolved in water, e.g. hydrochloric of water can absorb the heat energy
acid and sulfuric acid. produced.
e A weak acid is only partially ionised when dissolved in water,
e.g. carbonic acid and ethanoic acid.

We will be looking at strong and weak acids in more detail in Unit 8.3.
Key fact
Acid anhydrides An acid anhydride is a compound
Certain compounds react with water to form an acid. These are known as which reacts with water to form an
acid.
acid anhydrides.

Acid anhydride literally means 'an acid without water'. Many acid anhydrides
are acidic oxides of non-metals. Carbon dioxide (COO, sulfur dioxide
(S02), sulfur trioxide (S03) and nitrogen dioxide (N02) are examples of acid Did you know?
anhydrides:
Nitrogen dioxide is made naturally
C02(g) + H20(1) H2C03(aq) in the atmosphere when lightning
carbonic acid occurs and it is also present in the
S02(g) + H20(1) H2S03(aq) exhaust fumes of motor vehicles.
sulfurous acid When it reacts with water vapour
in the air forms acid rain. This
S03(g) + H20(1) H2S04(aq)
it

acid rain can then cause statues

sulfuric acid
and buildings made of calcium
2N02(g) + H20(1) HN02(aq) + HN03(aq) carbonate to slowly dissolve as it

nitrous acid nitric acid

reacts with them tomake soluble
calcium nitrate. It can also make
water too acidic for certain aquatic
Examples of acids in living systems organisms to survive.
We come across a variety of organic acids in living organisms. We also use
some of these acids in our everyday activities. These are summarised in
Table 8.1.4.
V Table 8.1.4 Acids in living systems

Acid I Occurrence Important points to note

Ascorbic acid In many foods, e.g. citrus A shortage of vitamin C in the diet can lead to scurvy.
or vitamin C fruits, West Indian cherries,
On exposure to heat, e.g. during cooking, vitamin C is destroyed by being oxidised.
(C6H806) sweet peppers, tomatoes,
Sodium hydrogencarbonate is sometimes added to fruits and vegetables to improve their appearance and
green leafy vegetables
texture. This neutralises any vitamin C present, reducing the vitamin C content.
Methanoic In the venom of bee and Causes itching, redness, swellirg and pain around the sting.
acid (HCOOH) ant stings Stings can be treated by applying a paste of sodium hydrogencarbonate or calamine lotion which contains
zinc hydrogencarbonate. These both neutralise the acid.

Lactic acid Produced in muscle cells If too much lactic acid builds up it prevents muscles from contractirg and the person collapses.
(C3H603) during strenuous activity

Ethanoic acid In viregar Vinegar is used to preserve food items. Beirg acidic, it has a low pH, which denatures (destroys) the

(CH3COOH) enzymes that cause decay and inhibits the growth d bacteria and fungi.

127
 Properties and reactions of bases Acids, bases and salts

V Table 8.1.4 (continued)

Acid I Occurrence Important points to note
Citric acid In citrus fruits, e.g. limes Lime juice is used to remove rust stains from clothes. The acid in the lime juice reacts with the iron(ll) oxide
(C6Hd07) (Fe203) in the rust stains making a soluble compound which can be washed out of the clothes:

Fe203(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Fe3+(aq) + 3H20(l)

iron(l") oxide from the stain removed
(rust) acid

Summary questions
1 Define the terms 'acid' and 'acid anhydride'.

2 Write equations which show how the following acids ionise when placed in water: sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid
and nitric acid.

3 Give three properties, other than their reactions, which are typical of aqueous acids.
4 Give the products that are formed when acids react with:
a metal oxides b carbonates.
5 Write balanced chemical equations for the following:
a the reaction between zinc hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
b the reaction between magnesium hydrogencarbonate and nitric acid
c the reaction between aluminium and sulfuric acid.
6 How does vinegar work to preserve some of the foods we eat?
7 Why is sodium hydrogencarbonate used as a treatment for ant stings?

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: A base can be defined as a substance which reacts with an acid to form a salt
and water. Bases are normally metal oxides and metal hydroxides. However,
define a base in terms of protons
ammonia is also classified as a base. Examples of bases include magnesium
define an alkali
oxide (MgO), copper(ll) oxide (CuO), magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) and
give the general properties of
copper(ll) hydroxide (Cu(OH)2).
aqueous alkalis
describe the reactions of bases You learnt in Unit 8.1 that when a base reacts with an acid, the acid donates
with acids and ammonium salts protons to the base, forming water. The base has accepted the protons from
define an amphoteric substance the acid and this fact can be used to define a base as a proton acceptor.
classify oxides into acidic, basic,
Using the same example as in Unit 8.1, when hydrochloric acid reacts with
amphoteric and neutral.
sodium hydroxide, the OH- ions of the sodium hydroxide accept the H
ions, or protons, from the hydrochloric acid forming water, as summarised
by the following ionic equation:

Key fact OH (aq) +H (aq) H20(1)

A base is a proton acceptor. Alkalis

Some bases are soluble in water, others are insoluble. Soluble bases are
known as alkalis. When they dissolve in water, they form hydroxide ions,
or OH- ions.
Key fact
The common alkalis include potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium
An alkali isa base which dissolves hydroxide (NaOH), which are fully soluble in water, and calcium hydroxide
in water to form a solution (Ca(OH)2), which is moderately soluble. For example:
containing OH- ions.
NaOH(s) + water Na+(aq) -F OH (aq)

128
Acids, bases and salts Properties and reactions of bases

When ammonia gas is added to water it reacts with water to form ammonium
hydroxide (NH40H), which is also an alkali:
NH3(g) + H20(1) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Potassium oxide 0<20), sodium oxide (Na20) and calcium oxide (CaO) also
react with water to form the equivalent hydroxide. For example:
Oven
Na20(s) + H20(1) 2Na (aq) + 20H-(aq)
Like acids, alkalis can be classified into strong alkalis and weak alkalis based Heavy W
on the degree of ionisation that occurs when the alkali is dissolved in water. 'NAL
.6 DICA
A strong alkali is fully ionised when dissolved in water, e.g. potassium
hydroxide and sodium hydroxide.
A weak alkali is only partially ionised when dissolved in water,
e.g. ammonia.
A figure 8.2.1 These products contain
We will be looking at strong and weak alkalis in more detail in Unit 8.3. bases

General properties of aqueous alkalis

The presence of OH- ions in aqueous solution gives alkalis their characteristic
properties. Aqueous solutions of alkalis are described as being alkaline and
they have the following common properties:
they have a bitter taste
they change red litmus to blue
they have a pH value of more than 7
they are corrosive
they are electrolytes, i.e. they conduct an electric current
they feel soapy when touched.

Chemical reactions of bases

Since bases contain oxide or hydroxide ions, bases have common reactions with
certain other reactants. The reactions of bases are discussed in detail below.

Bases react with acids

Bases react with acids to produce a salt and water.

These reactions, which you looked at in Unit 8.1, can be summarised by the
following general word equation:
base + acid salt + water
Remember that when bases react with acids, the reactions become warmer
because they are exothermic reactions. Also, any insoluble bases which react
to produce soluble salts, appear to dissolve.

Examples
1 Magnesium oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium
chloride and water:
+ 2HCl(aq) MgC12(aq) + H20(1)
Ionic equation:
MgO(s) + 2H (aq) Mg2+(aq) + H20(1)

2 Potassium hydroxide reacts with sulfuric acid to produce potassium

sulfate and water:

2KOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) K2S04(aq) + 2H20(1)

Ionic equation:
OH-(aq) + H (aq) H20(1)
129
 Properties and reactions of bases Acids, bases and salts

Bases react with ammonium salts

Bases react with ammonium salts to produce a salt, ammonia and water:
base + ammonium salt salt + ammonia + water
In order to react, the reactants need to be heated.

Examples
1 Copper(ll) oxide reacts with ammonium chloride to produce copper(ll)
chloride, ammonia and water:
CLIO(s) + 2NH4C1(s) cuC12(s) + 2NH3(g) + H20(1)

2 Calcium hydroxide reacts with ammonium sulfate to produce calcium

sulfate, ammonia and water:

Ca(OH)2(s) + CaS04(s) + 2NH3(g) + 2H20(1)

Practical activity

Investigating the reaction between calcium hydroxide and

ammonium chloride
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting.

You will be supplied with calcium hydroxide, ammonium chloride, red litmus
paper, a dry test tube and tongs.
Method
1 Place two small spatulas of calcium hydroxide in the test tube.

2 Add two small spatulas of ammonium chloride and shake the tube to
mix the solids.
Did you know?
3 Carefully heat the mixture and while heating hold a piece of moist red
Ammonia gas causes moist red litmus paper across the mouth of the tube to test for the presence of
litmus paper to turn blue because ammonia gas. If ammonia gas is produced the litmus paper will turn blue.
it reacts with the water present to
4 Look at the sides of the test tube to see if any water droplets form.
form ammonium hydroxide which is

alkaline: 5 Write a balance chemical equation for the reaction.

NH3(g) + NH40H(aq) 6 Explain the formation of the water droplets.

Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides

Key fact
Some metal oxides and hydroxides can behave as bases because they can
An amphoteric substance is a react with acids and also behave as acids because they can react with strong
substance which can react with alkalis. These substances are referred to as being amphoteric.
both acids and with strong alkalis.
The following general word equations summarise how amphoteric oxides
and hydroxides react.
The amphoteric substance reacting as a base:

amphoteric oxide or hydroxide + acid salt + water

o The amphoteric substance reacting as an acid:

strong alkali + amphoteric oxide or hydroxide salt + water

The amphoteric oxides and hydroxides are listed in Table 8.2.1.
130
Acids, bases and salts Properties and reactions of bases

V Table 8.2.1 Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides

Amphoteric oxide Formula Amphoteric hydroxide Formula

aluminium oxide A120J aluminium hydroxide

zinc oxide ZnO zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)2

lead(ll) oxide PbO lead(ll) hydroxide

Examples
1 Aluminium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce
aluminium chloride and water:
A1(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) AIC13(aq) + 3H20(1)

2 Aluminium hydroxide reacts with the strong alkali, sodium hydroxide,

to produce sodium aluminate and water:
NaOH(aq) + NaA102(aq) + 2H20(1)
sodium
aluminate

3 Zinc oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce zinc chloride and
water:

ZnO(s) + 2HC1(aq) ZnC12(aq) + H20(1)

4 Zinc oxide reacts with the strong alkali, sodium hydroxide, to produce
sodium zincate and water:
2NaOH(aq) + ZnO(s) H20(1)
sodium
zincate

Classification of oxides
So far in this unit you have come across acidic, basic and amphoteric oxides.
Another type of oxide also exists, known as a neutral oxide. Oxides can,
therefore, be classified as acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral.

Acidic oxides
Acidic oxides are oxides of certain non-metals which react with alkalis to Key fact
form a salt and water, for example,
Acidic oxides are oxides of certain
2NaOH(aq) + C02(g) Na2C03(aq) + H20(l) non-metals which react with alkalis
to form a salt and water.
Acidic oxides also react with water to form an acid, for example,

S03(g) + H20(1) H2S04(aq)

Examples of acidic oxides include carbon dioxide (COO, sulfur dioxide (S02),
sulfur trioxide (S03) and nitrogen dioxide (N02).
Basic oxides
Basic oxides are oxides of metals which react with acids to form a salt and
Key fact
water, for example, Basic oxides are oxides of metals
CLIO(s) + 2HN03(aq) + H20(1) which react with acids to form a
salt and water.
A few basic oxides also react with water to form a hydroxide, i.e. they are
alkalis, for example,

K20(s) + H20(1) 2KOH(aq)

Examples of basic oxides include magnesium oxide (MgO), iron(lll) oxide
(Fe203) and copper(ll) oxide (CuO).
131
 Strength of acids and alkalis Acids, bases and salts

Basic oxides which are alkalis include potassium oxide 0<20), sodium oxide
(Nag)) and calcium oxide (CaO).

Amphoteric oxides
Key fact Amphoteric oxides are the oxides of certain metals which react with both
acids and strong alkalis to form a salt and water, for example,
Amphoteric oxides are the oxides
of certain metals which react with P + 3(aq) + H20(1)
both acids and strong alkalis to
2NaOH(aq) + PbO(s) Na2Pb02(aq) + H20(1)
form a salt and water.
sodium
plumbate
The three amphoteric oxides are aluminium oxide (A1303), zinc oxide (ZnO)
and lead(ll) oxide (PbO).

Neutral oxides
Key fact Neutral oxides are oxides of certain non-metals which do not react with
acids or alkalis. These include carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen monoxide
Neutral oxides are oxides of
certain non-metals which do not (NO) and dinitrogen monoxide (N20).
react with acids or alkalis.
Summary questions
1 Define the terms 'base', 'alkali' and 'amphoteric substance'.
2 Give three properties, other than their reactions, which are typical of
aqueous alkalis.

3 Write balanced chemical equations for the following:

the reaction between magnesium hydroxide and nitric acid
b the reaction between calcium oxide and ammonium nitrate
c the reaction between sodium hydroxide and zinc hydroxide.
Objectives
4 Calcium oxide is a basic oxide. Explain, using a chemical equation, why
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: calcium oxide is basic.

explain the difference between

a strong acid and a weak acid
give examples of strong and
weak acids
A8.3 Strength of acids and alkalis
explain the difference between
Aqueous solutions of both acids and alkalis can be classified as strong or weak
a strong alkali and a weak
based on the degree of ionisation which occurs when they are dissolved in water.
alkali
You must not confuse this with concentration. The concentration of an acid or
give examples of strong and
alkali is based on the quantity of water present in the solution (see Unit 8.1).
weak alkalis

explain the relationship

between acidity, alkalinity and
Strong and weak acids
the pH scale When an acid dissolves in water, its molecules ionise to form hydrogen ions,
give the pH values for strong or H + ions, and negative anions.
acids, weak acids, strong
alkalis and weak alkalis Strong acids
explain how to determine the strong acid is fully ionised when it dissolves in water. This means that all
pH of a solution of the acid molecules ionise and there is a high concentration of H + ions in
give the colours of certain
the solution. Hydrochloric acid is an example of a strong acid:
indicators in acidic and alkaline
solutions. HCl(aq) H (aq) + Cl-(aq)

Other strong acids include nitric acid (HN03) and sulfuric acid (H2S04).
132
Acids, bases and salts Strength of acids and alkalis

Weak acids
weak acid is only partially ionised when it dissolves in water. This means
that the solution contains a mixture of acid molecules which have not ionised
and ions produced from the molecules which have ionised. The solution has a
low concentration of H + ions. Ethanoic acid is an example of a weak acid:

CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO (aq) + H (aq)

ethanoate ion

At any one time, only about 1% of ethanoic acid molecules are ionised,
i.e. the solution contains 1% ethanoate ions (CH3COO-) and hydrogen ions

(W) and ethanoic acid molecules (CH3COOH).

Most organic acids are weak. Weak inorganic acids include nitrous acid
(HN02), sulfurous acid (H2S03) and carbonic acid (H2C03).

Strong and weak alkalis

When an alkali is added to water, it ionises to form positive cations and
hydroxide ions, or OH- ions.

Strong alkalis
strong alkali is fully ionised when it dissolves in water. The solution
contains a high concentration of OH- ions. Sodium hydroxide is an example
of a strong alkali:

NaOH(aq) Na (aq) + OH-(aq)

Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is another example of a strong alkali.

Weak alkalis
A weak alkali is only partially ionised when it dissolves in water. The solution
contains a low concentration of OH- ions. Ammonia is an example of a weak
alkali:

NH3(g) + H20(1) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Measuring the strength of acids and alkalis

The strength of an aqueous acid or alkali is measured using the PII scale.
The pH scale is a number scale with numbers ranging from 0 to 14. Aqueous
solutions with a pH less than 7 are considered to be acidic and those with a
pH greater than 7 are considered to be alkaline. An aqueous solution with a
pH of 7 is defined as a neutral solution. Distilled water is neutral.
The pH scale also tells us how strong the acidic or alkaline solution is. In
general, the lower the pH, the stronger the acid, and the higher the pH, the
stronger the alkali.

A strong acid has a pH close to 1, e.g. hydrochloric acid (HCI), nitric acid
(HN03) and sulfuric acid (H2S04).

A weak acid has a pH of about 4 or 5, e.g. ethanoic acid (CH3COOH).

A neutral substance has a pH of 7, e.g. distilled water (H20).
A weak alkali has a pH of about 9 or 10, e.g. aqueous ammonia (NH40H).
A strong alkali has a pH close to 14, e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
and potassium hydroxide (KOH).
133
 Strength of acids and alkalis Acids, bases and salts

universal indicator There are two main methods that are used in the laboratory to
pH paper
measure the pH of a solution. One is universal indicator and the
other is a pH meter.
acidic
1 hydrochloric acid Universal indicator is a chemical substance which
pH of a solution by colour, i.e. its colour
indicates the
2 lemon juice acidic changes depending on the pH of the solution. Universal
3 orange juice indicator can be in paper form or solution form. When
vinegar
using the paper, a small piece of paper is dipped into the
4
solution and its colour is compared with a pH colour chart.
slightly
5 black coffee acidic Figure 8.3.1 shows the colour of universal indicator paper at

6 rainwater
different pH values.
pure water neutral
A pH meter is an electronic instrument. It consists of a
7
measuring probe connected to an electronic meter, which
sea water
8 displays the pH reading. A pH meter is a more accurate
baking soda slightly
milk of magnesia alkaline method for determining the pH of a solution than universal
9
soap indicator paper.
10

11

Other acid-alkali indicators

12 washing soda alkaline
There are other indicators which change to one colour in an
13
acidic solution and another colour in an alkaline solution. It is
oven cleaner
14
sodium hydroxide alkaline important to note that these indicators do not measure the pH
of a solution, they only indicate if it is acidic or alkaline.
A Figure 8.3.1 The pH scale
Litmus is an example of this type of indicator. Other indicators which
you may come across in the laboratory include methyl orange, screened
Did you know? methyl orange, phenolphthalein and bromothymol blue. These are used in
neutralisation experiments to indicate the neutralisation point (see Unit 8.5).
any plant parts contain coloured The common indicators and their colours in acidic and alkaline solutions
compounds called anthocyanins are given in Table 8.3.1.
which are red in acidic conditions
and purple-blue in alkaline V Table 8.3.1 Indicators used in the laboratory

conditions. They are responsible

Indicator Colour in acidic solution Colour in alkaline solution
for the colour of many flowers
and fruit skins. Anthocyanins can litmus red blue

be extracted easily from these

methyl orarge red yellow
plant parts, e.g. the leaves of red
cabbage, and used as a crude screened methyl orange red green
acid—alkali indicator Litmus is a
phenolphthalein colourless pink
naturally occurring indicator which
is made by extracting dyes from bromothymol blue yellow blue

certain species of lichens.

Practical activity

Investigating the acidity and alkalinity of various solutions

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

manipulation and measurement.

You will be supplied with samples of solutions to be tested, test tubes,

universal indicator paper, pH colour chart, red and blue litmus paper, methyl
orange and phenolphthalein.

134
Acids, bases and salts Salts

Method
1 You are going to measure the pH of each of the solutions and investigate
the colour of each indicator in each solution. Only use methyl orange
and phenolphthalein when the solution you are testing is colourless.
Place 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested in each of four test tubes.
b Dip a piece of universal indicator paper into the solution in the first

tube and observe its colour. Compare the colour with the pH colour
chart to determine the pH of the solution.
c Dip a piece of red and a piece of blue litmus paper into the solution in

the second tube. Observe their colours.

d Place two drops of the methyl orange and phenolphthalein,
respectively, into each of the other two tubes. Observe their colours.

2 If there is a pH meter available, use the meter to determine the pH of

each of the solutions. Ensure that you rinse the measuring probe of the
meter in distilled water after each reading.
3 Record all your results in a table.
4 Classifyeach substance as a strong acid, a weak acid, a strong alkali, a
weak alkali or a neutral substance.

Summary questions
1 What is the difference between a strong acid and a weak acid?
2 Name three strong acids and three weak acids.

3 Describe the pH scale, giving the range of the scale and the pH values
of acidic, alkaline and neutral solutions.

4 Give the colours of methyl orange and phenolphthalein and the pH

values for each of the following:
a aqueous ethanoic acid b sodium hydroxide solution
c aqueous ammonia d aqueous hydrochloric acid.

Objectives
A8.4 Salts By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
You have already learnt that all acids form at least one hydrogen ion per
define the term salt
molecule when they dissolve in water, e.g. hydrochloric acid (HCI) forms
one hydrogen ion per molecule and sulfuric acid (H2S04) forms two. These distinguish between a normal
hydrogen ions can be replaced by other positive ions when acids react and salt and an acid salt
they are known as replaceable hydrogen ions. When acids react and the explain water of crystallisation

hydrogen ions are replaced by metal or ammonium ions from the other distinguishbetween a hydrated
reactant, a salt is formed. saltand an anhydrous salt
decide on the most appropriate
method of preparing a salt
Classification of salts
describe the different methods
can be classified into two groups, normal salts and acid
Salts salts, based on of preparing salts
whether all or only some of the hydrogen ions are replaced: describe the uses of salts in

everyday life

state some of the dangers of

salts.

135
 Salts Acids, bases and salts

Normal salts

Normal salts are formed when all of the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced
Key fact by metal or ammonium ions. For example, when sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
reacts with sulfuric acid (H2S04), if all of the H+ ions in the acid are replaced by
A salt is a compound formed when Na+ ions, the normal salt, sodium sulfate (NaS04), is formed:
some or all of the hydrogen ions in

an acid are replaced by metal or 2NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) Na2S04(aq) + 2H20(1)

ammonium ions. All acids can form normal salts.

Acid salts
Acid formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are only partially
salts are
replaced by metal or ammonium ions. For example, when sodium hydroxide
reacts with sulfuric acid, if only one of the H + ions in the acid is replaced by a
Na ion, the acid salt, sodium hydrogensulfate (NaHS04), is formed:
NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) -—4 NaHS04(aq) + H20(1)
Only dibasic and tribasic acids can form acid salts.
The type of salt formed by dibasic and tribasic acids depends on the relative
quantity of each reactant. For example, in the two reactions above, when
2 mol of sodium hydroxide and 1 mol of sulfuric acid reacted, a normal salt
was produced. However, when only 1 mol of sodium hydroxide reacted with
1 mol of sulfuric acid, an acid salt was produced.

The tribasic acid, phosphoric acid (1--131)04), can produce one normal salt
and two different acid salts. For example, in the reaction with sodium
hydroxide, it can form the normal salt, sodium phosphate (Na3P04), when
all three H+ ions are replaced. It can also form the two acid salts, sodium
hydrogenphosphate (Na2HP04) when two H + ions are replaced and sodium
dihydrogenphosphate (NaH2P04) when one H + ion is replaced:

3NaOH(aq) + H3P04(aq) Na3P04(aq) + 3H20(1)

2NaOH(aq) + H3P04(aq) Na2HP04(aq) + 2H20(1)
NaOH(aq) + H3P04(aq) NaH2P04(aq) + H20(1)

Again, you can see that the relative quantity of the two reactants determines
which salt is produced.
Table 8.4.1 shows the salts formed by the common acids.
V Table 8.4.1 Salts formed by common acids

Acid Formula Salt(s) formed Anion Type of Example

present salt

hydrochloric acid HCI chlorides normal salt Naa

nitric acid HN03 nitrates 3 normal salt NaN03
ethanoic acid CHOCOOH ethanoates CH3COO- normal salt CH3COONa
sulfuric acid H2S04 sulfates normal salt
S042— NaS04
hydrogensulfates 4
acid salt NaHS04
carbonic acid H2C03 carbonates normal salt
Na2C03
hydrogencarbonates acid salt
HC03¯ NaHC03
phosphoric acid H3P04 phosphates normal salt
P043- NagP04
hydrogenphosphates HP042- acid salt
Na2HP04
dihydrogenphosphates acid salt
I---12P04- NaH2P04

136
Acids, bases and salts Salts

Water of crystallisation
Some contain a fixed number of water molecules between the
salts
ions in their crystal lattice, known as water of crystallisation. Salts
containing water of crystallisation are referred to as hydrated salts. Water
of crystallisation can be given in the formula of the salt as shown in the
following examples.
CuS04.5H20 represents hydrated copper(ll) sulfate. The formula shows
and S042- ions within the crystal lattice,
that for every mole of Cu2+
there are five moles of water molecules.

e CoC12.6H20 represents hydrated cobalt(ll) chloride.

MgS04.7H20 represents hydrated magnesium sulfate.

e FeS04.7H20 represents hydrated iron(ll) sulfate.

Water of crystallisation is essential to develop the crystalline structure,

and sometimes the colour, of the crystals containing it. If this water of
crystallisation is removed by heating, the solid loses its crystalline structure,
it becomes powdery and its colour may also change. For example, hydrated

copper(ll) sulfate crystals are bright blue and have a regular shape. When
heated they become white and powdery:

heat
CuS04.5H20(s) cuS04(s) + 5H20(g)
white
blue crystals
powder
Salts without water of crystallisation are known as anhydrous salts.

Preparation of salts
We use salts in all aspects of our lives. Some of these uses will be discussed
later in this unit. There are many different methods by which these salts can
be produced, some of which we will be discussing in this section.

When deciding on a preparation method, it is important to know the

solubility ofthe salt that is to be produced and the solubilityofthe compounds
which may be used to prepare the salt. Methods of preparing insoluble salts
differ from those used to prepare soluble salts.

You can find a table summarising the solubility rules in Unit 6.1.

Preparation of insoluble salts

Insoluble salts can be prepared by reacting two solutions, one containing
the cations of the salt being prepared and the other containing the anions
of the salt. This is known as ionic precipitation. In an ionic precipitation
reaction, the two soluble salts in solution react to form an insoluble salt, i.e. a
precipitate, and a soluble salt. For example, barium nitrate solution reacts
with sodium sulfate solution to form insoluble barium sulfate and sodium
nitrate solution:

+ Na2S04(aq) BaS04(s) + 2NaN03(aq)

Ionic equation:

Ba2+ (aq) + BaS04(s)

137
 Salts Acids, bases and salts

Method
The following general method is used for preparing insoluble salts.
1) Choose two soluble salts, one containing the cations required to make the
salt and the other containing the anions required.

2) Dissolve the two salts in water to make solutions.

3) Mix the two solutions to form the insoluble salt as a precipitate.
4) Filter the mixture and collect the precipitate as the residue.

5) Wash the residue with distilled water while it is still in the filter funnel
and leave it to dry.
When choosing the two salts to use in your preparation it is important to
remember that all nitrates are soluble, as are all sodium salts. Therefore,
the best salts to choose would be a nitrate to supply the cations, i.e. barium
nitrate in the above preparation, and a sodium salt to supply the anions,
e.g. sodium sulfate.

Practical activity

To prepare an insoluble salt by ionic precipitation

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

manipulation and measurement.
You will be supplied with solutions of barium nitrate and sodium sulfate,
two beakers, a filter funnel and filter paper.
adding barium
nitrate solution to
Method
sodium sulfate 1 Place 10 cm3 of sodium sulfate solution into a small beaker.
solution
2 Add 10 cm3 of barium nitrate solution and swirl to mix.

3 Using the filter funnel and filter paper, filter the mixture.
4 Wash the residue with distilled water while it is still in the filter funnel and
allow it to dry.

5 Record all your observations as you prepare the sample of the salt.

A Figure 8.4.1 Preparation of the

6 Write both a balanced chemical equation and an ionic equation for the
insoluble salt, barium sulfate reaction and name the insoluble salt that you have prepared.

Preparation of soluble salts

There are three main methods for preparing soluble salts:

direct combination
the reaction between a reactive metal, an insoluble carbonate or an
insoluble base and an acid
the reaction between a soluble base, i.e. an alkali, and an acid, known as
a titration.

Direct combination

Salts composed of two simple ions, such as metal chlorides, can be prepared
by reacting two elements, a metal and a non-metal, directly with each other.
A Figure 8.4.2 A precipitate of barium The metal supplies the cations of the salt and the non-metal supplies the
sulfate anions.

138
Acids, bases and salts Salts

For example, aluminium chloride can be prepared in a fume cupboard by

passing a stream of dry chlorine gas over heated aluminium foil in a long
glass tube as shown in Figure 8.4.3.
aluminium foil

dry chlorine -.......-...> -..........,+ unreacted

in chlorine
out

heat

A Figure 8.4.3 Preparation of aluminium chloride

The equation for the reaction is:

2A1(s) + 3C12(g) 2AIC13(s)

Since the reaction occurs in the absence of any moisture, the formed
salt

isan anhydrous salt. This is particularly suitable for preparing anhydrous

aluminium chloride and anhydrous iron(lll) chloride.

Reactions with acids

Many soluble salts can be prepared by reacting a reactive metal, insoluble

carbonate or insoluble base with an acid as shown in the examples below.
Reacting a reactive metal and an acid, e.g. to prepare magnesium chloride:
Mg(S) 4- 2HCl(aq) --—.> MgC12(aq) + H2(g)
This method cannot be used to prepare salts of very reactive metals,
e.g. potassium or sodium salts, because the reaction of these metals with
an acid is too violent.
Reacting an insoluble carbonate and an acid, e.g. to prepare calcium
nitrate:

+ C02(g) + H20(1)

Reacting an insoluble base and an acid, e.g. to prepare copper(ll) sulfate:

CLIO(S) + H2S04(aq) CuS04(aq) + H20(1)

In these reactions, the final product will onlybe a pure solution ofthe required
salt if the reactionhas reached completion and no acid remains. One way to
achieve this is by using a reactant which is insoluble. This reactant is added
to the acid until some remains. This indicates there is no more acid left for
the reactant to react with and, since it is insoluble, the excess will remain
undissolved in the solution of the salt.
Exam tip

Being able to describe the

Method methods used to prepare salts
is very important for exams. If
The following general method is used to prepare soluble salts using reactions
you are asked to describe how
with acids.
to prepare a soluble salt using a
1) Choose the appropriate reactive metal, insoluble carbonate or insoluble reaction with an acid and you can
base to provide the cations and the appropriate acid to provide the anions. choose the reactants, it is a good
2) Place the acid into a beaker and add the metal, carbonate or base until idea to choose the appropriate
excess solid remains and effervescence stops if a metal or carbonate is insoluble carbonate to supply the

used. This indicates that all the acid has reacted. Heating may be required cations since the reaction between

to speed up the reaction when using a metal or a base. a carbonate and an acid is rapid,
itdoesn't need heating and visible
3) Dip a piece of blue litmus paper into the solution to ensure all the acid has
effervescence stops when the
reacted. The litmus should remain blue.
reaction has reached completion.
4) Remove the excess, unreacted solid by filtration.
139
 Salts Acids, bases and salts

5) Collect the filtrate and evaporate the water over a beaker of boiling water. If
a hydrated salt is required, evaporate some of the water to concentrate the
solution and leave the concentrated solution to crystallise.

Practical activity

To prepare a soluble salt by reacting a base with an acid

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

O manipulation and measurement.

You will be supplied with samples of copper(ll) oxide and sulfuric acid, a
beaker, an evaporating dish, a filter funnel and filter paper.

Method
Add the copper(ll) oxide to 1 Place 20 cm3 of sulfuric acid into the beaker.
the sulfuric acid while
heating gently, until no 2 Add copper(ll) oxide to the acid a spatula at a time, heating and stirring
more will dissolve
gently, until no more will react, i.e. until you can see excess copper(ll)
oxide in the beaker.

3 Using the filter funnel and filter paper, filter the mixture to remove the
excess copper(ll) oxide and collect the filtrate.

4 Pour the filtrate into the evaporating dish. Place the evaporating dish over a
beaker of boiling water and heat until the solution becomes concentrated.
5 Place a piece of filter paper over the evaporating dish containing the
concentrated solution and leave it to crystallise and form hydrated
copper(ll) sulfate crystals.

6 Record all your observations as you prepare the salt.

7 Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
8 To produce anhydrous copper(ll) sulfate, you can heat the filtrate in the
evaporating dish over a beaker of boiling water until all the water has
evaporated.
Filter off the excess
copper(ll)oxide

Titration

Potassium, sodium and ammonium salts cannot be prepared by the method

which you have just learnt for two reasons. Firstly, potassium and sodium react
in a violent way with acids making the reactions too dangerous. Secondly,
potassium, sodium and ammonium carbonates and hydroxides are all soluble,
To produce hydrated so when the reaction has reached completion and no more acid remains, the
copper(ll) sulfate allow the
excess solid dissolves and the solution of the salt will then not be pure.
crystals to form over a few
days. To produce Potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are prepared by adding an acid to an
anhydrous copper(ll) sulfate
evaporate over a beaker aqueous alkali until the solution is just neutral, indicating that the reaction
of boiling water has reached completion. For example, to prepare potassium sulfate, sulfuric
A Figure 8.4.4 Steps involved in the acid is added to potassium hydroxide solution until the resulting solution is
preparation of hydrated copper(ll) just neutral:
sulfate crystals
2KOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) K2S04(aq) + 2H20(1)
The colour change of an indicator is used to determine the neutralisation
point. The technique used to determine the exact volume of acid needed
to neutralise a fixed volume of aqueous alkali is known as a titration.
carbonate solution may also be used in place of the aqueous alkali.
140
Acids, bases and salts Salts

Method
The general method for performing a titration is as follows.
1) Choose an appropriate alkali or soluble carbonate to provide the cations
and an appropriate acid to supply the anions.
2) Measure a fixed volume of the aqueous alkali or carbonate using a pipette.
Run it into a conical flask and add a few drops of indicator solution,
e.g. phenolphthalein.
3) Place the acid in a burette and take an initial burette reading.
4) Add the acid to the aqueous alkali or carbonate until the neutralisation
point is reached.
5) Take a final burette reading and determine the volume of acid added.
6) Repeat the titration until you have three volumes of acid within 0.1 cm3
of each other. Average these volumes to determine the volume of acid
needed.
7) Add this volume of acid to the fixed volume of aqueous alkali or carbonate
without the indicator.
8) Evaporate the water from the solution.

Practical activity

To prepare a soluble salt by titration

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

o manipulation and measurement.

You will be supplied with 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution, 0.1 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, phenolphthalein
solution, a 25 cm3 pipette, a conical flask and a burette.

Method
1 Rinse the burette with some hydrochloric acid and fill it with the acid.

2 Rinse the pipette with some sodium hydroxide solution. Measure 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution in the
pipette and run it into the conical flask.

3 Add a few drops of phenolphthalein solution to the conical flask and swirl the contents.

4 Take an initial burette reading, remembering to take the reading from the bottom of the meniscus.

5 Slowly add the hydrochloric acid to the conical flask, swirling constantly, until the solution just turns from pink
to colourless. The neutralisation point is the point where the colour changes after the addition of just one drop
of the acid.

6 Take a final burette reading and determine the volume of hydrochloric acid added. This is your rough titration.

7 Discard the contents of the conical flask and rinse the flask thoroughly with distilled water.

8 Repeat your titration until you have three volumes of acid which are within 0.1 cm3. Each time you can add the
acid rapidly until you have added about 1 cm3 less than you added in your rough titration, then almost close the
tap and add the acid drop by drop until the neutralisation point is reached.
9 Average the three volumes of acid, which are within 0.1 cm3. This is the accurate volume of acid needed to
neutralise 25 cm3 of the sodium hydroxide solution. You can now prepare the salt.

10 Repeat your titration, but this time do not add the phenolphthalein solution. When you approach the volume
determined in step 9, add the acid drop by drop until you have added the correct volume.

11 Place the solution into an evaporating dish and carefully evaporate all the water to obtain sodium chloride.

141
 Salts Acids, bases and salts

12 Record your results in a table like the one opposite. Titration number
Burette reading
Rough 1
13 Write a chemical equation for the reaction.
Final reading/cm3

Initial readirg/cm3

Volume of acid added/cm3

safety
burette
filler
these valves
allow you to
fill and empty
the pipette when pipette is
these graduations
filled to this mark measure how
it contains exactly much solution
25 cm3 of solution has been added

tap

conical
flask

(b)
(b)

A figure 8.4.5 (a) Using a pipette to measure a fixed volume of sodium A Figure 8.4.6 Phenolphthalein changes from (a)
hydroxide solution and (b) using a burette to add a varying volume of pink to (b) colourless when hydrochloric acid is
hydrochloric acid added to sodium hydroxide solution

Preparation of acid salts

You learnt earlier in this unit that when sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacts
with sulfuric acid (H2S04) there are two possibilities:

The formation of a normal salt:

2NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) Na2S04(aq) + 2H20(1)

The formation of an acid salt:

NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) NaHS04(aq) + H20(1)

Looking at the balanced equations for these two reactions:

to produce a normal salt, the ratio of reactants is 2 mol of sodium
hydroxide to 1 mol of sulfuric acid
e to produce an acid salt, the ratio of reactants is 1 mol of sodium
hydroxide to 1 mol of sulfuric acid.

Ifthe concentrations of the sodium hydroxide solution and the sulfuric

acid are the same,we can apply the ratio to volumes. For example, if we
use 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution and 0.1 mol dm-3 sulfuric
acid:

to produce a normal salt, we would react 50 cm3 of sodium hydroxide

solution with 25 cm3 of sulfuric acid

e to produce an acid salt, we would react 50 cm3 of sodium hydroxide

solution with 50 cm3 of sulfuric acid.

Comparing the two, to prepare the acid salt we would need double the volume
of acid that we used to prepare the normal salt.
142
Acids, bases and salts Salts

Method
The general method for preparing the acid salt, sodium hydrogensulfate, is

as follows.
e Determine the volume of sulfuric acid needed to neutralise a fixed
volume of sodium hydroxide solution using a titration.
e Repeat the titration without the indicator and adding twice the volume
of sulfuric acid determined.
e Evaporate the water from the solution.

Summary of salt preparation

You have just learnt that there are several methods that can be used to prepare
salts and it is important that you choose the correct method. The flow chart
in Figure 8.4.7 outlines a series of questions to ask which will help you decide
which method to choose.

reactive metal + acid

Is
oran insoluble carbonate
NO + acid or an insoluble
the salt
Is
an anhydrous base + acid
a
the salt
NO
chloride? YES
Is potassium, sodium
YES or ammonium Use direct
the salt YES
salt ? combination
soluble in
water? NO titration
Use ionic
precipitation

A Figure 8.4.7 Flow chart for the preparation of salts

Uses of salts in everyday life

Saltsplay an extremely important part in our everyday lives, from the sodium
CiifüS
chloride that we use to flavour our food to the sodium carbonate that we use
as washing soda. Table 8.4.2 gives some of the uses of salts.
V Table 8.4.2 Uses of salts

Salt I Use I Explanation

Sodium An ingredient Baking powder is used to make cakes rise. It contains sodium
hydrogencarbonate in baking hydrogencarbonate and an acid. When mixed with the liquid
(NaHC03) powder in the cake mixture, the two compounds react forming carbon
dioxide:
A Figure 8.4.8 Washing soda is a salt
HCOg-(aq) + H+(aq) C02(g) + H20(l) which some of us have in our homes
The carbon dioxide forms bubbles in the cake which expand on
heatirg causing the cake to rise.

Sodium carbonate To soften hard Hard water does rot lather with soap. It is caused by dissolved
(washing soda) water calcium and salts. When sodium carbonate is
(NaC03) added, the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions precipitate out as insoluble
calcium and carbonate:

Ca2+(aq) + (aq) CaCOJ(S)

The water becomes soft and will lather with soap.
Calcium carbonate Manufacture To make cernent, calcium carbonate is heated with small
(limestone) (CaC03) of cement quantities of other materials such as silicon dioxide (sand) in
for use in the a kiln to about 1400 oc. The calcium carbonate decomposes
construction forming calcium oxide (quicklime):
industry
CaC03(s) ca0(s) + C02(g)

The calcium oxide is then blended with the other materials

inside the kiln to form clinker. The clinker is then ground with a
small amount of calcium sulfate (gypsum) to make cement.

143
Salts Acids, bases and salts

V Table 8.4.2 (continued)

Salt I Use I Explanation
Did you know? Magnesium sulfate Various Added to bath water, Epsom salt is used to ease stress and
(Epsom salt) medicinal relax the body, soothe back pain and aching limbs, ease muscle
(MgS04.7H20) uses strain, help reduce inflammation, help cure skin problems and
Epsom salt derives its name
help heal cuts. Taken orally, Epsom salt is used as a saline
from the tovvn of Epsom in Surrey, laxative and to help eliminate toxins from the body.
England where the salt was first Sodium chloride Food Sodium chloride is used to preserve food items, such as meat
discovered a bitter saline spring.
in (NaCl) preservation and fish, by withdrawirg water from their cells by osmosis so
The power of the waters from
healing that the water is unavailable for the reactions that cause decay.
It also withdraws water from the microorganisms which cause
the spring were realised in about
decay, preventing them from growing.
1618 and news of these powers
Sodium nitrate Food Sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite are often used
with sodium
spread rapidly. Epsorn quickly They destroy certain bacteria that
(NaN03) and preservation chloride to preserve meat.
developed into a spa town and sodium nitrite cause severe food poisoning and retard the development of
people travelled from far and wide to (NaN02) rancidity. Sodium nitrite gives an attractive red colour to the

visit Epsom and 'take the waters'. meat, e.g. ham and bacon, and adds flavour.
Sodium benzoate Food Sodium benzoate is used to preserve foods with a low pH,
(C6H5COONa) preservation e.g. fizzy drinks and fruit juices. At a pH of below 4.5, sodium
benzoate is converted to benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) which
inhibits the growth of microorganisms.
Calcium sulfate Manufacture Plaster of Paris (gypsum plaster) is made of calcium sulfate
Did you know? (gypsum) of plaster of
Paris, which
which has been heated to about 300 oc to remwe the water
Bandages are then impregnated with the dry
of crystallisation.
(CaS04.2H20)
is used when plaster of Paris powder.When water is added to the bandage, a
The origins of gypsum plaster paste forms and heat is given off. The bandage, with its paste,
settirg broken
date back more than 9000 years bones and is then wrapped around the damaged limb, where hardens it

and was used through the

it as a buildirg forming an orthopædic cast.
centuries in many parts of the material Plaster of Paris is also used as a building material. Water is
added to the dry plaster to make a paste which is used to coat
world. By the 1 700s, Paris had
walls and ceilin s.
become the centre for its use and it
became known as plaster of Paris.
At the time, the houses in Paris
Dangers of salts
were made of wood and, by law, While salts play such an important role in our everyday lives, some have also
plaster of Paris was used to cover been implicated in causing various health problems. Table 8.4.3 summarises
the walls to make them fireproof so some of these dangers.
that Paris did not suffer the same
fate as London had in the Great
V Table 8.4.3 Dangers of salts

Fire of 1666. Salt I Dangers

Sodium chloride (NaCl) Excessive consumption can lead to hypertension (high blood pressure).
Sodium nitrate (NaN03) and May increase a person's risk of developing cancer.
sodium nitrite (NaN02) Have been implicated in causing brain damage in children.
Sodium benzoate Has been implicated in increasing hyperactivity and asthma in children.

( COONa) May ircrease a person's risk of developing carcer.

Summary questions
1 Explain the difference between a normal salt and an acid salt.

2 What is water of crystallisation?

3 Name the most appropriate method for preparing each of the following
salts. In each case name the two compounds you would choose to

salt and write a balanced chemical equation for the

prepare the reaction:
a magnesium chloride b lead(ll) sulfate
c anhydrous iron(lll) chloride d potassium nitrate.
4 Describe, giving full details, how you would prepare magnesium
carbonate starting with magnesium nitrate.

5 Describe how we use the following salts in our everyday lives:

a calcium sulfate b sodium hydrogencarbonate

c magnesium sulfate.
Acids, bases and salts Neutralisation reactions

A8.5 Neutralisation reactions Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
In Unit 6.2 you learnt that a neutralisation reaction is any reaction between be able to:
a base and an acid. In a neutralisation reaction a salt and water are always
explain a neutralisation reaction
formed.
describe how to carry out
When a strong alkali reacts with a strong acid, the reaction is complete when neutralisation reactions using
neither alkali nor acid is present in excess. At this point the products have a an indicator, pH meter and
pH of 7, i.e. they are neutral. This point is known as the neutralisation point temperature change
or end point. describe how we use
neutralisation reactions in our
In a neutralisation reaction between an aqueous alkali and an acid, the
daily lives.
actual reaction occurring between the hydroxide ions of the alkali and
is

the hydrogen ions of the acid. These ions react to form water and the other
ions remain in solution as spectator ions. For example, the reaction between
sodium hydroxide solution and hydrochloric acid can be summarised by the
following chemical equation: Key fact
NaOH(aq) + HC1(aq) NaC1(aq) + H20(1) A neutralisation reaction is a

reaction between a base and an

The OH- ions from the sodium hydroxide and the H+ ions from the hydrochloric acid to form a salt and water.
acid react to form water, as shown in the following ionic equation:

OH-(aq) + H (aq) H20(1)

The Na+ and Cl- ions remain in solution as spectator ions. Key fact
The reaction between the hydroxide and hydrogen ions is described as being The neutralisation point is the
an exothermic reaction (see Unit 12.1) because it produces heat energy. We point in an acid—alkali reaction
can make use of this fact when determining the neutralisation point of such where the reaction is complete and
a reaction. neither acid nor alkali is present in

Determining the neutralisation point in an

acid-alkali reaction
The neutralisation point of a reaction between an aqueous alkali and an
aqueous acid is determined by performing a titration. During the titration,
the volume of one solution required to neutralise a fixed volume of another
solution is determined, and the neutralisation point is identified in one
of three ways: using an indicator, using a pH meter or using temperature
change. We will now look at two of these ways, using an indicator and
using temperature change.

Using an indicator
In Unit 8.3 you learnt thatan indicator is a substance which has one colour Did you know?
in an acidic solution and another colour in an alkaline solution.
The neutralisation point can be
When performing a titration using an indicator, a fixed volume of one determined using a pH meter
solution, usually the alkali, is placed in a conical flask and a few drops of the instead of an indicator. One solution

indicator are added. The other solution, usually the acid, is added from the is added in small quantities, e.g.

burette and the indicator will change colour at the neutralisation point. This 2 cm3, to a fixed volume of the

point is determined when the colour changes on the addition of a single

other solution and the pH of the
solution changes sharply to 7 at the
drop of solution from the burette.
neutralisation point.

Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are the most commonly used indicators
to determine the neutralisation point in a titration.
145
 Neutralisation reactions Acids, bases and salts

Using temperature change

When using a temperature change to determine the neutralisation point,
a fixedvolume of one solution is placed in an insulated container, e.g. a
polystyrene cup, and its temperature is recorded. The other solution is added
in small quantities, e.g. 2 cm3, from the burette. Using the thermometer,
the solution is quickly stirred after each addition and the temperature
is recorded. The procedure is continued until several successive drops
in temperature have been recorded. This is known as a thermometric
titration.

A graph is then drawn showing temperature against the volume of solution

added from the burette.

To draw the graph, the points are plotted and then two straight lines of best
fit are drawn, one through the points where the temperature is increasing

and one through the points where the temperature is decreasing. The point
of intersection of the two lines is the neutralisation point.

An example of a graph which might be obtained when hydrochloric acid

isadded to 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution is shown in Figure 8.5.1.
The graph shows that 11.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid is needed to neutralise
25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution.

neutralisation
the temperature
point
increases as more
acid is added the temperature
decreases as more
acid is added
o
3

o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Volume of hydrochloric acid added (cm3)

A Figure 8.5.1 Graph showing temperature against volume of hydrochloric acid

added to 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution

The reaction between theOH- ions in the sodium hydroxide and the H + ions
in the hydrochloric acid produces heat:

OH (aq) +H (aq) H20(1)

The temperature increases as more acid is added because more H+ ions are
being added to react with the OH- ions. The temperature stops increasing
when all the OH- ions have reacted and there are none left in the solution.
This is the neutralisation point. The temperature then decreases for three
reasons; no more heat is being produced because the reaction has reached
completion, acid at a lower temperature is being added which cools the
solution and heat is being lost to the environment.
146
Acids, bases and salts Neutralisation reactions

Practical activity

To determine the neutralisation point by using temperature change

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting O manipulation and measurement O analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with 1.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution, 1.0 mol dm-3 sulfuric acid, a 25 cm3 pipette, a
polystyrene cup, a burette and a thermometer.

Method
1 Rinse the burette with some sulfuric acid and fill it with the acid.

2 Rinse the pipette with some sodium hydroxide solution. Measure 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution in the
pipette and run it into the polystyrene cup.

3 Using the thermometer, measure and record the temperature of the sodium hydroxide solution.

4 Keeping the thermometer in the sodium hydroxide solution, add 2 cm3 of acid from the burette. Quickly stir the
solution with the thermometer and record its maximum temperature.
5 Immediately add another 2 cm3 of hydrochloric acid, quickly stir the solution and record its maximum temperature.
6 Repeat step 5 until you have recorded four successive drops in temperature. It is essential that you do this as
quickly as possible.
7 Record your results in a table.
8 Use your results to draw a graph showing the temperature of the solution against the volume of sulfuric acid
added. Draw two straight lines of best fit.

9 Use your graph to determine the volume of sulfuric acid needed to neutralise 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution.

10 Explain:
a why the temperature of the solution increased (use an ionic equation to help you)
b why the temperature of the solution stopped increasing
c why the temperature of the solution decreased.
11 Suggest reasons why this method of determining the neutralisation point is less accurate than using an indicator.

Using neutralisation reactions

We have already studied how neutralisation reactions can be used to
treat ant and bee stings. Table 8.5.1 summarises three other ways we use
neutralisation reactions.

V Table 8.5.1 Using neutralisation reactions

Where used Action

Antacids Antacids are taken to treat indigestion and acid reflux. They may contain sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHC03), magresium hydroxide
aluminium hydroxide magnesium carbonate (MgC03) or calcium carbonate (CaC03). They work by neutralising the
excess hydrochloric acid in the stomach.

Toothpaste Acid, produced by bacteria in the mouth, causes tooth decay by reacting with the calcium hydroxyapatite in tooth
enamel. Two active sodium hydrogencarbonate and sodium monofluorophosphate (Na2FP03), help reduce
ingredients in toothpaste,
decay. The sodium hydrogercarbonate neutralises any acid in the mouth. The fluoride ions in the sodium morofluorophosphate displace
the hydroxide ions in the calcium hydroxyapatite formirg calcium fluoroapatite

+ 2F-(aq) + 20H-(aq)
Acids do not react with calcium fluoroapatite hence the tooth enamel does rot decay.

Soil treatment Most plants grow best if the soil is neutral. finely ground calcium carbonate (limestore, CaC03) or lime in the form of calcium oxide
(quicklime,CaO) or calcium hydroxide (slaked lime, can be added to soil to neutralise any acids present. However, lime canrot
be added at the same time as an ammonium fertiliser because the two react to make a salt, ammonia gas and water which eliminates the
beneficial effects of both:

CaO(s) + 2NH4+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2NHa(g) + H20(l)

147
 Volumetric analysis Acids, bases and salts

Summary questions
What is a neutralisation reaction?
2 Outline how you would perform a neutralisation reaction using:
an indicator b temperature change.
3 Give three uses of neutralisation reactions in our daily lives.

4 Why should lime and an ammonium fertiliser not be added at the same
time to soil?

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Volumetric analysis involves performing a titration to determine the exact
volume of one solution, usually an acid, required to neutralise a fixed volume
explain volumetric analysis of another solution, usually an aqueous alkali or carbonate. The results of
determine the mole ratio in
the titration can then be used quantitatively in one of two ways:
which reactants combine
to determine the mole ratio in which the two reactants combine
determine the mass
concentration and molar to determine the molar concentration and mass concentration of one
concentration of one reactant of the reactants.
used in a titration.

Determining mole ratios

The mole ratio in which reactants combine can be determined using a
titration if the mass or molar concentration of both reactants is known, i.e. if
they are both standard solutions.

Example
it was found that 25 cm3 of potassium hydroxide of molar
During a titration
concentration 0.6 mol dm-3 was neutralised by I()cm3 of sulfuric acid of
molar concentration 0.75 mol dm-3. Determine the mole ratio in which the
reactants combine.

Calculate the number of moles of potassium hydroxide that reacted:

Molar concentration of KOH(aq) = 0.6 mol dm -3

i.e. IOOOcm3 (1 dm3) KOH(aq) contains 0.6 mol KOH.

06 mol KOH
1 cm3 KOH(aq) contains
1000
0.6
and 25 cm3 KOH(aq) contains x 25 mol KOH
1000
0.015 KOH
Calculate the number of moles of sulfuric acid that reacted:
Molar concentration of H2S04(aq) = 0.75 mol dm -3

i.e. IOOOcm3 (1 dm3) H2S04(aq) contains 0.75 mol H2S04.

0.75
1 cm3 H2S04(aq) contains mol H2S04
1000
0.75
and 10 cm3 H2S04(aq) contains x 10m01 H2S04
1000
0.0075 mol HS04
148
Acids, bases and salts Volumetric analysiss

Use the number of moles of each reactant to determine the mole ratio:
0.015 mol KOH reacts with 0.0075 mol H2S04
2 mol KOH react with 1 H2S04.
The mole ratio in which the reactants combine is 2 mol potassium hydroxide
to 1 mol sulfuric acid.

Determining concentration
The concentration of one reactant used in a titration can be determined if
the mass or molar concentration of the other reactant is known, i.e. if it is a
standard solution. This is done by following the same four steps, i.e. 1) to 4),
that you followed in your calculations in Unit 7.5.

Examples
1 A student performed a titration to determine the concentration of a
solution of hydrochloric acid.The student used a standard solution of
potassium hydroxide with a concentration of 0.1 mol dm-3 and added
the hydrochloric acid to 25 cm3 of the potassium hydroxide solution.
The results of the experiment are shown in the table.
Titration number
Burette reading
Rough
final reading/cm3 21.5 20.5 41.0 20.4

Initial reading/cm3 0.0 0.0 20.5 0.0

Wlume of acid added/cm3 21.5 20.5 20.5 20.4

Determine the molar concentration of the hydrochloric acid.

Calculate the average volume of hydrochloric acid used:

20.5 + 20.5 + 20.4
average volume of HCl(aq)
3 )cm3
- 20.5 cm3
takes 20.5 cm3 of hydrochloric acid to neutralise 25 cm3 of potassium
i.e. it

hydroxide solution, which has a concentration of 0.1 mol dm -3

The balanced chemical equation for the reaction is:

KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) KC1(aq) + H20(1)

1) Calculate the number of moles of potassium hydroxide that reacted:

Molar concentration of KOH(aq) = 0.1 mol dm -3
i.e. 1000 cm3 (1 dm3) KOH(aq) contains 0.1 mol KOH.
0.1
1 cm3 KOH(aq) contains mol KOH
1000
0.1
and 25 cm3 KOH(aq) contains x 25 mol KOH
1000
0.0025 mol KOH.

2) Use the balanced equation to determine the mole ratio between

KOH and HCI:
1 mol KOH reacts with 1 mol HCI.
149
 Volumetric analysis Acids, bases and salts

3) Use the number of moles of KOH from 1) and the mole ratio from 2)
to calculate the number of moles of HCI reacting:
0.0025 mol KOH reacts with 0.0025 mol HCI.
4) Use the number of moles of HCI from 3) and the volume used to
calculate the number of moles of HCI in 1 dm3:

Volume of HCl(aq) used = 20.5 cm3

i.e. 20.5 cm3 HC1(aq) contains 0.0025 mol HCI.
0.0025
1 cm3 HCl(aq) contains mol HCI
20.5
0.025
and 1000cm3 (1 dm3) HCl(aq) contains x 1000 mol HCI
20.5
0.122m01HC1
Therefore, molar concentration of HCl(aq) = 0.122 moldm 3

2 A student found that 20.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid of unknown

concentration were required to neutralise 25 cm3 of sodium carbonate
solution with a concentration of 0.12 mol dm-3. Calculate the mass
concentration of the hydrochloric acid.

The balanced chemical equation for the reaction is:

Na2C03(aq) + 2HC1(aq) 2NaC1(aq) + C02(g) + H20(1)

1) Molar concentration of Na2C03(aq) = 0.12 mol dm -3

i.e. 1000cm3 (1 dm3) Na2C03(aq) contains 0.12 mol Na2C03.

0.12
1 cm3 Na2C03(aq) contains mol Na2C03
1000
0.12
and 25 cm3 Na2C03(aq) contains x 25 mol Na2C03
1000
- 0.003 mol Na2C03.
2) 1 mol Na2C03 reacts with 2 mol HCI.
3) 0.003 mol Na2C03 reacts with 2 x 0.003 mol HCI
0.006m01HC1.
4) Volume of HCl(aq) used = 20.0 cm3
i.e. 20.0 cm3 HCl(aq) contains 0.006 mol HCI.

1 cm3 HCl(aq) contains —

0.006
20.0
mol HCI

0.006
and 1000 cm3 (1 dm3) HCl(aq) contains x 1000 mol HCI
20.0
0.3m01HC1.
Therefore, molar concentration of HCl(aq) = 0.3 mol dm -3
M(HCI) = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 gmol-l

i.e. mass of 1 mol HCI = 36.5 g

mass of 0.3 mol HCI = 0.3 x 36.5g
10.95 g.
Therefore, mass concentration of HCl(aq) = 10.95 g dm-3
150
Acids, bases and salts Volumetric analysis

Practical activity

To determine the concentration of a solution of

hydrochloric acid
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

o manipulation and measurement

analysis and interpretation

You will be supplied with 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution,
hydrochloric acid of unknown concentration, methyl orange indicator, a
25 cm3 pipette, a conical flask and a burette.
Method
1 Rinse the burette with some hydrochloric acid and fill it with the acid.

2 Rinse the pipette with some sodium hydroxide solution. Measure 25 cm3 of
sodium hydroxide solution in the pipette and run it into the conical flask.

3 Add a few drops of methyl orange to the conical flask and swirl to mix
the contents.

4 Carry out a titration as described in the practical activity on page 141.

This time add the acid until the solution just turns from yellow to
orange on adding one drop of acid. If it turns red you have added too
much acid.

5 Record your results in a table as outlined in the practical activity on page

142 and average the three volumes of acid which were within 0.1 cm3.
6 Use this volume to calculate the molar concentration and mass
concentration of the hydrochloric acid. Use the examples above to
help you.

Determining vitamin C content

The vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content of vitamin C tablets, fresh fruit juices
or packaged fruit juices can be determined by performing a titration using
iodine solution. Iodine acts as an oxidising agent (see Unit 9.3) during the
titration and oxidises the ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid. The ascorbic
acid acts as a reducing agent and reduces the iodine to I- ions. The reaction
is summarised in the following equation:

C6H806(aq) + 12(aq) C6H606(aq) + 2H1(aq)

ascorbic acid dehydroascorbic acid

During the titration, brown iodine solution is added from the burette to a
fixed volume of fruit juice or a solution of a vitamin C tablet. As the iodine
is added it is immediately reduced by the ascorbic acid to colourless I- ions.

At the point where all of the ascorbic acid has just reacted, iodine will no
longer be reduced. The iodine remains in the solution and reacts with the
starch to produce a blue-black colour. The end point of the titration is when
a permanent blue-black colour just forms.

Ifthe concentration of the iodine solution is known, the concentration

of ascorbic acid in the fruit juice or solution of a vitamin C tablet can be
calculated since 1 mol of ascorbic acid reacts with 1 mol of iodine.

151
 Volumetric analysis Acids, bases and salts

Practical activity

To determine the vitamin C content of a fruit juice

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

manipulation and measurement

analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with a sample of a fruit juice without pulp,

e.g. grapefruit juice, iodine solution of concentration 0.005 mol dm-3,
1 % starch indicator solution, a 25 cm3 pipette, a conical flask and a
burette.

Method
1 Rinse the burette with some iodine solution and fill it with the iodine
solution.
Summary questions 2 Rinse the pipette with some of the fruit juice. Measure 25 cm3 of the fruit
1 A volume of 40 cm3 of juice in the pipette and run it into the conical flask.

sodium carbonate solution of 3 Add ten drops of starch indicator to the conical flask and swirl to mix the
concentration 0.2 mol dm-3 contents.
reacts with 20 cm3 of nitric
4 Carry out a titration as described in the practical activity on page 141.
acid of concentration
This time add the iodine solution until the first permanent trace of a blue-
0.8 mol dm-3. Determine
black colour is obtained.
the mole ratio in which the
5 Record your results in a table as outlined in the same practical activity
reactants combine.
on page 142 and average the three volumes of iodine solution which
2 A volume of 30 cm3 of were within 0.1 cm3.
sodium hydroxide solution of
6 Use this volume to calculate the molar concentration and mass
concentration 0.4 mol dm-3
concentration of ascorbic acid in the grapefruit juice. Use the examples
were neutralised by 20 cm3 of
on pages 149—50 to help you.
sulfuric acid. Determine the
concentration of the sulfuric
acid in:
You could adapt the experiment which you have just performed to determine
a mol dm-3 the effect of heat on the vitamin C content of a fruit juice. Planning and
b g dm 3. designing experiments is discussed in more detail in the School-Based
Assessment section on the CD.

Key concepts
o An acid is a substance which forms hydrogen ions (H + ) when dissolved
in water.
An acid is defined as a proton donor.
Aqueous solutions of acids have a sour taste, change the colour of litmus
to red, have a pH value of less than 7 and conduct an electric current.
Aqueous acids react with reactive metals to form a salt and hydrogen;
react with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to form a salt, carbon
dioxide and water; and react with bases to form a salt and water.
o Aqueous acids maybe classified as organic or inorganic; monobasic,
dibasic or tribasic; dilute or concentrated; and strong or weak.
An acid anhydride is a compound that reacts with water to form an acid.
We come across a variety of organic acids in living organisms and we
make use of some of these organic acids in our everyday activities.
152
Acids, bases and salts Volumetric analysis

A base is defined as a proton donor.

alkali is a base which dissolves in water to form a solution containing
hydroxide ions (OH ).

Aqueous solutions of alkalis have a bitter taste, change the colour of

litmus to blue, have a pH value greater than 7, conduct an electric current
and feel soapy.
Bases react with acids to form a salt and water and react with ammonium
salts to form a salt, ammonia and water.

Amphoteric substances can react with acids and strong alkalis.

Oxides can be classified as acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral.
Strong acids and alkalis are fully ionised when dissolved in water.
Weak acids and alkalis are partially ionised when dissolved in water.
The strength of an acid or alkali is measured using the PII scale which
ranges from O to 14.
The stronger the acid, the lower the PH. The stronger the alkali, the higher
the PH.
Neutral substances have a pH of 7.
Universal indicator or a pH meter is used to measure PH.
Other acid-alkali indicators have one colour in an acidic solution and
another colour in an alkaline solution.
A salt is a compound formed when some or all of the replaceable
hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by metal or ammonium ions.
A normal salt is formed when all the hydrogen ions in an acid are
replaced. An acid salt is formed when only some of the hydrogen ions are
replaced.
Some salts contain water molecules trapped between their ions in the
crystal lattice. This is known as water of crystallisation.

Insoluble salts can be prepared by ionic precipitation.

Anhydrous binary salts can be prepared by direct combination.
Potassium, sodium and ammonium salts can be prepared using a titration.
Other soluble salts can be prepared by reacting a reactive metal, an
insoluble carbonate or an insoluble base with an acid.

Salts play an extremely important part in our everyday lives, but can also
be dangerous.
A neutralisation reaction is a reaction between a base and an acid to form
a salt and water.
The neutralisation point is the point in an acid-alkali reaction where the
reaction is complete and neither acid nor alkali is present in excess.
The neutralisation point of an acid-alkali reaction can be determined
during a titration by using an indicator, a pH meter or temperature
change.
Neutralisation reactions are used in various aspects of our daily lives.
Volumetric analysis involves performing a titration to determine the
exact volume of one solution required to neutralise a fixed volume of
another solution.
Results of a titration can be used to determine the mole ratio in which the
two reactants combine or to determine the concentration of one reactant.
The vitamin C content of a vitamin C tablet or fruit juice can be
determined using a titration.
153
Practice exam-style questions Acids, bases and salts

9 Magnesium sulfate can be prepared by:

Practice exam-style questions I reacting magnesium carbonate with sulfuric acid

II reacting magnesium nitrate with sulfuric acid

Multiple-choice questions Ill reacting magnesium with sulfuric acid.

1 Which of the following is not a property of hydrochloric A land II only

acid?
B land Ill only
A It turns blue litmus red.
C 1, 11 and 111

B It is a strong electrolyte.
D Ill only
C It reacts with magnesium to form magnesium
chloride and water. 10 Which of the following cannot be used to determine the
D It with sodium carbonate to form sodium
reacts neutralisation point in a reaction between an acid and
chloride, carbon dioxide and water. an alkali?

2 Which of the following is/are properties of aqueous A An anemometer

alkalis? B A thermometer
I They react with acids to form a salt and hydrogen. C A pH meter
II They have a pH less than 7. D An indicator
Ill They react with ammonium salts to form a salt,
ammonia and water.
11 A volume of 25 cm3 of a carbonate solution of
concentration 0.2 mol dm-3 was neutralised by 20 cm3 of
A I and Ill only an acid of concentration 0.5 mol dm- 3. The mole ratio in
B land II only which the reactants combine is:
C 1, 11 and 111
A 1 mol of carbonate to 1 mol of acid
D Ill only B 1 mol of carbonate to 2 mol of acid
3 A weak acid is one which: C 2mol of carbonate to 1 mol of acid
A is dilute D 3 mol of carbonate to 1 mol of acid.
B ionises fully in aqueous solution
C has a low concentration of H + ions 12 A volume of 10 crn3 of sulfuric acid of unknown
D does not ionise in aqueous solution. concentration neutralised 25 cm3 of sodium
hydroxide solution of concentration 0.4 mol dm-3. The
4 A solution which has a pH of 11:
concentration of the acid is:
A is more alkaline than a solution with a pH of 12
A 0.1 mol dm-3
B is less alkaline than a solution with a pH of 9 B 0.25 moldm•
C ismore acidic than water
C 0.4 moldm-3
D alkaline than a sodium hydroxide solution of
is less
D 0.5 moldm-3.
the same concentration.
5 The actual change which occurs when sodium
hydroxide solution reacts with sulfuric acid is:
Structured question
A 2Na+(aq) + S042-(aq) Na2S04(aq)
B OH-(aq) -F H + (aq) H20(1) 13 A titration is used to determine the volume of one

C 2NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) Na2S04(s) + 2H20(l) solution needed to neutralise a fixed volume of another
D NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) Na2S04(aq) + H20(l) solution. Titrations can be used as a means of preparing
certain soluble salts and in volumetric analysis to
6 Which of the following acids is found in an ant sting?
determine the concentration of one of the solutions
A Methanoic acid
used. During a titration, the neutralisation point is
B Ethanoic acid
usually determined by using an indicator.
C Lactic acid
D Hydrochloric acid a What is meant by the neutralisation point of a
titration? (2 marks)
7 Which of the following is not an amphoteric substance?
A Lead(ll) oxide
b In order to determine the concentration ofa sodium

B Aluminium hydroxide hydroxide solution, a student is provided with two

C Iron(lll) oxide solutions labelled X and Y.
D Zinc hydroxide - Xis aqueous sulfuric acid with a mass
concentration of 19.6 g dm-3
8 A pure sample of lead(ll) chloride can be prepared by
- Y is a sodium hydroxide solution of unknown
reacting:
A concentration.
lead with dilute hydrochloric acid
B lead(ll) hydroxide with dilute hydrochloric acid To determine the concentration of Y, the student
C lead(ll) nitrate solution with sodium chloride titrates X against 25.0 cm3 of Y. The figure shows
solution the readings from the burette before and after each
D lead(ll) carbonate with hydrochloric acid. titration using 25.0 cm3 of solution Y.
Acids, bases and salts Practice exam-style questions

c Salts can be prepared in the laboratory by a variety of

17 2 19 4 22
different methods.
i) Describe how you would prepare a pure sample
of anhydrous copper(ll) sulfate in the laboratory
starting with copper(ll) carbonate. Include in

1 18 3 20 5 23
your answer a balanced chemical equation for
the reaction. (5 marks)
ii) How would your method be different if you
wanted to prepare hydrated copper(ll) sulfate
before after before after before after
crystals? (1 mark)
titration 1 titration 2 titration 3
Total 15 marks
Burette readings

i) Using the information from the figure, complete

the table below.

Titration number

final burette reading/cm3

Initial burette reading/cm3

Volume of solution X used/cm3

(3 marks)
ii) Calculate the volume of X needed to neutralise
25 cm3 of Y. (1 mark)
iii) Calculate the concentration of sulfuric acid in
solution X in mol dm -3 (1 mark)
iv) Calculate the number of moles of sulfuric acid
used in the titration. (1 mark)
v) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
(2 marks)
vi) Determine the number of moles of sodium
hydroxide in the 25.0 cm3 of solution Y used.
(1 mark)
vii) Calculate the concentration of sodium
hydroxide in solution Y in mol dm-3. (1 mark)
c How would the student use the titration carried out
in b above:
i) to prepare a pure dry sample of sodium sulfate
(2 marks)
ii) to prepare a pure sodium hydrogensulfate
solution? (1 mark)

Total 15 marks

Extended response question

14 a An acid can be defined as a proton donor and a base
as a proton acceptor. Explain the reason for EACH
definition. (4 marks)
b Carbonic acid and sulfuric acid are both acidic.
However, they have different pH values. You are
supplied with a 1.0 mol dm-3 solution of each acid.
i) Suggest a pH value for EACH solution. (2 marks)
ii) Explain the reason for their different pH values.
(2 marks)
iii) Give one way you could use to find out if your
suggested pH values are correct. (1 mark)
155
 Oxidation-reduction
reactions

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will part of our everyday lives, for example, in batteries,
be able to:
photography, photosynthesis and the rusting of cars. In
describe the action of common all these reactions electrons are being transferred. It was
oxidising and reducing
substances in everyday only after the discovery of oxygen that the chemistry
activities behind oxidation-reduction reactions was understood.
define oxidation and reduction
in terms of electron transfer
identify the reactant being A9.1 Oxidation and reduction - an introduction
oxidised and the reactant being
reduced using electron transfer. The discovery and laboratory preparation of oxygen was a very important
stepping stone in chemistry. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-94) discovered that
when metals are burned, they combine with oxygen from the air to form
oxides. The term oxidation was used later to define any reaction in which a
reactant gains oxygen. An example, according to this definition of oxidation,
is the reaction between magnesium and oxygen where the magnesium has
gained oxygen, forming magnesium oxide:

2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s)

The removal of oxygen from a metal oxide was described as a reduction
reaction because the metal oxide was reduced to the pure metal. The term
reduction was used to define any reaction in which a reactant loses oxygen.
An example, according to this definition of reduction, is the reaction between
iron(lll) oxide and carbon where the iron(lll) oxide has lost oxygen to form
iron:

2Fe203(s) + 3c(s) 4Fe(S) -F 3C02(g)

These definitions were later extended to include reactions involving hydrogen.

Hydrogen is chemically opposite to oxygen, therefore, oxidation was defined as
a loss of hydrogen and reduction was defined as a gain of hydrogen.

With the discovery of protons, neutrons and, most importantly, electrons,

scientists refined their definitions ofoxidation and reduction, and the definitions
were refined again using the concept of oxidation number or oxidation state.
You will be studying these definitions in detail later in this unit.

Oxidation and reduction in our everyday activities

We encounter, and make use of, many oxidation and reduction reactions in
our everyday lives. We will look at some of these below.

Action of bleaches

Bleach is added to clothes to remove coloured The most commonly

stains.
used bleaches are chlorine bleaches containing sodium chlorate(l) (NaClO)
and oxygen bleaches containing hydrogen peroxide (1-1202). Both types
of bleach remove stains by oxidising the coloured chemicals, or dyes, in the
A Figure 9.1.1 The copper from which stain to their colourless form, hence the stain disappears. The equation below
the statue of Marcus Garvey is made summarises how the chlorate(l) ion (CIO-) in a chlorine bleach works:
has started to turn green because of
oxidation CIO-(aq) + coloured dye Cl-(aq) + colourless dye

156
Oxidation-reduction reactions Oxidation and reduction - an introduction

Rusting
When iron and its alloy, steel, come into contact with oxygen and moistu re
the iron is oxidised by the oxygen to form hydrated iron(lll) oxide (Fe203.
xH20), otherwise known as rust. Given sufficient time and exposure to
oxygen and moisture, any iron object will eventually oxidise entirely to
rust and disintegrate.

Browning of cut fruits and vegetables

As soon as certain fruits such as apples and bananas, or certain vegetables
such as potatoes, are peeled or cut, the cut surface is exposed to oxygen in
the air. Enzymes in the plant cells on the surface of the fruit or vegetable
begin to oxidise certain chemicals in the cells to brown compounds
A Figure 9.1.2 A cut apple turns brown
on exposure to oxygen in the air
known as melanins. These melanins cause the cut or damaged surface to
turn brown.

In many cases, browning is undesirable because it causes changes in Did you know?
appearance, flavour, quality and taste. The melanins formed are not toxic
Melanins are dark brown and
and in some cases their production is useful since it contributes to the
black pigments responsible for the
colour and flavour of items such as raisins, prunes, coffee, tea and cocoa.
colour of skin, hair, scales, feathers
and eyes of animals. Exposure
to ultraviolet light stimulates the
Food preservation
production of melanin pigments
Sodium sulfite and sulfur dioxide are used as food preservatives to in human skin, which is why skin
enhance flavour, preserve freshness and reduce or prevent spoilage and darkens in sunlight.

discolouration of foods such as wine, fruit juices, dried fruits, dried

potatoes and shrimp. They do this by preventing oxidation. They prevent
bacteria oxidising wine to vinegar and prevent the vitamin C in fruit juice
being destroyed by oxidation. They also prevent browning of dried fruits,
dried potato products and shrimp by reducing chemicals produced during
the browning process back to their colourless form.

The breathalyser test

The breathalyser test used to test the alcohol level in the breath of
is

drivers. In the test, the driver blows into a sample of orange potassium
dichromate(vl) crystals (K2Cr207) which have been acidified with
sulfuric acid. Any ethanol vapours in the driver's breath will reduce the
orange dichromate(vl) ion (Cr2072-) to the green chromium(lll) ion (Cr3+),
turning the crystals green (see Unit 9.3).

Key fact
Oxidation-reduction and electrons Oxidation is the loss of electrons
By the turn of the 20th century, chemists realised that oxidation reactions by an element in its free state or an
always seemed to involve a loss of electrons. They developed a model for element in a compound.
oxidation reactions that involved a transfer of electrons. A substance that
lost electrons was said to have been oxidised and a substance that gained
electrons was said to have been reduced.
Key fact
Oxidation and reduction can be defined in terms of electron transfer,
Reduction is the gain of electrons
oxidation being the loss of electrons and reduction being the gain of
by an element in its free state or an
electrons.
element in a compound.

157
 Oxidation and reduction - an introduction Oxidation-reduction reactions

A substance will not lose electrons unless there is another substance available
Exam tip to gain the electrons, i.e. for every oxidation reaction there will always be a
reduction reaction. These oxidation-reduction reactions are known as redox
You must be able to define reactions. The equation that only shows the loss of electrons is known as
oxidation and reduction in terms of the oxidation half equation and the equation that only shows the gain of
electron transfer. An easy way to electrons is known as the reduction half equation.
remember these definitions is by
remembering two words: OIL RIG.
Examples of redox reactions
OIL Oxidation IS Loss
RIG Reduction IS Gain 1 Burning magnesium in oxygen:

2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s)

The magnesium oxide (MgO) produced in the reaction is an ionic
Key fact compound consisting of Mg2+ ions and 02- ions. During the reaction:
A redox reaction a chemical
is
Each magnesium atom loses two electrons to form a magnesium ion.
reaction in which one reactant is Magnesium (Mg) is oxidised:
reduced and the other is oxidised.

This is more correctly written as:

Mg Mg2+ -F 2e

The overall oxidation half equation is:

Exam tip
2Mg2+(s) + 4e
2Mg(s)
When writing balanced oxidation Each oxygen atom in the oxygen molecule gains two electrons to
and reduction half equations you form an oxide ion. Oxygen (02) is reduced:
must always include state symbols
and is important to ensure that
it
02
the number of atoms and charges The overall reduction half equation is:
balance at each side of the
equation.
202 (s)

2 Adding zinc to copper(ll) sulfate solution:

Zn(S) + CUS04(aq) ZnS04(aq) + cu(s)

The zinc displaces the copper in the copper(ll) sulfate to form zinc
sulfate and copper. Writing the ionic equation for the reaction:

Zn(S) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

During the reaction:

e Each zinc atom loses two electrons to form a zinc ion. Zinc (Zn) is

oxidised:

Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e
Each copper(ll) ion gains two electrons to form a copper atom. The
copper(ll) ions (Cu2+) are reduced:

Cu2+(aq) + Tu(S)

3 Bubbling chlorine gas through potassium bromide solution:

C12(g) + 2K Br(aq) 2KC1(aq) + Br2(aq)

The chlorine gas displaces the bromine in the potassium bromide to

form potassium chloride and bromine. Writing the ionic equation for
the reaction:

C12(g) + 2Br-(aq) 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)

158
Oxidation-reduction reactions Oxidation numbers

During the reaction:

Each bromide ion loses one electron to form a bromine atom. The
bromide ions (Br-) are oxidised:
2Br- (aq) Br2(aq) + 2e
e Each chlorine atom in the chlorine molecule gains one electron to
form a chloride ion. Chlorine (C12) is reduced:
C12(g) + 2e 2C1-(aq)

Ionic bonding always involves a transfer of electrons from the metal atom to
the non-metal atom. Any reaction in which ionic bonds are formed is a redox
reaction. Using the reaction between sodium and chlorine as an example:

2Na(s) + C12(g) 2NaCl(s)

e Each sodium atom loses one electron to form a sodium ion. Sodium (Na)
is oxidised:

2Na(S) 2Na (s) + 2e

Each chlorine atom in the chlorine molecule gains one electron to form
a chloride ion. Chlorine (C12) is reduced:

C12(g) + 2e 2C1-(s)

Summary questions
1 Define oxidation and reduction in terms of a transfer of electrons.
2 State whether each of the following half equations shows oxidation or
reduction:
a + Fe(s) b Fe2 (aq) Fe3+ (aq) +e
c Br2(aq) 2Br (aq) + 2e d cu 2 + + Cu(s).

3 In the following redox reaction, state what has been oxidised and what
has been reduced:

Br2(aq) + 2Kl(aq) 2KBr(aq) + 12(aq)

4 Why does an apple turn brown when it is cut in half?

A9.2 Oxidation numbers Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
Redox chemistry developed further when chemists recognised that be able to:
oxidation-reduction reactions did not always involve the transfer of
electrons. For example, in the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to define oxidation number
form water, there is no change in the number of valence electrons on any determine oxidation numbers
of the atoms, i.e. there is no transfer of valence electrons. However, the from formulae
reaction is definitely a redox reaction because the reaction involves both define oxidation and reduction
in terms of oxidation number
hydrogen and oxygen:
identify redox reactions using a
2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g) change in oxidation number
The model of oxidation-reduction reactions was expanded by the identify the reactant being
development of the concept of oxidation number or oxidation state. oxidised and the reactant being
Oxidation number indicates the number of electrons lost, gained or shared reduced using a change in

as a result of chemical bonding. oxidation number.

159
 Oxidation numbers Oxidation-reduction reactions

Oxidation numbers can be positive, negative or zero. When writing the

Key fact oxidation number of an element, unless the number is zero, a plus or minus
sign is placed before the number to indicate if it is positive or negative,
The oxidation number of an e.g. +1, —2, and there is always a number after the sign, i.e. the number 1 is
element is the theoretical charge always written.
that an atom of the element would
have if all the bonds between the Oxidation numbers play an important role in the naming of certain
atoms in the compound containing compounds as you will learn in sections that follow.
it were ionic and the compound

was composed entirety of ions.

Rules for determining oxidation numbers
Before you can learn how to recognise redox reactions using the concept of
oxidation number, you must learn how to determine the oxidation numbers
of elements. To do this, a set of rules need to be followed.
o The oxidation number of each atom of an element in its free state is zero.
For example:
oxidation number of an A1 atom in A1=0
oxidation number of each N atom in N2 = 0.

The oxidation number of each simple ion in an ionic compound is equal

to the charge on the ion. For example:
in A1203: oxidation number of each A13+ ion = +3
oxidation number of each 02- ion
The oxidation number of hydrogen when present ina compound is always
+ 1 except when bonded to a metal in a metal hydride where its oxidation
number is — 1, e.g. in sodium hydride (NaH) and calcium hydride (CaH2).
The oxidation number of oxygen when present in a compound is always
—2 except in peroxides where it is — 1, e.g. in hydrogen peroxide (H202).
o The sum of the oxidation numbers of all elements present in a
compound is zero. For example, in H20, the oxidation number of each
atom must add up to zero:
2(oxidation number of H) + (oxidation number of O) =0
2(+1) (-2)
(-2)
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all elements present in a
polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion. For example, in the
OH- ion, the oxidation number of each atom must add up to — 1:
(oxidation number of O) + (oxidation number of H)
(-2) (+1)
Following these rules, the oxidation number of any element can be determined
from the formula of the compound or polyatomic ion in which the element
occurs.

Examples
1 Determine the oxidation number of sulfur in sulfur dioxide (S02).

(oxidation number of S) + 2(oxidation number ofO) =0

(oxidation number of S) + 2(-2)
(oxidation number of S) +
oxidation number of S = +4
The compound sulfur dioxide (S02) can be called sulfur0v) oxide
because the oxidation number of sulfur in the compound is + 4.
160
Oxidation-reduction reactions Oxidation numbers

2 Determine the oxidation number of nitrogen in the nitrate ion (N03-).

(oxidation number of N) + 3(oxidation number of O)
(oxidation number of N) + 3(-2)
(oxidation number of N) +
oxidation number of N = +5
The nitrate ion (N03-) is more correctly called the nitrate(v) ion
because the oxidation number of nitrogen in the ion is +5.

3 Determine the oxidation number of C 4- 4(+1) ¯0

carbon in methane (CHO.
The oxidation number of carbon is —4.

4 Determine the oxidation number of Mn + 4(-2) = -1

manganese in the Mn04- ion and name
the ion.

The oxidation number of manganese is + 7. The ion is called the

manganate(vn) ion because of the oxidation number of manganese
in the ion.

5 Determine the oxidation number 2(+1) + 2Cr + 7(-2) = o

of chromium in K2Cr207 and (+2) + 2Cr + (-14) = o
name the compound. 2Cr = +12
Cr = +6
The oxidation number of chromium is +6.
The compound is called potassium dichromate(vl) because of the
oxidation number of chromium in the compound.

6 Determine the oxidation number of s + 3(-2) = -2

sulfur in the sulfite ion (S032-) and
suggest an alternative name for the ion.
The oxidation number of sulfur is +4. The ion can also
be called the sulfate(rv) ion.

Oxidation number and naming compounds

Certain elements have more than one possible oxidation number. For
this reason, when naming
a compound or ion that contains any of these
elements, important to include the oxidation number as part of the
it is

name. This is done by placing the oxidation number of the element,

without its charge, in Roman numerals in brackets after its name.
When naming ions, the name always ends in 'ate'. Tables 9.2.1, 9.2.2
and 9.2.3 give examples.
V Table 9.2.1 Names of compounds V Table 9.2.2 Names of compounds and V Table 9.2.3 Names of compounds and
containing manganese ions containing nitrogen ions containing sulfur

Compound Oxidation Name Compound Oxidation Name Compound Oxidation Name

number number number
of Mn of N

Mn02 +4 manganese@) +2 nitrogen(ll) oxide 2 +4 sulfur(w) oxide

oxide
2 +4 nitrogen(lv) oxide 3 +6 sulfur(v) oxide
KMn04 +7 potassium
2 +3 nitrate(ll) ion S032— +4 sulfate(w) ion
manganate@ll)
3 nitrate(v) ion S042— +6 sulfate(u) ion

161
 Oxidation numbers Oxidation-reduction reactions

Redox reactions and oxidation number

Key fact If we consider the loss or gain of electrons and a change in oxidation number,
Oxidation is the increase in the we can see a clear link between the two.
oxidation number of an element Whenever an atom or ion loses electrons it has been oxidised. At the
in its free state or an element in a same time, its oxidation number increases. For example, when a sodium
compound. atom forms a sodium ion it loses one electron and its oxidation number
increases from 0 to + 1. The sodium atom has been oxidised:

Key fact oxidation numbers: (0) (+1)

Reduction is the decrease in the Whenever an atom or ion gains electrons it has been reduced. At the same
oxidation number of an element time, its oxidation number decreases. For example, when a chlorine atom
in its free state or an element in a forms a chloride ion it gains one electron and its oxidation number
compound. decreases from 0 to — 1. The chlorine atom has been reduced:

oxidation numbers: (0) (-1)

Exam tip
By considering the change in oxidation number of each element in a reaction
It easy to remember that
is possible to determine if it is a redox reaction. If it is a redox reaction, the
it is

reduction is a decrease in oxidation oxidation number of one element will increase and the oxidation number of
number, because when you reduce another element will decrease.
anything, you make less. it

Consider the following reaction again:

2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s)

We can write the half equation for the conversion of magnesium to
magnesium ions and show the oxidation number of each below:
2Mg(s) 2Mg2+(s) + 4e
(0)

Looking at this, we can see that the oxidation number of each magnesium
atom has increased from 0 to +2. Magnesium (Mg) has been oxidised.
We can write the half equation for the conversion of oxygen to oxide ions
and show the oxidation numbers below:
02(g) + 4e- 202 (s)

(0) (-2)
Looking at this, we can see that the oxidation number of each oxygen atom
in the oxygen molecule has decreased from 0 to —2. Oxygen (02) has been
reduced.
important to note that in writing the oxidation number of each element
It is

we disregard any subscripts or coefficients. We are writing the oxidation

number of a single atom or ion of the element only.

Recognising redox reactions using oxidation numbers

Changes in oxidationnumber are not always brought about by a transfer of
electrons. The oxidation numbers of elements in covalent substances can
also change when they react to form other covalent substances. For example,
when hydrogen and oxygen react to form water:
2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g)
oxidation numbers: (0) (0)

162
Oxidation-reduction reactions Oxidation numbers

o The oxidation number of each hydrogen atom in the hydrogen molecule

has increased from 0 to + 1. Hydrogen (H2) has been oxidised.
The oxidation number of each oxygen atom in the oxygen molecule has
decreased from 0 to —2. Oxygen (02) has been reduced.

Redox reactions which involve a transfer of electrons and also those which
don't involve a transfer of electrons can be recognised using oxidation
number by the steps outlined below.
1) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
2) Write the oxidation number of each element in brackets below it. You do
not need to determine the oxidation numbers of elements in polyatomic
ions which remain unchanged during a reaction.
3) Determine which element shows an increase in its oxidation number.
Thisis the element which has been oxidised.

4) Determine which element shows a decrease in its oxidation number. This

is the element which has been reduced.

5) If there no increase in oxidation number of one element and a

is

decrease in oxidation number of another element, then the reaction is

not a redox reaction.

Examples
1 Determine which element has been oxidised and which element has
been reduced in the reaction between copper(ll) oxide and hydrogen.
cu0(s) + H2(g)
(+2)(-2) (0) (0)

reduced
oxidised

e The oxidation number of each hydrogen atom in the hydrogen molecule

has increased from 0 to + 1. Hydrogen (H2) has been oxidised.
• The oxidation number of the Cu2+ ion in the copper(ll) oxide has
decreased from +2 to 0. Copper(ll) oxide (CuO) has been reduced

2 Determine which element has been oxidised and which has been
reduced in the reaction between methane and oxygen.

CH4(g) + 202(g) C02(g) + 2H20(g)

(0)

oxidised
reduced

e The oxidation number of the carbon atom in the methane molecule

has increased from —4 to +4. Methane (CHO has been oxidised.
• The oxidation number of each oxygen atom in the oxygen molecule
has decreased from 0 to —2. Oxygen (02) has been reduced.
3 Determine whether the following reaction is a redox reaction or not.
2AgC1(s) +
(+2)(-1) (+2)

Because the NOE ion remains unchanged in the reaction, i.e. it is one of
the spectator ions, the oxidation numbers of the nitrogen and oxygen in
the ion do not need to be considered.
None of the elements has undergone a change in oxidation number.
This is not a redox reaction.

163
 Oxidising and reducing agents Oxidation-reduction reactions

4 Determine which element has been oxidised and which has been
reduced in the reaction between magnesium and zinc sulfate.

Mg(S) + ZnS04(aq) MgS04(aq) + zn(s)

(0) (0)

oxidised
reduced

Because the S042- ion remains unchanged in the reaction, the oxidation
numbers of the sulfur and oxygen in the ion do not need to be
considered.

The oxidation number of the magnesium has increased from 0 to +2.

Magnesium (Mg) has been oxidised.
o The oxidation number of each Zn2+ ion in the zinc sulfate has decreased
from +2 to 0. Zinc sulfate (ZnS04) has been reduced.

Summary questions
1 Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxidation number.

2 Determine the oxidation number of:

a copper in Cuo
b sulfur in H2S
c carbon in each of CO, C02, H2C03 and C2H4
d nitrogen in each of NH3, Mg3N2 and NH4Cl
chlorine in each of AIC13, NaClO and KC103.
3 Use oxidation number to determine whether the following are redox
reactions. If they are redox reactions give the reactant which has been
oxidised and the reactant which has been reduced:
C12(g) -h 2Kl(aq) 2KCl(aq) + 12(aq)

b 4Al(s) + 302(g) 2A1203(s)

c Mg(S) -F 2HCl(aq) MgC12(aq) + H2(g)
d BaC12(aq) + H2S04(aq) BaS04(s) + 2HCl(aq).

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
A9u3 Oxidising and reducing agents

define the terms oxidising and In any redox reaction, oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.
reducing agent in terms of One reactant brings about the oxidation of the other reactant. This is
electrons known as the oxidising agent.
define the terms oxidising and One reactant brings about the reduction of the other reactant. This is
reducing agent in terms of known as the reducing agent.
oxidation number
recognise oxidising and
This can generally be symbolised as follows, where A is the reactant that has
been oxidised and B is the reactant that has been reduced:
reducing agents
give examples of compounds
which can act as both an oxidised reduced

oxidising agent and a reducing In the above reaction:

agent
A must have been oxidised by B. B is the oxidising agent.
describe tests to identify

oxidising and reducing agents.

B must have been reduced by A. A is the reducing agent.

164
Oxidation-reduction reactions Oxidising and reducing agents

Oxidising and reducing agents in terms of electrons

Consider the example of aluminium reacting with chlorine gas:
Key fact
2A1(s) + 3C12(g) 2AIC13(s) An oxidising agent brings about
The aluminium has been oxidised because each atom has lost three the oxidation of another reactant

electrons to form an aluminium ion (A13+): by causing an atom or ion in that

reactant to lose electrons.
2A13+(s) + 6e
The chlorine atoms brought about this loss by taking these electrons.
Chlorine (C12) is the oxidising agent.
The chlorine has been reduced because each atom in the molecule
gained one electron to form a chloride ion (Cl
Key fact
3C12(g) + 6e 6C1-(s) A reducing agent brings about
the reduction of another reactant
The aluminium atoms brought about this gain by donating these
by causing an atom or ion in that
electrons. Aluminium (A1) is the reducing agent.
reactant to gain electrons.
oxidising agent, therefore, causes another reactant to lose electrons and
a reducing agent causes another reactant to gain electrons.

Oxidising and reducing agents in terms of oxidation Exam tip

number
It can be very confusing to try to
Consider the example of magnesium burning in oxygen again: learn the definitions of oxidation and
2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s) reduction as well as those of oxidising
(0) (0) agent and reducing agent. It is better
oxidised to work them out when needed.

reduced You know that Oxidation Is the Loss

The magnesium has been oxidised because the oxidation number of of electrons (OIL). An oxidising agent
must cause this loss by taking these
each magnesium atom has increased from 0 to +2. Oxygen (02) is the
electrons. The oxidising agent itself
oxidising agent because it is the reactant that caused the increase in
gains electrons.
oxidation number.
You know' that Reduction Is the
The oxygen has been reduced because the oxidation number of each Gain of electrons (RIG). A redudng
oxygen atom has decreased from 0 to —2. Magnesium (Mg) is the agent must cause by giving
this gain
reducing agent because it is the reactant that caused the decrease in electrons. The reducing agent itself
oxidation number. loses electrons.

oxidising agent, therefore, causes the oxidation number of an atom or

ion in another reactant to increase. A reducing agent causes the oxidation
number of an atom or ion in another reactant to decrease. Key fact
Examples An oxidising agent brings about
the oxidation of another reactant
1 Determine which reactant is the oxdising agent and which is the
by causing the oxidation number of
reducing agent in the reaction between copper(ll) oxide and hydrogen.
an atom or ion in that reactant to
cu0(s) + H2(g) increase.
(+2)(-2) (0) (0)

reduced

oxidised
Key fact
Copper(ll) oxide (CuO) the oxidising agent because it oxidised
is

the hydrogen by causing the oxidation number of each hydrogen A reducing agent brings about the
atom to increase from 0 to + 1. reduction of another reactant by
causing the oxidation number of
e Hydrogen (H2) is the reducing agent because it reduced the copper(ll)
an atom or ion in that reactant to
oxide by causing the oxidation number of the Cu2+ ion to decrease from
decrease.
+2toO.
165
 Oxidising and reducing agents Oxidation-reduction reactions

2 Determine which reactant is the oxdising agent and which is the

Exam tip reducing agent in the reaction between zinc and sulfuric acid.

It is better to work out the

Zn(s) + H2S04(aq) ZnS04(aq) + H2(g)
(0) (0)
definitions of oxidising agent and
xi
reducing agent using the concept
of oxidation number when you reduced

need them. Sulfuric acid (H2S04)is the oxidising agent because it oxidised the

Ifyou remember that oxidation zinc by causing the oxidation number of the zinc atom to increase
involves an increase in oxidation from 0 to +2.
number, an oxidising agent must
Zinc (Zn) is the reducing agent because it reduced the sulfuric acid
cause this increase.
by causing the oxidation number of each H + ion to decrease from + 1
If you remember that reduction to 0.
involves a decrease in oxidation
number, a reducing agent must 3 Is iron(lll) oxide behaving as an oxdising agent or a reducing agent when
cause this decrease.
it reacts with carbon monoxide?

Fe203(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3C02(g)

(0)

oxidised

To determine the behaviour of iron(lll) oxide we need to look to see if

the carbon monoxide has been oxidised or reduced.

The carbon monoxide has been oxidised. The iron(lll) oxide (Fe203) is
behaving as an oxidising agent because it caused the oxidation number of
the carbon atom in the carbon monoxide (CO) to increase from +2 to +4.

Substances that can behave as both oxidising and

reducing agents
There are some compounds which can act as both oxidising and reducing
agents. Their behaviour depends on the other reactant. Examples of two
compounds which can behave in this way are given below.

Sulfur dioxide, S02

Sulfur dioxide usually acts as a reducing agent. This is seen, for example, when
it reacts with chlorine:

S02(g) + C12(g) + 2H20(1) H2S04(aq) + 2HC1(aq)

(0) (-1)
reduced by S02

The sulfur dioxide reduced the chlorine by causing the oxidation number of
each chlorine atom in the chlorine molecule to decrease from 0 to — 1.

When it reacts with a stronger reducing agent than itself, such as hydrogen
sulfide, sulfur dioxide behaves as an oxidising agent:

2H2S(g) + S02(g) 3S(s) + 2H20(l)

(-2) (0)

oxidised by S02

The sulfur dioxide oxidised the hydrogen sulfide by causing the oxidation
number of the sulfur atom in the hydrogen sulfide molecule to increase from
-2 too.
166
Oxidation-reduction reactions Oxidising and reducing agents

Acidified hydrogen peroxide, H+/H202

Acidified hydrogen peroxide is hydrogen peroxide solution to which sulfuric
acid has been added. It usually behaves as an oxidising agent. This is seen, for
example, when it reacts with potassium iodide:
2KI(aq) + H202(aq) 4- H2S04(aq) 12(g) + + 2H20(1)
(-1) (0)

oxidised by H202

The hydrogen peroxide oxidised the potassium iodide by causing the

oxidation number of the I- ion to increase from — 1 to 0.

When it reacts witha stronger oxidising agent than itself, such as acidified
potassium manganate(vll), acidified hydrogen peroxide behaves as a reducing
agent:
2KMn04(aq) + 5H202(aq) + 3H2S04(aq) --—- K2S04(aq) + 502(g) + 2MnS04(aq) + 8H20(1)
(+7)

reduced by H202

The hydrogen peroxide reduced the potassium manganate(vll) by causing

the oxidation number of the manganese to decrease from + 7 to +2.

Tests for oxidising agents and reducing agents

There are certain chemicals which undergo oxidation or reduction in a
chemical reaction in a very distinct way, e.g. they may change to a distinct
colour, they may form a particular precipitate or they may give off a particular
gas. Chemists use these chemicals to determine whether unknown substances

are oxidising agents or reducing agents. They do this by reacting the unknown
substance with these chemicals and observing the products. These chemicals
form the basis of tests for oxidising agents and reducing agents.

Examples
Potassium iodide solution, KI(aq)
Potassium iodide solution is used in the laboratory to test for an oxidising
agent. There is a distinct colour change in the solution from colourless to
brown when the potassium iodide is oxidised. The colour change occurs
because the oxidising agent oxidises the colourless iodide ion to iodine
(12) which dissolves forming a brown solution.

(-1) (0)

oxidised

The potassium iodide is, itself, a reducing agent.

Acidified potassium manganate(vll) solution, H+/KMn04(aq)

Acidified potassium manganate(vll) solution used in the laboratory to
is

test for a reducing agent. There is a distinct colour change in the solution
from purple to colourless when the potassium manganate(vll) is reduced.
The colour change occurs because the reducing agent reduces the purple
manganate(vll) ion (Mn04-) to the colourless manganese(ll) ion (Mn2+).

Mn04-(aq) Mn2+(aq)
(+2)

reduced

The acidified potassium manganate(V11) is, itself, an oxidising agent.

167
 Oxidising and reducing agents Oxidation-reduction reactions

Tests for oxidising agents

Table 9.3.1 summarises thenames and colour changes of the main two
chemicals which can be used as the reactants to test for oxidising agents.
These chemicals are, themselves, reducing agents.

V Table 9.3.1 Reducing agents used to test for the presence of an oxidising agent

Reducing agent used Visible change when Explanation

for test agent is oxidised
Potassium iodide solution Colourless to brown The colourless iodide ion (F) is oxidised to
(Kl(aq)) iodine (12) which dissolves forming a brown
solution

Iron(u) sulfate solution Pale green to yellow-brown The pale green iron(") ion (Fe2+) is oxidised
A Figure 9.3.1 Potassium iodide turns
(FeSQ(aq)) to the yellow-brown iron(ll) ion (Fe3+)
from colourless to brown when
oxidised
There are several other chemicals which behave as reducing agents in
reactions, although they are not usually used to test for the presence of an
oxidising agent. These are given in Table 9.3.2.

V Table 9.3.2 Other common reducing agents

Reducing agent Visible change when agent Explanation

is oxidised

Hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S(g)) A yellow precipitate forms Yellow insoluble sulfur (S) is

produced
Concentrated hydrochloric acid A yellow-green gas is evolved Yellow-green chlorine gas (C12)

(HCl(aq)) is produced

Others: hydrogen gas (H2); carbon (C); carbon monoxide (CO); reactive metals

Tests for reducing agents

Table 9.3.3 summarises thenames and colour changes of the main two
chemicals which can be used as the reactants to test for reducing agents.
These chemicals are, themselves, oxidising agents.

V Table 9.3.3 Oxidising agents used to test for the presence of a reducing agent

Oxidising agent used for Visible change when agent Explanation

test is reduced
Acidified potassium Purple to colourless The purple manganate(Ml) ion
marganate(vu) solution (Mn04-) is reduced to the
(H+/KMn04(aq)) colourless manganese(ll) ion
(Mn2+)

Acidified potassium dichromate(v) Orange to green The orange dichromate(vl) ion

solution (H+/K2Cr207(aq)) (Cr2072-) is reduced to the
green ion (Cr3+)

Figure 9.3.2 (a) Acidified potassium

manganate(vll) turns from purple to
colourless when reduced. (b) Acidified
potassium dichromate(vl) turns from
orange to green when reduced

168
Oxidation-reduction reactions Oxidising and reducing agents

There are several other chemicals which behave as oxidising agents, although
they are not usually used to test for the presence of a reducing agent. These
are given in Table 9.3.4.

V Table 9.3.4 Other common oxidising agents

Oxidising agent Visible change when agent Explanation

is reduced
Iron(ll) sulfate solution Yellow-brown to pale green The yellow-brown iron(ll) ion
(Fe3+) is reduced to the pale
green iron(l) ion (Fe2+)

Dilute or concentrated nitric acid A brown gas is evolved Brown nitrogen dioxide gas
(HN03(aq)) (NO) is produced
Hot concentrated sulfuric acid A pungent gas is evolved Sulfur dioxide gas (SO) is

H2S04(l)) which turns acidified potassium produced

manganate@ll) colourless

Ohers: sodium chlorate(l) solution (NaCO); oxygen gas (02); chbrine gas (C12); manganese(w) oxide (Mr02)

Practical activity

To investigate the reactions of oxidising agents and reducing agents

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

o analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with aqueous solutions of acidified potassium manganate@l), acidified potassium
dichromate(vl), potassium iodide, iron(ll) sulfate and acidified hydrogen peroxide and five test tubes.
Method
1 Place 2 cm3 of acidified potassium manganate(vll) solution into the first test tube. Slowly add potassium iodide
solution, shaking as you add the solution, until you see no further colour change.
2 Place 2 cm3 of acidified potassium manganate(vll) solution into the second test tube, 2 cm3 of acidified potassium
dichromate(v) solution into the third tube, 2 cm3 of potassium iodide solution into the fourth tube and 2 crn3 of
iron(ll) sulfate solution into the fifth tube. Slowly add acidified hydrogen peroxide solution to each tube, shaking
as you add the solution, until you see no further colour change.

3 Record in a table the original colour of each solution and the final colour after mixing.

4 Explain the reason for the colour change that you observed in each reaction. Use the information given in

Tables 9.3.1 and 9.3.3 above to help you.

5 Comment on the behaviour of the acidified hydrogen peroxide.

Summary questions
1 Define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent
a in terms of electrons b in terms of oxidation number.
2 In each of the following reactions identify the oxidising agent and the
reducing agent:
a 2Fe203(s) 3C(s) 3C02(g) + 4Fe(s)
b 2NO(g) + 2CO(g) N2(g)+ 2C02(g)
c Mg(S) + 2HCl(aq) MgC12(aq) + H2(g)
3 Give an example of a compound which can act both as an oxidising
agent and as a reducing agent.

169
 Oxidising and reducing agents Oxidation-reduction reactions

Key concepts
We encounter, and make use of, oxidation and reduction reactions in
our everyday lives. We encounter them in rusting and the browning
of fruits, and make use of them in bleaches, food preservation and the
breathalyser test.

Oxidation-reduction reactions are known as redox reactions.

Many redox reactions involve a transfer of electrons.
Oxidation is defined as the loss of electrons by an element in its free
an element in a compound.
state or

Reduction is defined as the gain of electrons by an element in its free

an element in a compound.
state or

Oxidation and reduction can also be defined using the concept of

oxidation number.
Oxidation number is the theoretical charge that an atom of an element
would have if all the bonds between the atoms in the compound
containing it were ionic and the compound was composed entirely of
ions.

In any redox reaction there will always be a change in the oxidation

numbers of two elements.
Oxidation is defined as an increase in oxidation number of an element
in its free state or an element in a compound.
Reduction is defined as a decrease in oxidation number of an element in
or an element in a compound.
its free state

An oxidising agent is the reactant that brings about the oxidation of

another reactant.
A reducing agent is the reactant that brings about the reduction of
another reactant.
An oxidising agent causes the other reactant to lose electrons.
A reducing agent causes the other reactant to gain electrons.
An oxidising agent causes the oxidation number of another element to
increase.

A reducing agent causes the oxidation number of another element to

decrease.

The distinctive colour changes that accompany the oxidation or

reduction of certain compounds allow these compounds to be used
when testing for the presence of oxidising or reducing agents.
Potassium iodide and iron(ll) sulfate are reducing agents which can be
used to test for the presence of an oxidising agent.
Acidified potassium manganate(vll) and acidified potassium
dichromate(vl) are oxidising agents which can be used to test for the
presence of a reducing agent.

170
Oxidation-reduction reactions Practice exam-style questions

8 In the following reaction:

Practice exam-style questions
cu(s) + 4HN03(aq) + 2N02(g) + 2H20(1)
which of the following statements about copper is true?
Multiple-choice questions
A Copper undergoes reduction and its oxidation
1 Oxidation is: number decreases.
I again of oxygen B Copper undergoes oxidation and its oxidation
II a gain of electrons number decreases.
Ill a decrease in oxidation number C Copper undergoes reduction and its oxidation
A I only number increases.
B land II only D Copper undergoes oxidation and its oxidation
C 1, 11 and 111 number increases.
D 111 only 9 In separate experiments, sulfur dioxide was bubbled
2 The oxidation number of sulfur in the S2032- ion is: into acidified solutions of potassium dichromate(vl)
and acidified potassium manganate(V11). Which of the
following pairs correctly describes the colour changes
observed in the experiment?
Colour of potassium Colour of potassium
dichromate(V1) manganate(vll)
3 The name of the Br03- ion is: A colourless to purple
orange to green
A bromite(l) B orange to green purple to colourless
B bromate(l) c green to orange colourless to purple
C bromite(v) D green to orange purple to colourless
D bromate(v)
10 When acidified hydrogen peroxide solution is added to
4 Consider the following: iron(ll) sulfate solution:
M(s) M2+(aq) A a pale green solution is formed
In the reaction represented above, metal M: B the iron(ll) ion is oxidised to the iron(lll) ion
I has been oxidised C the oxidation number of the iron(ll) ion decreases
II has increased in oxidation number D the acidified hydrogen peroxide is acting as a
Ill has gained electrons reducing agent
A I only

B land II only Structured question

C II and Ill only
11 a The figure below shows the label on a multivitamin
D 1, 11 and 111
and mineral supplement bottle. Much of the
5 Which of the following is true about a reducing agent? information has been left out.
A It causes an increase in oxidation number.
B It causes a loss of electrons.
C Its oxidation number increases.
D It gains electrons.

6 In which of the following reactions does the oxidation

Each tablet contains
number of nitrogen show the greatest increase?
A 2NO(g) + 02(g) 2N02(g)
B 4N02(g) + 02(g) + 2H20(1) 4HN03(aq)
C N2(g) + 3H2(g) Potassium iodide 0.1 mg
2NH3(g)
D 2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) N2(g) + 3Cu(s) + 3H20(1)
7 Which of the following reactions is not a redox reaction?
A 2Na(s) + 2H20(1) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) A multivitamin and mineral supplement bottle
B Fe(s)+ 2HCl(aq) FeC12(aq) + H2(g) A solution is made of one of the tablets and acidified
C MgO(S) + H2S04(aq) MgS04(aq) + H20(1) hydrogen peroxide is added to the solution.
i) State what you would expect to observe. (1 mark)
D C(s) + 02(g) C02(g)
ii) Write an ionic half equation to represent the
reaction. (2 marks)
iii) With a reason, state whether the reaction
represents oxidation or reduction. (1 mark)
b Three redox reactions are represented by the
171
 Practice exam-style questions Oxidation-reduction reactions

equations given below. For EACH reaction, name the

substance which has been oxidised. In EACH case,
give the reason for your choice based on oxidation
number.
i) Zn(s) -F 2HCl(aq) ZnC12(aq) + H2(g)
(2 marks)
ii) 2Fe2+(aq) + C12(g) 2Fe3+(aq) + 2C1-(aq)
(2 marks)
iii) 2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) N2(g) +
3Cu(s)
+ 3H20(1)
(2 marks)
c One type of the breathalyser test uses acidified
potassium dichromate(vl) crystals.
i) For what purpose is the breathalyser test used?

(1 mark)
ii) Describe what you would observe if the result of
the test is positive. (1 mark)
iii) Explain the chemistry involved in the
breathalyser test. (2 marks)
d Using oxidation number, suggest a name for the
C102- ion. (1 mark)
Total 15 marks

Extended response question

12 a Define oxidation in terms of:
i) electrons
ii) oxidation number. (2 marks)
b Support EACH definition given in a above by
reference to the following reaction:

C12(g) -F 2C1-(aq) + Br2(g)

(4 marks)
c 'Metals are reducing agents and non-metals are
oxidising agents.'
Use EACH of the reactions below to determine
whether the above statement is true. Give reasons for
your answers based on oxidation number.
i) -F C(s) Pb(s) + C02(g)
(2 marks)
ii) The reaction between magnesium and copper(ll)
sulfate solution. (3 marks)
d You are provided with two bottles labelled X and Y
containing an oxidising agent and a reducing agent,
respectively. Both agents are colourless liquids.
Describe TWO tests you could carry out to confirm
what you are told about X and Y. (4 marks)

Total 15 marks

172
 Electrochemistry

Electrochemistry is the study of the relationship Objectives

between chemical reactions and electrical energy. By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
An electrochemical reaction is one which either
give the electrochemical series
produces electrical energy or requires electrical energy
of the common metals
in order to proceed. From the reactions that occur e determine if a displacement
in a battery to produce an electric current, to the reaction will occur between
metals and their compounds
electrolysis of aluminium oxide to produce aluminium,
based on their relative
electrochemistry is important in our lives. positions in the electrochemical
series
determine if a metal will

displace hydrogen from an acid

A10.1 The electrochemical series based on its position in the
electrochemical series
The electrochemical series of metals
give the electrochemical series
In Unit 5.2 you learnt that when atoms bond ionically, the metal atom always of some common non-metals
loses electrons toform a positive metal cation. Some metals lose electrons determine if a displacement
much more easily than others. When metals are placed in order of ease with reaction will occur between
which they lose electrons, i.e. ease with which they ionise, a series known as certain non-metals and
the electrochemical series of metals is created. their compounds based on
their relative positions in the
A section of the electrochemical series of the common metals is given in
electrochemical series.
Table 10.1.1. In this table, the ease of ionisation increases going upwards.

The more metal atom ionises, the more stable are the ions that it
easily a
forms. Metals at the top of the series form very stable ions which are hard to V Table 10.1.1 The electrochemical
convert back to atoms. Metals at the bottom of the series form unstable ions series of the common metals

which are easy to convert back to atoms. Metal Cation

Since metals lose electrons when they ionise, they act as reducing agents potassium
when they react with other substances, i.e. they give electrons to the other calcium
The more easily they give electrons, the stronger their reducing
reactant.
sodium Na+
power. The strength as a reducing agent, therefore, increases going up
the series. magnesium Mg2+
aluminium
Potassium is highest in the series, which means that it ionises the most
easily, forms the most stable ions and is the strongest reducing agent. Silver is zinc Zn2+

the lowest in the series, which means that it ionises the least easily, forms the iron

least stable ions and is the weakest reducing agent.

lead Pb2+
We can make use of the electrochemical series of metals to predict certain hydrogen
chemical reactions.
copper cu2+

silver

Displacement of metals
A metal will displace a metal that is below it in the electrochemical series
from a compound containing the lower metal. This is because the higher
metal is a stronger reducing agent, therefore, readily gives electrons to the
ions of the lower metal. As a result, the higher metal ionises and the ions
of the lower metal are converted to atoms, i.e. the ions are said to have
been discharged.
173
 The electrochemical series Electrochemistry

Examples
1 Will a reaction occur if a strip of magnesium ribbon is placed in
copper(ll) sulfate solution?

Magnesium is higher than copper in the electrochemical series, therefore,

magnesium can displace the Cu2+ ions from the copper(ll) sulfate.
Magnesium is a stronger reducing agent, therefore, it gives electrons to
the Cu2+ ions. The magnesium ionises forming Mg2+ ions and the Cu2+
ions are discharged forming copper atoms:
Mg(S) + MgS04(aq) + cu(s)
The ionic equation is:
blue copper(ll) Mg(S) + Cu2+ (aq) Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)
sulfate solution
The transfer of electrons is shown in the ionic half equations:
magnesium
Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2e
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)

As the reaction proceeds the following are observed:

The magnesium ribbon gradually gets smaller as it ionises and the
colourless magnesium
sulfate solution Mg2+ ions dissolve in the solution.
pink copper A pink solid builds up in the solution as copper is formed.
A Figure 10.1.1 Magnesium is added to e The blue colour of the copper(ll) sulfate solution gradually fades as
copper(ll) sulfate solution the blue Cu2+ ions are discharged from the solution, forming copper.

2 Will a reaction occur if some iron filings are placed in a solution of zinc
nitrate?

Iron is lower than zinc in the electrochemical series. No reaction will occur.

Displacement of hydrogen
Metals above hydrogen in the electrochemical series will displace the H
ions in an acid, forming hydrogen gas (H2). Metals below hydrogen will not
displace the H + ions. Metals above hydrogen are stronger reducing agents and
will readily give electrons to the H + ions of the acid. Metals below hydrogen
are weaker reducing agents, so will not reduce the H+ ions.

Examples
1 Will a reaction occur if zinc is placed in hydrochloric acid?

Zinc is higher than hydrogen in the electrochemical series, therefore,

zinc can displace the H + ions from the hydrochloric acid. Zinc is a
stronger reducing agent, therefore, it gives electrons to the H+ ions. The
zinc ionises forming Zn2+ ions and the H + ions are discharged forming
hydrogen gas (H):
zn(s) + 2HC1(aq) ZnC12(aq) + H2(g)

The ionic equation is:

Zn(S) + 21-1 (aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
The transfer of electrons is shown in the ionic half equations:
Zn(S) Zn2+(aq) + 2e
2H (aq) + 2e— H2(g)

2 Will a reaction occur if some copper turnings are placed in sulfuric acid?
Copper is lower than hydrogen in the electrochemical series. No reaction
will occur.
174
Electrochemistry The electrochemical series

The electrochemical series of non-metals

When non-metal atoms bond the non-metal atom always gains
ionically,
electrons to form a negative non-metal anion. Some non-metals gain
electrons much more easily than others. When non-metals are placed in
order of ease with which they gain electrons, i.e. ease with which they ionise,
a series known as the electrochemical series of non-metals is created.

A section of the electrochemical series of some non-metals is given in V Table 10.1.2 The electrochemical
Table 10.1.2. In this table, the ease of ionisation increases going upwards. series of some non-metals

The easier anon-metal atom ionises, the more stable are the ions that it Non-metal Anion

forms. Non-metals at the top of the series form very stable ions, which are fluorire

hard to convert back to atoms. Non-metals at the bottom of the series form chlorine Cl-

unstable ions, which are easy to convert back to atoms. bromine

iodine
Since non-metals gain electrons when they ionise, they act as oxidising
agents when they react with other substances, i.e. they remove electrons
from the other reactant. The more easily they remove electrons, the stronger
their oxidising power. The strength as an oxidising agent, therefore, increases
going up the series.

Fluorine is highest in the series, which means that it ionises the most easily,
forms the most stable ions and is the strongest oxidising agent. Iodine is the
lowest in the series, which means that it ionises the least easily, forms the
least stable ions and is the weakest oxidising agent.

We can make use of the electrochemical series of non-metals to predict

certain chemical reactions.

Displacement of non-metals
A non-metal will displace a non-metal which is below it in the electrochemical
series from a compound containing the lower non-metal. This is because the
higher non-metal is a stronger oxidising agent, therefore, readily removes
electrons from the ions ofthe lower non-metal. As a result, the higher non-metal
ionises, and the ions of the lower non-metal are discharged forming atoms.

Examples
1 Will a reaction occur if chlorine gas is bubbled into sodium iodide
solution?

Chlorine is higher than iodine in the electrochemical series of non-metals,

therefore, chlorine can displace the I- ionsfrom the sodium iodide.
Chlorine is a stronger oxidising agent, therefore, it removes electrons from
the I- ions. The chlorine ionises forming Cl- ions and the I- ions are
discharged forming iodine (12):

C12(g) + 2NaI(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + 12(aq)

The ionic equation is:

C12(g) + 21 (aq) 2C1-(aq) + 12(aq)

The transfer of electrons is shown in the ionic half equations:

C12(g) + 2e 2C1-(aq)

(aq) 12(aq) + 2e
175
 Electrical conduction Electrochemistry

2 Will a reaction occur if bromine solution is added to a solution of

potassium chloride?

Bromine is lower than chlorine in the electrochemical series. No reaction

will occur.

Summary questions
1 If zinc is placed in a solution of copper(ll) nitrate, a reaction occurs.
a Explain why a reaction occurs.
b Give a balanced chemical equation and a balanced ionic equation for
the reaction.
c What happens to the colour of the copper(ll) nitrate solution? Explain

why this occurs.

2 For each of the following, predict whether or not a displacement reaction
will occur:
a aluminium + lead(ll) nitrate solution

b silver + calcium nitrate solution

c iodine + sodium chloride solution
d bromine + potassium iodide solution.
3 Which of the metals in the electrochemical series will release hydrogen
gas when added to hydrochloric acid?

4 A metal X was found to displace zinc from zinc nitrate solution but
no displacement occurred when it was added to magnesium nitrate

solution. Arrange the three metals, X, zinc and magnesium in decreasing

order of ease of ionisation.

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
In Unit 5 you learnt that in order for a substance to conduct an electric
be able to:
current, it must contain charged particles which are able to move through the
between a
distinguish substance. These charged particles can be either electrons or ions. Materials
conductor and a non- can be classified into two groups based on their ability to conduct an electric
conductor current.
distinguish between metallic
Conductors are substances which allow electricity to pass through.
and electrolytic conduction
They can be solids, liquids or solutions. Examples of conductors
distinguish between a strong include metals, graphite, molten ionic compounds, solutions of ionic
electrolyte, a weak electrolyte compounds and aqueous acids and alkalis.
and a non-electrolyte
Non-conductors are substances which do not allow an electric current
give examples of strong
to pass through. Non-conductors can be solids, liquids, solutions
electrolytes, weak electrolytes
and gases. Examples of non-conductors include non-metals (except
and non-electrolytes.
graphite), plastics, covalent substances and solid ionic compounds.

176
Electrochemistry Electrical conduction

Practical activity

To investigate the electrical conductivity of various

substances
Circuit 1
switch
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

manipulation and measurement.

You will be supplied with circuit components, samples of various

substances, e.g. copper wire, magnesium ribbon, aluminium foil, an iodine

crystal, a graphite rod, a plastic ruler, a sodium chloride crystal, a copper(ll) solid to be tested
sodium chloride solution, copper(ll)
sulfate crystal, sulfate solution, dilute
hydrochloric acid, ethanol and kerosene.
Circuit 2
Method switch

1 Draw up a table with three columns headed 'Test substance',

'Prediction' and 'Results'. In the first column write down the name of
each test substance that you have been supplied with. In the second
column fill in your prediction of whether the substance is a conductor or
a non-conductor.
beaker
2 Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 10.2.1. If the test substance is a carbon
solid use Circuit 1 and if it is a solution or a liquid use Circuit 2. electrodes
solution
3 Record the results of your experiment in the third column of your table. to be tested

4 Compare your predictions with the results. A figure 10.2.1 Two circuits to test the
conductivity of a solid and a liquid

Metallic and electrolytic conduction

When ionic compounds melt or dissolve in water, the liquid or solution
created contains ions and is known as an electrolyte. Electrolytes are
conductors.

There are certain differences between conduction in a metal, known Key fact
as metallic conduction, and conduction in an electrolyte, known as
electrolytic conduction. An electrolyte is a compound
that forms ions when molten or in

aqueous solution.
Metallic conduction

In a metal, the valence electrons of the atoms are delocalised. These

delocalised electrons, known as mobile electrons, are able to move
throughout the metal. Metals are able to conduct an electric current because
these mobile electrons can move throughout the metal. Although graphite
is a non-metal, it also conducts an electric current because of the presence

of delocalised, mobile electrons (see Unit 5.5).

During metallic conduction, the metal remains chemically unchanged.

Electrolytic conduction

When an ionic compound melts, the ions are no longer held together by
ionic bonds and they become free to move throughout the liquid:
heat
NaCl(s) Na+(l) +
177
 Electrical conduction Electrochemistry

Similarly, when an ionic compound dissolves in water, the ionic bonds break
and the ions are free to move throughout the solution:
water
NaCl(s) (aq) +
These electrolytes conduct an electric current because of the presence
of mobile ions which are able to move throughout the liquid or aqueous
solution.

During electrolytic conduction, the electrolyte is decomposed, i.e. it is

chemically changed.

V Table 10.2.1 Metallic and electrolytic conduction compared

Metallic conduction Electrolytic conduction

Mobile electrons carry the electric current Mobile ions carry the electric current through
through the metal. the electrolyte

The metal remains chemically unchanged The electrolyte decomposes

Strength of an electrolyte
We can distinguish between strong and weak electrolytes based on the
concentration of ions in the electrolyte.

Strong electrolytes

Strong electrolytes are fully ionised when dissolved in water, e.g. strong
acids, strong alkalis and soluble ionic compounds. These have a high
concentration of ions in solution. For example:

HCl(aq) H (aq) + Cl-(aq)

Molten ionic compounds are also classified as strong electrolytes.

Weak electrolytes
Weak electrolytes are only partially ionised when dissolved in water,
e.g. weak acids and weak alkalis. These have a low concentration of ions in
solution. For example:

CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO (aq) +H (aq)

V Table 10.2.2 Examples of electrolytes

Strong electrolytes Weak electrolytes

Acids Hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)) Carbonic acid (H2CQ(aq))

Nitric acid (HN03(aq)) Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH(aq))

Sulfuric acid (H2S04(aq))

Alkalis
Potassium hydroxide solution (KOH(aq)) Aqueous ammonia (NH3(aq))

Sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH(aq))

Salts Molten sodium chloride (NaCl(l))

Sodium chloride solution (NaCl(aq))

Molten potassium bromide (KBr(l))

Potassium bromide solution (KBr(aq))

178
Electrochemistry Electrolysis

Strong electrolytes are much better electrical conductors than weak

electrolytes. The strength of an electrolyte can be tested with a simple circuit Summary questions
which has a light bulb (or light emitting diode (LED)) connected to a battery 1 Distinguish between:
and two electrodes which are dipped in the electrolyte. The greater the a conductor and a non-
strength of the electrolyte, the more brightly the bulb will glow.
conductor
non-electrolyte is a substance which remains as molecules when in the b metallic and electrolytic
liquid state or dissolved in water. The liquid or solution does not contain conduction
any ions. Non-electrolytes are non-conductors. Examples of non-electrolytes C a strong and a weak
include liquids such as kerosene and gasoline, molten covalent substances such
electrolyte.
as wax and solutions of covalent substances such as ethanol and glucose.
2 Classify each of the following
as a strong electrolyte, a
Pure water weak electrolyte or a non-

Pure water is an extremely weak electrolyte. Water undergoes spontaneous electrolyte:

ionisation into H + ions and OH- ions. At any one time, approximately one a potassium chloride solution
in every 5.56 x 108 water molecules is ionised: b a solution of sucrose in water
c aqueous ethanoic acid
H20(1) H (aq) + OH-(aq)
d kerosene
TheconcentrationofH+ ionsand OH-ionsinpurewateris 1 x 10 7mol dm -3 aqueous nitric acid.
As you will learn in the next unit, this is of particular significance when an
3 Why is pure water an
electric current is passed through an aqueous electrolyte.
extremely weak electrolyte?

A10.3 Electrolysis Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
When an electric current is passed through an electrolyte, the electrolyte is be able to:
decomposed into simpler substances, i.e. it undergoes a chemical change
define the terms electrolysis,
known as electrolysis.
anode, cathode, anion and cation
Electrolysis takes place in a piece of apparatus known as an electrolytic cell. e identify ions present in

An electrolytic cell has three main components. electrdytes

e A battery or other d.c. power supply that provides the electric current. predict the electrode to which an
ion will drift during electrolysis
e electrodes connected, via wires, to the battery or power supply,
discuss the electrolysis of molten
which take the electric current into and out of the electrolyte. They must
electrdytes
be able to conduct an electric current and are usually made of an inert
explain the preferential discharge
material such as graphite (carbon) or platinum. The anode is connected
of ions
to the positive terminal of the battery and the cathode is connected to
e discuss the electrolysis of certain
the negative terminal.
aqueous electrolytes.
The electrolyte, which is a molten ionic
compound or a solution containing
mobile ions. battery

Key fact
Electrolysis is the chemical change
which occurs when an electric current

is passed through an electrolyte.

electrolyte

Key fact
The anode is the positive electrode.
anode cathode
The cathode is the negative electrode.
figure 10.3.1 An electrolytic cell electrodes

179
 Electrolysis Electrochemistry

electrons flow
around the circuit
Mechanism of electrolysis
from anode to e During electrolysis both anions and cations are discharged, i.e.
Light bulb:
cathode
• glows brightly they lose or gain electrons to form neutral atoms. This occurs as
battery if the electrolyte follows.
is strong
• glows dimly if The anions (negative ions) are attracted to the anode
the electrolyte is
(positive electrode). The anions lose electrons to the anode
weak
and form atoms, i.e. they are discharged:
anode (+) cathode ( — )
A + ne
€5 electrolyte,
Oxidation occurs at the anode (OIL). The anode
CA(I or aq) acts as the oxidising agent.

The electrons, lost by the anions at the anode, travel

through the circuit to the positive terminal of the battery.
They then re-enter the circuit from the negative terminal of
A Figure 10.3.2 Mechanism of electrolysis
the battery and travel to the cathode.

The cations (positive ions) are attracted to the cathode (negative

Exam tip electrode). The cations gain the electrons from the cathode forming
atoms, i.e. they are discharged:
Itcan be confusing to try to learn
which electrode is positive and c
which is negative. It is better to
Reduction occurs at the cathode (RIG). The cathode acts as the reducing
work it out, remembering that the
electrodes are named after the ions agent.
which are attracted to them.
• You know that anions have a
negative charge. Anions must
be attracted to the positive
Electrolysis of molten electrolytes
electrode. The positive electrode Molten electrolytes contain only two different ions, one cation and one
must be called the anode.
anion. Both are discharged during electrolysis.
• You know that cations have a
positive charge. Cations must
be attracted to the negative Example
electrode. The negative Electrolysis of molten (fused) lead(ll) bromide using inert graphite
electrode must be called the electrodes
cathode.
The ions present in the molten lead(ll) bromide are Pb2+(l) and Br (l).

At the anode:

The Br- ions move towards the anode where they are discharged, i.e. they
lose electrons to the anode forming bromine atoms. Pairs of bromine atoms
immediately bond covalently forming bromine molecules:

2Br (1) Br2(g) -F 2e

Brown fumes of bromine are evolved at the anode.

At the cathode:

The Pb2+ ions move towards the cathode where they are discharged, i.e. they
gain electrons to form lead atoms:

I)b2 (1) + 2e- Pb(l)

Molten lead forms around the cathode and drips off.

180
Electrochemistry Electrolysis

Practical activity

To electrolyse molten lead(ll) bromide using graphite electrodes

(Teacher demonstration)
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

o observation, recording and reporting. anode (—) cathode

Your teacher will perform the following experiment. bromine

gas
The experiment must be performed in a fume cupboard.
molten

Method
1 Place some lead (l) bromide into a crucible.

2 Heat the lead(ll) bromide until it melts.

molten lead
3 Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 10.3.3. bromide t
heat
4 Observe the product formed at each electrode.
A figure 10.3.3 Electrolysis of molten
5 Write an ionic half equation for the reaction occurring at each electrode. lead(ll) bromide

Electrolysis of aqueous solutions

During the electrolysis of an aqueous solution, the ions present are not only
those of the solute. Because water undergoes spontaneous ionisation, an
aqueous solution always contains H + ions and OH- ions from the ionisation of
water molecules as well as the ions from the solute. As a result, aqueous solutions
always contain at least two different cations and two different anions.

In the electrolysis of an aqueous solution, one type of ion of each charge

will be discharged in preference to the other. This is known as preferential
discharge.

Preferential discharge of anions

There are three main factors which influence the preferential discharge of the
anions that you will be studying:

The position of the ion in the electrochemical series

Considering the electrochemical series of anions given in Table 10.3.1, ions V Table 10.3.1 The electrochemical
series of anions
at the top of the series are the most stable and the hardest to discharge. Ions
at the bottom of the series are the least stable and the easiest to discharge, i.e. Anion
the ease of discharge increases downwards. F—

The lower the ion in the electrochemical series, the more likely it is to be S042—

discharged. 3

Cl-
This is seen, for example, when we look at the electrolysis of dilute sulfuric
acid, dilute sodium chloride solution and copper(ll) sulfate solution using
inert electrodes; the OH- ion is preferentially discharged from each solution.

The concentration of the electrolyte

The concentration of the electrolyte has an impact on which ions are

preferentially discharged. There is a tendency for the more concentrated ion
to be preferentially discharged. However, this rule really only applies to
solutions containing halide ions, i.e. Cl- ions, Br- ions and I- ions.
181
 Electrolysis Electrochemistry

This is seen when we compare the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride

solution with the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution, both
using inert electrodes. In the dilute solution, the OH- ion is preferentially
discharged but in the concentrated solution, the Cl- ion is preferentially
discharged.

The type of electrode

The type of anode chosen for the electrolysis can affect the reaction occurring
at the anode. If the anode is inert, for example graphite or platinum, it does
not affect the reaction occurring. However, if the anode is active, for example
copper, it can take part in the electrolysis process and this affects what
happens at the anode.

This is seen when we compare the electrolysis of copper(ll) sulfate solution

using an inert anode with its electrolysis using an active copper anode.
When an inert anode is used, the OH- ion is preferentially discharged. With
an active copper anode, the anode ionises.

Preferential discharge of cations

There is one main factor which influences the preferential discharge of the
V Table 10.3.2 The electrochemical cations that you will be studying:
series of cations

Cation The position of the ion in the electrochemical series

Considering the electrochemical series of cations given in Table 10.3.2, ions

Ca2+ at the top of the series are the most stable and the hardest to discharge. Ions at
the bottom of the series are the least stable and the easiest to discharge, i.e.
Mg2+ the ease of discharge increases downwards.

The lower the ion in the electrochemical series, the more likely it is to be
Zn2+
discharged.
Fe2 +
This is seen, for example, when we look at the electrolysis of dilute and
concentrated sodium chloride solution; the H + ion is preferentially
discharged in both. Also when we look at the electrolysis of copper(ll) sulfate
cu2+ solution; the Cu2+ ion is preferentially discharged. We will now look at the
Ag+ examples referred to above in greater detail.

Examples
1 Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid using inert electrodes

Ions present:

From the H2S04: H (aq) and S042-(aq).

From the H20: H+(aq) and OH-(aq).
At the anode:
The S042- ions and the OH- ions move towards the anode. The
OH- ions are preferentially discharged because they are lower in the
electrochemical series of anions:

40H (aq) 2H20(1) + 02(g) + 4e

Effervescence occurs as oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.

182
Electrochemistry Electrolysis

At the cathode:
The H + ions move towards the cathode where they are discharged:

H2(g)

Effervescence occurs as hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode.

Relative volumes ofgases produced:

Comparing the two equations, for every 4 mol of electrons transferred
from the anode to the cathode, 1 mol of oxygen and 2 mol of hydrogen
are produced:

40H-(aq) 2H20(1) + 02(g) + 4e

4H (aq) + 4e 2H2(g)

1 volume of oxygen is produced for every 2 volumes of hydrogen.

Changes in the electrolyte:

The sulfuric acid becomes more concentrated because H + ions and

OH- ions are discharged from it, i.e. water is being removed from the
electrolyte. Because of the discharge of the H + ions and OH ions, the
electrolysis of sulfuric acid is referred to as the electrolysis of water.

Practical activity

To electrolyse dilute sulfuric acid using inert electrodes

(Teacher demonstration)
oxygen hydrogen
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

analysis and interpretation.

Your teacher will perform the following experiment.

Method platinum
foils
1 Set up the Hoffmann's voltameter as shown in Figure 10.3.4, using dilute
sulfuric acid as the electrolyte. anode (+) cathode (—)

2 Observe the relative volume of gases given off at each electrode.

3 Test the gas given off at the anode to see if it is oxygen by using a A figure 10.3.4 Hoffmann's voltameter
showing the electrolysis of dilute
glowing splint. The splint should glow brighter or re-light if the gas is
sulfuric acid
oxygen.
4 Test the gas given off at the cathode to see if it is hydrogen by using
a burning splint. The splint should make a squeaky pop and be Did you know?
extinguished if the gas is hydrogen.
Oxygen gas causes the
5 Explain: glowing splint to glow brighter or
relight because it supports the
a why oxygen was produced at the anode (include an equation)
combustion, i.e. burning, of the
b why hydrogen was produced at the cathode (include an equation) splint.

why the volume of hydrogen was greater than the volume of oxygen.

6 What would you expect to happen to the electrolyte as the reaction

proceed s?

183
 Electrolysis Electrochemistry

2 Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution using inert electrodes

Ions present:

From the NaCl: Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq).

From the H20:H (aq) and OH-(aq).
At the anode:
The Cl- ions and the OH- ions move towards the anode. The OH ions
are preferentially discharged because they are in a dilute solution and are
lower in the electrochemical series of anions:

40H (aq) 2H20(1) + 02(g) + 4e

Effervescence occurs as oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.

At the cathode:
The Na+ ions and the H + ions move towards the cathode. The H + ions are
preferentially discharged because they are lower in the electrochemical
series of cations:

H2(g)

Effervescence occurs as hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode.

Relative volumes ofgases produced:

Comparing the two equations, for every 4 mol of electrons transferred

from the anode to the cathode, 1 mol of oxygen and 2 mol of hydrogen
are produced, i.e. 1 volume of oxygen is produced for every 2 volumes of
hydrogen.
Changes in the electrolyte:

The sodium chloride solution becomes more concentrated because H

ions and OH- ions are discharged from it.

3 Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution (brine) using

inert electrodes

Ions present:

From the NaCl: Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq).

From the H20:H (aq) and OH-(aq).
At the anode:
The Cl- ions and the OH- ions move towards the anode. The Cl
ions are preferentially discharged because they are halide ions in a
concentrated solution:

2Cl-(aq) C12(g) + 2e

Effervescence occurs as yellow-green chlorine gas is evolved at the anode.

At the cathode:
The Na+ ions and the H + ions move towards the cathode. The H + ions are
preferentially discharged because they are lower in the electrochemical
series of cations:

H2(g)

Effervescence occurs as hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode.

184
Electrochemistry Electrolysis

Relative volumes ofgases produced:

Comparing the two equations, for every 2 mol of electrons transferred

from the anode to the cathode, 1 mol of chlorine and 1 mol of hydrogen
are produced, i.e. equal volumes of chlorine and hydrogen are produced.

Changes in the electrolyte:

The electrolyte becomes alkaline because H + and Cl- ions are ions
discharged from it leaving an excess of Na ions and OH- ions, which
form sodium hydroxide.

tubes
Practical activity test

To investigate the effect of the concentration of the

electrolyte on the preferential discharge of ions electrolyte

(Teacher demonstration)
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

o observation, recording and reporting

analysis and interpretation.

Your teacher will perform the following experiment.

anode cathode
Method
1 Set up an electrolytic cell as shown in Figure 10.3.5, using inert graphite
electrodes and dilute sodium chloride solution as the electrolyte.

2 Place an inverted test tube filled with dilute sodium chloride solution
over each electrode to collect the gas evolved at each.
A Figure 10.3.5 Electrolysing
concentrated sodium chloride solution
3 Test the gas in the tube over the anode for oxygen using a glowing splint. (brine) in the laboratory

4 Test the gas in the tube over the cathode for hydrogen using a burning
splint.

5 Repeat the experiment using concentrated sodium chloride solution.

6 Test the gas in the tube over the anode for chlorine using a piece of Did you know?
moist blue litmus paper. If the gas is chlorine the paper should turn red
and then white. Chlorine gas turns moist blue
litmus paper red and then white
7 Test the gas in the tube over the cathode for hydrogen using a burning
because it reacts with the water to
splint. form hydrochloric acid (HOI) and
8 Dip a piece of red litmus paper into the electrolyte. chloric(l) acid (HCIO):
C12(g) + H20(l) HCl(aq)
9 How were your observations in the two experiments:
+ H CIO(aq)
a similar
The acids turn litmus red and
b different? the chloric(l) acid oxidises it to
10 Which ions were preferentially discharged at the anode: colourless.

a in the dilute sodium chloride solution

b in the concentrated sodium chloride solution?

In each case, explain why and include the relevant equation.

11 Which ions were preferentially discharged at the cathode in both
experiments? Give a reason and a relevant equation.
12 Explain why the litmus paper changed colour when dipped into the

electrolyte in step 8.

185
 Electrolysis Electrochemistry

4 Electrolysis of copper(ll) sulfate solution using inert electrodes

Ions present:

From the CuS04: Cu2+(aq) and S042-(aq).

From the H20:H (aq) and OH-(aq).
At the anode:
The S042- ions and the OH- ions move towards the anode. The
OH- ions are preferentially discharged because they are lower in the
electrochemical series of anions:

40H (aq) 2H20(1) + 02(g) + 4e

Effervescence occurs as oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.

At the cathode:
The Cu2+ ions and the H + ions move towards the cathode. The Cu2+
ions are preferentially discharged because they are lower in the
electrochemical series of cations:

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)

A pink deposit of copper builds up around the cathode and the cathode
increases in size.

Changes in the electrolyte:

The electrolyte becomes paler blue because the blue Cu2+ ions are
discharged from it. It also becomes acidic because Cu2+ ions and OH
ions are discharged leaving an excess of H + ions and S042- ions, which
form sulfuric acid.

5 Electrolysis of copper(ll) sulfate solution using active copper

electrodes

Ions present:

From the CuS04: Cu2+(aq) and S042-(aq).

From the H20:H (aq) and OH-(aq).
At the anode:

The S042- ions and the OH- ions move towards the anode. However,
the anode, being made of copper, is active and the copper atoms ionise,
forming Cu2+ ions, this requires less energy than discharging the OH
ions.

Cu(s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e

The Cu2+ ions go into the electrolyte and the anode gradually decreases
in size.

At the cathode:
Exam tip The Cu2+ ions and the H + ions move towards the cathode. The Cu2+
ions are preferentially discharged because they are lower in the
When you are writing equations
electrochemical series of cations:
for the reactions occurring at the
anode and cathode, remember to Cu2+(aq)+ 2e- Cu(s)
always include the correct state
A pink deposit of copper builds up around the cathode and the cathode
symbols.
increases in size.

186
Electrochemistry Electrolysis

Changes in the electrolyte:

The electrolyte remains unchanged. For every 2 mol of electrons transferred

from anode to cathode, 1 mol of Cu2+ ions enter the electrolyte at the
anode and 1 mol of Cu2+ ions is discharged at the cathode.

Practical activity

To investigate the effect of using inert and active electrodes

on the electrolysis of copper(ll) sulfate solution
anode (—) cathode
(Teacher demonstration)
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

analysis and interpretation. oxygen pink copper
gas is builds up
Your teacher will perform the following experiment. evolved around the
at the cathode
Method anode
1 Set up an electrolytic cell as shown in Figure 10.3.6, using graphite
graphite electrodes
electrodes and copper(ll) sulfate solution as the electrolyte.

2 Observe the anode and the cathode, taking note of what occurs at each
electrode. Also observe the colour of the electrolyte and dip a piece of
blue litmus paper into the electrolyte.

3 Repeat the experiment using copper electrodes. anode (+) (—) cathode

4 Observe the anode and the cathode and the colour of the electrolyte.

5 Classify the electrodes as inert or active.

the anode
6 How were your observations in the two experiments: becomes pink copper
a similar b different? thinner builds up
around the
7 Why was the reaction occurring at the anode different in the two cathode

experiments? Include the relevant equations.

8 Why did the litmus paper change colour in step 2? copper electrodes

9 Why was there a change in colour of the electrolyte in the first A Figure 10.3.6 Electrolysis of copper(ll)
experiment but not in the second? sulfate solution using graphite and
copper electrodes

Summary questions Exam tip

1 Define the term electrolysis.
It is important that you can draw
2 Give the formula and state symbol of the ions present in each of the following: line diagrams to show electrolytic
a molten sodium chloride c copper(ll) sulfate solution cells.

b dilute sulfuric acid d potassium bromide solution

3 Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus used in the laboratory for the
electrolysis of copper(ll) sulfate solution using inert graphite electrodes.

4 Describe the differences in the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride

solution and the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution
using inert graphite electrodes.

5 By means of an equation in each case, show the reaction occurring at

the anode when copper(ll) sulfate solution is electrolysed using:

a graphite anode b a copper anode.

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 Quantitative electrolysis Electrochemistry

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
The volumes of gases and masses of substances produced during electrolysis
be able to:
can be calculated using the mole concept that you studied in Unit 7. Michael
define the Faraday constant Faraday (1791-1867) was the first person to propose that the mass of a
calculate the volumes of gases substance produced at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional
and masses of substances to the quantity of electricity passing through the electrolytic cell.
produced during electrolysis.
The quantity of electricity, or quantity of electrical charge, is given the
symbol Q and is measured in units called coulombs, C. During electrolysis,
electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through electrical wires.
Each electron flowing through these wires has an electrical charge which is
? Did you know? extremely small. In fact, the electrical charge on one electron is so small that
when 1 C of electrical charge flows through a circuit, 6.25 x 1018 electrons
The electrical charge on one
have flowed.
electron is 1.6 x 10-19 C. This
means that 1 C of electrical charge The quantity of electricity or electrical charge flowing through an electrolytic
1
is equivalent to cell during electrolysis depends on two factors.
1.6 X 10-19
electrons.
The rate of flow of the electrical charge, i.e. the current, which is given
the symbol I and is measured in units called amperes (also known as
amps), A. A current of 1 amp is equivalent to 1 C, or 6.25 x 1018 electrons,
flowing for 1 s.

e The length of time, t, that the current flows for, measured in seconds, s.

The quantity of electricity or electrical charge can then be calculated using

the following formula:

quantity of electrical charge (C) = current (A) x time (s)

i.e. Q=lxt

Example
Calculate the quantity of electrical charge that flows when a current of 2.0 A
flows in a circuit for 20 min.

Current = 2.0 A

Time in seconds = 20 x 60 = 1200 s

quantity of electrical charge flowing = 2 x 1200 C = 2400 C
We can relate this to moles if we consider the electrical charge which 1 mol
Key fact of electrons has. You will recall that 1 mol of electrons is equivalent to
6.0 x 1023 electrons. The charge on one electron is 1.6 x 10 19 C, therefore,
The Faraday constant is the size if we have 1 mol of electrons, these electrons would have a total charge of
of the electrical charge on one mole 96 500 C. This value is known as the Faraday constant.
of electrons, i.e. 96 500 Cmol-l.
During with a single positive charge,
electrolysis, a cation i.e. M+ , is

discharged at the cathode according to the following equation:

This shows that 1 mol of electrons is required to discharge 1 mol of M + ions

and form mol of M or, applying the Faraday constant, 96500C is required
1
to discharge 1 mol of M + ions and form 1 mol of M. This also applies when
discharging 1 mole of anions with a single negative charge at the anode, i.e.

96 500 C is required.
188
Electrochemistry Quantitative electrolysis

The following examples will show how we can use the Faraday constant
to calculate the volumes of gases and masses of substances formed during
You will recall the following quantities that relate moles to mass
electrolysis.
and volumes of gases.
Molar mass, M = mass of 1 mol of a substance.
Molar volume, Vm = volume of 1 mol of a gas.

At stp, vm = 22.4 dm3, at rtp, vm = 24.0 dm3.

Examples
1 Calculate the mass of lead produced at the cathode when a current
of 5.0 A flows through molten lead(ll) bromide for 16 minutes and
5 seconds.

Determine the quantity of electricity that flows:

Current = 5.0A
Time in seconds = (16 x 60) + 5 = 965 s
quantity of electricity = (5.0 x 965) C = 4825 c
Write the equation for the reaction at the cathode:

Pb2+(1) + 2e Pb(l)

From the equation:

2 mol of electrons are required to form 1 mol Pb.

2 x 96500Cform 1 mol Pb
i.e. 193 OOOC form 1 mol Pb
1
1 C forms mol Pb
193 ooo
1
4825 C forms x 4825 mol Pb
193 ooo
0.025 Pb
M(Pb) = 207 g mol-l

i.e. mass of 1 mol Pb = 207 g

mass of 0.025 mol Pb = 0.025 x 207 g = 5.175g

2 Ifan electric current of 2.5 A is passed through dilute sulfuric acid for
2 hours 34 minutes and 24 seconds, calculate the volume of oxygen
produced at the anode at rtp.

Determine the quantity of electricity that flows:

Current = 2.5 A

Time in seconds = (2 x 60 x 60) + (34 x 60) + 24 = 9264 s

quantity of electricity = (2.5 x 9264) C = 23160C
Equation for the reaction at the anode:

40H-(aq) 2H20(aq) + 02(g) + 4e

189
 Quantitative electrolysis Electrochemistry

From the equation:

4 mol electrons are lost in forming 1 mol 02.
4 x 96 500 C form 1 mol 02
i.e. 386 000 C form 1 mol 02
1
1 C forms mol 02
386000
1
23 160 C forms x 23160m0102
386000
0.06 mol 02
Volume of 1 mol 02 at rtp = 24.0 dm3

volume of 0.06 mol 02 = 0.06 x 24.0dm3 = 1.44dm3

3 A solution of copper(ll) sulfate is electrolysed using copper electrodes.

Determine the decrease in mass of the anode if a current of 4.0 A passes
through the solution for 32 minutes and 10 seconds.

Determine the quantity of electricity that flows:

Current = 4.0 A

Time in seconds = (32 x 60) + 10 = 1930s

quantity of electricity = 4.0 x 1930C = 7720 C
Equation for the reaction at the anode:

Cu(s) cu2+(aq) + 2e

From the equation:

2 mol electrons are lost in forming 1 mol Cu2+ ions.

2 x 96 500 C form 1 mol cu2+ ions

i.e. 193 OOOC form 1 mol cu2+ ions
1
1 C forms mol Cu2+ ions
193 ooo
1
7720 C forms x 7720 mol cur ions
193 ooo
— 0.04 mol Cu21 ions
M(Cu2+) = 64 g mol-l
i.e. mass of 1 mol Cu2+ ions = 64 g
mass of 0.04 mol Cu2+ ions = 0.04 x 64 g = 2.56 g
Therefore, decrease in mass of the anode = 2.56 g.

4 A steel spoon needs to be electroplated with 13 g of chromium.

Calculate the length of time that a current of 15 A would have to flow to
electroplate the spoon when placed as the cathode of the electrolytic cell.
Calculate the number of moles of chromium which need to be
produced:
M(Cr) = 52 g mol-l
i.e. mass of 1 mol Cr = 52 g

number of moles in 13.0g = —13

52
mol = 0.25 mol
190
Electrochemistry Industrial applications of electrolysis

Equation for the reaction at the cathode:

Cr3+(aq) + 3e Cr(s)

From the equation:

3 mol electrons form 1 mol Cr.
3 x 96 500C form 1 mol Cr
i.e. 289 500C form 1 mol Cr.
0.25 x 289 500C form 0.25 mol Cr = 72375 C
Therefore, the quantity of electricity required = 72375 C
Calculate the time taken for 72375 C to flow using a current of 15 A:
quantity of electricity (C) = current (A) x time (s)
72375C = ISA x time (s)
72 375
time = s
15
4825 s
= 1 hour 20 minutes 25 seconds

It would take 1 hour 20 minutes 25 seconds to electroplate the spoon.

Summary questions
1 Define the Faraday constant.

2 mass of magnesium that would be deposited on the

Calculate the
cathode when a current of 5.0 A flows through molten magnesium
chloride for 2 hours 40 minutes and 50 seconds.
3 Determine the volume of chlorine that would be produced at the anode
at rtp when a current of 2.5 A flows through concentrated sodium
chloride solution for 51 minutes and 28 seconds.
4 How long must a current of 10.0 A flow through a solution of copper(ll)
sulfate to produce 25.6 g of copper at the cathode?

Objectives
Electrolysis is used in many ways in industry including: By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
extracting metals from their ores

purifying metals, i.e. electrorefining

describe how electrolysis can
be used to extract metals from
plating one metal with another, i.e. electroplating
their ores
coating a metal with its oxide, i.e. anodising. e describe how electrolysis can
We will now look at each of these in more detail. be used to purify metals
describe the process of

Extraction of metals electroplating

describe the process of
Very few metals are found in their free state in the Earth's crust. Most are
anodising.
found bonded to other elements in ionic compounds known as minerals.
Minerals from which metals can be extracted are known as ores. The process
191
 Industrial applications of electrolysis Electrochemistry

of extracting metals from their ores involves converting the metal ions to
atoms, i.e. it is a reduction process:

Metals high in the electrochemical series ionise easily and form very stable
ions. This means that their ions are very difficult to reduce to atoms. For this
reason these metals need a powerful method of reduction to extract them
from their ores. Electrolysis of the molten ore is a powerful method of
reduction and is used to extract aluminium and metals above aluminium in
the electrochemical series from their ores.

During electrolysis of the molten ore, the metal ions move towards the
cathode where they are discharged.
An example is the extraction of aluminium from its molten ore, aluminium
oxide (A1203), using inert graphite electrodes.

The aluminium ions move towards the cathode where they are discharged to
form molten aluminium:

A13+(1) + 3e A1(1)

The molten aluminium which forms is denser than the molten electrolyte
and it sinks to the bottom of the electrolytic cell and is tapped off. This will
be discussed in more detail in Unit 18.2.

Purification of metals
Electrolysis is very useful in the production of pure metals from impure
samples of the metal. This process is known as electrorefining. The principles
of electrorefining are as follows.
The impure metal is made the anode, i.e. it is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery.
The cathode is a very thin sample of the pure metal.
The electrolyte is an aqueous solution which contains ions of the metal
being purified.
The anode, being active, ionises, and ions of the metal enter the
electrolyte where they join the other metal ions.
The metal ions are discharged at the cathode where they form the pure
metal which builds up around the cathode.
The electrolyte remains unchanged since the metal ions entering it at
negative the anode are removed as they are discharged at the cathode.
positive electrode, power electrode,
the anode, a bar supply the cathode, Any insoluble impurities present in the anode fall to the bottom of the
of impure copper
(1) (2)
a thin sheet cell forming a sludge which can be removed.
of pure
copper An example of electrorefining is the purification of copper. This is illustrated
in Figure 10.5.1. The impure copper is the anode (1) and the cathode is a thin
sheet of pure copper (2). The electrolyte contains Cu2+ ions, i.e. copper(ll)
sulfate solution.

sludge copper(ll) The copper anode ionises:

containing sulfate
impurities solution
Cu(s) cu2+(aq) + 2e
flow of copper ions, The Cu2+ ions enter the electrolyte and are discharged at the cathode,
Cu 2+(aq)
forming pure copper:
A Figure 10.5.1 The electrorefining of
copper Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)

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Electrochemistry Industrial applications of electrolysis

Electrorefining is only suitable metals whose ions are below

for purifying
hydrogen in the electrochemical series. Any metal
ions above hydrogen
in the series would not be discharged at the cathode since the hydrogen
ions, being lower in the series, would be preferentially discharged, forming
hydrogen gas.

Electroplating
Electroplating involves depositing a thin layer of one metal on top of
another metal. Electroplating is carried out to either protect the original
metal from corrosion, to improve its appearance or to make a cheap metal
object appear more valuable. The object that is being electroplated can
be made of any metal, but it is usually made of brass, copper or steel. The
principles of electroplating are very similar to those of electrorefining.

The object to be electroplated is made the cathode, i.e. it is connected to

the negative terminal of the battery.

The anode is a pure sample of the metal which is being used for plating.
The electrolyte is an aqueous solution which contains ions of the metal
being used for plating.
The anode, being active, ionises, and ions of the metal enter the
electrolyte where they join the other metal ions.
The metal ions are discharged at the cathode where they form the pure
metal which builds up as a coating around the object.
The electrolyte remains unchanged since the metal ions entering it at
the anode are removed as they are discharged at the cathode.

As with electrorefining, only metals whose ions are below hydrogen in the
electrochemical series can be used for plating.

Examples of electroplating are chromium plating, silver plating, gold plating

and nickel plating.

Chromium plating, or chrome plating, gives steel objects a shiny, silver

look as well as protecting them from corrosion. The steel object is placed
as the cathode, the anode is pure chromium and the electrolyte is usually a
solution of chromium(lll) sulfate

The chromium anode ionises:

Cr(s) Cr3+(aq) + 3e

The Cr3+ ions enter the electrolyte and are discharged at the cathode forming
A Figure 10.5.2 Chrome plated taps
a layer of chromium on the object:

Cr3+(aq) + 3e Cr(s)

The electrolytes used in nickel plating and silver plating are usually
solutions of nickel(ll) sulfate (NiS04) and silver nitrate (AgN03). During the
silver
process of silver plating illustrated in Figure 10.5.3, the silver anode ionises: nitrate
the object
electrolyte
Ag(s) Ag (aq) + e being
plated
The Ag ions enter the electrolyte and are discharged at the cathode forming (cathode)

a layer of silver on the object: silver

anode
Ag (aq) + e- Ag(s) A Figure 10.5.3 Electroplating with silver

193
 Industrial applications of electrolysis Electrochemistry

Anodising
On exposure to air, aluminium immediately reacts with the oxygen to form
a layer of aluminium oxide (A1203) on its surface. This layer is relatively
unreactive and it adheres firmly to the metal below and does not flake off. As
a result it protects the metal from attack by oxygen and moisture in the air.

The thickness of the aluminium oxide layer on the surface of aluminium

objects can be artificially increased by a process known as anodising. This
makes the objects, such as window frames and saucepans, even more resistant
to corrosion. The anodising process involves the following steps.
e The aluminium article to be anodised is pre-treated using sodium
hydroxide solution to clean and etch the surface.
The cleaned aluminium article is made the anode, i.e. it is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery.
The electrolyte is usually a dilute solution of sulfuric acid.

As soon as the electrolytic cell is connected up, the aluminium anode

begins to ionise, forming A13+ ions, and at the same time the S042- ions
and the OH- ions in the electrolyte move towards the anode. The OH
ions react with the A13+ ions forming a layer of aluminium oxide on the
surface of the aluminium:

A13+(aq) + 3e

2A13+(aq) + 30H (aq) A1203(s) + 3H (aq)

The silver-grey aluminium oxide coating readily absorbs dyes so it can be

attractively coloured.

cathode (—)
anode (+) — aluminium
article to be coated,
e.g. a window frame
electrolyte — dilute
sulfuric acid

A Figure 10.5.4 The anodising of aluminium

Summary questions
1 Explain why electrolysis is used to extract metals high in the
electrochemical series from their ores.

2 Describe how you would purify a sample of silver. Include the equations
for the reactions occurring at the anode and the cathode.
3 Give the equations for the reactions that occur at the anode and cathode
during:
a chromium plating b nickel plating.

4 What is anodising?

194
Electrochemistry Industrial applications of electrolysis

Key concepts
The electrochemical series of metals is a list of metals in order of how
easily their atoms lose electrons.
The higher the metal is in the electrochemical series, the more easily it
ionises and the stronger are its reducing powers.
A metal can displace a metal below it in the electrochemical series from a
compound containing the lower metal.
Metals above hydrogen in the electrochemical series displace the
hydrogen ions from an acid, forming hydrogen gas; metals below
hydrogen will not displace the hydrogen ions from an acid.
The electrochemical series of non-metals is a list of non-metals in
order of how easily their atoms gain electrons.
The higher the non-metal is in the electrochemical series, the more
easily it ionises and the stronger are its oxidising powers.

A non-metal can displace a non-metal below it in the electrochemical

series from a compound containing the lower non-metal.
Conductors allow electricity to pass through. Non-conductors do not
allow electricity to pass through.
Electrolytes are compounds that form ions when molten or in aqueous
solution.

Electrolytes conduct electricity because they contain mobile ions.

When electricity passes through an electrolyte, the electrolyte
decomposes.
Metals conduct electricity because they contain mobile electrons.
When electricity passes through a metal, the metal remains unchanged.
Strong el ectrolytes are fully ionised; they contain a high concentration
of ions. Weak electrolytes are partially ionised; they contain a low
concentration of ions.
Pure water is a very weak electrolyte due to the very low concentration of
H+ and OH- ions.
Electrolysis is the chemical change which occurs when an electric
current is passed through an electrolyte.
Electrodes are used during electrolysis to conduct electricity in to and
out of the electrolyte.
The anode is the positive electrode. Anions move towards the anode and
lose electrons. Oxidation occurs at the anode.

The cathode is the negative electrode. Cations move towards the

cathode and gain electrons. Reduction occurs at the cathode.
Molten electrolytes contain one type of cation and one type of anion.
Both are discharged during electrolysis.
Aqueous electrolytes contain solute ions as well as H + ions and OH
ions from the water. One type of ion of each charge will be discharged in
preference to the other.
Factors which influence the preferential discharge of anions are the
position of the anion in the electrochemical series, the concentration of
the aqueous solution and whether the anode is active or inert.

The position of the cation in the electrochemical series determines the

preferential discharge of cations.

195
 Industrial applications of electrolysis Electrochemistry

When dilute sulfuric acid is electrolysed using inert electrodes, oxygen is

produced at the anode and hydrogen at the cathode.

When sodium chloride solution is electrolysed using inert electrodes,

ifthe solution is dilute, oxygen is produced at the anode, if it is
concentrated, chlorine is produced at the anode. Hydrogen is produced
at the cathode in both cases.

When copper(ll) sulfate solution is electrolysed, ifthe anode is inert,

oxygen is produced at it, if the anode is made of copper, it ionises.
Copper is produced at the cathode in both cases.
The volume of gas or mass ofa substance produced at an electrode
during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity
passing through the electrolytic cell.
The quantity of electricity, Q, is measured in coulombs, C.
e The quantity of electricity is dependent on the rate of flow of electrical
charge, i.e. the current, I, and the time the current flows for, t, i.e.
Q = lx t.

The Faraday constant is the size of the electrical charge on one mole of
electrons, i.e. 96 500 C mol -1.

e Industrial uses of electrolysis include the extraction of metals from their

ores, the purification of metals, electroplating and anodising.

196
Electrochemistry Practice exam-style questions

Practice exam-style questions

Multiple-choice questions
1 Metal X was found to displace metal Y from a solution
containing the sulfate of Y. However, X did not displace anode cathode
metal Z from a solution containing Z sulfate. Which of
the following is correct?
A X is higher in the electrochemical series than Z. copper(ll) sulfate
B Z is a stronger reducing agent than X. solution

C Yis higher in the electrochemical series than X.

D Y is a stronger reducing agent than Z. Electrolytic cell

i) State, giving a reason, what you would observe at

2 Which of the following lists consists of conductors?
the anode. Include a relevant equation. (3 marks)
A sodium chloride, magnesium, graphite
ii) State, giving a reason, what you would observe in
B hydrochloric acid, ethanol, aluminium
the electrolyte. (2 marks)
C aqueous sodium hydroxide, copper, ethanoic acid
iii) If a current of 5.0 A flows for 2 hours 8 minutes
D kerosene, molten potassium chloride, tap water and 40 seconds through the electrolytic cell,
determine the increase in mass of the cathode.
3 During electrolysis, the reaction which takes place at the
(4 marks)
anode is:
iv) Give TWO differences that you would observe in
A displacement
the electrolytic cell if the copper electrode was
B reduction
made the anode and the graphite electrode was
C oxidation made the cathode. (2 marks)
D decomposition
c i) Give TWO differences between electroplating
4 If a current of 5.0 A flows for 16 minutes and 5 seconds and anodising. (2 marks)
through a silver nitrate solution, what mass of silver ii) Give ONE use of anodising. (1 mark)
would be deposited at the anode? Total 15 marks
A 2.7g
Extended response question
B 5.4g
C 10.8g Electrolysis is a chemical process. Use the electrolysis

D 27.0g of molten potassium bromide to show how

electrolysisis a chemical process. Support your

5 What quantity of electricity is needed to produce answer with relevant ionic equations. (4 marks)
0.75 mol of chlorine during the electrolysis of molten b Using the electrolysis of dilute and concentrated
sodium chloride? sodium chloride solutions with inert electrodes,
A 72375C discuss the effect of EACH of the following on the
B 96500C products of electrolysis.
c 144 750C i) The position of ions in the electrochemical

D 193000C series. (2 marks)

ii) The concentration of the electrolyte. (2 marks)
6 Which of the following statements is incorrect? c The process of electroplating can be used to coat
A Iron can be purified by electrolysis. metal items with a layer of another metal to make
B Anodising is used to protect aluminium items from them more resistant to corrosion, improve their
corrosion. appearance and make them appear more valuable.
C Electroplating can be used to coat steel items with a Cutlery made of steel is often electroplated with a
thin layer of silver. layer of nickel followed by a layer of silver.

D Magnesium can be extracted from its ore by i) Draw a labelled diagram to show the apparatus
you could use to electroplate a steel spoon with
electrolysis.
nickel using nickel sulfate solution (NiS04(aq)) as
the electrolyte. Clearly indicate what you would
Structured question use as the anode and the cathode. (3 marks)
7 a Define the term 'electrolysis'. (1 mark) ii) How long must a steady current of 4.0 A flow
b An electrolytic cell was set up, as shown in the figure, through the electrolyte to coat the spoon with
with copper(ll) sulfate solution as the electrolyte, a 9.44 g of nickel? (4 marks)
graphite anode and a copper cathode. Total 15 marks

197
 Rates of reaction

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will reactions can take years, such as the rusting of cars,
be able to:
while others happen in less than a second, such as an
define what meant by rate of
is
explosion. Other reactions take place at varying speeds
reaction
explain how the a
rate of
between these two extremes. Knowing the speed at
reaction can be measured which reactions occur is extremely important in industry
explain the collision theory for
to maximise productivity while minimising costs and the
reactions
interpret rate curves for risk of accidents.
reactions.

A11.1 Measuring rates of reaction

The study of the speed at which a chemical reaction occurs, known as

the rate of reaction, is called chemical kinetics. During a reaction, the
concentration of the reactants decreases as the concentration of products
increases. If we can measure the decrease in concentration of a reactant or
the increase in concentration of a product, and know how long it took for
the decrease or increase to occur, we can determine the rate of a reaction.

The rate of a reaction can, therefore, be determined by:

decrease in concentration of a reactant
rate of reaction =
time taken for the decrease

increase in concentration of a product

or rate of reaction =
time taken for the increase

Key fact Changes in concentration are not always easy to measure. However, there
are other property changes, which depend on the nature of the reactants and
The rate of reaction is a measured products, that can be measured to determine the rate of a reaction. Some of
change in the concentration of a the changes that can be measured are:
reactant or product with time at a
if one of the products is a gas, the volume of gas produced over time
stated temperature.
can be measured using a gas syringe, e.g. a reaction between a reactive
metal and an acid
if one of the products is a gas, if the gas is allowed to escape, the

decrease in mass of the reaction can be measured over time, e.g. a

reaction between a carbonate and an acid

if a precipitate forms, the appearance of the precipitate can be

measured, e.g. the reaction between sodium thiosulfate and
hydrochloric acid
if there is a change in colour intensity, this can be measured, e.g. the
reaction between potassium iodide and acidified hydrogen peroxide
ifthere is a distinct change in pressure, temperature or pH as the
reaction proceeds, any of these can be measured over time.

198
Rates of reaction Measuring rates of reaction

Collision theory for reactions

Chemical reactions involve the breaking of original bonds in the reactants
and the formation of new bonds in the products. In order for a reaction to
take place, all of the following must occur:
o the reactant particles must collide with each other in order to break the
original bonds in the reactants so that new bonds can form in the products

the reactant particles must collide with enough energy, known as

activation energy (see Unit 12.1), to break the original bonds in the
reactants and enable the particles to have enough energy to form
products (see Unit 12.1)
the reactant particles must collide with the correct orientation so that the
energy produced by the collision can be passed on to the original bonds
in order to break them.

Not all collisions occur with the required activation energy or with the correct
orientation of particles. Therefore, not all collisions result in a reaction
occurring. Collisions which resultin a reaction are called effective collisions.
The rate of a reaction depends on the number of effective collisions.
For example, in the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water:

2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g)

The hydrogen and oxygen (02) molecules must collide with each other
(H2)
bonds between the atoms within the molecules. This
to break the covalent
will then allow new covalent bonds to form between the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms, forming water molecules.
original covalent new covalent
bonds must break bonds must form

H—O H—O

2H2 02 2H20
A Figure 11.1.1 The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen

To be aneffective collision, each collision must generate enough activation

energy to break the covalent bonds within the hydrogen and oxygen
molecules and the molecules must be correctly orientated to each other.

Rate curves
If a measured property is plotted on a graph against time as the reaction

proceeds and the property changes, a rate curve is obtained.

gas syringe measures the
volume of hydrogen
Examples
1 The reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid:
dilute
Mg(S) 4- 2HCl(aq) MgC12(aq) + H2(g)
hydrochloric acid

If magnesium ribbon is added to hydrochloric acid, the volume of magnesium

hydrogen gas given be measured in a gas syringe at regular
off can
intervals using the apparatus shown in Figure 11.1.2. If the volume of gas
A figure 11.1.2 Investigating the rate
of reaction between magnesium and
is then plotted against time, the curve in Figure 11.1.3 may be obtained.
hydrochloric acid.

199
 Measuring rates of reaction Rates of reaction

Figure 11.1.3 Graph of volume of 50

hydrogen gas released against time 45

35
30

25

20
15

10

o 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480

Time (s)

We can use the values on the graph to determine the average rate of
reaction at different stages in the reaction by using the general formula:
increase in volume of hydrogen
rate of reaction =
time taken for the increase
To determine the average rate of the reaction in the first minute (60 s):
volume of gas produced in the first minute = 28 cm3
28 crn3
average rate of reaction in the first minute = — 0.47 cm3 s-l
60s
To determine the average rate of the reaction in the second minute:
Volume of gas produced in the second minute = (38 — 28) cm3 = 10 cm3
10 cm3
average rate of reaction in the second minute =
60s
— 0.17 cm3 s-l
This clearly shows that as the reaction proceeds, the rate of the reaction
decreases. This can also be seen by looking at the gradient or slope of the
graph. The gradient is steep at the beginning of the graph indicating
the reaction is rapid. However, as the reaction progresses, the gradient
becomes shallower indicating the reaction is slowing down. We will
discuss this in more detail in the next section.

2 The reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid:

cotton wool to stop
acid spray leaving flask
CaC03(S) + 2HCl(aq) CaC12(aq) + C02(g) + H20(1)
If some hydrochloric acid is poured into a conical flask, which is on a
balance, and calcium carbonate is added, the mass of the reaction can
be measured at regular intervals. If the mass is then plotted against time,
the curve in Figure 11.1.5 may be obtained.

hydrochloric calcium
acid carbonate
(marble chips)

direct-reading
balance
90.00

Tme (s)

A Figure 11.1.4 Investigating the rate of

A Figure 11.1.5 Graph of mass of reaction against time

reaction between calcium carbonate Looking at the gradient of the graph we can also clearly see that as the
and hydrochloric acid reaction proceeds, the rate of the reaction decreases.
200
Rates of reaction Measuring rates of reaction

Explanation of the shape of rate curves

We can see that both rate curves have a very similar shape. The gradient is
steep at the beginning of the reaction and gradually becomes shallower until
the curve eventually becomes horizontal. This shows that the rate of a reaction
changes as the reaction proceeds. We will now look at the reasons for this.
The gradient is steepest at the beginning of the reaction indicating that
the rate of the reaction is at its highest. This is because the concentration
of the reactant particles is at its highest at the beginning of the reaction.
The frequency of collision between the particles is at its highest at the
beginning.
As the reaction proceeds, the gradient becomes shallower indicating that
the rate of the reaction is decreasing. This is because the concentration of
the reactant particles is decreasing as the reaction proceeds. The frequency
of collision between the particles is decreasing as the reaction proceeds.
e After a period of time the curve becomes horizontal, i.e. the gradient
becomes zero, indicating that the reaction has reached completion and
has stopped. One of the reactants has been used up and there are no more
of its particles left to collide. The reactant which is used up in a reaction
is known as the limiting reactant. The quantity of the limiting reactant

determines the quantity of the products produced.

Practical activity

To investigate the change in rate of a reaction as the

reaction proceeds
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

manipulation and measurement
analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with 4.0 g of calcium carbonate crystals, 0.3 mol dm-3
hydrochloric acid, a conical flask, a cork with a delivery tube running
through it to a gas syringe, a measuring cylinder and a stopwatch.
Method
1 Place the calcium carbonate crystals in the conical flask.

2 Measure 30 cm3 of hydrochloric acid in the measuring cylinder.

3 As quickly as possible pour the acid into the conical flask and cork the
conical flask with the cork which has a delivery tube running to the gas
syringe, as in Figure 11.1.2. At the same time, start the stopwatch.
4 Record the volume of gas the gas syringe every 15 seconds the
in until
Exam tip
volume remains constant for three consecutive readings.

5 Record your results in a table and use them to plot a graph of volume of When drawing graphs using data
obtained from experiments, it is
gas against time. Draw a curve of best fit between the points.
important that you draw a curve
6 Using your graph, calculate the average rate of the reaction for: or straight line of best fit. You do
a the first minute b the second minute. not necessarily join all the points.

7 Explain why the average rate of the reaction is higher in the first minute
A curve or line of best fit must be
smooth or straight and must pass
than in the second minute.
between the points so that it is as
8 Explain why the curve of your graph eventually becomes horizontal. close as possible to all the points.

201
 Factors affecting rates of reaction Rates of reaction

Summary questions
1 Define what is meant by rate of reaction.

2 Give two ways of calculating the rate of a reaction.

3 Give two methods that a student could use to determine how the rate
of reaction between magnesium ribbon and dilute hydrochloric acid

changes with time.

4 What does the collision theory for a reaction state?

5 Explain how the rate of a reaction changes as the reaction proceeds.

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: The rate of a reaction is dependent on several factors. There are four main
factors that we will be studying which can affect the rate of a reaction.
identify the factors which affect These are:
the rates of reaction
concentration
explain how different factors
affect the rates of reaction temperature
describe experiments to surface area (particle size)
determine the effect of presence or absence of a catalyst.
changing a factor on the rate of
a reaction Light and pressure also affect the rate of certain reactions. For example, the
reaction between methane and chlorine (see Unit 14.1) and photosynthesis
interpret graphical
representations of data are both initiated by light, and as the light intensity increases, the rate of

obtained in studying rates of

the reaction increases. Chemical reactions which are initiated or speeded
reaction. up by light are known as photochemical reactions.
Pressure affects reactions between reactants in the gaseous state. If the
pressure on the gaseous reactants is increased, their volume decreases,
meaning that there are more reactant particles per unit volume. As a
Did you know? result,the particles collide more frequently and this increases the chances
of effective collisions, thereby increasing the rate of the reaction. This is
Photosynthesis is possibly one
seen in the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia:
of the most important reactions
in the world. It is the process by N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
which green plants make food by
combining carbon dioxide and
We will now look in detail at how each of the other four factors affects the
rate of a reaction. When considering a particular factor, it is assumed that
water. The plants use the energy
from sunlight to bring about the all other factors are kept constant.
reaction. Without photosynthesis,
animals would have no food to eat Concentration
and both plants and animals would
have no oxygen for respiration.
The general rule is that the higher the concentration of a reactant, the
higher the rate of the reaction.

This applies particularly to solutions. If the concentration of a reactant

is increased, this means that there are more reactant particles per unit

volume. As a result, the particles collide more frequently which increases

the chances of effective collisions, therefore, the rate of the reaction
increases.

Ifwe measure the rate of a reaction at different concentrations of one of the

reactants,and plot the rate against concentration, we get a graph similar to
the one in Figure 11.2.1. The graph clearly shows that as the concentration
202
Rates of reaction Factors affecting rates of reaction

increases the rate increases. It also shows that, for this reaction, the rate of
the reaction is directly proportional to the concentration.

Figure 11.2.1 Rate of reaction against concentration Concentration (mol dm-3)

Practical activity

To investigate the effect of concentration on the rate of a reaction

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

manipulation and measurement
analysis and interpretation.

You be supplied with 0.005 mol dm-3 potassium iodide solution, 0.01 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulfate solution, a
will

solution of acidified hydrogen peroxideand starch with a hydrogen peroxide concentration of 0.085 mol dm-3, two
25 cm3 measuring cylinders, one 10 crn3 measuring cylinder, a burette, a small beaker and a stopwatch.
Method
1 Place the sodium thiosulfate solution into the burette.
2 Measure 25 cm3 of potassium a measuring cylinder and pour
iodide solution in it into the beaker. Add 1 cm3 of
sodium thiosulfate solution from the burette and swirl to mix the solutions.

3 Measure 25 cm3 of acidified hydrogen peroxide and starch mixture in another measuring cylinder.
4 Add the mixture to the beaker and at the same time start the stopwatch. Swirl the beaker and place it on a
piece of white paper.
5 Observe the solution in the beaker from above and as soon as a blue-black colour begins to appear stop the
stopwatch.
6 Record the time taken for the blue-black colour to start to appear.

7 Repeat the experiment four more times using the volumes of potassium iodide solution and water given in the
table below.

8 Calculate the concentration of potassium iodide solution for each experiment using the following formula:
volume of KI(aq)
concentration of KI(aq) = x 0.005 mol dm-3
25
9 Calculate the rate of reaction for each experiment using the following formula:
1
rate of reaction =
time taken for blue-black colour to appear

10 Record your results in a table similar to the one outlined below and plot a graph to show the rate of the reaction
against the concentration of the potassium iodide solution. Draw a straight line of best fit between the points.

Volume of Volume of Concentration of Volume of sodium Volume of acidified Time taken for Rate of
potassium iodide distilled potassium iodide thiosulfate hydrogen peroxide and blue/black colour reaction/
solution/cm3 water/cma solution/mol dm-3 solution/cma starch mixture/cma to appear/s

25 1 25
20 5 25
15 10 1 25
10 15 25
5 20 1 25

203
 Factors affecting rates of reaction Rates of reaction

11 What can you deduce about the effect of concentration on the rate of the reaction?
12 Explain the effect that increasing the concentration has on the rate of the reaction.

13 Use your graph to determine the rate of the reaction at potassium iodide concentrations of 0.0022 mol dm-3
and 0.0044 mol dm-3. In theory, if the concentration of a reactant doubles, the rate of a reaction should also
double. Did the rate of your reaction double? If it didn't double, can you suggest reasons why? Use the
information given below to help you.

During the experiment, the hydrogen peroxide oxidises the I- ions in the
potassium iodide to iodine molecules (12):

12(aq) + 2e

As soon as an iodine molecule is formed the sodium thiosulfate reduces it

back to I- ions:

12(aq) + 2e 21-(aq)

When all the sodium thiosulfate has reacted, iodine molecules remain in the
solutionand react with the starch to produce a blue-black colour. Since the
concentration and volume of sodium thiosulfate solution used each time is
the same, the blue-black colour starts to appear when the same quantity of
iodine has been made each time. In your experiment you determined the
time taken for the same quantity of iodine to be produced using different
concentrations of potassium iodide solution.

Temperature
The general rule is that the higher the temperature at which a reaction occurs,
the higher the rate of the reaction.

If the temperature at which a reaction occurs is increased, the reactant

particles gain kinetic energy which has the following effects:
the particles move faster, therefore they collide more frequently
the particles collide with more energy, therefore more collisions occur
with sufficient activation energy for the particles to react.
Combining these two effects, as the temperature increases, the chances of
effective collisions increase, therefore the rate of the reaction increases. For
some chemical reactions which occur at room temperature, ifthe temperature
increases by 10 oc, the rate of the reaction approximately doubles.

Ifwe measure the rate of a reaction at different temperatures and plot the rate
against temperature we get a graph similar to the one shown in Figure 11.2.2.
The graph clearly shows that as the temperature increases, the rate of the
reaction increases, but it shows that the rate is not directly proportional to
temperature.

Temperature (oc)

A Figure 11.2.2 Rate of reaction against temperature

204
Rates of reaction Factors affecting rates of reaction

Practical activity

To investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

manipulation and measurement
analysis and interpretation

You will be supplied with 1.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, 0.05 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulfate solution (NaS203(aq)),

a small conical flask, a 50 cm3 measuring cylinder, a burette, a thermometer and a stopwatch.
Method
1 Using a black pen, draw a cross on a piece of white paper. Do not make the cross too dark.
2 Measure 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulfate solution using the measuring cylinder and pour it into the conical flask.

3 Pour the hydrochloric acid into the burette.

4 Add 1 cm3 of hydrochloric acid to the conical flask and at the same time start the stopwatch. Swirl the flask to
mix the solutions and place the flask on top of the cross.
5 When the two reactants are mixed, a precipitate of sulfur slowly forms which gradually obscures the cross.
Look down into the conical flask and stop the stopwatch as soon as the cross is no longer visible.
6 Immediately measure and record the temperature of the mixture in the conical flask and record the time taken
for the cross to disappear.

7 Repeat the experiment, but this time heat the sodium thiosulfate solution in the conical flask to about 40 oc
before adding the hydrochloric acid.
8 Repeat the experiment three more times, heating the sodium thiosulfate solution to about 50 oc, 60 oc and then
70 oc.
9 Record your results in a table and calculate the rate of the reaction at each temperature using the following formula:
1
rate of reaction =
time taken for cross to disappear
10 Plot a graph to show the rate of the reaction against the final temperature of the mixture. Draw a curve of best
fit between the points.

11 What can you deduce about the effect of temperature on the rate of the reaction?

12 Explain the effect that increasing the temperature has on the rate of the reaction.
13 Use your graph to determine the rate of the reaction at 40 oc and 50 oc. In theory, the rate of a reaction should
approximately double if the temperature is increased by 10 oc. Did the rate of your reaction double? If it didn't

double, can you suggest reasons why? Use the information given below to help you.
14 Given that the products of the reaction are sodium chloride, sulfur, water and sulfur dioxide, write a balanced
chemical equation for the reaction.

During the experiment, the sodium thiosulfate reacted with the hydrochloric
acid to form insoluble sulfur, which slowly built up and obscured the cross:

Na2S203(aq) + 2HC1(aq) 2NaC1(aq) + S(s) + H20(1) + S02(g)

Since the volume and concentration of the two solutions used was the same
each time, the cross disappeared when the same quantity of sulfur had been
made each time. In your experiment you were determining the time taken sulfur
for the same quantity of sulfur to be produced at different temperatures. precipitate

cross drawn
Figure 11.2.3 Following the reaction between sodium on paper
thiosulfate solution and hydrochloric acid
205
 Factors affecting rates of reaction Rates of reaction

Surface area (particle size)

The general rule is that the smaller the particles of a reactant, the higher the
rate of a reaction.

This only applies to reactants in the solid state. When solids react, the
reaction occurs on the surface of the solid. Small solid particles have a larger
total surface area than the same mass of large solid particles.
If the particle

size is decreased, the smaller particles have a greater surface area exposed
to particles of the other reactant. As a result, the particles collide more
frequently which increases the chances of effective collisions, therefore, the
rate of the reaction increases.

In flour mills and coal mines, the finely divided flour and coal are highly
flammable. Any from a cigarette, can initiate a reaction with the
spark, e.g.
oxygen in the which could be explosive because of the large surface area
air
of the fine particles of flour and coal.

Practical activity

To investigate the effect of surface area on the rate of a

reaction
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:
observation, recording and reporting
manipulation and measurement
analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with 5.0 g of small calcium carbonate crystals, 5.0 g of
large calcium carbonate crystals, 0.3mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, a conical
a cork with a delivery tube running through it to a gas syringe, a
flask,
measuring cylinder and a stopwatch.
Method
1 Place the small calcium carbonate crystals in the conical flask.

2 Measure 30 cm3 of hydrochloric acid in the measuring cylinder.

3 As quickly as possible pour the acid into the conical flask and cork the
conical flask with the cork which has a delivery tube running to the gas
syringe, as in Figure 11.1.2. At the same time, start the stopwatch.
4 Record the volume of gas in the gas syringe every 30 seconds until the
volume remains constant for three consecutive readings.

5 Repeat the experiment using the large crystals.

6 Record your results in a table and use them to plot a graph of volume
of gas against time for each set of crystals. You can plot both curves on
the same set of axes.

7 Using your graph, calculate the average rate of the reaction for:

a the small crystals

b the large crystals.
8 Explain why the average rate of the reaction is higher for the small
crystals.

9 Explain why both sets of crystals produced almost the same volume
of gas.

206
Rates of reaction Factors affecting rates of reaction

Presence or absence of a catalyst

Certain chemical substances can be added to reactions to alter the rate of
Key fact
the reaction. These substances are known as catalysts and they are used A catalyst is a substance which
extensively in industry to increase the rate of reactions. Catalysts are alters the rate of a chemical
chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. reaction without itself undergoing
any permanent chemical change.
Most catalysts are added to speed up the rate of a reaction. They work by
providing an alternative pathway for the reaction which requires less
activation energy than the normal pathway (see Unit 12.1). As a result, more
of the collisions occur with sufficient energy for the particles to react, which
increases the number of effective collisions in a given length of time.

For example, hydrogen peroxide (H202) decomposes very slowly at room

temperature into water and oxygen:

2H202(aq) 2H20(1) + 02(g)

The reaction can be speeded up considerably by adding manganese(lv) oxide

(Mn02). The manganese(lv) oxide acts as a catalyst and it is chemically
unchanged at the end of the reaction. When the reaction has finished, the
mass of manganese(lv) oxide is exactly the same as it was at the beginning
of the reaction.

Enzymes are biological catalysts made of protein molecules. They are present
in the cells of all living organisms where they speed up chemical reactions
that would otherwise occur too slowly for life to exist.
? Did you know?
catalytic converter
C02
Tetraethyl lead(lv) was first mixed
with gasoline in the 1920s as an
inexpensive way to increase engine
gases
from performance and fuel economy by

engine preventing uncontrolled combustion

ceramic
support known as 'engine knocking'. Hence
'honeycomb' cavities in matrix became known as 'antiknock'.
it

through which Because of the toxic nature of lead

gases pass
Pt and Pd catalyst compounds, the use of leaded
covers large internal fuel has been phased out almost
surface area
worldwide. This phasing out started
A Figure 11.2.4 A catalytic converter in a car exhaust allows harmful pollutant gases to in the USA in the mid-1970s.

react together forming harmless products

A few catalysts are added to slow dom the rate of a reaction. These are known as
negative catalysts or inhibi tors. They work by providing an altemative pathway Exam tip
for the reaction which requires more activation energy than the normal pathway.
This decreases the number of effective collisions in a given length of time. If you are asked to explain how a
particular factor affects the rate of
An example of a negative catalyst is tetraethyl lead(lv) ((C2H5)4Pb), which a chemical reaction, your answer
used to be added to gasoline (petrol) for use in internal combustion engines. must be based on the collision
It prevented uncontrolled combustion of the gasoline so that the engine ran
theory for reactions.
more smoothly.

Effect of changing factors on rate curves

The effect of changing any factor which alters the rate of a reaction can
be shown on the rate curve for the reaction. In each of the graphs in
Figures 11.2.5 and 11.2.6, the number of moles of the limiting reactant
remains unchanged. Remember that the limiting reactant is the one which
is used up in a reaction and determines the quantity of products produced.

207
 Factors affecting rates of reaction Rates of reaction

@ Original rate curve

@ Rate curve showing an

increased rate caused by:
• increasing the concentration
of one reactant, or

• increasing the temperature

of the reaction, or

• decreasing the particle size

of a solid reactant, or

• adding a catalyst.

Time

A Figure 11.2.5 A rate curve showing the effect of any factor which increases the rate of
a reaction

In Figure 11.2.5, curve@is the original curve and curve@shows the effect
of changing any one single factor as indicated. Looking carefully at what the
graph shows:
curve@has a steeper gradient - this is because the reaction is occurring at
a higher rate
curve@becomes horizontal sooner- this is because the reaction takes less
time to reach completion
o both curves become horizontal when the same quantity ofproduct has
been made - this is because the original number of moles of the limiting
reactant was not changed.

@ Original rate curve

Rate curve showing a

decreased rate caused by:

O • decreasing the concentration

of one reactant, or

• decreasing the temperature

of the reaction, or

• increasing the particle size

of a solid reactant, or

• adding a negative catalyst.

Time

A Figure 11.2.6 A rate curve showing the effect of any factor which decreases the rate of
a reaction

In Figure 11.2.6, curve@is the original curve and curve shows the effect O
of changing any one single factor as indicated. Looking carefully at what the
graph shows:
curve has a shallower gradient- this is because the reaction is
occurring at a slower rate
Exam tip curve becomes horizontal later this is because the reaction takes
more time to reach completion
It is extremely important that you
both curves become horizontal when the same quantity ofproduct has
can interpret graphs which show
rates of reaction.
been made - this because the original number of moles of the limiting
is

reactant was not changed.

208
Rates of reaction Factors affecting rates of reaction

Summary questions
1 Explain how each of the following increases the rate of a reaction:
a increasing the temperature
b decreasing the particle size of a reactant
C increasing the concentration of a reactant.
What is a catalyst?
b Explain how a catalyst alters the rate of a reaction.
3 Describe an experiment you could perform to determine the effect of
particle size on the rate of a reaction.

Key concepts
The rate of reaction is a measured change in the concentration of a
reactant or product with time at a stated temperature.
The collision theory states that to react, particles of the reactants must
collide, the collisions must occur with the required activation energy
and the particles must be correctly orientated.
effective collision is one that results in the formation of the product.
rate curve shows a measured property plotted against time.
All rate curves have the same basic shape.
The rate of a reaction changes as the reaction proceeds. It is fastest at the
beginning and the rate decreases with time until the reaction reaches
completion when the limiting reactant is used up.
Four main factors affect the rate of a chemical reaction: concentration,
temperature, surface area (particle size) and the presence or absence of a
catalyst.
The higher the concentration of a reactant, the higher the rate of a
reaction.

The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of a reaction.

The smaller the particle size, the higher the rate of a reaction.
A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction
without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.
Most catalysts, if present, speed up the rate of a reaction.
A negative catalyst, if present, slows down the rate of a reaction.

209
 Practice exam-style questions Rates of reaction

6 A mass of 5.0 g of powdered zinc will react the slowest

Practice exam-style questions with:
A 30cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 sulfuric acid
Multiple-choice questions B 20cm3 of0.2mol dm-3 sulfuric acid
1 Which of the following would not result in an increase C 20cm3 of0.3mol dm-3 sulfuric acid
in the rate of reaction between 25 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 D of 0.4 mol dm-3 sulfuric acid
sulfuric acid and excess magnesium carbonate crystals at
28
A Increasing the temperature of the acid to 38 oc. Structured question
B Increasing the volume of the acid to 40 cm3.
7 a Anexperiment was set up to investigate what effect
C Using the same mass of magnesium carbonate changing various factors has on the rate of reaction
powder. between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.
D Increasing the concentration of the acid to The reaction was carried out at 30 oc in a conical
0.2 mol dm-3.
flask that was placed on a balance. A mass of 10.0 g of

2 An aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide was calcium carbonate was placed in the flask and excess
decomposed and the oxygen produced was collected in hydrochloric acid of concentration 1.0 mol dm-3 was
a gas syringe.Which of the following graphs represents added. The flask and its contents were weighed at
the total volume of oxygen as measured at various time regular intervals and their mass plotted against time,
intervals? as shown in the figure.

306
C 305
O 304

303
Time Time o 302
301

300

0 30 60 90 120 150180210 240

Time (s)

Mass of reaction against time

Time Time
i) The rate of a reaction decreases as the reaction
proceeds. Using the data from the graph,
3 A catalyst is best described asa substance which: determine the average rate of the reaction
A speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction ings-l
B slows down the rate of a chemical reaction — in the first minute
C takes no part in a chemical reaction - in the second minute. (4 marks)
D alters the rate of a chemical reaction ii) Why is the rate faster in the first minute than the
second minute? (2 marks)
4 The rate of a chemical reaction is:
iii) What effect would repeating the reaction at 40 oc
A independent of the size of the particles of a solid
have on the rate of the reaction ? (1 mark)
reactant
iv)By referring to the collision theory for reactions,
B independent of the concentration of the reactants
explain your answer to part iii) above.
C dependent on the temperature
(3 marks)
D unaffected by a catalyst
v) What effect, if any, would using excess
5 If the temperature at which hydrochloric acid reacts hydrochloric acid of concentration 0.5 mol dm-3
with sodium thiosulfate is raised by 10 oc, which of the have on the rate of the reaction? Give a reason for
following occurs? your answer. (2 marks)
A The rate of the reaction is increased by a factor of 10.
b i) What is a catalyst? (1 mark)
B The rate of the reaction is decreased by a factor of 10.
Explain how a catalyst works.
ii) (2 marks)
C The rate of the reaction is doubled.
D The rate of the reaction is halved. Total 15 marks

210
Rates of reaction Practice exam-style questions

Extended response question

8 The graph below shows the results of an experiment
which was carried out to determine how the rate of a
reaction between magnesium ribbon and hydrochloric
acid varies over time. In the experiment, excess
magnesium ribbon was added to 25 cm3 of hydrochloric
acid at 35 oc and the volume of gas was measured at
regular intervals.

Time (min)

a i) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

(2 marks)
ii) Account for the shape of the curve. (4 marks)
b Draw a labelled diagram to show how the apparatus
could be set up to carry out the experiment.
(3 marks)
c i) Copy the graph onto your answer paper and
on your graph draw a second curve to show the
expected results if the experiment was repeated
at 25 oc. Make sure that you distinguish between
your curves. (2 marks)
ii) Ifthe experiment was repeated again with
magnesium powder instead of ribbon at 35 oc,
what effect, if any, would this have on:
- the maximum volume of gas evolved
- the rate of evolution of the gas?
Explain your answer in each case. (4 marks)

Total 15 marks

211
 2 Energetics

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will deals with energy changes during physical processes
be able to:
and chemical reactions. Energy changes usually
between an
distinguish accompany all chemical reactions. In fact, in some
exothermic reaction and an
endothermic reaction chemical reactions the energy produced is more
give examples of exothermic important than the products of the chemical reaction,
and endothermic reactions
explain exothermic and
e.g. the burning of fuels. Energy changes can take many
endothermic reactions based forms, e.g. changes in heat, light and electricity.
on bond breaking and bond
forming
explain what is meant by A12.1 Energy changes during reactions
enthalpy change, AH Exothermic and endothermic reactions
explain exothermic and
Whenever there is a chemical reaction, there tends to be a change in energy
endothermic reactions based
of the system. The energy changes in chemical reactions are usually in the
on enthalpy change
form of heat energy, however, they may also be in the form of light, electrical
draw energy profile
or nuclear energy. We can distinguish between two types of reaction based
diagrams for exothermic and
on the energy changes which occur.
endothermic reactions
show the effect of adding a Ifthe reaction produces heat, causing the reaction mixture and its
surroundings to get hotter, the reaction is said to be an exothermic
catalyst using energy profile
reaction. Exothermic reactions transfer energy to their surroundings.
diagrams.
Ifthe reaction absorbs heat, causing the causing the reaction mixture and
itssurroundings to get colder, the reaction is said to be an endothermic
reaction. Endothermic reactions absorb energy from their surroundings.
Key fact
Practical activity
An exothermic reaction releases
energy to its surroundings, causing To investigate exothermic and endothermic reactions
the surroundings to get hotter.
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

Key fact manipulation and measurement.

You will be supplied with 2.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, 2.0 mol dm-3
An endothermic reaction absorbs
sodium hydroxide solution, zinc metal, potassium nitrate, sodium hydroxide
energy from its surroundings,
pellets, ammonium chloride, distilled water, a polystyrene cup supported in
causing the surroundings to get
a beaker, two measuring cylinders and a thermometer.
colder.
Method
1 Measure 25 cm3 of hydrochloric acid using a measuring cylinder and
pour it into the polystyrene cup. Record the temperature of the acid.
2 Measure 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution in the other measuring
cylinder and add it to the acid. Stir the solutions with the thermometer
and record the maximum or minimum temperature.
3 Measure another 25 cm3 of hydrochloric acidand pour it into the cleaned
polystyrene cup. Record the temperature of the acid and add a small
amount of zinc. Stir and record the maximum or minimum temperature.

212
Energetics Energy changes during reactions

4 Measure 25 cm3 of distilled water in a cleaned measuring cylinder and

pour it into the cleaned polystyrene cup. Record the temperature of the
water and add a small amount of potassium nitrate. Stir and record the
maximum or minimum temperature.
5 Repeat step 4 using sodium hydroxide pellets and again using
ammonium chloride in place of the potassium nitrate in each case.
Make sure you wash the polystyrene cup between each experiment.
6 Record your results in a table.
7 Classify each reaction as exothermic or endothermic.

zinc is added

sodium
polystyrene
hydroxide
cup
solution

hydrochloric acid hydrochloric acid

A Figure 12.1.1 Sodium hydroxide A Figure 12.1.2 Zinc is added to

solution is added to hydrochloric hydrochloric acid
acid

Examples of exothermic reactions include:

burning of fuels
neutralisation reactions between acids and bases, e.g. the reaction
between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
reactions between reactive metals and acids
respiration, which releases energy from food in the cells of all living
organisms
dissolving certain substances in water, e.g. sodium hydroxide and
sulfuric acid.

Examples of endothermic reactions include:

the decomposition of compounds when heated, known as thermal
decomposition, e.g. calcium carbonate must absorb heat in order to
decompose into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
photosynthesis in plants, which absorbs sunlight energy
e dissolving certain salts in water, e.g. ammonium chloride and potassium
nitrate.

Bond breaking and bond forming

In Unit 11.1 you learnt that a chemical reaction involves breaking the original
bonds in the reactants and making new bonds in the products.
When the original bonds are broken in the reactants, energy is absorbed.
When new bonds are formed in the products, energy is released.
reactants products
bonds are broken bonds are formed
energy is absorbed energy is released

213
 Energy changes during reactions Energetics

In an exothermic reaction, the energy absorbed to break the existing

Did you know? bonds in the reactants is less than the energy released in forming
the new bonds in the products. The extra energy is released to the
Average bond energies can be surroundings and the temperature of the surroundings increases.
found in chemical data books.
In an endothermic reaction, the energy absorbed to break the existing
The amount of energy released
bonds in the reactants is greater than the energy released in forming
or absorbed during a chemical
reaction can be calculated by
the new bonds in the products. The extra energy is absorbed from the
adding up the bond energies for all
surroundings and the temperature of the surroundings decreases.
the bonds in the reactants and for Every chemical bond has a specific amount of energy, no matter what
the bonds in the products and
all
compound it is in, known as its bond energy. The amount of energy which
applying the following formula:
has to be absorbed to break that bond is the same as the amount of energy
energy change = sum of all bond released when that bond is formed.
energies in — sum of
the reactant
all bond energies in the products
Enthalpy change
The energy content of a substance is called its enthalpy and is given the
symbol H. The energy content of a substance cannot be measured directly,
but it is possible to measure the change in enthalpy that occurs during a
reaction. This is known as enthalpy change and is given the symbol Alland
is usually expressed in kilojoules, kJ, or kilojoules per mol, kJ mol-l.
The enthalpy change of a reaction is summarised by the following formula:
enthalpy change of a reaction = (total enthalpy of products) —
(total enthalpy of reactants)
i.e. AHreaction prod ucts reactants

Exothermic reactions
In an exothermic reaction the enthalpy of the products is less than the
enthalpy of the reactants:

products reactants

Therefore, has a value which is less than zero, i.e. A1-I is negative. The
A1-I

extra energy released to the surroundings and the temperature of the

is

surroundings increases. Another way to think ofthis is that since the reaction
loses energy, A1-lis negative, i.e. A1-I —ve.

energy content
of reactants

AH —ve

energy content
of products

Progress of reaction

A Figure 12.1.3 An exothermic reaction

An example of an exothermic reaction is the combustion of methane (the

value of AH is given after the equation):

CH4(g) + 202(g) C02(g) + 2H20(g) -891 kJ mol-l

The value for A1-I tells us that 891 kJ of energy is lost when 1 mol of methane
is completely burned in oxygen.
214
Energetics Energy changes during reactions

Endothermic reactions
In an endothermic reaction the enthalpy of the products is greater than
the enthalpy of the reactants:
i.e. H products reactants

Therefore, A1-Ihas a value which is greater than zero, i.e. AH is positive. Energy

isabsorbed from the surroundings and the temperature of the surroundings

decreases. Another way to think of this is that since the reaction gains energy,
AH is positive, i.e. A1-I +ve.
energy content
of products

AH + ve
b
energy content
of reactants

Progress of reætion

A Figure 12.1.4 An endothermic reaction

An example of an endothermic reaction is the reaction between hydrogen

and iodine:
H2(g) + 12(s) 2H1(g) All = +26.510 mol-l Exam tip
The value for A1-I tells us that 26.5kJ of energy is gained when 1 mol of
It may be very confusing to think of
hydrogen iodide is made during the reaction. The overall energy absorbed a reaction which causes an increase
by the reaction represented in the equation would be double this value, i.e. in temperature of its surroundings
5310, since it shows 2 mol of hydrogen iodide being made. as having a negative value for AH
and vice versa. Try to remember
Reversible reactions
that an exothermic reaction is

In a reversible reaction, if exothermic, then the

the forward reaction is losing energy to its surroundings
reverse reaction is endothermic and vice versa. The AH value given for a and if you lose anything you are
reversible reaction is for the forward reaction, i.e. the reaction which proceeds minus it, i.e. AH is —ve. Similarly, the
endothermic reaction is gaining
from left to right. For example, the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen
energy from its surroundings and
to form ammonia is:
if you gain anything you are plus it,

N2(g) + 3H2(s) 2NH3(g) -46.1 kJ mol-l i.e. AH is +ve.

This shows that the forward reaction which produces ammonia is exothermic.
Therefore, the reverse reaction is endothermic. It also shows us that when
1 mol of ammonia is made during the reaction, 46.1 kJ of energy is released.
Key fact
Energy profile diagrams Activation energy is the minimum

The energy change in a chemical reaction can be illustrated with an energy amount of energy that reactants
profile diagram. The diagram shows the energy content or enthalpy of the must be given, in excess of what
reactants and products, A1-I and the activation energy. Most reactions need they normally possess, in order
for bonds to start breaking in the
some energy to get them started. This minimum amount of energy is called
reactants and products to start
the activation energy. This activation energy can be thought of as the
forming.
energy barrier of a reaction.

The amount of activation energy does not affect the overall energy change
for the reaction and is not included in the calculation of the value of A1-I.
The general energy profile diagrams of an exothermic and an endothermic
reaction are shown in Figure 12.1.5.

215
 Energy changes during reactions Energetics

(b)

activation

energy A+BC
AB+C
reactants products
8 8 ætivation
energy
AH —ve AH +ve

A+BC AB+C
products reactants

Course of reaction Course of reaction

A Figure 12.1.5 Energy profile diagrams.

(a) An exothermic reaction, (b) an endothermic reaction.

Drawing energy profile diagrams

When you are drawing an energy profile diagram for a specific reaction it is
important that you include the following information on your diagram:
e the formulae of the reactants
e the formulae of the products
e arrows indicating the activation energy and A1-I
e the value of A1-I.

An example of how this can be done for the reaction between nitrogen and
hydrogen is shown in Figure 12.1.6.

activation energy

-46.2 kJ mori

2NH3(g)

Course of reaction

A Figure 12.1.6 Energy profile diagram for the formation of ammonia

Catalysts and energy profile diagrams

In Unit 11.2 you learnt that a catalyst is a substance that can increase the
rate of a reaction. In terms of energy, a reaction in which a catalyst is used
has a lower activation energy than the same reaction without a catalyst. This
isbecause a catalyst provides an alternative pathway for the reaction which
requires less activation energy than the normal pathway. As a result, more
reactant particles have the required energy to react when they collide, and
the reaction speeds up because there are more effective collisions (collisions
that result in the formation of the products) in the same length of time.

The using a catalyst can be shown on energy profile diagrams. It is

effect of
important to note that although the reaction has a lower activation energy, as
shown in the diagrams in Figure 12.1.7, the energy values for the reactants and
products remain unchanged, therefore, the value for AH remains the same.

216
Energetics Calculating energy changes

activation energy activation energy

without a catalyst activation energy without a catalyst ætivation energy
with a catalyst
with a catalyst

reactants
products

—ve
AH +ve

products reactants

Course of reaction Course of reaction

A figure 12.1.7 Energy profile diagrams with and without a catalyst.

(a) an exothermic reaction, (b) an endothermic reaction.

Summary questions
1 Explain what is meant by an exothermic reaction and an endothermic
reaction.

2 Explain exothermic and endothermic reactions by reference to:

a bond breaking and bond forming
b enthalpy change.
3 Give the formula used to calculate enthalpy change.

4 Draw a fully labelled energy profile diagram for the following reaction.
Indicate on your diagram what effect adding a catalyst would have.

2H2(g) + 026) 2H20(g) = -241.8 kJ mol-l

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
A12.2 Calculating energy changes
e define the terms specific heat
In the laboratory, the energy change, or enthalpy change, in a reaction capacity, heat of neutralisation
can be determined by measuring the heat change that occurs during the and heat of solution
reaction, known as the heat of reaction. We cannot measure the energy give the formula to calculate
content, or enthalpy, of the reactants and products directly. However, we the heat change of a reaction
can calculate the heat of reaction by measuring the change in temperature calculate heat changes from
which occurs during a reaction. experimental data
In this unit you will learn how to determine heats of reaction such as the explain why the heat of

heat of neutralisation and the heat of solution experimentally. In these neutralisation for the reaction

experiments you will measure the change in temperature which accompanies between a strong acid and
the neutralisation reaction between a strong acid and a strong alkali and the strong alkali is always the same
dissolving of a solid in water. You can then use what is known as the specific describe experiments
to determine the heat of
heat capacity to determine the change in enthalpy for the reaction.
neutralisation and heat of
The specific heat capacity of a substance, c, is the quantity of heat required solution
to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the substance by 1 oc or 1 K. We give the assumptions made
usually take the unit mass of the substance as 1 g and measure temperature when calculating the heat
in degrees Celsius. This being the case, specific heat capacity given the is of neutralisation and heat of
units joules per gram per degree Celsius or J g-1 OC-I. Using water as an solution from experimental
example, the specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J g-1 OC-I. This means data.
that it takes 4.2 J of heat energy to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by
1 oc.

217
 Calculating energy changes Energetics

If we know the mass of the substances reacting, m, we can determine the

Key fact heat of reaction, q, from the specific heat capacity of the substances, c, and
the temperature change, AT, using the following formula:
The specific heat capacity of
a substance is the quantity of
heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of the
substance by 1 oc or 1 K. Measuring heats of reaction
To measure the heat of neutralisation and heat of solution a piece of
apparatus known as a calorimeter is used. A calorimeter is an insulated
container which prevents heat released by a reaction escaping into the
surroundings if the reaction is exothermic, or heat from the surroundings
being absorbed by the reaction if the reaction is endothermic. A simple
calorimeter can be made out of a polystyrene cup because polystyrene is a
good insulator.
The general method for determining heats of reaction involves measuring
a fixed volume of solution or water to be used in a measuring cylinder,
pouring it into the calorimeter and measuring its initial temperature using
a thermometer. The reactants are then mixed in the calorimeter and the
maximum or minimum temperature reached in the reaction is measured.
The temperature change can then be calculated and used in the formula
given above to calculate the heat of the reaction.

Assumptions
In the experiments you will be carrying out to determine the heat of
neutralisation and heat of solution, you will make three assumptions in your
calculations.

The density of a dilute aqueous solution is the same as water, i.e.

1 g cm-3. This means that the mass of 1 cm3 of solution is 1 g.

The specific heat capacity of a dilute aqueous solution is the same as

water, i.e. 4.2 J g-1 OC-I
Negligible heat is lost to the surroundings or absorbed from the
surroundings during the reaction.

Heat of neutralisation
Key fact The and a strong alkali is an
neutralisation reaction between a strong acid
The heat of neutralisation is the exothermic reaction. The amount ofheat produced per mole of water formed
heat change which occurs when in the reaction is known as the heat of neutralisation.
1 mol of water is produced in a
In calculating the heat of neutralisation, the initial temperature of
reaction between an acid and an
both solutions must be measured and averaged to determine the initial
alkali.
temperature, and the number of moles of water produced in the reaction
must be calculated.

Example
A volume of 50cm3
sodium hydroxide solution of concentration
of
1.0mol dm-3 and temperature 26.0 oc is added to 50 cm3 of hydrochloric
acid of concentration 1.0mol dm-3 and temperature 27.0 oc. After mixing,
the maximum temperature of the solution is 33.2 oc. Determine the heat of
neutralisation and draw an energy profile diagram for the reaction.
218
Energetics Calculating energy changes

The balanced equation for the reaction is:

NaOH(aq) + HC1(aq) + H20(1) NaC1(aq)
Determine the number of moles of water made in the reaction:
1000 cm3 of NaOH(aq) contain 1.0 mol NaOH
1.0
50 cm3 ofNaOH(aq) contain x 50m01 NaOH = 0.05 mol NaOH
1000
And 1000 cm3 of HCI contains 1.0 mol HCI
1.0
50 cm3 of HCl(aq) contain x 50 mol HCI = 0.05 mol HCI
1000

From the equation:

1 mol NaOH reacts with 1 mol HCI forming 1 mol H20
0.05 mol NaOH reacts with 0.05 mol HCI forming 0.05 mol H20
i.e. 0.05 mol H20 is produced in the reaction.

Determine the heat of neutralisation:

Total volume of solution= 50 + 50 = 100 cm3
mass of solution, m = 100 g
26.0 + 27.00
c= 26.5 oc
Average initial temperature, Tl =
2
Final temperature, T2 = 33.2 oc
temperature increase, L - Tl = (33.2-26.5) oc = 6.70C
Specific heat capacity of the solution, c = 4.2J g-1 oc-l
Using q = m x c x AT,
heat evolved in forming 0.05 mol H20 = (100 x 4.2 x 6.7)J

- 2814 J
2.814 kJ
2.814
heat evolved in forming 1 mol H20 = kJ
0.05

56.28 kJ
i.e. heat of neutralisation, AH = —56.28kJ mol-l
The heat of neutralisation is negative because the temperature increased,
therefore, the reaction was exothermic.

The energy profile diagram is shown below:

activation energy
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)

AH = -56.28kJmol-1

NaCl(aq) + H20(l)

Course of reaction

219
 Calculating energy changes Energetics

Practical activity

To determine the heat of neutralisation

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

manipulation and measurement
analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with 1.0 mol dm-3 sulfuric acid, 2.0 mol dm-3 potassium
hydroxide solution, a calorimeter (polystyrene cup), a measuring cylinder
and a thermometer.
Method
1 Measure 50 cm3 of sulfuric acid in the measuring cylinder and pour it into

the dry calorimeter.

2 Measure and record the temperature of the acid using the thermometer.

3 Measure 50 crn3 of potassium hydroxide solution in the cleaned

measuring cylinder. Measure and record its temperature.
4 Pour the potassium hydroxide solution into the calorimeter and stir the
solution with the thermometer while watching the temperature change.
5 Record the maximum temperature reached.
6 Calculate the average initial temperature of the two solutions and use
this to calculate the temperature increase.
7 Assuming that the density and specific heat capacity of the solution
are both the same as water, calculate the heat of neutralisation for
the reaction between sulfuric acid and potassium hydroxide. Use the
calculation on the previous page to help you.

8 Draw an energy profile diagram for the reaction.

9 The heat of neutralisation for the reaction should be approximately
—56.3 kJ mol-l. If your value is lower than this, can you suggest reasons
why?

The heat of neutralisation for the reaction between any strong acid and any
strong alkali is always about —56.3 RJ mol 1. This is because strong acids and
strong alkalis are fully ionised in aqueous solution and the common reaction
that releases heat in all cases is:

OH (aq) +H (aq) H20(1) -56.3 kJm01 1

The equation for the neutralisation reaction between sodium hydroxide and
sulfuric acid is:

2NaOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) Na2S04(aq) + 2H20(1)

In this reaction, 2 mol ofwater are produced. The heat of neutralisation is still
about — 56.3 kJ mol -1 however, the overall heat change forthe reaction shown
,

in the equation is about — 112.6 kJ, i.e. double the heat of neutralisation.

The heat of neutralisation can also be determined from the results of a

thermometric titration explained in Unit 8.5. In this method, the initial
temperatures of the acid and alkali must be measured and the point of
intersection of the two lines of best fit on the graph represents the maximum
temperature recorded during the reaction.
220
Energetics Calculating energy changes

Heat of solution
Key fact
When a solid, liquid or gas dissolves in a solvent, there is usually a change in
enthalpy. This enthalpy change which occurs when 1 mol of solute dissolves The heat of solution is the heat
in a solvent is known as heat of solution. change which occurs when 1 mol
of solute dissolves in such a volume
In calculating the heat of solution, the initial temperature ofthe water must
of solvent that further dilution by the
be measured and the exact quantity of solute dissolving must be known so solvent produces no further heat
that the number of moles of solute can be calculated.
change.

Example
A student dissolves 5.35 g of ammonium chloride in 100cm3 of distilled
water. The temperature of the water is 22.5 oc. After mixing, a
initial
minimum temperature of 16.4 oc is recorded by the student. Determine the
heat of solution of ammonium chloride and draw an energy profile diagram
for the solution process.

Determine the number of moles of NH4Cl dissolved:

M(NH4C1) = 53.5 g mol-l
i.e. mass of 1 mol NH4Cl = 53.5 g

number of moles in 5.35 g = 535 = 0.1 mol

53.5

Determine the heat of solution:

Mass of water, m = 100 g

Initial temperature, Tl = 22.5 oc

Final temperature, T2 = 16.4 oc

temperature decrease (AT) = Tl- T2 = 22.5 16.4 OC = 6.1 OC

Specific heat capacity of the solution, c = 4.2J g-1 oc-l

Using q = m x c x AT,
heat absorbed in dissolving 0.1 mol NH4Cl = 100 x 4.2 x 6.1 J
- 2562J = 2.562 kJ
2.562
heat absorbed in dissolving 1 mol NH4Cl = kJ = 25.6210
0.1
i.e. heat of solution, +25.62 mol-l.
Exam tip

The heat of solution is positive because the temperature decreased, therefore, It is essential that you give
the reaction was endothermic. the correct unit for the heat of
neutralisation or solution. Since you
The energy profile diagram is shown below: are calculating the heat change
for producing 1 mol of water or

dissolving mol of solute, the unit

1

NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq) will always be J mol-l or kJ mol-l.

It is also essential that you indicate

activation

energy
whether the reaction is exothermic
AH = +25.62 kJmol-1 or endothermic by putting a
negative or positive sign before
b
your value.
NH4Cl(s) + water

Course of reaction
Calculating energy changes Energetics

Practical activity

To determine the heat of solution

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

O manipulation and measurement
o analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with potassium nitrate, distilled water, a balance, a

calorimeter (polystyrene cup), a measuring cylinder and a thermometer.

Method
1 Measure 100 cm3 of distilled water in the measuring cylinder and pour it

into the dry calorimeter.

2 Measure and record the temperature of the water.

3 Using the balance, weigh 12.1 g of potassium nitrate and add it to the
water in the calorimeter.

4 Stir the solution with the thermometer while watching the temperature
change.
5 Record the minimum temperature reached.
6 Calculate the temperature decrease.

Summary questions 7 Assuming that the specific heat capacity of the solution is thesame
as water, calculate the heat of solution of potassium nitrate. Use the
1 Define the following:
calculation on the previous page to help you.
a heat of neutralisation
8 Is dissolving potassium nitrate an exothermic or endothermic reaction?
b heat of solution
Give a reason for your answer.
c specific heat capacity.
9 Draw an energy profile diagram for the solution process.
2 What are the assumptions
10 By reference to bonds breaking and bonds forming, explain the reason
made in an experiment
for the enthalpy change which occurred when potassium nitrate
to determine the heat of
dissolved in water.
neutralisation?

3 Why is the heat of

neutralisation for the reaction When a solute dissolves in a solvent the following events occur.
between sodium hydroxide Bonds break between the particles of the solute; this absorbs energy from
and hydrochloric acid the surroundings. In the case of ionic compounds, it is the ionic bonds
the same as the heat of which break, e.g. when sodium chloride dissolves in water it is the ionic
neutralisation for the reaction bonds between the Na+ ions and the Cl- ions which break. In the case of
covalent substances, it is the intermolecular forces between the molecules
between potassium hydroxide
that break, e.g. when ethanol dissolves in water it is the intermolecular
and sulfuric acid?
forces between the ethanol molecules that break.
4 It was found when
that
The intermolecular forces between the solvent molecules also break; this
4.0g of ammonium nitrate
also absorbs energy from the surroundings.
dissolved in 50 cm3 of distilled
Attractions are formed between the ions or molecules of the solute and
water, the temperature
the molecules of the solvent. This process is called solvation and it
decreased from 27.4 oc to
releases energy to the surroundings.
21.6 oc. Determine the heat of
solution for ammonium nitrate The reaction is exothermic if more energy is released during solvation than

and draw an energy profile

isabsorbed to break the bonds in the solute and solvent. The reaction is
diagram for the process.
endothermic if more energy is absorbed to break bonds in the solute and
solvent than is released during solvation.
Energetics Calculating energy changes

Key concepts
Exothermic reactions produce heat energy causing the reaction
mixture and its surroundings to get hotter, i.e. they transfer energy to
their surroundings.
Endothermic reactions absorb heat energy causing the reaction
mixture and its surroundings to get colder, i.e. they absorb energy from
their surroundings.
When bonds are broken in reactants energy is absorbed. When new
bonds are formed in products energy is released.
In an exothermic reaction, the energy absorbed to break bonds is less
than the energy released in forming new bonds.
In an endothermic reaction, the energy absorbed to break bonds is

greater than the energy released in forming new bonds.

The energy content of a substance is called enthalpy and is given the
symbol H.
The enthalpy change in a reaction can be measured and is given the
symbol A1-I.
reaction products reactants

In an exothermic reaction Hproducts < H reactants, therefore, AHis less than

zero, i.e. AHis negative.
In an endothermic reaction, Hproducts > H reactants' therefore, AH is greater
than zero, i.e. AH is positive.
The enthalpy change in a chemical reaction can be illustrated by an
energy profile diagram.
The activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required for a
reaction to occur.

A catalyst reduces the amount of activation energy required for a

reaction to occur by providing an alternative route for the reaction to
proceed which requires less energy.

The specific heat capacity of a substance enables us to determine

enthalpy change from a change in temperature.
The specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass of the substance by 1 oc or 1 K.

The heat of reaction, q, can be calculated from the masses of the

substances reacting, m, the specific heat capacity of the substances, c,
and the change in temperature, AT, using the formula:
q = m x c X AT.
The heat of neutralisation is the heat change which occurs when 1 mol
of water is produced in a reaction between an acid and an alkali.
The heat of solution is the heat change which occurs when 1 mol of
solute dissolves in such a volume of solvent that further dilution by the
solvent produces no further heat change.
To determine the heat of neutralisation or heat of solution we assume
that 1 cm3 of a dilute aqueous solution has a mass of 1 g and a specific
heat capacity which is the same as water, i.e. 4.2 J g-1 OC-I, and that
negligible heat is lost to, or absorbed from, the surroundings.
The heat of neutralisation for the reaction between a strong acid and a
strong alkali is always the same, about —56.3 kJ mol 1.

223
 Practice exam-style questions Energetics

6 When 0.2 mol sodium nitrate dissolved in 100 cm3 of

Practice exam-style questions water, the temperature decreased by 7.2 oc. Assuming
that the specific heat capacity of the solution is
Multiple-choice questions 4.2 J g -1 OC-I, the heat of solution of sodium nitrate is:
1 Which of the following statements best describes an A 604.8Jm01A
endothermic reaction? B 3024 J mov
A The enthalpy of the reactants is greater than the C 15.12kJm01A
enthalpy of the products. D 151.2kJm01-l
B Energy is released to the surroundings.
C The enthalpy change is negative. Structured question
D The temperature of the surroundings decreases. The figure below shows an energy profile diagram for
a reaction and the effect of a catalyst on the reaction
2 When sodium hydroxide is added to water at 28 oc, the
pathway.
temperature of the solution increases to 40 oc because:
A the enthalpy change is positive
B energy is released to the surroundings
C the reaction is endothermic
D more energy is absorbed to break the ionic bonds
between the Na+ ion and OH- ions than is released c
during solvation b

3 Which of the following processes releases energy?

I breaking of a bond

II solvation of an ion
Course of reaction
Ill formation of a bond
Energy profile diagram
A I only
B land II only i) State, with a reason, if the reaction is exothermic
or endothermic. (2 marks)
C II and Ill only
ii) Identify the parts labelled A, B, and C on the
D Ill only
diagram. (3 marks)
iii) How does a catalyst work to speed up the rate of a
4 The diagram below shows the energy profile diagram of
reaction? (2 marks)
a reaction. Which letter in the diagram represents the
b The dissolving of ammonium nitrate in water may be
energy necessary for the reaction to take place?
represented by the following equation:
NH4+(aq) +
N03-(aq) AH +ve
In order to determine the value of MI, a student
dissolved 16.0 g of ammonium nitrate in 75 cm3 of
distilledwater at room temperature (30.0 oc). He
c
stirredthe mixture and recorded its temperature
at regular intervals until all the solid had dissolved
and the temperature of the mixture had returned
to room temperature. The largest difference he
observed between the initial temperature and the
Course of reaction
solution temperature was 15 oc.
i) On the axes below, sketch a graph to show the
5 Consider the following equation for the reaction variation in solution temperature with time.
between sodium hydroxide and phosphoric acid
3NaOH(aq) + H3P04(aq) Na3P04(aq) + 50
3H20(1) -168.9kJ
Which of the following statements is incorrect? 30
A The reaction is exothermic. 20
B The heat of neutralisation is —168.9 kJ mol-l. 10
C The reactants have more energy than the products.
D The temperature of the surroundings would increase. Time (min) (2 marks)

224
Energetics Practice exam-style questions

ii) Calculate the energy change for the reaction,

assuming that the specific heat capacity of the
solution is 4.2 J g -1 OC-I (2 marks)
iii) Determine the number of moles of ammonium
nitrate that dissolved. (2 marks)
iv) Determine the heat of solution of ammonium
nitrate. (2 marks)
Total 15 marks

Extended response question

8 a i)Define 'heat of neutralisation'. (2 marks)
ii) Account for the fact that the heat of
neutralisation for the reaction between any
strong acid and any strong alkali is the same.
Give a relevant ionic equation to support your
answer. (2 marks)
b A student was required to carry out an experiment to
determine the heat of neutralisation in the reaction
between potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid.
She was provided with the following materials and
equipment:
— 50 cm3 of potassium hydroxide solution
— 50 cm3 of sulfuric acid of concentration
0.6 mol dm-3
— a thermometer
— a polystyrene cup.
She recorded the initial temperature of the two
solutions, mixed them in the polystyrene cup and
recorded the maximum temperature reached. Her
temperature recordings are given below:
Initial temperature of potassium hydroxide
solution = 29.5 oc
Initial temperature of sulfuric acid 29.5 oc
Maximum temperature after mixing 37.1 oc
i) Determine the heat change for the reaction,
assuming that the specific heat capacity of the
solution is 4.2 J g -1 OC-I (3 marks)
ii) State TWO other assumptions that you have
made in your calculation in i) above. (2 marks)
iii) From your answer to i) above, calculate the heat
of neutralisation given that the sulfuric acid is

the limiting reactant. (4 marks)

iv) Draw a fully labelled energy profile diagram for
the reaction. (2 marks)
Total 15 marks

225
 Section B
11

B13
Objectives
chemistry

By the end of this topic you will compounds containing carbon atoms, known as organic
be able to:
compounds, are studied. Studying organic compounds
give examples of organic
compounds
is very important since they are all around us and form
give the main compounds an integral part of our daily lives, for example plastics,
containing carbon
give the electron structure of a
oil, gasoline, diesel and alcohols. Organic compounds
carbon atom also form a major part of the bodies of organisms
living
understand and illustrate that
and of the food we eat. Proteins, carbohydrates and
carbon can form single bonds,
double bonds, unbranched
fats are all organic compounds.
chains, branched chains and
ringed structures
explain the term functional B13n1 Organic compounds
group All organic compounds contain carbon. Most also contain hydrogen and
identify certain functional many contain oxygen. Other elements may also be present such as nitrogen,
groups sulfur and phosphorus. Organic compounds which contain only carbon and
represent organic compounds hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons.
using molecular, fully displayed
and condensed structural
A vast number of organic compounds exist and they are used in all aspects of
formulae. our lives. Some examples of organic compounds that we use in our everyday
lives are given below.

Methane, CH4, is the main component of natural gas which is used as

a fuel to generate electricity, as a fuel for domestic heating and cooking
purposes and as a fuel for vehicles in some countries.
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, is the main component in vinegar which is
used to preserve and flavour food.
Ethanol, C2H50H, forms the basis of wines and spirits.
Glucose, C6H1206, is used by both plants and animals as one of their
main sources of energy.
Protein is an example of a natural polymer (see Unit 16) which is used by
plants and animals to enable them to grow.

Polyethene is an example of a man-made polymer which is widely used

as a plastic, for example, in sandwich bags and cling wrap.

Formation of carbon compounds

The abundance of organic compounds in the world
great is because of the
chemistry of the carbon atom. Carbon is found in:
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates
fossil fuels, such as crude oil, natural gas and coal
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats and oils)

organic acids, such as ascorbic acid and citric acid

diamond and graphite which are pure carbon.

226
Introduction to organic chemistry Organic compounds

The atomic number of carbon is 6. A carbon atom therefore has six electrons
and has an electronic configuration of C (2,4). The shell diagram of a carbon
atom is shown in Figure 13.1.1.
Looking at the electron structure, a carbon atom has four valence electrons.
This means that carbon can share four electrons with other atoms, i.e. it
can form four covalent bonds with other atoms. These other atoms include
12
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and the halogens. carbon, C

It is important to note that not all carbon-containing compounds are organic A figure 13.1.1 Electron structure of
carbon
compounds. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, metal carbonates and metal
hydrogencarbonates are classified as inorganic compounds.

Did you know?

Bonding in organic compounds Carbon is the sixteenth most

abundant element in the Earth's

As a result of carbon having four valence electrons, carbon atoms can bond crust and the sixth most abundant
with other carbon atoms in an almost unlimited way. Because of this, a element by mass in the Universe
vast number of different organic compounds exist compared to inorganic after hydrogen, helium, oxygen,
compounds. The simplest ofthese is methane (CH4). Ifwe look at the methane neon and nitrogen. It is present in

molecule in the ball and stick model in Figure 13.1.2, we can see that carbon all forms of life and is the second
is bonded to four hydrogen atoms arranged in a tetrahedron around it. The
most abundant element by mass in

bond angle between covalent bonds is 109.50. thehuman body after oxygen.

Organic molecules, therefore, have very distinctive three-dimensional

structures.

When carbon atoms bond with each other a variety of structures can form.

Single bonds
A Figure 13.1.2 Ball and stick model of
Single bonds can form between adjacent carbon atoms. In a single bond, methane
a carbon atom shares one pair of electrons with another carbon atom. This
leaves three other electrons per carbon atom available for bonding with
other atoms. For example, ethane (C2H6) has a single bond between the two
carbon atoms, represented by the single line:

or H c

ethane (C2H6)

Organic compounds containing only single bonds between adjacent carbon

atoms are known as saturated compounds.

Double bonds

Double bonds can form between adjacent carbon atoms. In a double bond,
a carbon atom shares two pairs of electrons with another carbon atom. This
leaves two other electrons per carbon atom available for bonding with other
atoms. For example, ethene (C2H4) has a double bond between two carbon
atoms, represented by two lines:

227
 Organic compounds Introduction to organic chemistry

or c=c

ethene (C2H4)

Organic compounds containing one or more double bonds between adjacent

carbon atoms are known as unsaturated compounds.

Unbranched chains
Unbranched chains of carbon atoms of different lengths can form. For
example, butane (C4H1()) is an unbranched chain of four carbon atoms with
single bonds between adjacent atoms:

H—C—C—C—C—H

butane (CAHIO)

Branched chains
Branched chains of carbon atoms of different lengths can form. For example,
methylpropane (C4H10) is a chain of three carbon atoms with the fourth
carbon atom branching off from the middle atom of the chain:

H—C—C—C—H

methylpropane (CAH 10)

Rings
Rings of carbon atoms can form. For example, cyclohexane (C6H12) is a ring
of six carbon atoms:

cyclohexane (C6H12)

The ability of carbon atoms to form covalent bonds with other carbon atoms
forming long chains and rings of carbon atoms is known as catenation.

It is important to note that, with the exception of the ball and stick models,
the drawings above show each molecule in two-dimensions only.

Functional groups
Organic compounds contain one or more functional groups. A functional
group is a particular atom, a particular group of atoms, or a particular bond
between two carbon atoms within the molecule. The functional group
determines the chemical properties of the compound containing it. Organic
228
Introduction to organic chemistry Organic compounds

compounds are classified into groups known as homologous series based V Table 13.1.1 Functional groups
on the functional group that they contain (see Unit 13.2). Some of the Name of Structure of
functional groups we will be studying are given in Table 13.1.1. functional group functional group

carborrcarbon
The simplest organic compounds that you will be studying can be thought of single bond —c—c—
as being composed of two parts:
the hydrocarbon part which is composed of carbon and hydrogen carbon-carbon
atoms only. double bond c=c
e the functional group.
hydroxyl group

— OH
Formulae of organic compounds
carboxyl group o
The formulae of organic compounds can be written in a variety of different
—c
ways. Using butanoic acid as an example, the most common methods are:
e The molecular formula. This shows the actual number of atoms of
each element in one molecule of the compound. The molecular formula or —COOH
for butanoic acid is C4H802. Molecular formulae have a limited use in
ester group o
organic chemistry since they don't give any information about how the
atoms are joined within the molecule. —c—o—
The fully displayed structural formula. This shows in two-dimensional or —coo—
diagrammatic form how the atoms are arranged in one molecule of the
compound (Figure 13.1.3).
The fully displayed formula has the limitation that it is a two-dimensional
H—C—C—C—C
drawing ofa three-dimensional molecule, i.e. the molecule is straightened
out and flattened. The ball and stick model in Figure 13.1.4 represents
the actual molecule in three-dimensions. However, you would not be A Figure 13.1.3 Fully displayed structural
required to draw this. formula of butanoic acid

e The condensed structural formula. This shows the sequence and

arrangement of atoms in one molecule of the compound in such a way
that the nature and position of attachment of the functional group is
shown without actually drawing the molecule. Each carbon atom is
written separately and in sequence, followed by the other atoms that are
bonded to it. The condensed structural formula for butanoic acid is: b
CH3CH2CH2COOH A Figure 13.1.4 Ball and stick model of
butanoic acid
Thismay be shortened further by showing the total number of carbon
atoms and total number of hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbon part of
the molecule, i.e.

C3H7COOH

Summary questions
1 How many bonds can a carbon atom form with other atoms?
2 What is a hydrocarbon?
3 What is the difference between a saturated and an unsaturated organic
compound?
4 What is a functional group?
5 Give the condensed structural formula
and molecular formula of this
H C c c c
compound:
 Homologous series Introduction to organic chemistry

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: We can classify compounds into groups based on the functional group which
they contain. These groups are known as homologous series.
define the term homologous
series
list the general characteristics
Characteristics of a homologous series
of a homologous series The characteristics of a homologous series are given below.
write the general formula of a All members of the series have the same functional group.
given homologous series
Allmembers of the series can be represented by the same general formula.
write the formulae for members
of a given homologous series
Each member of the series differs from the member before or after it by a
name straight chain members —CH. group and by relative molecular mass of 14.
of the common homologous All members of a series possess similar chemical properties. Reactivity
series decreases as molar mass increases, i.e. as the number of carbon atoms per

determine the homologous molecule increases.

series to which a compound All members of a series show a gradual change in their physical
belongs from its name or properties as their molar mass increases. In general, as molar mass
formula
increases, melting point, boiling point and density increase.
define structural isomer and
All members of a homologous series can be prepared by the same general
structural isomerism
method.
explain how structural isomers
can be formed
name branched chain isomers. Naming straight chain members of a homologous series
Because of the great variety of organic compounds, a set of rules for naming
these compounds has been developed by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The process of naming chemical compounds
Key fact is known as chemical nomenclature. The main function of chemical

nomenclature is to ensure that when a person reads a chemical name there

A homologous series is a group is no ambiguity as to which chemical compound it refers.
of organic compounds that all

possess the same functional group. The names of straight chain members of a homologous series consist of
two parts:
o The first part, or prefix, is related to the total number ofcarbon atoms
present in one molecule. Table 13.2.1 gives the prefixes for organic
compounds up to ten carbon atoms.
The second part which is based on the homologous series to which the
compound belongs and relates to the functional group present. For example,
if the compound belongs to the alkane series, its name ends in '-ane'.

Total number of carbon atoms Prefix

meth-

2 eth-

3 prop-

4 but-

5 pent-

6 hex-

7 hept-

8
9 non-
Table 13.2.1 Prefixes for naming
10 dec-
organic compounds
Table 13.2.2 gives the main homologous series you will be studying, together
with an example of a member of each series containing two carbon atoms.
230
Introduction to organic chemistry Homologous series

V Table 13.2.2 The main homologous series

Name of Example
General Functional group Condensed
homologous Naming containing two Structural formula
formula present formula
series carbon atoms
Alkane carbon-carbon single bond prefix + ane ethane
n 20+2 CH3CH3
or
—c—c— C2H6
H—C

Alkene CnH&1 carbon-carbon double bond prefix + ene e then e CH2 =CH2
or

C2H4

Alcohol or CnH20+10H hydroxyl group prefix + anol ethanol

CH3CH20H
alkanol
or
H c c
OH ) C2H50H

Alkanoic acid or CnH20+lCOOH carboxyl group prefix + anoic acid ethanoic acid CHOCOOH
carboxylic acid

—c H—C—C

(—COOH)

Determining homologous series

The homologous series that a compound belongs to can be determined if
you are given the name of the compound or its formula. You can also work
out the formula of a compound if you have been given its name or you can
deduce its name if you have been given its formula.

Examples
To determine the homologous series that a compound belongs to from the
name, look at the second part of the name. For example, if the second
part of the name is '-ene' then the compound belongs to the alkene
series.

To work out the formula of the compound from the name, first
determine the homologous series to which it belongs and then look at
the prefix of the name. For example, if the name of the compound is
butane then it belongs to the alkane series. Its prefix is 'but-' so it has four
carbon atoms. The general formula of an alkane is CnH2n+2. The formula
of butane must be C4H1().
To determine the homologous series that a compound belongs to from the
formula, look and see what functional group is present. For example, if Exam tip
the functional group present is the —O —
H group, then the compound
belongs to the alcohol series. It is very important that you

can work out the formula of a

e To determine the name of the compound from the formula, first
compound if you have been given
determine the homologous series to which the compound belongs
its name or that you can deduce
and then look at the total number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
the name of a compound if you
For example, if the formula of the compound is C2H5COOH then it
have been given the formula. To do
belongs to the alkanoic acid series so the second part of the name
either of these, you must be able to
must be '-anoic acid'. It has a total of three carbon atoms in the identify the homologous series to
molecule so the prefix must be 'prop-'. The name of the compound is
which the compound belongs.
propanoic acid.
231
 Homologous series Introduction to organic chemistry

Structural isomers
Key fact Many compounds have the same molecular formula but different
organic
i.e. their molecules contain the same number of atoms
structural formulae,
Structural isomers are
of each element, but these atoms are bonded together differently. These
compounds which have the same
molecular formula but different compounds are called structural isomers and this phenomenon is called
structural formulae.
structural isomerism.

Structural isomers can belong to the same homologous series or to different

homologous series.
Key fact • contain the same functional group they must belong to the same
If they

homologous series. Because they have the same functional group, they
Structural isomerism is the have very similar chemical properties, however, because their atoms are
occurrence of or more organic bonded differently they have different physical properties.
compounds with the same
molecular formula but different • If they contain different functional groups they belong to different
structural formulae.
homologous series. Because of this they have different chemical and
physical properties.
Each different structural isomer has a different name.
can be formed in two ways,
Structural isomers of straight chain molecules
by the chain of carbon atoms becoming branched or by the position of the
functional group changing.

Forming isomers by branching

Carbon chains can have side branches of one or more carbon atoms. For
example, pentane (C5H12) has three isomers, one of which is the straight
chain isomer and two of which are formed by branching of the carbon chain
as shown in Figure 13.2.1. The condensed structural formula of each isomer
is given below the isomer.

H H H H H

H—C—C C H—C C
H H H H H
H H H H H H
H—C—C C c

H H H H H
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
Figure 13.2.1 Isomers of pentane Straight chain isomer Branched chain isomers

It isimportant to note that when drawing the structural formula of an

organic compound, the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms is
always drawn horizontally. Care must also be taken not to draw bent or
twisted versions of the straight chain isomer. For example, the following
is a bent version of the straight chain isomer of pentane and, therefore, is
incorrect:

CH3—CH2 —CH2 —CH2

CH3

Forming isomers by changing the position of the functional group

The functional group is usually situated at the right-hand end ofthemolecule.
However, the position of the functional group can change.
232
Introduction to organic chemistry Homologous series

Examples
Butene (C4H8) has two isomers because the position of the carbon-carbon
double bond can change as shown in Figure 13.2.2.

H—C—C—C=C H—C—C C

figure 13.2.2 Isomers of butene

When drawing the structural formulae of alkenes, the carbon-carbon double

bond is always drawn horizontally. You will learn more about the isomers of
alkenes in Unit 14.2. H—C—C—C C

Butanol (C4H90H) has two isomers because the position of the hydroxyl
group (—0H) can change as shown in Figure 13.2.3.

H—C—C C
Naming branched chain isomers H H
The side chains which branch off from the longest chain of carbon atoms in a
molecule are known as alkyl groups. These groups have the general formula
CnH2n+1. Alkyl groups are named by adding the suffix '-YI' to the prefix. A Figure 13.2.3 Isomers of butanol

The name of a branched chain molecule is made up of three parts: V Table 13.2.3 Naming alkyl groups
the first part indicates the number of the carbon atom to which the side
Formula of the Name
chain is attached
alkylgroup
e the second part is the name of the side chain, i.e. the alkyl group — CH3 methyl

e the third part is derived from the homologous series to which the — C2H5 ethyl

compound belongs and the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms. propyl

To name branched chain molecules, therefore, the following four steps

should be used.

1) Find the number of the carbon atom to which the side chain is

attached.

2) Determine the name of the side chain.

3) Determine the homologous series to which the compound belongs

and the total number of carbon atoms in the longest continuous
carbon chain.

4) Put the information from steps 1) to 3) together to name the compound,

separating the number from the name by a hyphen.

Examples
1 Determine the name of the following branched chain isomer of C5H12.

H C—C——C—C—H

H—C—H

233
 Homologous series Introduction to organic chemistry

1) Find the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in the structure.

Number the carbon atoms from the end closest to the side chain so
that the side chain is at the lowest number:

H c c

H H

The side chain is attached to carbon atom number 2.

2) The side chain is an alkyl group with one carbon atom. It is the
methyl group.
3) The compound has only carbon-carbon single bonds. Therefore, it
belongs to the alkane series.

The longest continuous carbon chain has [our carbon atoms in it. Its

name is, therefore, butane.

4) The name of the compound is 2-methylbutane.

2 Determine the name of the following branched chain isomer of C6H14.

H H H H
H—C—C—C

1) Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous carbon chain so

that the side chains are at the lowest numbers:

H c

There are two side chains. One is attached to carbon atom number 2
and one is attached to carbon atom number 3. When writing the name
we write 2,3- because both side chains are the same, i.e. CH3.

2) Both side chains are alkyl groups with one carbon atom. They are both
the methyl group and because there are two of them we use the prefix
'di-', i.e. we write dimethyl.
234
Introduction to organic chemistry Homologous series

3) The compound has only carbon-carbon single bonds. Therefore, it

belongs to the alkane series.

The longest continuous carbon chain has four carbon atoms in it. Its

name is, therefore, butane.

4) The name of the compound is 2,3-dimethylbutane.

3 Determine the name of the followingbranched chain isomer of C4H8.

H—C— —C

1) Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous carbon chain so

that the side chain is at the lowest number:

H—C C

The side chain is attached to carbon atom number 2.

2) The side chain is an alkyl group with one carbon atom. It is the methyl
group.

3) The compound has a carbon-carbon double bond; therefore, it belongs

to the alkene series.

The longest continuous carbon chain has three carbon atoms in it. Its

name is, therefore, propene.

4) The name of the compound is 2-methylpropene.
Other examples are given below:

H H

H—C—C—C c

CH3--CHr-CH2-- CH —CH2--CH3

CH2

CH3
3-ethylhexane

2,2,3-trimethylpentane

235
 Homologous series Introduction to organic chemistry

Summary questions
1 Give four characteristics of a homologous series.

2 Give the name and condensed formula of each of the following straight chain isomers:
a an alcohol with one carbon atom b an alkene with four carbon atoms
c an alkanoic acid with three carbon atoms d an alkane with two carbon atoms.
3 Name the following compounds:
a C3H6 b C4H90H c CH4 d C2H5COOH
4 Define structural isomerism.
5 Name the following isomers: a H H H H H CH3
H—C—C C C CPL—
H H H H CH3

6 Draw the structural formula of 2,3-dimethylhexane.

Key concepts
Organic chemistry is the study of organic compounds.
All organic compounds contain carbon. Most also contain hydrogen and
many contain oxygen.
A carbon atom can form four covalent bonds with other atoms.
Carbon atoms have the ability to form single and double bonds with
other carbon atoms. They can also form straight chains, branched chains
and ringed structures.
A functional group is a particular atom, a particular group of atoms or a
particular bond between two carbon atoms within the molecule.
The functional group determines the chemical properties of the
compound containing it.
An organic compound can be represented by a molecular formula, a fully
displayed structural formula or a condensed structural formula.
Organic compounds are classified into groups known as homologous
series based on the functional group that they contain.

Members of a homologous series all possess the same functional group,

can all be represented by the same general formula and have certain
other common characteristics.
The names of straight chain members of a homologous series consist of
two parts, the first part, or prefix, which is related to the total number
of carbon atoms in the molecule and the second part which is related to
the functional group.
Structural isomerism is the occurrence of two or more organic

compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural

formulae. The compounds are known as structural isomers.
Structural isomers of straight chain molecules can be formed in two
ways, by the chain of carbon atoms becoming branched or by the
position of the functional group changing.
Each different structural isomer has a different name.
236
Introduction to organic chemistry Practice exam-style questions

6 A compound has the formula C3H7COOH. The name of

Practice exam-style questions the compound is:
A ethanoic acid
Multiple-choice questions B propanoic acid
1 Members of a homologous series: C propanol
I have similar chemical properties
D butanoic acid
II have the same molecular formula
7 Which of the following is the correct formula of
Ill differ from succeeding members by CH2
pentanol?
A land II only A CsH100H
B land Ill only B CsHllOH
C II and Ill only C CsH120H
D 1, 11 and 111 D CsH130H
2 To which homologous series does C4H8 belong?
A alkanes 8 What is the name of the following isomer?
B alkenes CH3
C alcohols
D alkanoic acid CH3— CH—C —CH3
3 Isomers always: CH3 CH3
A have the same functional group
B have similar chemical properties
A 2,2,3-trimethylbutane
C have similar physical properties B 2,3,3-trimethylbutane
D have different structural formulae C 2,3,3-trimethylheptane
D 2,2,3-trimethylheptane
4 Which of the following formulae do not represent
isomers?

1 11 Structured question

9 a The fully displayed structural formulae of five organic

H H compounds are given below:
H—C C H c H H

H H H H—C—C—C=C

111

H—C—C
H H

H—C C

H H H

H H H—C—C—C C c
A land II

B land 111
C 11 and 111
D 111 and
Which compounds belong to the same
i)
5 The general formula of an alkane is: homologous series? (1 mark)
A cnH2n ii) Name the homologous series to which the
BCH n 2n+I compounds you named in a i) belong and give a
n 2n+2 reason for placing them in the same series.
DC H n 211+3 (2 marks)

237
 Practice exam-style questions Introduction to organic chemistry

iii) Give the names of compounds B and D.

(2 marks)
iv) Give the name and fully displayed structural
formula of the compound which has FOUR
its molecule and belongs to the
carbon atoms in
same homologous series as compound D.
(2 marks)
v) Draw the fully displayed structures of any TWO
isomers of compound E. Give the name of EACH
isomer you have drawn. (4 marks)
b Name the homologous series to which EACH of the
following organic compounds belongs and draw
the fully displayed structural formula of EACH
compound:
i) propene
ii) 2,2-dimethylpentane. (4 marks)
Total 15 marks

Extended response question

10 a Explain fully how the electronic configuration of
the carbon atom, IEC, can account for the fact that
carbon can form such a wide variety of organic
compounds. (5 marks)
b Organic compounds can be classified into
homologous series.
i) List FOUR characteristics of a homologous series.
(4 marks)
ii) A compound has the formula C2HsCOOH
To which homologous series does the
compound belong?
Give the name of the compound. (2 marks)

c i) What do you understand by the term 'structural

isomerism'? (2 marks)
ii) Explain why structural isomers of members of
the same homologous series have very similar
chemical properties, but they have different
physical properties. (2 marks)
Total 15 marks

238
 Hydrocarbons - alkanes
and alkenes
Objectives
By the end of this topic you will entirely of carbon and hydrogen. The majority of
be able to:
hydrocarbons are naturally formed by the decomposition
identify natural gas and of dead marine organisms under the effects of high
petroleum as natural sources of
pressures, heat and bacteria deep under the sea,
hydrocarbons
describe the fractional converting them into oily liquids or gases. Hydrocarbons
distillation of petroleum
are one of the most important energy sources on Earth.
list the main uses of the
fractions obtained from
the fractional distillation of B14.1 Sources and extraction of hydrocarbons
petroleum
describe the thermal and Sources of hydrocarbons
catalytic cracking of alkanes.
Ilydrocarbons are organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen
atoms only. They include the alkanes, the alkenes and the ringed
hydrocarbons. Naturally occurring hydrocarbons are extracted from deep
under the Earth's surface where they exist in both the liquid form, known as
petroleum, or crude oil, and the gaseous form, known as natural gas.

Natural gas
drilling rig
Natural gas is a mixture of four alkanes: methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6),
impervious rock
propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10). Methane makes up about 80%
natural gas
of natural gas and the other three hydrocarbons make up 20%. The
petroleum
water propane and butane are removed before natural gas is sold commercially.
impervious rock Commercial natural gas, therefore, is a mixture of methane and
ethane. This natural gas can then be used to generate electricity, it
A Figure 14.1.1 Diagram showing the
can be piped to homes and used for cooking and heating, or it can be
occurrence of petroleum and natural gas
under the surface of the Earth liquefied under pressure to produce liquefied natural gas, or LNG. LNG
is used in place of petrol in vehicles in some countries, e.g. Germany.

After removal, the propane and butane are also liquefied under pressure
and used to produce liquefied petroleum gas, or LPG. LPG is also known as
'bottled gas' and many of you use it for cooking.

Petroleum
Did you know? Petroleum is an oily liquid which is a complex mixture of many

hydrocarbons, mainly alkanes and ringed hydrocarbons. The smallest

Petroleum is a finite, non-
gaseous hydrocarbons and the largest solid hydrocarbons are dissolved in
renewable resource and once all
the oily liquid. The mixture can contain hydrocarbons with as many as 70
the existing supplies within the
Earth's crust have been used they or more carbon atoms in their molecules. To be useful, petroleum must be
will not be replaced. separated into its different components, or fractions, as they are called. This
is done by fractional distillation at an oil refinery.

Fractional distillation of petroleum

When it is first removed from under the ground, petroleum contains many
impurities. Before it can be separated into its components, these impurities

have to be removed. Once the impurities have been removed, the petroleum
is heated to about 400 oc and the liquid and vapour produced are piped into

the lower part of a fractionating tower. The fraction which remains as a

239
 Sources and extraction of hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes

viscous liquid at 400 oc sinks to the bottom of the tower and is tapped off
bubble caps
bottled gas forming bitumen or asphalt.
25 oc and chemicals
The vapours rise up the tower and pass through a series of bubble caps and
—petrol (gasoline) trays. The temperature of the tower decreases upwards. The vapours of the

tray petrol
larger hydrocarbons with the higher boiling points condense on the bubble
caps in the lower part of the tower, and those of the smaller hydrocarbons
kerosene oil (paraffin) with the lower boiling points rise further and condense at higher levels. The
jet fuel
produced are tapped off from the trays at the different levels in the
liquids
tower. Gases thatdo not condense at the temperatures within the tower are
Oil
removed as refinery gas at the top of the tower.
diesel fuel
Each fraction is a mixture of hydrocarbons of similar molecular size and
heated —fuel oil, lubricating boiling points within a specific temperature range as shown in Table 14.1.1.
crude and waxes
oil
oil
Petrol tapped off from the top trays, kerosene and diesel oil are tapped
is

400 oc off from the middle trays and fuel oil, lubricating oil and waxes are tapped
fuel for ships off from the lower trays.
bitumen
Table 14.1.1 summarises the fractions which are obtained by fractional
distillation of petroleum and some of their uses.
roads and roofing Figure 14.1.2 Fractional distillation of petroleum

V Table 14.1.1 Uses of the different fractions obtained from petroleum

Name of fraction Boiling Number of Uses

point/0C carbon atoms

Refinery gas below 25 Fuel for domestic use, e.g. cooking and heating. To manufacture a variety of petrochemicals.

Petrol (gasdine) 25-170 5—10 Fuel for internal combustion engines, e.g. cars and light aircraft. As solvents.

Kerosene oil (paraffin oil) 170-250 10—14 Fuel for cooking, heating, kerosene lamps and jet engines. Cracked into smaller hydrocarbons.

Diesel oil 250—350 14—20 Fuel for diesel engines, e.g. cars, lorries, buses, trains, trucks and generators.
Cracked into smaller hydrocarbons.

Fuel oil, lubricating oil 350-400 18-30 Fuel oils are used as fuel for factory boilers, ships and power stations.
and waxes Lubricating oils are used to lubricate mechanical parts in machirery and vehicles.

Waxes are used to make polishing waxes, wax paper, petroleum jelly and candles.

Bitumen above 400 more than 30 Road surfacing. Roofirg.

Cracking hydrocarbons
9 Did you know? When petroleum is fractionally distilled into its different fractions, two
The Pitch Lake in Trinidad is the problems arise.
largest natural deposit of asphalt in the The fractions which contain the smaller hydrocarbon molecules,
world. Located in south-west Trinidad, e.g. petrol, are in much greater demand in today's world than the fractions
the lake covers about 40 hectares and containing the larger hydrocarbon molecules, e.g. diesel oil. However, the
is OVff 75 m deep. The lake serves distillation of petroleum produces an excess of the larger hydrocarbons
a tourist attraction and is also mined and insufficient of the smaller ones to meet modern demands.
for its asphalt. Sir Walter Raleigh was
Most of the hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum have only carbon-
introduced to the lake by Arnerindian
carbon single bonds in their molecules and, apart from burning in air to
guides in 1595 and he immediately
release energy, they are fairly unreactive. To be used in the petrochemical
recognised its potential and started

caulking his ships with the tar. industry to manufacture the great variety of other organic compounds
that we use every day, they need to be converted into more reactive
compounds which have carbon-carbon double bonds.
Key fact Both these problems can be overcome by breaking down the larger
hydrocarbon molecules into smaller, more useful molecules by a process
Cracking is the process by which known as cracking.
long-chain hydrocarbons are broken
Cracking can be carried out in one of two ways, thermal cracking and
down into shorter-chain hydrocarbons.
catalytic cracking.
240
Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes Sources and extraction of hydrocarbons

Themal cracking
During thermal cracking temperatures of above 700 oc and pressures up to 70 atmospheres are used to break the
larger alkanes into smaller ones. Under these conditions, the long-chain alkane molecules vibrate strongly enough
to break. Thermal cracking of an alkane molecule always forms a shorter-chain alkane and at least one alkene. The
molecules are broken up in a fairly random way so thermal cracking always gives a mixture of products containing
a fairly high proportion of alkene molecules. For example, octane (C8H18) can be cracked in a variety of different
ways, three of these are illustrated in Figure 14.1.3.

H—C—C—C—C—C—C C H c H—C—C=C
H H
octane pentane propene
csH12 C3H6
H H H H H

H—C—C—C—C—C—C C H—C C C H—C—C—C=C

H H H
octane butane butene
C4H10 C4H8
H H

H—C—C—C—C—C—C C H c H—C—C=C c=c

octane propane propene ethene

cgH8 C3H6 C2H4
A Figure 14.1.3 Thermal cracking of octane

Catalytic cracking
During catalytic cracking the long-chain alkanes are heated to temperatures
of about 500 oc at fairly low pressures in the presence of a catalyst. The
catalysts are normally synthetic mixtures of aluminium oxide and silicon
dioxide known as zeolites. Catalytic cracking is the most important source
of petrol and raw materials for the petrochemical industry.

Natural gas and oil in the Caribbean

The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is the leading Caribbean producer of
oil and natural gas, with these accounting for about 40% of gross domestic
product and a large percentage of exports.
A figure 14.1.4 Pointe-å-Pierre oil
The oil refinery in Trinidad is found at Pointe-ä-Pierre and accounts for
refinery
most of the prosperity of the region. All the natural gas produced is used
domestically. More than two-thirds of it is piped to methanol, urea and
ammonia plants and to the electricity sector. ? Did you know?
The the
Summary questions only
Pointe-å-Pierre
oil refinery in the
oil refinery is
world to co-exist
1 Name two natural sources of hydrocarbons. with a wildlife reserve. The Pointe-
å-Pierre Wild Fowl Trust is a not-for-
2 List the main uses of three of the fractions obtained from the fractional
profit environmental organisation
distillation of petroleum. dedicated to environmental education
3 Describe what is meant by 'cracking' and distinguish between thermal and conservation of wetlands and
cracking and catalytic cracking of alkanes. waterfowl. It consists of two lakes

4 Give the formulae and names of two products which could be obtained
and about 25 hectares of land within
the oil refinery.
by cracking pentane (C5H12).

241
 Alkanes: C n H 2n+2 Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Alkanes form a homologous series with the general formula Cn H 2n+ 2•

give the names and structural Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. This means that they contain only
formulae of unbranched and single bonds between carbon atoms. Alkanes are relativelyunreactive because

branched alkanes up to six of the strong carbon-carbon single bonds and carbon-hydrogen bonds in
carbon atoms the molecules.
relate the reactivity of alkanes Alkanes are named by using the prefix which indicates the total number of
to the presence of single bonds carbon atoms in the molecule and the suffix '-ane'. The first three alkanes in
describe the combustion the series do not show structural isomerism. Their names and formulae are
reaction of alkanes given in Figure 14.2.1.
describe substitution reactions
of alkanes with halogens
explain why alkanes undergo H—C—C—H H—C—C—C—H
substitution reactions
relate the uses of alkanes to methane (CHA) ethane (C2H6) propane (C3H8)
their properties
A Figure 14.2.1 Structural formulae of the first three alkanes
describe the production of
biogas. Alkanes with four or more carbon atoms show structural isomerism resulting
from their ability to form branched chains. Following steps 1) to 4) on
page 233 for naming branched chain isomers, Figures 14.2.2, 14.2.3 and
14.2.4 show the names and structural formulae of the isomers of butane
(C4H10), pentane (C5H12) and hexane (C6H14).
H—C—C—C—C—C—I

pentane

H—C C c H—C—C—C—H
H H H H H
H H butane 2-methylpropane

H—C—C—C—C— A Figure 14.2.2 The structural isomers of butane (C4H10)

2-methylbutane
H H H H H H H H

H—C—C—C—C C H c c c

H H H H
H—C C hexane 2-methylpentane

H H H H H
2 a-dimethylpropane
H H H—C—C C H—C C c
A Figure 14.2.3 The structural isomers of
H H H
pentane (C5H12) H—C—C C c

Figure 14.2.4 The structural isomers of

hexane (C6H14)
3-methylpentane 2,2-dimethylbutane 2,3-dimethylbutane

The melting and boiling points of the alkanes increasewith an increase in the
size ofthe molecules, i.e. with an increase in molar mass. The first four alkanes,
methane, ethane, propane and butane, are gases at room temperature.
242
Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes Alkanes: C n H 2n+2

Alkanes with 5 to 16 carbon atoms in their molecules are liquids, while those
with 17 or more carbon atoms are solids. Alkanes become less volatile as their Did you know?
molecular size increases.
The prefix 'normal' or 'n-' is
Alkanes are relatively unreactive and only undergo a few types of reaction, sometimes used before the
namely combustion, substitution and cracking. The cracking of alkanes was name when naming the straight
described in Unit 14.1. We will now look at the other two reactions. chain isomers. The straight chain
isomer of butane is sometimes
called normal butane or n-butane.
Combustion reactions of alkanes
Similarly, the straight chain isomer
Alkanes burn very easily in air or oxygen. The reaction is exothermic producing of pentane can be called normal
large amounts of heat energy, which is why alkanes are used extensively as pentane or n-pentane.
fuels. The products of the combustion reaction vary depending on the
oxygen supply. If the oxygen supply is plentiful, they undergo complete
combustion, limited, they undergo incomplete combustion.
if it is
Exam tip
When alkanes burn they do so with a clear blue flame because the ratio of
carbon to hydrogen atoms in the molecules is low. All the carbon is therefore It is important that you can give the
converted to carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide and no unreacted carbon fully displayed structural formulae
and names of unbranched and
remains to give the flame a yellow, smoky appearance. The flame, therefore,
branched chain isomers of any
has a very low soot content. Alkanes are regarded as clean burning fuels.
alkane containing up to six carbon

Complete combustion of alkanes atoms if you are given its molecular

formula.
When the oxygen supply alkanes burn completely, i.e. they
is plentiful,
undergo complete combustion. The products of the complete combustion
of alkanes are always carbon dioxide and water as steam. The complete
combustion of methane and ethane is shown in the following equations:
Exam tip

CH4(g) + 202(g) C02(g) + 2H20(g) AH-ve Balancing the combustion

reactions of alkanes can be difficult.
2C2H6(g) + 702(g) 4C02(g) + 6H20(g) All-ve
Begin by balancing the carbon

Incomplete combustion of alkanes atoms followed by the hydrogen

atoms. Leave the oxygen atoms
When the oxygen supply is limited, alkanes undergo incomplete until last. After balancing the carbon

combustion. The products of the incomplete combustion of alkanes are and the hydrogen, if you find that
carbon monoxide and water as steam. The incomplete combustion of you have an odd number of oxygen
methane is shown in the following equation: atoms on the right, multiply each
coefficient (including the unwritten
2CH4(g) + 302(g) 2CO(g) + 4H20(g) AH-ve 1) by 2, before balancing the
oxygen.
Substitution reactions of alkanes
Under the right conditions, alkanes can react with halogens. In alkane
molecules, the carbon atoms are bonded to the maximum number of
hydrogen atoms possible. When a reaction occurs between an alkane and a
halogen, the hydrogen atoms are replaced by halogen atoms. These reactions
are known as substitution reactions because halogen atoms take the place
of the hydrogen atoms in the alkane molecules, one hydrogen atom at a
time. They can also be called halogenation.

Energy in the form of light is required for the reactions to occur. Ultraviolet
light works the best, but often sunlight is sufficient. A substitution reaction
takes place in stages and the speed of the reaction depends on three factors.
e Light intensity- the brighter the light, the faster the reaction.
The reactivity of the halogen - the more reactive the halogen, the faster
the reaction. Fluorine, being the most reactive halogen, has the most
rapid reaction. Iodine does not react with alkanes to any extent.
The reactivity of the alkane- the smallerthe alkane molecule, the faster the
243
 Alkanes: C n H 2n+2 Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes

reaction. Methane, being the smallest molecule, has the most rapid reaction.

This is seen in the reaction between methane and chlorine.

No reaction occurs in the dark. In bright light the reaction is rapid. In dim
light a slow substitution reaction occurs in stages, one hydrogen atom being
replacedby one chlorine atom at a time. The first stage of the reaction
produces chloromethane and hydrogen chloride gas:
Cl
UV light

methane chlorine monochloromethane hydrogen

chloride

or

UV light
CH4(g) + C12(g) CH3C1(g) + HC1(g)

As the reaction continues, the hydrogen atoms are replaced one by one until
tetrachloromethane (CC14) is produced:

UV light
CH3C1(g) + C12(g) CH2C12(1) + HC1(g)
dichloromethane

UV light
CH2C12(1) + C12(g) CHC13(1) + HC1(g)
trichloromethane

9 Did you know? UV light

CHC13(1) + C12(g) CC14(1) + HCl(g)
Trichloromethane (or chloroform) tetrachloromethane
and tetrachloromethane (or
carbon tetrachloride) are both
The overall reaction can be summarised by the following equation:
volatile, 'sweet' smelling liquids.
At one time, trichloromethane was UV light
used a general anaesthetic CH4(g) + 4C12(g) CC14(1) + 4HC1(g)
because the vapours depress
the nervous system, and The products of the halogenations of alkanes are called haloalkanes or alkyl
tetrachloromethane was used halides.
in fire extinguishers and as a
The reaction of bromine vapour or bromine solution with methane is similar,
solvent in dry cleaning. Their uses
were discontinued when it was
but since bromine is less reactive than chlorine, the reaction proceeds more
discovered how toxic they both slowly. Once again, energy in the form of ultraviolet light is required for the
were. reaction to proceed.

During the reaction between bromine and any alkane, the colour of the
bromine slowly fades from red-brown to colourless. The first step in the reaction
between ethane and bromine is shown in the equation below:

UV light
H—Br

ethane bromine monobromoethane hydrogen

bromide

244
Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes Alkanes: C n H 2n+2

Uses of alkanes
Because of their properties, alkanes have a variety of uses. The main uses of
alkanes, related to their properties, are given below.
e Alkanes are used as fuels for several reasons:
- they burn easily when ignited
- they release a large amount of energy when they undergo combustion,
i.e. the combustion of an alkane is an exothermic reaction

- they are clean burning fuels, i.e. they burn with a clear blue flame
which has a very low soot content
- they are stored easily as liquids in containers, which makes them easy
to transport.
Alkanes are used as solvents. Alkanes are non-polar molecules therefore
they dissolve a variety of other non-polar solutes. For example, hexane
and heptane are used as solvents in the manufacture of fast-drying
lacquers, glues and other adhesives, petroleum jelly is oil dissolved in
paraffin wax, a solid alkane.

Biogas production
Biogas refers to a gas produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the
absence of oxygen. It is a renewable energy source which can be produced
from any organic matter including manure and other farmyard animal waste,
crop residues, sewage, garden waste, food waste and organic waste from food
industries.

The organic waste put into a sealed anaerobic digester where naturally
is

occurring anaerobic microorganisms, e.g. bacteria, digest it in the absence of

oxygen into biogas. Biogas is a mixture of approximately 60% methane, 40%
carbon dioxide and traces of other contaminant gases such as hydrogen sulfide.
The exact composition depends on the nature of the original organic matter. Summary questions
Biogas can be used directly as a fuel to provide heat and generate electricity 1 Give the names and fully
or can be converted to almost pure methane, often called biomethane,
it
displayed structural formulae
by removal of the other gases. This biomethane can then be piped to homes of three isomers of hexane.
with natural gas or liquefied under pressure to produce liquefied natural gas
2 Write a balanced equation
(LNG) for use in vehicles designed to run on LNG.
toshow the complete
The leftover indigestible material and dead microorganisms, known as combustion of butane.
digestate, canthen be used as a fertiliser. The production of biogas reduces
3 Propane reacts with chlorine
demands on non-renewable fossil fuels, recycles soil nutrients and reduces
the amount of waste going to garbage dumps and landfills. gas.
a What condition is

necessary for the reaction

to occur?

slurry and manure

power
b What is the name given to
gas grid this type of reaction?
anaerobic biomethane
C Use structural formulae to
biogas
digester show the first step in the
food and reaction.
amenity waste
d Name the products of the
first step in the reaction.
transport fuel
digestate
crops and residues 4 Explain why the main use of
heat
alkanes is as fuels.
A Figure 14.2.5 Production of biogas

245
 Alkenes: Cn H2n Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes

Objectives n 2n
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Alkenes form a homologous series with the general formula

recognise alkenes by the Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons. They contain one double bond
presence of a carbon—carbon between two carbon atoms, i.e. their functional group is the carbon—carbon
double bond double bond:
give the names and structural c=c
formulae of unbranched
alkenes up to six carbon atoms Alkenes are named by using the prefix which indicates the total number of
relate the reactivity of alkenes carbon atoms in the molecule and the suffix '-ene'. The first two alkenes in
to the presence of a carbon— the series do not show structural isomerism. Their names and formulae are
carbon double bond given in Figure 14.3.1.
describe the combustion
reaction of alkenes
c=c H—C—C=C
explain why alkenes undergo
addition reactions
describe addition reactions
ethene (C2H4) propene (C3H6)
of alkenes with hydrogen, the
halogens, the hydrogen halides
A figure 14.3.1 Structural formulae of the first two alkenes

and water Alkenes with [our or more carbon atoms show structural isomerism. Structural
describe reactions which can isomers of alkenes result from the following:
be used to distinguish between the change in position of the functional group, i.e. the change in
an alkane and an alkene position of the carbon-carbon double bond (it is important to note,
relate the uses of alkenes to however, that the bond must always be horizontal)
their properties. branching of the molecule.
When naming isomers of alkenes:
number the carbon atoms in the longest chain from the end closest to
the double bond so that the double bond is closest to the lowest number
H—C—C—C=C
and indicate the position of the double bond in the name using the
lowest possible number
but-I-ene follow steps 1) to 4) on page 233 for naming branched chain isomers.
(or 1 -butene)
Using the rules above, the structures and names of the unbranched and
H H H 1-1
branched isomers of butene (C4H8) and pentene (C5H1()) and the unbranched
isomers of hexene (C6H12) are given in Figures 14.3.2, 14.3.3 and 14.3.4.

but-2-ene
(or 2-butene) H H

H—C—C—C—C=C H c—c—c c H—C—C—C—C=C

H—C—H

H—C—C=C—H pent-I-ene pent-2-ene 2-methylbut-l-ene

(or I-pentane) (or 2-pentene) (or 2-methyl- I-butene)

2-methylpropene

A Figure 14.3.2 The structural isomers of

butene (C4H8) H—C—C—C=C H—C—C=C—C

Figure 14.3.3 The structural isomers of 3-methylbut-l -ene 2-methylbut-2-ene

pentene (C5H10) (or 3-methyl-l-butene) (or 2-methyl-2-bu tene)

246
Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes Alkenes: CnH2n

H H H H H H
H—C—C—C—C—C=C H—C—C—C—C=C—C—H H—C—C—C=C—C—C—H
H H
hex- I-ene (or I-hexene) hex-2-ene (or 2-hexene) hex-3-ene (or 3-hexene)

The presence of the double bond makes alkenes more reactive than alkanes.
A figure 14.3.4 The straight chain
isomers of hexene (C6H12)
Alkenes undergo a variety of different reactions. The ones that we will be
looking at are combustion and addition reactions.
Exam tip
Combustion reactions of alkenes
It is important that you can name
Alkenes burn very easily in air or oxygen. The complete combustion the unbranched isomers of any
of an alkene produces carbon dioxide and water as steam. The reaction alkene containing up to six carbon
isexothermic, producing a large amount of heat energy. The complete atoms. It is also important that
combustion of ethene is shown in the equation below: you can draw the fully displayed
structural formulae of unbranched
C2H4(g) + 302(g) 2C02(g) + 2H20(g) MI-ve
and branched isomers of any
Alkenes require more oxygen for complete combustion than the alkene containing up to six carbon
corresponding alkane with the same number of carbon atoms because atoms if you are given its molecular
alkenes have a higher ratio of carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms in their formula. It is not essential that you

molecules. Because of this higher ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms, alkenes can name the branched isomers of
do not burn with clean flames. When they burn they release unreacted alkenes.

carbon as soot and sometimes carbon monoxide as well as carbon dioxide

and steam. As a result of the presence of the soot in the flame, alkenes burn
with a smoky flame. ? Did you know?
Addition reactions of alkenes Hexene (C6H12) has thirteen
structural isomers, the three
Addition reactions of alkenes involve adding extra atoms to the unbranched chain isomers shown
molecules, with one bond in the double bond being broken in the process. in Figure 14.3.4 and ten branched
They are called addition reactions because two molecules react to form chain isomers. For practice, you
one molecule. Unlike substitution reactions, the alkene does not lose any could see how many of these you
hydrogen atoms. can draw.

The addition reaction which an alkene undergoes is summarised in

Figure 14.3.5, where A-B represents a molecule with a single covalent bond
between two atoms or small groups of atoms in a molecule. During the —c—c—
reaction, the covalent bond between A and B breaks and one of the bonds in
the carbon-carbon double bond also breaks. The double bond is converted
alkene small saturated
to a singlebond forming a saturated compound and A becomes bonded molecule product
to the carbon atom at one side of the original double bond and B becomes
A figure 14.3.5 Summary of addition
bonded to the carbon atom at the other side. reactions of alkenes

Addition reaction with hydrogen

Alkenes undergo a type of addition reaction with hydrogen gas known

as hydrogenation. During hydrogenation, the single bond between the
hydrogen atoms in the hydrogen molecule breaks and one atom is bonded
to each carbon atom at either side of the original double bond in the alkene.
This always produces an alkane.
The following conditions are required for the reaction:
o a nickel catalyst
a pressure of about 5 atmospheres
e a temperature of about 150 oc.

247
 Alkenes: Cn H2n Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes

For example, ethene reacts with hydrogen to form ethane:

Did you know?
Ni catalyst
Hydrogenation is used in industry c=c 5 atm, 150 oc
H c
to 'harden' fats and oils, i.e.
increase their melting points. For
example, margarine can be made ethene hydrogen ethane

by hydrogenating the carbon— or

carbon double bonds in vegetable
Ni catalyst
oils. This hardens the oils making C2H4(g) + H2(g) C2H6(g)
5 atm, 150 oc
the margarine more spreadable and
it also has possible health benefits.

If margarine is used in place of Addition reaction with halogens

butter, it reduces the amount of
saturated animal fats in the diet.
Alkenes undergo a type of addition reaction with halogens known as
halogenation. During halogenation, the single bond between the halogen
atoms in the molecule breaks and one atom is bonded to each carbon atom
at either side of the original double bond in the alkene. This always produces
a haloalkane.

In contrast to the halogenation reactions which alkanes undergo, this

reaction does not need light energy; it can take place in the dark at room
temperature. The reaction is also a rapid reaction in contrast to the slow
reaction that occurs with alkanes.

For example, propene reacts with bromine vapour to form

1,2-dibromopropane:

H—C—C=C Br —Br H—C—C—C—H

propene bromine 1,2-dibromopropane

or

C3H6(g) + Br2(g) C3H6Br2 (l)

In this reaction, bromine can be in the form of a vapour or a solution. In

both cases, the red-brown bromine is rapidly decolourised as the alkene reacts
with it.

Addition reactions with hydrogen halides

Alkenes undergo addition reactions with hydrogen halides, for example,

hydrogen chloride (HCI) and hydrogen bromide (HBr), at room temperature
to produce haloalkanes.

For example, ethene reacts with hydrogen chloride to form monochloroethane:

H Cl

c=c

ethene hydrogen monochloroethane

chloride
or

C2H4(g) + HCl(g) C2H5Cl(l)

248
Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes Alkenes: CnH2n

Addition reactions with water

Alkenes undergo a type of addition reaction with water in the form of

steam known as hydration. During hydration, one of the bonds between
a hydrogen atom and the oxygen atom in the water molecule breaks and
the hydrogen atom is bonded to the carbon atom at one side of the original
double bond in the alkene and the remaining OH group is bonded to the
carbon atom at the other side. This always produces an alcohol.

The following conditions are required for the reaction:

a catalyst of phosphoric acid in sand (silica)

e a pressure of 60-70 atmospheres

a temperature of about 300 oc.

For example, ethene reacts with water, in the form of steam, to form
ethanol:

• 3000C
HgP04 catalyst
c=c 70 atm, 300 oc
H—C C ethene
• 60—70 atmospheres
steam
• phosphoric(v)acid
catalyst
ethene water ethanol
cooling
unreacted
or of
gases gases
HgP04 catalyst recycled
C2H4(g) + H20(g) H50H (l)
70 atm, 300 oc ethanol turns
to liquid

Ethanol is produced industrially by the addition reaction between ethene

and steam using the conditions listed above. The yield of the reaction is
very low so the unreacted ethene is recycled back into the reaction vessel ethanol

to increase the yield. The flow diagram in Figure 14.3.6 shows the industrial A Figure 14.3.6 The industrial
preparation of ethanol. preparation of ethanol

Addition reaction with acidified potassium manganate(w)

Alkenes undergo an addition reaction with acidified potassium

manganate(vll) solution. The reaction is a redox reaction in which the
alkene is oxidised by the acidified potassium manganate(vll) to form a
dialcohol, i.e. an alcohol with two -OH groups.

For example, ethene reacts with acidified potassium manganate(vll) to form

ethane-I,2-diol:

c=c H20 + [01

ethene from oxidising ethane-I,2-diol

or agent
Exam tip
C2H4(g) + H20(l) + [01
It is very important that you can
write equations for the addition
During the reaction, the potassium manganate(vll) solution rapidly
reactions of alkenes and that you
changes colour from purple to colourless. The alkene acts as a reducing agent
can state the conditions required
and reduces the purple manganate(vll) ion (Mn04-) to the colourless
for the reactions to occur.
manganese(ll) ion (Mn2+).
249
 Alkenes: Cn H2n Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes

Reactions to distinguish between an alkane and an

9 Did you know? alkene
Alkenes can also add to themselves You have already learnt that both alkanes and alkenes are hydrocarbons,
in addition polymerisation but alkanes are saturated whereas alkenes are unsaturated. Alkanes undergo
reactions. These reactions make slow substitution reactions because they contain only carbon-carbon single
very large molecules known as bonds whereas alkenes undergo rapid addition reactions because of the
polymers. We will be looking at this presence of a carbon-carbon double bond.
in more detail in Unit 16.
The difference between the reactions of alkanes and alkenes with bromine
solution or acidified potassium manganate(vll) solution is used in the
laboratory to distinguish between the two. Both reactions are testing to
see if the compound contains a carbon-carbon double bond, i.e. if it is
unsaturated.

The tests used to distinguish between an alkane and an alkene are summarised
in Table 14.3.1.

V Table 14.3.1 Distinguishing between an alkane and an alkene

Observations and explanation

Test
Alkane Alkene

Add acidified potassium The solution remains purple. The solution changes colour rapidly from purple to
marganate(Ml) solution colourless.

Alkanes do not react Wth acidified potassium Alkenes rapidly reduce the purple Mn04- ion to the
marganate(w) solution. colourless Mn2+ ion.

Add a solution of bromine in The solution remains red-brown. The solution changes colour rapidly from red-brown to
water (bromine water) or in colourless.
tetrachloromethare under
Alkanes do not react Wth bromine solution under standard Alkenes undergo a rapid addition reaction with bromine
standard laboratory conditions
laboratory conditions. solutbn under any conditions, including darkress.

It is important to note the following.

o In the presence of ultraviolet light, alkanes cause a solution of bromine
in water or tetrachloromethane to slowly change colour from red-
brown to colourless due to the slow substitution reaction occurring.
Both alkanes and alkenes react with bromine vapour, changing it
from red-brown to colourless. Alkanes slowly decolourise the vapour
in ultraviolet light due to the slow substitution reaction occurring.
Alkenes rapidly decolourise the vapour due to the rapid addition
reaction and this reaction does not need light, therefore it will occur in
darkness.

These reactions are, however, not usually used as laboratory tests to

distinguish an alkane and an alkene.

Practical activity

To distinguish between an alkane and an alkene

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

o observation, recording and reporting.

You be supplied with samples of two hydrocarbons cyclohexane and

will
cyclohexene, acidified potassium manganate@l) solution, bromine solution
and test tubes.

250
Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes Alkenes: CnH2n

Method
1 Place 2 cm3 of cyclohexane into each of two test tubes. Label the tubes
A and B.

2 Place 2 cm3 of cyclohexene into each of two test tubes. Label the tubes
C and D.

3 Add a few drops of acidified potassium manganate(vll) solution to tubes

A and C.
4 Shake and observe any colour changes which occur.
5 Add a few drops of bromine solution to test tubes B and D.

6 Shake and observe any colour changes.

7 Which hydrocarbon is saturated and which is unsaturated?

Uses of alkenes
Alkenes are extremely important starting materials for the manufacture
of a wide range of chemicals because of their ability to undergo addition Did you know?
reactions due to the presence of the carbon-carbon double bond. For
example, they are used to manufacture ethanol and other alcohols because The combustion of alkenes is an
they undergo addition reactions with steam and to manufacture various exothermic reaction, therefore,
alkenes could be used as fuels.
haloalkanes because of their addition reactions with halogens and hydrogen
However, they are far too important
halides. They are also used tomanufacture antifreezes, such as ethane- 1,2-diol
as starting materials for making
and synthetic rubbers. Because they can undergo addition reactions with
other organic products to waste
themselves they are used to manufacture a wide variety of polymers, or
them by using them as fuels.
plastics. You will learn more about plastics in Unit 16.

Summary questions
1 Give the names and fully displayed structural formulae of the three
straight chain isomers of hexene.

Describe what you would observe when bromine solution is added to

ethene.
b Give a balanced equation for the reaction using structural formulae.

3 Give the conditions under which the following reactions occur:

a hydrogenation of ethene to produce ethane
b hydration of ethane to produce ethanol.
4 Describe an experiment that you could perform in the laboratory to
distinguish between an alkane and an alkene.

Key concepts
e Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed of carbon and
hydrogen atoms only.
Natural gas and petroleum are natural sources of hydrocarbons.
Natural gas is composed mainly of methane with small amounts of
ethane, propane and butane.
e Petroleum is a complex mixture mainly of alkanes and ringed
hydrocarbons.
251
 Alkenes: Cn H2n Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes

Separation of petroleum into its components is done by fractional

distillation at an oil refinery.
The main uses of the fractions obtained from the fractional distillation
of petroleum are as fuels, in the manufacture of petrochemicals, as
lubricants and in surfacing roads.
The larger molecules produced during fractional distillation of petroleum
can be broken down into smaller, more useful molecules by cracking.
Thermal cracking uses high temperature and pressures to break the
molecules down.
Catalytic cracking uses fairly high temperatures, low pressures and a
catalyst to break the molecules down.
Cracking of an alkane produces at least one alkene.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula
Alkanes with four or more carbon atoms display structural isomerism.
Alkanes burn in air or oxygen with a clear blue flame.
The complete combustion of alkanes is an exothermic reaction and
produces carbon dioxide and water as steam. The incomplete combustion
produces carbon monoxide and steam.
Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens in the presence
of light.
Substitution reactions take place in stages, one hydrogen atom being
replaced by one halogen atom at a time.
Alkanes are used mainly as fuels and organic solvents.
Biogas is a renewable source of methane.
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with the general formula
Alkenes have the carbon-carbon double bond as their functional group.
Alkenes with four or more carbon atoms display structural isomerism.
Alkenes burn in air or oxygen with a smoky flame.
The complete combustion of alkenes is an exothermic reaction and
produces carbon dioxide and water as steam.
Alkenes undergo addition reactions in which other atoms are added to
the molecule. In the process one bond in the double bond breaks.
The addition reaction with hydrogen is known as hydrogenation and
it forms an alkane. It requires a nickel catalyst, a pressure of 5 atm and a

temperature of 150 oc.

The addition reaction with the halogens is known as halogenation and it
forms a haloalkane.
The addition reaction with the hydrogen halides also forms a haloalkane.
The addition reaction with water in the form of steam is known as
hydration and it forms an alcohol. It requires a phosphoric acid in sand
catalyst, a pressure of 60-70 atm and a temperature of 300 oc.

Alkenes change the colour of bromine solution from red-brown to

colourless under standard laboratory conditions, whereas alkanes do not.
Alkenes change the colour of acidified potassium manganate(V11)
solution from purple to colourless, whereas alkanes do not.
Alkenes are used mainly as starting materials for the manufacture of
a wide range of other chemicals because of their ability to undergo
addition reactions.

252
Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes Practice exam-style questions

7 The process of converting ethene to ethane can be

Practice exam-style questions described as:

I hydrogenation
Multiple-choice questions II hydration
1 Natural sources of hydrocarbons include: Ill addition
I petroleum A land II only
II natural gas B land Ill only
Ill coal C II and Ill only
A land only
II D 1, 11 and 111

B land Ill only

8 Which of the following could best be used to distinguish
C II only
propane from propene?
D 1, 11 and 111
A Burn both in air.
2 Which of the following could not be obtained by B React both with bromine vapour.
cracking hexane? C React both with hydrogen gas.
A methane and pentene D React both with acidified potassium manganate(vll)
B propene and propane solution.
C butane and ethane
D methane, propene and ethene Structured question
3 What are the main uses of bitumen? 9 The fully displayed structural formulae of two
A As a fuel and for surfacing roads. hydrocarbons, A and B are given below:
B To manufacture petrochemicals and as a fuel.
C As a roofing material and to surface roads.
D As a lubricant and as a roofing material. H—C—C—C=C—C—H H C CC c
4 The different fractions which make up crude oil are
separated based on:
A their different melting points
B their different boiling points a To which homologous series does EACH compound
C their different densities
belong? (2 marks)
D their different solubilities in water b Draw THREE structures to represent isomers of
5 When ethane reacts with bromine vapour which of the compound A. (3 marks)

following is/are true?

c A and B both react with chlorine but under different
conditions.
I a substitution reaction occurs

II the bromine is rapidly decolourised

i) Give ONE condition necessary for B to react with
chlorine. (1 mark)
Ill only one product is produced
ii) Draw the fully displayed structure of the
A I only
compound formed when A reacts with chlorine.
B land II only
(1 mark)
C land Ill only iii) Draw the fully displayed structure of the organic
D II and Ill only product produced during the first step of the
6 The following are all structural isomers of pentene except: reaction between B and chlorine. (1 marks)
d Describe a chemical test that could be used to
H H H H H H H distinguish between A and B. (1 marks)
e Give the reagent and the reaction conditions
H—C—C—C—C=C H—C—C—C=C—C—H necessary to convert A to B. (2 marks)
H H H H H f Both A and B burn in air or oxygen.
i) Write the balanced chemical equation for the
complete combustion of B. (2 marks)
ii) If equal volumes of A or B are burnt separately,
H H H which would you expect to produce the more
soot? Give a reason for your choice.
H—C—C—C=C H—C—C—C=C (2 marks)
Total 15 marks
H H
H—C—H H—C—H

253
 Practice exam-style questions Hydrocarbons - alkanes and alkenes

Extended response question

10 a One of the main sources of hydrocarbons used by i) Identify suitablereagents and reaction
man is petroleum. conditions which can be used to convert:
i) What is a hydrocarbon? (1 mark) - compound A to compound B
ii) Name TWO fractions obtained from the - compound A to compound D. (4 marks)
fractional distillation of petroleum and give the ii) Describe what would be observed during the
main uses of each. (4 marks) formation of compound C from compound A.
iii) Fractional distillation of petroleum produces (1 mark)
too few of the smaller hydrocarbons to meet iii) Under the right conditions, compound D reacts
the demands of today's world. To increase the with chlorine.
supplies of these smaller hydrocarbons, larger Name the type of reaction taking place.
alkanes are cracked. Write an equation to Write a chemical equation to represent the
represent one possible way of cracking hexane. first step in the reaction. (3 marks)
(2 marks) Total 15 marks
b Carefully study the reaction scheme below and
answer the questions which follow.

Br2(g)
CH3CH2CH20H CH3CH = CH2 CH3CHBrCHBr
c

CH3CH2CH3

254
 B15 Alcohols, alkanoic acids
and esters
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters are organic Objectives
compounds that all contain oxygen. Although they all By the end of this topic you will

contain oxygen, their properties and reactions differ be able to:

because of the way the oxygen atoms are bonded in identify alcohols by the
presence of the hydroxyl
the molecules. Because of their varied properties and
group, —OH
reactions, members of these three homologous series give the names and structural

have widespread uses in industry and our daily lives. formulae of unbranched
alcohols with up to six carbon
atoms
B15.1 Alcohols: C n H 217+1 OH relate the volatility and
solubility of alcohols to the

Alcohols are also known as alkanols. They are organic compounds which presence of the polar —OH
have the hydroxyl group, -OH, as their functional group. group
describe the reactions of
The general formula of alcohols which contain one hydroxyl group is
ethanol
This can also be written R-OH, where R represents CnH2n+1,
explain the principles of the
i.e. an alkyl group.
breathalyser test
Alcohols are named by using the prefix which indicates the total number of describe the fermentation
carbon atoms in the molecule plus the ending '-anol The first two alcohols process by which ethanol is
in the series do not show structural isomerism. Their names and formulae
produced from carbohydrates
are given in Figure 15.1.1. e describe the processes
involved in wine making and

H—C—O—H H—C—C—O—H rum manufacture.

methanol (CH30H ) ethanol (C2HsOH )

A figure 15.1.1 Structural formulae of the first two alcohols Exam tip
Alcohols with three or more carbon atoms show structural isomerism.
You must not confuse the —OH
Structural isomers of alcohols result from the following:
group in alcohols with the OH- ion
the change in position of the functional group, i.e. the change in that is present in hydroxides.
position of the hydroxyl group, -OH
branching of the molecule.
When naming isomers of alcohols:
H—C—C C H—C—C—C—H
e number the carbon atoms in the longest chain from the end closest
to the -OH functional group so that the group is at the lowest
number and indicate the position of the hydroxyl group in the name propan-l -01 propan-2-ol
(or I-propanol) (or 2-propanol)
follow steps 1) to 4) on page 233 for naming branched chain isomers.
Using the rules above, the structures and names of the
A Figure 15.1.2 The structural isomers of
propanol (C3H70H)
isomers of propanol (C3H70H) and butanol (C4H90H)
are given in Figures 15.1.2 and 15.1.3.

H—C—C—C—C—O—H H C C C C H—C C H—C—C—C—H

H H OHH H OH H
< Figure 15.1.3The
butan-l-ol butan-2-ol 2-m et hylpropan- 1-01 2-methylpropan-2-ol structural isomers
(or I-butanol) (or 2-butanol) (or 2-methyl-l -propanol) (or 2-methyl-2-propanol) Of butanol (C4H90H)

255
 Alcohols:C n H 2n+1 OH Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters

The straight chain isomers of pentanol (C5H110H) and hexanol (C6H130H)

are given in Figures 15.1.4 and 15.1.5.
H—C—C—C—C C

pentan- 1-01
(or I-pentanol)

hexan-l-ol hexan-2-ol
(or 1 -hexanol) (or 2-hexanol)
H—C C C C

H H H OH H
pen tan-2-01
(or 2-pentanol)

hexan-3-ol
(or 3-hexanol)
H—C—C—C—C—C—H A Figure 15.1.5 The straight chain isomers of hexanol (C6H130H)
H H OHH
pen tan-3-01
(or 3-pentanol)
General properties of alcohols
A Figure 15.1.4 The straight chain Alcohol molecules are polar due to the presence of the polar -OH group.
isomers of pentanol (C5H110H) Recall that a polar molecule is a covalent molecule in which one part of
the molecule has a slightly positive charge and another part has a slightly
negative charge. The volatility of alcohols and their solubility in water are
Exam tip both related to the polar nature of their molecules.

It is important that you can name

Volatility
the unbranched isomers of any
alcohol containing up to six carbon Alcohols are less volatile than their corresponding alkanes with the same
atoms. It is also important that number of carbon atoms, i.e. the boiling point of an alcohol is always much

you can draw the fully displayed higher than that of the corresponding alkane. For example, the boiling
structural formulae of unbranched point of ethanol (C2H50H) is 78 oc and the boiling point of ethane (C2H6) is
isomers of any alcohol containing —89 oc. This is because the polar -OH groups cause the forces of attraction
up to six carbon atoms. It is not between the alcohol molecules to be stronger than between the non-polar
you can name the
essential that
alkane molecules. As a result, all alcohols are either liquids or solids at room
branched isomers of alcohols.
temperature.
The boiling point of alcohols increases as the number of carbon atoms in the
molecules increases. This is because the intermolecular forces between the
molecules increase as the size of the molecules increases.

Solubility in water

The general rule on solubility states that polar solutes dissolve in polar
solvents. Water is a polar solvent, therefore alcohols, being polar, are soluble
in water. The small alcohols, such as methanol, ethanol and propanol, are
completely soluble in water, however, the solubility decreases as the number
of carbon atoms in the molecules increases.

Reactions of ethanol
Alcohols undergo a variety of reactions due to the presence of the hydroxyl
(-0H) functional group. In this section we will be looking specifically at the
reactions of ethanol, however, the other alcohols undergo similar reactions
since they all contain the hydroxyl group. The strength of the reactions
decreases as the number of carbon atoms in the alcohol molecules increases.

256
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Alcohols: C n H 2/1+1 OH

Combustion of ethanol
Ethanol burns very easily in air or oxygen producing carbon dioxide and water
as steam. The reaction is exothermic, producing a large amount of heat energy.
The complete combustion of ethanol is shown in the equation below:
C2H50H(1) + 302(g) 2C02(g) + 3H20(g) All-ve
Ethanol burns with a clear blue flame because the ratio of carbon to hydrogen
atoms in the molecule is low. All the carbon is therefore converted to carbon
dioxide and no unreacted carbon remains to produce soot.

Reaction of ethanol with sodium

Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce sodium ethoxide (C2H50Na) and

hydrogen. When a piece of sodium metal is dropped into ethanol steady
effervescence occurs as the hydrogen gas is evolved and a colourless solution
of sodium ethoxide in alcohol is formed. The equation for the reaction
between ethanol and sodium is given below:
2C2H50H(l) + 2Na(s) 2C2H50Na(a1c sol) + H2(g)
sodium ethoxide

Sodium ethoxide is an ionic compound containing the ethoxide ion,

C2H50-. The fully displayed structure of sodium ethoxide is represented in A Figure 15.1.6 The fully displayed
Figure 15.1.6. structure of sodium ethoxide

The reaction between sodium and ethanol is similar to the reaction between
sodium and water. In both reactions, the sodium displaces hydrogen from
the ethanol or the water, forming hydrogen gas. However, the strength of the
reaction between sodium and water is much more vigorous (see Unit 17.2).

Dehydration of ethanol
When ethanol mixed with concentrated sulfuric acid and the mixture is
is

heated to 170 oc, the ethanol is dehydrated to ethene. This can be achieved
in one of two ways:
heating the ethanol with excess concentrated sulfuric acid at a
temperature of 170 oc, where the acid acts as a catalyst in the reaction
e passing the ethanol vapour over heated aluminium oxide, where the
aluminium oxide acts as a catalyst.
In both methods, a water molecule is removed from each ethanol molecule,
i.e. the hydroxyl functional group is removed from one carbon atom and
a hydrogen atom is removed from the other carbon atom. This results in
the formation of a carbon-carbon double bond between the two adjacent
carbon atoms.

The equation for the dehydration of ethanol using concentrated sulfuric

acid is given below:

conc. H2S04

170 oc
c=c

ethanol ethene water

or
conc. H2S04
C2H50H(l) C2H4(g) + H20(g)
170 oc

257
 Alcohols:C n H 2n+1 OH Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters

Oxidation of ethanol

When ethanol is heated with a powerful oxidising agent, such as acidified

potassium manganate(vll) solution or acidified potassium dichromate(vl)

solution, the ethanol is oxidised to ethanoic acid. The oxidation of ethanol
can be represented by the following equation:
C2H50H(1) + 2[0] CH3COOH(aq) + H20(1)
ethanol from ethanoic acid
oxidising
agent

In the above reaction, ethanol is behaving as a reducing agent. Ifthe reaction

occurs with acidified potassium manganate(V11) solution, the solution
changes from purple to colourless because the ethanol reduces the purple
manganate(vll) ion (Mn04-) to the colourless manganese(ll) ion (Mn2+). If
the reaction occurs with acidified potassium dichromate(vl) solution, the
solution changes from orange to green because the ethanol reduces the
orange dichromate(vl) (Cr2072-) to the green chromium(lll) ion (Cr3+).

Reaction of ethanol with alkanoic acids

Ethanol reacts with alkanoic acids to form an ester and water. We will be
discussing this in greater detail in Unit 15.3.

Practical activity

To investigate the oxidation of ethanol

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:
O observation, recording and reporting.

You will be supplied with ethanol, acidified potassium dichromate(v) solution and a test tube.
Method
1 Place about 2cm3 of ethanol into the test tube.

2 Add an equal volume of acidified potassium dichromate(v) solution and shake to mix.

3 Observe the colour of the solution periodically for about 15 minutes.

The breathalyser test

The reduction of acidified potassium dichromate(vl) and the accompanying
colour change is used in the breathal yser test to test the alcohol content of a
driver's breath. The driver blows over a sample of orange acidified potassium
dichromate(vl) crystals. If the driver's breath contains ethanol vapour, the
ethanol will reduce the orange dichromate(vl) ion (Cr2072-) to the green
chromium(lll) ion (Cr3+). As a result, the crystals turn green.

Production of ethanol by fermentation

Fermentation is the chemical reaction in which carbohydrates are converted
into ethanol by yeast under anaerobic conditions, i.e. in the absence of
oxygen. Yeast is a unicellular fungus which produces enzymes that break
down any complex carbohydrates into simple sugars, mainly glucose. The
yeast then produces another enzyme called zymase which converts the
simple sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process, also known as
anaerobic respiration, releases energy which the yeast cells use.

258
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Alcohols: C n H 2/1+1 OH

The equation for the fermentation of glucose is given below:

zymase in yeast Exam tip
C6H1206(aq) 2C2H50H(aq) + 2C02(g) MI-ve
glucose ethanol
It is very important that you can draw

When the concentration of ethanol in the fermentation mixture reaches a line diagram to show the apparatus
about 14%, it begins to destroy the zymase enzyme and the fermentation used to carry out fractional
distillation in the laboratory.
reaction stops. The ethanol can then be separated from the mixture by
fractional distillation (Unit 2.4). During the distillation process, the
ethanol is collected at 78 oc and is about 96% pure.

conical
Practical activity cork
flask

To prepare a sample of ethanol

gl ucose,
water lime
(Teacher demonstration)
and yeas water
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting. A figure 15.1.7 Production of ethanol by

fermentation
Your teacher will perform the following experiment.
Method
thermometer
1 Place 10 g of glucose into a 250 cm3 conical flask. Add 100 cm3 of water
and mix to make a glucose solution.

2 Make a paste with lg of dried yeast and a small quantity of water. Add water out
the paste to the glucose solution.
condenser
3 Place a cork on the flask with a delivery tube leading to a beaker
containing lime water. Ensure that all the connections are properly fractionating
column,
sealed. The lime water acts as an airlock to prevent the entry of aerobic packed
water in
bacteria which can cause the formation of ethanoic acid (vinegar). The with glass
beads
lime water also shows when the production of carbon dioxide starts by
the formation of a white precipitate.
distillate
4 Leave the reaction until fermentation has stopped.
5 Pour the mixture into a distillation flask and fractionally distill it,
fermentation
collecting the fraction which distils at 78 oc, the boiling point of ethanol. mixture
containing
ethanol
heat
Fermentation is used in the production of different alcoholic beverages
such as wine and rum. It is also used in baking where the carbon dioxide
produced during the process makes the dough rise. We will look at wine and
rum making in more detail in the next sections. A figure 15.1.8 Separation of ethanol by
fractional distillation

Winemaking
Wine is made primarily from grapes in a winery. The grapes are first crushed
to form a mixture of pulp, skins and juice known as 'must'. To make white
? Did you know?
wine the skins are removed. The vintner (winemaker) then adds yeast to
Red or black grapes are used to
the must in fermentation tanks and the yeast ferments the sugars present
make red wine and the grape
forming ethanol and carbon dioxide. When fermentation is complete any skins are present throughout
skins are removed and the wine is filtered to clarify it. The wine is then aged fermentation to give the wine its
in storage tanks or oak barrels before bottling. The ethanol content of most colour. White wine is made mainly
wines is between 10% and 14%. from 'white' grapes, which actually
vary in colour from green to pale
Great care must be taken throughout the winemaking process to minimise
yellow.
the exposure of the wine to air. This is because certain aerobic bacteria may
259
 Alkanoic acids: C n H 2n+1 COOH Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters

be present in the wine from the original grapes and, on exposure to oxygen
in the air, these bacteria oxidise the ethanol to ethanoic acid, or vinegar:
aerobic bacteria
C2H50H(aq) + 02(g) CH3COOH(aq) + H20(1)
ethanoic acid

The ethanoic acid then causes the wine to become sour and undrinkable.

Rum manufacture
Rum is made from the black treacle-like substance known as molasses,
which is produced during the extraction of sugar from sugar cane (Unit 2.5).
The molasses is first diluted with water and yeast is added. The yeast ferments
the sugar in the molasses forming ethanol and carbon dioxide. The mixture
produced is then sent to the still where it is fractionally distilled to produce
a distillate with an ethanol content of between 70% and 95%.

The distillate is then diluted and transferred to oak barrels to be aged. This process
can take 20 years or more. The oak barrels are charred on the inside to impart a
variety of flavours to the rum, give it a smoother taste and add colour. More water
is then added to reduce the ethanol content to about 40% and a master blender
A Figure 15.1.9 A master blender in front is responsible for blending various rums of different ages and/or from different

of the oak barrels barrels to produce the unique brands of the different rum manufacturers.

Summary questions
1 Give the names and fully displayed structural formulae of three straight chain isomers of pentanol.

2 Explain how the functional group of the alcohols affects their solubility and boiling points.

3 Ethanol burns in oxygen with a blue flame. Give a balanced equation for the reaction.

4 Ethanol can be dehydrated.

a Give the conditions required for the reaction.
b Draw the fully displayed structural formulae of the products formed in the reaction.

5 Give a balance chemical equation for the fermentation of glucose and give two ways in which the reaction may
be used.

Objectives • n 217+1 COOH

By the end of this topic you will
Alkanoic acids are also known as carboxylic acids. They are organic
be able to:
compounds which have the carboxyl group, -COOH, as their functional
identify alkanoic acids by group. The carboxyl group can also be represented as:
the presence of the carboxyl o
group, -COOH —c
give the names and structural O—H
formulae of unbranched The general formula of alkanoic acids which contain one carboxyl group
alkanoic acids with up to six is CnH2n+1COOH. can also be written R-COOH, where R represents
carbon atoms CnH2n+ 1, i.e. an alkyl group.
relate the volatility and
Alkanoic acids are named by using the prefix which indicates the total
solubility of alkanoic acids to
number of carbon atoms in the molecule plus the suffix '-anoic acid'. It is
the presence of the polar —OH
important to remember that the functional group contains one carbon
part of the functional group
atom which must be taken into account when naming alkanoic acids, i.e.
describe the reactions of
the prefix is not derived directly from 'n' in the general formula, it is derived
ethanoic acid.
by adding 1 to the value of 'n'. For example, the name of the acid with the
formula CH3COOH is ethanoic acid and not methanoic acid.
260
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Alkanoic acids: C n H 2/1+1 COOH

The names and formulae of the straight chain isomers ofthe first six alkanoic
acids are shown in Figure 15.2.1.
Did you know?
o o o o
H—C—C H—C—C—C H—C—C—C—C Organic acids containing one or
O—H O—H more carboxyl functional groups
methanoic acid ethanoic acid propanoic acid butanoic acid can be found throughout the
(HCOOH) natural world. Methanoic acid is
(CH3COOH) (C2HsCOOH) (C3H7COOH)
found in the venom of ant and
H H bee stings while ethanoic acid
o o
H—C—C—C—C—C H—C—C—C—C—C—C gives vinegar its sour taste. Citric
acid, found in citrus fruits, has
H H three carboxyl groups and tartaric
pentanoic acid hexanoic acid
acid, found in tamarinds, has
(C4H9COOH) (CsHllCOOH)
two functional groups. Aspirin, or
A figure 15.2.1 Structural formulae of the first six alkanoic acids acetylsalicylic acid, which is used to
reduce fever and relieveaches and
Properties of alkanoic acids pains, has one carboxyl group.

Alkanoic acid molecules are polar due to the presence of the polar -OH part of
the carboxyl functional group. Like alcohols, the volatility of alkanoic acids and
their solubility in water are both related to the polar nature of their molecules.

Volatility

Alkanoic acids are less volatile than their corresponding alkanes with the
same number of carbon atoms, i.e. the boiling point of an alkanoic acid is
always much higher than that of the corresponding alkane. For example, the
boiling point of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is 112 oc and the boiling point of
ethane (C2H6) is —89 oc. This is because the forces of attraction between the
polar alkanoic acid molecules are stronger than between the non-polar alkane
molecules. All alkanoic acids are either liquids or solids at room temperature.
The boiling point of alkanoic acids the number of carbon atoms
increases as
in the molecules increases because the intermolecular forces between the
molecules increase as the size of the molecules increases.

Solubility in water
Alkanoic acids, being polar, are soluble in water. The small alkanoic acids
such as methanoic acid, ethanoic acid and propanoic acid are completely
soluble in water, however, the solubility decreases as the number of carbon
atoms in the molecules increases.
When alkanoic acids dissolve in water, they also ionise to a very small degree
to form hydrogen (H + ) ions, hence they are weak acids. For example, when
ethanoic acid dissolves in water about 1% of the ethanoic acid molecules are
ionised at anyone time, i .e. the solution contains 1% ethanoate ions (CH3COO-)
and hydrogen ions (H +) and 99% ethanoic acid molecules (CH3COOH).
The ionisation of ethanoic acid is shown in the following equation:

CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO (aq) + H (aq)

ethanoate ion

Reactions of aqueous ethanoic acid

Aqueous solutions of alkanoic acids react in a very similar way to inorganic
acids such as hydrochloric acid when they react with reactive metals, metal
oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates. The reactions are slower than
they would be with inorganic acids because the alkanoic acids are weak acids.
261
 Alkanoic acids: C n H 2n+1 COOH Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters

In this section we will be looking specifically at the reactions of ethanoic

acid. However, the other alkanoic acids undergo similar reactions since they
all contain the carboxyl group. The strength of the reactions decreases as the
number of carbon atoms in the molecules increases.
Salts formed by ethanoic acid are known as ethanoates.

Reaction with reactive metals

and hydrogen gas.

Reactive metals react with ethanoic acid to produce a salt
Using the reaction between magnesium and ethanoic acid as an example:
Mg(S) + 2CH3COOH(aq) + H2(g)
magnesium ethanoate

important to note that since the magnesium has displaced the H + ion from
It is

the -COOH functional group, it is written in the place of this H+ ion in the
formula of the salt. However, in the name of the salt, the metal still comes first.

Reaction with metal oxides

Metal oxides react with ethanoic acid to produce a salt and water. These
reactions are neutralisation reactions. Using the reaction between zinc
oxide and ethanoic acid as an example:
ZnO(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) + H20(1)
zinc ethanoate

H—C—C Reaction with metal hydroxides

o-Na+ Metal hydroxides react with ethanoic acid to produce a salt and water. These
are also neutralisation reactions. Using the reaction between sodium
A Figure 15.2.2 The fully displayed
hydroxide and ethanoic acid as an example:
structure of sodium ethanoate
NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) -—4 CH3COONa(aq) + H20(1)
sodium ethanoate
Summary questions The fully displayed structure of sodium ethanoate is represented in
Figure 15.2.2.
1 Give the name of each of the

following compounds: Reaction with metal carbonates

a C3H7COOH
Metal carbonates react with ethanoic acid to produce a salt, carbon dioxide
b C5HllCOOH and water. Using the reaction between calcium carbonate and ethanoic acid
2 Explain why methanoic acid as an example:
is an acid. As part of your CaC03(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) + C02(g) + H20(1)
answer write a balanced calcium ethanoate

chemical equation which

shows how methanoic acid Esterification
ionises in water. Alkanoic acids react with alcohols to produce an ester and water. The reaction
3 Why is ethanoic acid less is known as esterification and it requires a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric

volatile than ethane? acid and heat in order to take place. Since two molecules are reacting together
with the loss of a water molecule from between them, the reaction may also be
4 Give a balanced chemical
referred to as a condensation reaction. The alkanoic acid and alcohol must be
equation for the reaction
in the pure liquid form and not in aqueous solution for the reaction to occur.
between ethanoic acid and:
Using the reaction between ethanoic acid and propanol as an example:
a calcium oxide
b potassium carbonate. conc. H2S04

CH3COOH(1) + C3H70H(1) CH3COOC3H7(1) + H20(1)

5 Give the conditions necessary ethanoic acid
heat
water
propanol propyl ethanoate
for the reaction between
ethanoic acid and ethanol.
Propyl ethanoate is an ester. We will be looking at esters in more detail in
the next unit.
262
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Esters: RCOOR'

815.3 Esters: RCOOR' Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
ester is a compound formed when an alkanoic acid reacts with an alcohol.
be able to:
The smaller esters are volatile liquids which usually have very distinctive
sweet fruity smells. Esters are widespread in nature where they occur in identify esters by the presence
both animals and plants, especially in flowers and fruits, giving them their of the ester functional group,

distinctive smells and flavours. Naturally occurring animal fats and vegetable
oils are esters of long-chain alkanoic acids and an alcohol called glycerol. describe how esters are
formed
Esters are used extensively as artificial perfumes, food flavourings and
write the names and formulae
essences, e.g. artificial flavourings such as banana, strawberry and apple of esters
are esters. They are also used in the manufacture of soap and as industrial
explain the hydrolysis of esters
solvents for making paints and varnishes. Biodiesel is an ester produced
explain the saponification of
from the reaction of fats with methanol.
fats and oils

Estershave the ester group, -COO-, as their functional group. The ester distinguish between soapy and
group can also be represented as: soapless detergents.
o
—c—o—
Did you know?
The general formula of a simple ester is ICOOCx H 2x+1 where 'n' and
'x' may be the same or different numbers. This can also be written R-COO-R' , Some esters play an important role
where R and R' represent alkyl groups which may be the same or different. in animal communication. Animals
produce chemical signals called
pheromones which trigger natural
Formation of esters responses in members of the
Esters are made by acondensation reaction known as esterification. During same species. Some of these are

an alkanoic acid is heated with an alcohol in the presence of

esterification, esters. Forexample, 3-methylbutyl
ethanoate, which is the main
concentrated sulfuric acid. The reaction is reversible and produces an ester
component of the banana aroma,
and water.
is also the alarm pheromone of

The reaction can be summarised by the following general word equation: the honeybee. It is released when
a bee is attacked by a predator to
conc. H2S04
alkanoic acid + alcohol ester + water trigger aggression in the other bees
heat which provokes them to sting.

The concentrated sulfuric acid is added for two reasons:

it acts as a catalyst to speed up the reaction
it is a powerful dehydrating agent, therefore, it removes the water

produced during the reaction which favours the forward reaction and
increases the yield of ester produced.

Using structural formulae to represent the reaction between ethanoic acid

and ethanol to produce ethyl ethanoate, we can see the structure of the ethyl
ethanoate that is formed.

H o
conc. H2S04
c
heat
H—C—C O C H—O
H20 lost H H
ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate water

The chemical equation for the reaction is given below:

conc. H2S04

CH3COOH(1) + C2H50H(1) CH3COOC2H5(1) + H20(1)

heat
ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate water

263
 Esters: RCOOR' Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters

Formulae and names of esters

When writing the structural formula of an ester, the first part of the formula
comes from the alkanoic acid and the second part comes from the alcohol
that formed the ester.
H O
The name of an ester is also derived from the alkanoic acid and the alcohol.
However, the first part of the name is derived from the alcohol and the second
part of the name is derived from the alkanoic acid.

propyl ethanoate To summarise:

A figure 15.3.1 Structural formula of Formula: acid part first; alcohol part second.
propyl ethanoate
Name: alcohol part first with the ending 'yl'; acid part second with the
ending 'anoate'.
Exam tip The structural formula of propyl ethanoate is shown in Figure 15.3.1 as an
example of this.
When writing the equation for the
reaction between an alkanoic acid Some more examples of the formulae and names of esters are given in Figure
and an alcohol, always write the 15.3.2.
formula of the acid first. In this
C2H5COOCH HCOOC4H9 C3H7COOCJ4s
way, when you write the formula of
the ester, you will always write the
methyl propanate butyl methanoate ethyl butanoate
acid part first.
A figure 15.3.2 Other examples of esters

Practical activity

To prepare a sample of ethyl ethanoate

(Teacher demonstration) water out

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

condenser in the
observation, recording and reporting. reflux position

water in
Your teacher will perform the following experiment.

Method
1 Place 1 Ocm3 of ethanoic acid into a round-bottomed flask. Add 10 crn3 of mixture of ethanol
ethanol and 2 cm3 of concentrated sulfuric acid. and ethanoic acid

2 Attach a condenser to the flask in the reflux position as shown in Figure 15.3.3.

3 Gently boil the mixture for 5 minutes.

4 Pour the mixture into a small beaker half filled with cold water and identify

the ester formed by its characteristic odour and oily appearance on the A figure 15.3.3 Preparing a sample
surface of the water. of ethyl ethanoate

The reaction between ethanoic acid and ethanol to produce ethyl ethanoate
proceeds relatively slowly. As the reaction is heated, both reactants and any
ester produced boil forming vapours which must be retained. The condenser
is placed in the reflux position, i.e. vertically, so that the ethanoic acid,
ethanol and ethyl ethanoate vapours enter the condenser where they
condense and return to the flask. In this way, the ethanoic acid and ethanol
are returned for further reaction and no ethyl ethanoate is lost. When the
resulting mixture is poured into the water, any unreacted acid and alcohol
dissolve in the water. Ethyl ethanoate only slightly soluble and, being less
is

dense than water, it floats forming an oily layer on the surface of the water.
264
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Esters: RCOOR'

Hydrolysis of esters
During a hydrolysis reaction molecules are broken down into smaller
molecules by reacting with water.

Esters can be hydrolysed by heating with a dilute acid or an aqueous alkali.

The products of hydrolysis depend on whether an acid or an alkali is used.

Acid hydrolysis
During acid hydrolysis, the ester is heated with an acid catalyst such as
dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. The products of acid hydrolysis are an
alkanoic acid and an alcohol.

Using the acid hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate as an example:

1-14 ions
CH3C002H5(1) + H20(1) CH3COOH(aq) + C2H50H(aq)
ethyl ethanoate ethanoic acid ethanol

Alkaline hydrolysis

During alkaline hydrolysis, the ester is heated with sodium or potassium

hydroxide solution. The products of alkaline hydrolysis are the sodium or
potassium salt of an alkanoic acid and an alcohol. The reaction occurs in two
stages.

Using the alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate by reacting it with sodium

hydroxide solution as an example:

Stage 1: ethanoic acid and ethanol are formed first as in acid hydrolysis:

OH ions
CH3COOC2H5(1) + H20(1) CH3COOH(aq) + C2H50H(aq)
ethyl ethanoate ethanoic acid ethanol

Stage 2: the ethanoic acid is then neutralised by the sodium hydroxide

solution to form sodium ethanoate:

CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) -•—.> CH3COONa(aq) + H20(1)

ethanoic acid sodium ethanoate

The overall reaction is shown in the following equation:

CH3COOC2H5(l) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + C2H50H(aq)
ethyl ethanoate sodium ethanoate ethanol
Did you know?
Saponification of esters Glycerol is the common name
for propane-I ,2,3-triol or
Saponification refers to the alkaline hydrolysis of large esters found in 1 ,2,3-propanetriol. The structural
animal fats and vegetable oils. Saponification is used in the manufacture formula of glycerol is drawn for you
of soap. During the manufacturing process, fats and oils are boiled with below:
concentrated potassium or sodium hydroxide solution to produce the
sodium salts of long-chain alkanoic acids, also known as fatty acids.
The other product of the reaction is the alcohol, glycerol, As H c
the formula shows, glycerol is an alcohol with three hydroxyl functional
H c
groups.
A simplified equation for this reaction is: H—C—O—H
heat
fat or oil + NaOH sodium salt of a long-chain alkanoic acid + glycerol

265
 Esters: RCOOR' Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters

Example
One example of a fat is glyceryl octadecanoate ((C17H35COO)3C3H5).
Glyceryl octadecanoate is an ester of the fatty acid known as octadecanoic
acid(C17H35COOH) and glycerol When glyceryl octadecanoate
ishydrolysed by boiling with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution,
sodium octadecanoate (C17H35COONa) and glycerol are produced. Sodium
octadecanoate is one form of soap.

heat
+ 3C17H35COONa(aq) +
glyceryl octadecanoate sodium octadecanoate glycerol
(fat) (soap)

When the soap has been produced, the mixture is added to saturated sodium
chloride solution to precipitate out and solidify the soap.

o
CH3CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH2CH2 —C—O- Na+

A figure 15.3.4 A soap molecule

Practical activity

To prepare a sample of soap

A Figure 15.3.5 Model of a soap
molecule (Teacher demonstration)
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting.

Your teacher will perform the following experiment.

Method

Büchner funnel
1 Place 1 Ocm3 of cooking oil into a beaker and carefully add 15 crn3 of
ethanol and 15 cm3 of 5.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution. Stir the
soap
filter paper mixture thoroughly.
perforated plate 2 Continue stirring the mixture while heating it gently on a hot plate for
about 30 minutes — the mixture must no longer separate into two layers
and it must be fairly thick. During heating, make sure that the mixture
cork doesn't overheat or foam and that the volume doesn't decrease too
much. Top the mixture up with a solution containing equal volumes of
to vacuum pump
ethanol and water if necessary.

3 When thick, let the mixture cool for a while, but do not let it cool
Büchner flask
completely.

filtrate 4 Add the mixture to 100 cm3 of saturated sodium chloride solution and
stir to precipitate out the soap.
A Figure 15.3.6 Suction filtration to
separate soap from the reaction 5 Filter the mixture using suction filtration and collect the soap in the filter

mixture paper as the residue.

6 Rinse the soap with two separate 10 cm3 portions of iced distilled water
during filtration and continue the suction filtration to dry the soap.

7 Place a small portion of the soap in a test tube and add about 4cm3 of
distilled water. Place a cork on the tube, shake thoroughly and observe.

266
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Esters: RCOOR'

Soapy and soapless detergents

detergent is a chemical added to water to remove dirt from clothing,
surfaces and floors. Detergent molecules are composed of long molecules
with two ends which have very different structures and properties.
e One end of the molecule, the 'head', is ionic and readily dissolves in
water. We say that this end is hydrophilic or water-loving and oil-
hating. This end is often referred to as the ionic head.

e The opposite end of the molecule, the 'tail', is covalent and is

composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms. This end readily dissolves
in organic substances such as oils and grease. We say that this end is
hydrophobic or water-hating and oil-loving. This end is referred to as
the hydrocarbon tail.

Dirt often consists of oily or greasy substances that do not dissolve in water. This
makes them difficult to remove. Detergents help to remove this dirt by lowering
the surface tension of water, loosening the dirt molecules and dispersing them
in the water, i.e. they help to make the greasy dirt mix with the water.

When a detergent is added to oily or greasy dirt on fabrics or the skin, the
hydrophobic (oil-loving) tail of the detergent molecule dissolves in the greasy
dirt and the hydrophilic (water-loving) head sticks out. The head dissolves in
the water and the dirt is lifted from the fabric or skin and is washed away.
This is helped by agitation such as occurs in a washing machine.

Figure 15.3.7 shows how greasy dirt can be removed from fabric.

'—-—detergent
molecule

greasy dirt
fabric

The hydrophobic tails of the detergent The greasy dirt is lifted The greasy dirt is surrounded

molecules dissolve in the greasy dirt. off the fabric. by detergent molecules and broken
The hydrophilic heads remain dissolved into smaller droplets that can mix Figure 15.3.7
in the water. with water. This forms an emulsion How detergent molecules
which can be washed away. remove greasy dirt

Detergent molecules can be classified into soapy or soapless depending on

their structure.

Soapy detergents
Soapy detergents are often just known as soap. They are made by boiling
animal fats or vegetable oils with concentrated potassium or sodium
hydroxide solution, as described in the previous section. The structure of a
soap molecule is shown in Figure 15.3.4.

Soapy detergents do not lather easily in hard water. Hard water contains
dissolved calcium and magnesium salts such as calcium and magnesium
hydrogencarbonate (Unit 21.1). The calcium and magnesium ions in the hard
water displace the sodium ions in the soap forming an insoluble precipitate of
calcium or magnesium octadecanoate. This precipitate is known as scum
2C17H35COONa(aq) + + 2Na+(aq) A figure 15.3.8 Scum forms when soap
soap scum and hard water react

267
 Esters: RCOOR' Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters

Scum removes the soap from the solution which prevents it from doing the
job of removing greasy dirt. It is only when all of the calcium and magnesium
ions have been precipitated out ofthe water as scum that any remaining soap
molecules will form a lather and do their job of removing the dirt.

Soapless detergents
Soapless detergents are also known as synthetic detergents and often just
called detergents. They are formed from petroleum. The structure of a
soapless detergent molecule is shown in Figure 15.3.9.

o
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2
II

A Figure 15.3.9 A soapless detergent molecule

Soapless detergents lather much more easily with hard water than soapy
detergents. This because their calcium and magnesium salts are soluble,
is

therefore, they do not form scum.

Apart from their different lathering abilities in hard water, soapy and soapless
detergents have other differences which are summarised in Table 15.3.1.

V Table 15.3.1 Soapy and soapless detergents compared

Soapy detergents Soapless detergents

They do not lather easily in hard water. Instead They lather in hard water. They do not form scum
they form unpleasant scum which wastes since their calcium and magnesium salts are soluble.

soap, forms a grey, greasy layer around sinks,

shoværs, etc. and discolours clothes.

They are biodegradable, i.e. they are Some are non-biodegradable. These cause foam to
broken down by bacteria in the environment, build up in sewerage systems and on waterways. This
therefore, they do not cause foaming in foam makes sewage treatment difficult and prevents
sewerage systems or on waterways, e.g. oxygen dissolving for aquatic organisms resulting in
lakes and rivers. Most of the modern soapless detergents
their death.

are, however, biodegradable.

They do not contain phosphates, therefore, They contain phosphates which are added to
they do not cause pollution. improve their cleaning ability. Phosphates pollute
aquatic environments by causing eutrophication,
i.e. the rapid growth of green algæ (Unit 20.5).
Eutrophication turns waterways green and eventually
makes them stagnant.

A Figure 15.3.10 Some soapless They are manufactured from a renewable They are manufactured from a non-renewable
detergents are non-biodegradable and resource, i.e. fats and oils. The supply of fats resource, i.e. petroleum. The supplies of petroleum
can damage the environment and oils will not run out. will eventually run out.

Practical activity

To compare the effects of a soapy and a soapless detergent

on hard water
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:
observation, recording and reporting.

You will be supplied with a soapy detergent, a soapless detergent, a sample

of soft water, a sample of hard water, four boiling tubes and two dropping
pipettes.

268
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Esters: RCOOR'

Method
1 Label the boiling tubes A, B, C and D. Place 20 cm3 of soft water into
each of A and B, and 20 cm3 of hard water into each of C and D.
2 Using a dropping pipette, add one drop of soapy detergent to the water
in tube A. Place a cork on the tube and shake vigorously for 10 seconds.
3 Allow the test tube to stand for 1 minute. If there is no permanent lather,

repeat step 2. Continue repeating step 2 until a permanent lather forms.

4 Observe the appearance of the mixture and note how many drops of
soapy detergent were required to form a permanent lather.

5 Repeat steps 2 to 4 adding soapy detergent to C and soapless

detergent to B and D.
6 Record your results in a table.
7 Compare the appearance of the contents of each tube when a
permanent lather formed and the number of drops of detergent needed
to form a permanent lather in each tube.

Summary questions
1 Give the conditions necessary for the formation of an ester.

2 Name the following esters:

a C3H7COOCH3 b C2H5COOC3H7
3 Give a balanced equation for:
a the formation of butyl ethanoate from ethanoic acid and butanol
b the hydrolysis of ethyl methanoate using sodium hydroxide solution.
4 What is saponification?

5 Compare a soapy detergent and a soapless detergent by referring to

their effects on:

a hard water b the environment.

Key concepts
Alcohols have the general formula + IOH.
The functional group of alcohols is the hydroxyl group, -OH
Alcohols with three or more carbon atoms display structural isomerism.
Alcohol molecules are polar.
Alcohols are less volatile than their corresponding alkanes because of
the polar nature of the molecules.
The smaller alcohols are completely soluble in water because of the
polar nature of the molecules. Solubility decreases as the molecular size
increases.

Ethanol burns in air or oxygen with a clean blue flame to form carbon
dioxide and water as steam. The reaction is exothermic.
Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen.
Ethanol can be dehydrated to ethene by being heated to 170 oc with
concentrated sulfuric acid.
269
 Esters: RCOOR' Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters

Ethanol can be oxidised by reacting it with acidified potassium

manganate(vll) solution or acidified potassium dichromate(vl) solution.
The reaction produces ethanoic acid and water.
The reduction of acidified potassium dichromate(vll) crystals by ethanol
and the accompanying colour change from orange to green is used in
the breathalyser test.
Ethanol reacts with alkanoic acids to produce an ester and water.
Ethanol can be produced by fermentation.
Fermentation is the chemical reaction in which carbohydrates are
converted into ethanol by yeast under anaerobic conditions.
Wine and rum are made by fermentation.
Alkanoic acids have the general formula CnH2„+ ICOOH.
The functional group of alkanoic acids is the carboxyl group, -COOH.
Alkanoic acid molecules are polar.
Alkanoic acids are less volatile than their corresponding alkanes because
of the polar nature of the molecules.
The smaller alkanoic acids are completely soluble in water because of the
polar nature of the molecules. Solubility decreases as the molecular size
increases.

Alkanoic acids partially ionise in water making them weak acids.

Aqueous ethanoic acid reacts with reactive metals, metal oxides, metal
hydroxide and metal carbonates in the same way as inorganic acids.
Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols to produce an ester and water.
ester is a compound formed when an alkanoic acid reacts with an
alcohol.

The reaction which makes an ester is a condensation reaction known

as esterification. It requires a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid and
heat.

Esters often have distinctive sweet fruity smells. Animal fats and
vegetable oils are esters of long-chain alkanoic acids and glycerol.
The functional group of esters is the ester group, -COO-.
Acid hydrolysis of an ester forms an alkanoic acid and an alcohol.
Alkaline hydrolysis of an ester forms the salt of an alkanoic acid and an
alcohol.

Saponification is the process by which soap is made by the alkaline

hydrolysis of animal fats or vegetable oils.

Soapless detergents are produced from petroleum.

Soapy detergents do not lather easily in hard water, instead they form
scum. Soapless detergents do lather in water.
Soapy detergents do not pollute because they are biodegradable and do
not contain phosphates. Soapless detergents can cause pollution because
some are non-biodegradable and they contain phosphates.

270
Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters Practice exam-style questions

a Draw the fully displayed structures of each of

Practice exam-style questions compounds A, C and D shown in the reaction
scheme above. (4 marks)
Multiple-choice questions b Name the type of reaction involved in the
Questions 1 and 2 refer to the following types of reaction. conversion of:
When answering the question, select the most appropriate i) Glucose to A. (1 mark)
type of reaction. ii) A to C. (1 mark)
A fermentation c State the reaction conditions and any reagents
B reduction necessary to convert:
C substitution i) AtoB (2 marks)
D oxidation ii) C to A (2 marks)

1 The process by which ethanol is produced from

iii) D to A and B (2 marks)

carbohydrates.
d Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction
between B and magnesium and name compound E.
2 The process by which ethanol is converted to ethanoic
(3 marks)
acid.
Total 15 marks
3 During the breathalyser test to detect the presence of
ethanol on a driver's breath, the ethanol:
A oxidises the green Cr3+ ion to the orange Cr2072- ion
Extended response question
B reduces the orange Cr2072- ion to the green Cr3+ ion Describe how you could prepare a pure sample
C reduces the green Cr3+ ion to the orange Cr2072- ion of ethanol from a suitable carbohydrate in the
D oxidises the orange Cr2072- ion the green Cr3+ ion laboratory. Include an equation for the reaction

4 Concentrated sulfuric acid is used in the reaction and name the most suitable method of obtaining a
sample of ethanol from the fermentation mixture.
between ethanoic acid and ethanol as:
(5 marks)
A a reducing agent
B an oxidising agent b Fats and oils are used to manufacture soaps. Fats and
C a catalyst oils are esters which consist of long-chain fatty acids

D a neutralising agent and glycerol.

i) If the structure of a fat is represented by the
5 Acid hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate will produce: following general formula,
A methanoic acid and ethanol
B methanoic acid, ethanol and carbon dioxide O
C ethanoic acid and methanol
D ethanoic acid, methanol and water
6 Which of the following will not react with aqueous write a balanced chemical equation to represent
sodium hydroxide? the formation ofa soap from this fat. (2 marks)
A ethanol ii) Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms that
B propanoic acid would be present in the R group of the fat
C ethyl methanoate represented in i) above if that group contains 18
D olive oil carbon atoms. (1 mark)
iii) Glycerol is a by-product in the manufacture
Structured question of soap. The formula of glycerol is
Would you expect glycerol to be soluble or
7 Study the information given in the following reaction
insoluble in water? Give a reason for your answer.
scheme and answer the questions which follow.
(2 marks)
Compound B has been identified for you.
iv) Describe what you would expect to observe when
yeast Mg glycerol reacts with sodium. Give a balanced
C6H1206(glucose) (CH3COOH) E+ H2(g)
equation to represent the reaction. (3 marks)
v) State TWO ways in which a soap prepared from a
fat or oil differs from a soapless detergent.
(2 marks)

c D Total 15 marks
(an alkene) (a sweet
smelling
compound)

271
 Polymers

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will macromolecules. They can be natural or synthetic, i.e.
be able to:
man-made. and cellulose are examples
Proteins, starch
define the term polymer of natural polymers, whereas polystyrene, PVC,
explain the process of addition
terylene and nylon are examples of synthetic polymers.
polymerisation
show how alkenes are linked in Synthetic polymers are collectively called plastics.
the structure of a polyalkene
Understanding the chemistry of polymers is important
give examples of polyalkenes
state the uses of different as it allows us to use and recycle them efficiently.
polyalkenes.

B16n1 Addition polymers

The carbon atom is unique among all elements that are found in nature. It

can form long-chain molecules known as macromolecules. Some of these

macromolecules are known as polymers. Polymers are made from small
molecules known as monomers which are linked together, usually in chains.
A polymer molecule may contain thousands of monomers.
The reaction which produces a polymer from monomers is known as
polymerisation.
Addition polymers are synthetic, i .e. man-made, polymers which are made by
addition polymerisation. Addition polymerisation occurs when monomers
containing a carbon-carbon double bond, i.e. alkenes, are linked together to
form a polymer. For this to occur, one of the bonds in the double bond of
each alkene molecule breaks. The molecules then bond to one another by
Key fact single covalent bonds between adjoining carbon atoms to form a polymer.

A polymer is a macromolecule
Polyalkenes
formed by 50 or
linking together
more small molecules, known as Addition polymers produced from alkenes by addition polymerisation are
monomers, usually in chains. known as polyalkenes. Polyalkenes are saturated compounds because they
only have single bonds between carbon atoms.

The carbon-carbon bond (-C-C-) which links each monomer unit

single
together is known as an alkane linkage. The specific name of a polymer is
derived from the name of the monomer from which it was formed. Some
examples of polyalkenes are given in the Table 16.1.1.

V Table 16.1.1 Names of some polyalkenes

Monomer ethene propene monochloroethene

Polymer polyethere polypropene polychloroethene

We will now look at the formation of polyethene and polypropene in more

detail.

Fomation of polyethene

Polyethene is formed by placing ethene (C2H4) in a pressurised container

and heating it with a catalyst. One of the bonds in the double bond of each
ethene molecule breaks and the saturated polymer, polyethene, is formed.
272
Polymers Addition polymers

The addition polymerisation of ethene can be represented by the following:

high pressure
ethene polyethene
catalyst, heat

In the formation of polyethene, thousands of ethene molecules join together.

We can represent the reaction using structural formulae as in Figure 16.1.1.
alkane
linkage

high pressure,
n C=C c
catalyst, heat

n
many ethene many ethene polyethene
molecules molecules

A Figure 16.1.1 The formation of polyethene

Formation of polypropene
Polypropene is formed by placing propene (C3H6) in a pressurised container
and heating it with a catalyst. Thousands of propene molecules then join
together to form polypropene.

In order to show the polymerisation of propene using structural formulae,

we must redraw the propene molecule shown in A below so that only the
two carbon atoms joined by the double bond are drawn horizontally. This is
shown in B below.
CH3
H—C—C=C c=c
H H

We can now show how propene can polymerise to form polypropene using
structural formulae:

CH3H CH3H
CH3 CH3
high pressure
n c=c n c=c catalyst, heat
c—c—c—c
n
many propene many propene
polypropene
molecules molecules

A Figure 16.1.2 The formation of polypropene

Ifthe monomer contains other atoms, groups of atoms or functional groups,

e.g. chlorine, fluorine or the ethyl group, then the monomer and the resulting
polymer can be represented as in Figure 16.1.3.

x x
n c=c -..................->
c—c where X is Cl, F, C2H5 etc.

n
monomer polymer

A Figure 16.1.3 Formation of a polyalkenes

In addition polymerisation:
e the polymer is the only product - the breaking of the double bond
makes it possible for the monomers to link together without losing any
atoms from between them
273
 Addition polymers Polymers

the monomers which make the polymer are all the same
the empirical formula of the polymer is the same as the monomer that
formed it since no atoms are lost during its formation, therefore, the

ratio of atoms in the two is the same.

Examples of monomers and their addition polymers are given in the

Table 16.1.2.

V Table 16.1.2 Examples of monomers and their addition polymers

Monomer a CHO
c=c c=c c=c
chloroethene tetrafluoroethere propene styrene

Polymer H a F F H CH3 H C6H5

c—c c—c c—c c—c c—c

H H n H H n F F n n n

pdyethene polychloroethere pdytetrafluoroethene polypropene polystyrere

Some addition polymers are more commonly known by other names, for
Did you know? example, polychloroethene is commonly known as polyvinyl chloride or
PVC, polytetrafluoroethene is commonly know0n as PTFE and polystyrene
In polystyrene, C6H5 a ringed
is
is often called styrofoam.
structure of six carbon atoms as
shown below.
Uses of polyalkenes
Because polyalkenes can be moulded easily into different shapes, are light in
c weight, are coloured easily, can be made to be flexible or rigid, are good thermal
c c and electrical insulators and are durable, i.e. they do not corrode or decay, they
have a great many uses. Table 16.1.3 summarises some of these uses.
c c
c V Table 16.1.3 Uses of some polyalkenes
Name of polymer
This also be represented as: To make plastic bags, plastic bottles, sandwich bags, cling
wrap, packaging materials and moisture barriers used in
construction.
or
Polychloroethere (PVC) To make pipe fittings, water pipes, guttering, plastic windows
and insulation for electrical wires and cables.

Polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE) As a non-stick coating on kitchen and garden utensils and to

make low-friction bearings.

Polypropene To make ropes, plastic toys, carpets and plastic food

containers.

Polystyrene (styrofoam) To make fast food containers and vending cups for drinks.
As a protective packaging material and an insulation material
in walls and roofs.

A Figure 16.1.4 Polyvinyl chloride is < Figure 16.1.5 Polypropene is used to

used to make guttering make ropes

274
Polymers Condensation polymers

Summary questions
1 What is a polymer?

2 Explain what happens during addition polymerisation.

3 For each of the following polymers, draw the structural formula of the
monomer that formed the polymer:
a H H H Cl

—c—c—c—c—c—c—
H H H H H H

CEN
H H H

—c—c—c—c—c—c—
H H H H H H
4 Give three examples of addition polymers and give two uses of each
of them.

B16.2 Condensation polymers Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
Condensation polymers are made by condensation polymerisation. be able to:
Condensation polymerisation involves linking monomers together in long
chains by eliminating a small molecule from between adjacent monomer explain the process of

units. The molecule is often water (H20), where one hydrogen atom (H) condensation polymerisation
comes from one monomer unit and an oxygen and a hydrogen atom (OH) show how monomers are

come from the adjacent monomer. Instead of water, other small molecules linked in the structure ofa
can also be eliminated such as hydrogen chloride (HCI) or ammonia (NH3). polyester, a polyamide and a
The elimination of a small molecule makes it possible for the monomers to polysaccharide
link up in chains. give examples of
polyesters, synthetic and
In contrast to addition polymerisation, during condensation natural polyamides and
polymerisation: polysaccharides
state the uses of different
o the polymer is not the only product made - condensation
condensation polymers
polymerisation always forms two products, the polymer and another
discuss the harmful effects
compound made of small molecules
of synthetic polymers on the
the polymer is often made from more than one different type of environment.
monomer
the empirical formula of the polymer is different from the monomer
since atoms are lost during the formation of the polymer.

In order for monomers to form condensation polymers, the monomer

molecules must have two functional groups, e.g. hydroxyl groups
(-0H) and/or carboxyl groups (-COOH). We will be studying three
different types of condensation polymers, polyesters, polyamides and
polysaccharides.

275
 Condensation polymers Polymers

Polyesters
O
Polyesters are synthetic condensation polymers that are formed from the
condensation reaction between an alkanoic acid and an alcohol. The acid and
a diacid the alcohol must both have two functional groups in their molecules. The
acid is, therefore, known as a diacid and the alcohol is known as a dialcohol.

The number of carbon atoms in the acid and the alcohol can vary, so we can
represent the carbon chain to which the functional groups are attached by
a dialcohol X or Y. The structural formulae in Figure 16.2.1 show the two monomers that
A Figure 16.2.1 Structural formulae of a are involved in the formation of a polyester.
diacid and a dialcohol
When these two molecules react with each other, a water molecule is
eliminated from between them and an ester functional group (—COO—
o
or -OOC-) forms which links the two together. The structure of the ester
—c—o— functional group is shown in Figure 16.2.2.
A Figure 16.2.2 The ester functional
group or ester linkage
A polyester forms by linking thousands of these monomers together
alternately in chains, with an ester functional group between adjacent
monomers. Therefore, we say that polyesters are polymers where the linkages
between monomers are ester linkages.
Figure 16.2.3 uses a diacid molecule and a dialcohol molecule to give a simple
representation of how they can be condensed to form a polyester molecule.

ester functional
group (linkage)

o o

VIZ-0i
Figure 16.2.3
A section of a polyester molecule H20 lost

An example of a polyester is polyethylene terephthalate, also known as PET,

or by brand names such as Terylene or Dacron. Polyethylene terephthalate
is formed from a diacid in which X has the formula C6H4 and a dialcohol in

which Y has the formula C2H4.

o
—C—N—
Polyamides
A Figure 16.2.4 The amide functional Polyamides all contain the amide functional group (-CONH- or -NHCO-).
group or amide linkage The structure of the amide functional group is shown in Figure 16.2.4.
Some polyamides are synthetic while others occur naturally. We will be
looking at both types in this section.

—N or —NH2
Synthetic polyamides

A Figure 16.2.5 The amino functional Synthetic polyamides are made from a diacid and a diamine. A diamine has
group two amino functional groups as shown in Figure 16.2.5.
The structural formulae in Figure 16.2.6 show the two monomers that are
involved in the formation of a synthetic polyamide.

O 40
c —CO—C /N—CYN
Figure 16.2.6 Structural formulae of a diacid and a diamine a diacid diamine

276
Polymers Condensation polymers

When these two molecules react with each other, a water molecule is

eliminated from between them and an amide functional group forms

which links the two together. A polyamide forms by linking thousands of
these monomers together alternately in chains, with an amide functional
group between adjacent monomers. Therefore, we say that polyamides are
polymers where the linkages between monomers are amide linkages.
Figure 16.2.7 uses a diacid molecule and a diamine molecule to give a simple
representation of how they can be condensed to form a synthetic polyamide
molecule.
o o
o

•-fi—o töZii----fi:
H20 lost amide functional

group (linkage)

A figure 16.2.7 A section of a polyamide molecule

An example of a synthetic polyamide is nylon 6,6, which is formed from a
diacid in which X has the formula C4H8 and a dialcohol in which Y has the
formula C6H12.

Natural polyamides

Proteins are natural polyamides formed by linking monomers known as

amino acids together. Amino acids are molecules which have one amino
functional group and one carboxyl functional group. The structural formula
of an amino acid is given in Figure 16.2.8.

o
N—C—C figure 16.2.8 Structural formula of an
O—H
amino acid molecule

In the amino acid molecule, R represents a variable hydrocarbon group

which may contain other atoms such as nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, as well
as carbon and hydrogen. There are 20 different groups, therefore there are 20
different amino acids which make up protein molecules.

Figure 16.2.9 uses two amino acid molecules to give a simple representation
of the condensation of amino acid molecules to form a protein molecule.

H H H O
H O H O
N—C—C + N—C—C —N—C—C—N—C—C—
R' H R
H20 lost
amide functional
group (linkage)

A figure 16.2.9 Formation of a protein molecule

Like synthetic polyamides, proteins contain the amide functional group or

amide linkage. In proteins, this amide linkage is also known as the peptide
linkage.

Examples of proteins include keratin which is found in hair and nails and
collagen which is found in the connective tissue that makes up structures
such as ligaments and tendons. Haemoglobin, enzymes, antibodies and
many hormones are also made of proteins.
277
 Condensation polymers Polymers

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are natural polymers formed by linking monomers known
as monosaccharides together. Examples of monosaccharides include
glucose, fructose and galactose. These are all isomers with the molecular
formula C6H1206.
Starch is a polysaccharide formed when glucose undergoes condensation
polymerisation. The simplified chemical equation for this reaction can be
written as follows, where n is the number of repeating glucose units in the
polysaccharide:

nC6H1206 + nH20
glucose starch

The structural formula of a glucose molecule is given in Figure 16.2.10.

If we think of two ofthe -OH groups ofa glucose molecule as being functional
groups, then we can represent the glucose molecule as H-O-X-O-H, where
H—C—O—H X represents the rest of the glucose molecule, i.e. Figure 16.2.11 uses
two glucose molecules to give a simple representation of the condensation of
c—— glucose molecules to form a starch molecule.

ether functional
group (linkage)
HO

H OH H20 iost
A Figure 16.2.10 Structural formula of a A figure 16.2.11 Formation of a starch molecule
glucose molecule
O -) between the monomers.
Polysaccharides contain the ether linkage (-
Other polysaccharides include glycogen or animal starch and cellulose
which is found in plant cell walls.

Uses of condensation polymers

Like polyalkenes, synthetic condensation polymers have a variety of uses.
Their molecules are extremely long and one of their main uses is to make
fibres. These fibres are strong, light in weight and durable, which makes
them very useful in the production of a variety of fabrics. Table 16.2.1
summarises some of the uses of both synthetic and natural condensation
polymers.

V Table 16.2.1 Uses of some condensation polymers

Type of polymer Name of polymer

Polyester Polyethylene terephthalate To make clothing, especially outdoor clothing,
(PET, Terylene or Dacron) bed sheets, towels, boat sails and carpets.
To make PET bottles for soft drinks.

Polyamide Nylon To ITEke fishing carpets and

lines, seatbelts,

clothing, especially where stretch is required,

e.g. nylon stockings and activity wear.

Polyamide protein To build body cells, hair and nails. To make

enzymes, antibodies and some hormones.
Exam tip
Polysaccharide Starch Used to produce energy during respiration
in living organisms after first being digested
It is very important that you know to glucose. Stored as a food reserve in living
the uses of the different types of
organisms.
polymers. Cellulose Used to build cell walls of plant cells.
Polysaccharide

278
Polymers Condensation polymers

Environmental impact of synthetic polymers

Synthetic polymers, otherwise known as plastics, can have a variety of
harmful effects on living systems and the environment. Some of these are
given below.
During the manufacture of plastics, a variety of toxic chemicals are
released into the environment. Some of these continue to be released
from the plastic items themselves during use and when disposed
of. Many of these chemicals are persistent, i.e. they remain in the

environment doing damage for a great many years.

e Most plastics are non-biodegradable. They build up in the environment
leading to land and water pollution. They are particularly harmful to
aquatic organisms, often leading to their death by being ingested or by
causing suffocation. (b)

e Plasticsproduce dense smoke and poisonous gases when burnt. These

can lead to air pollution and serious health problems, such as asthma,
immune system damage, cancer and damage to the nervous and
reproductive systems.
e Many plastics are flammable. As a result they pose fire hazards.
e Plastics are made from petroleum which is a non-renewable resource.
Their manufacture is contributing to the world wide depletion of
petroleum.

A Figure 16.2.12 Polyethylene

Summary questions terephthalate is used to make
(a) boat sails and (b) PET bottles
1 Explain what happens during condensation polymerisation.
2 Give two differences between addition polymerisation and condensation
polymerisation.

3 Draw the partial structure of a polyester which is made from four

monomer units.
4 Draw the structural formulae of the two monomer units in the following

polymer:
o o o o
—C—X—C—N—Y—N—C—X—C—N—Y—N—
II

H H H H

5 Give two examples of synthetic condensation polymers and one

example of a natural condensation polymer. Give two uses of each
polymer named.

279
 Condensation polymers Polymers

Key concepts
A polymer is a macromolecule formed by linking together 50 or more
small molecules, known as monomers, usually in chains.
Polymers can be synthetic, i.e. man-made, or natural. Synthetic
polymers are collectively known as plastics.
The reaction which forms a polymer is known as polymerisation.
Addition polymers are formed by addition polymerisation. Alkenes
form addition polymers when one bond in the carbon-carbon double
bond of each alkene molecule breaks. The molecules then bond to one
another by single covalent bonds between adjoining carbon atoms.
In addition polymerisation the only product is the polymer, all the
monomers are identical and the empirical formulae of the polymer and
the monomer are the same.
Alkenes form polymers known as polyalkenes.
Polyalkenes contain the alkane linkage (-C-C-) between monomers.
Polyethene, polypropene, polychloroethene (PVC) and polystyrene are
examples of polyalkenes.
Polyalkenes have a variety of uses.
Condensation polymers are formed by condensation polymerisation.
Condensation polymerisation involves linking monomers together in
long chains by eliminating a small molecule from between adjacent
monomer units.
In condensation polymerisation the polymer and another compound
composed of small molecules are produced, the monomers are not
necessarily identical and the empirical formulae of the polymer and the
monomer are different.
Polyesters are synthetic condensation polymers formed by the
condensation of a diacid and a dialcohol.
Polyesters contain the ester linkage (-COO-) between monomers.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), also known as Terylene or Dacron, is
an example of a polyester.
Synthetic polyamides are condensation polymers formed by the
condensation of a diacid and a diamine.
Nylon is an example of a synthetic polyamide.
Natural polyamides are condensation polymers formed by the
condensation of amino acids.
Proteins are natural polyamides.
All polyamides contain the amide linkage (-CONH-) between
monomers.
Polysaccharides are natural condensation polymers formed by the
condensation of monosaccharides.
Polysaccharides contain the ether linkage (-0-) between monomers.
Starch, glycogen and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides.
Condensation polymers have a variety of uses.
Synthetic polymers can have a variety of harmful effects on living
systems and the environment.

280
Polymers Practice exam-style questions

Use the information to answer the following

Practice exam-style questions questions.
i) What type of polymerisation is involved in the
Multiple-choice questions formation of EACH polymer? (3 marks)
1 Which of the following is not an addition polymer? ii) Draw the structural formula of EACH monomer
A polystyrene unit of A and of B. (2 marks)
B terylene iii) Name the monomer unit of B. (1 mark)
C polyethene iv) Name ONE naturally occurring polymer that
D polypropene could be represented by C and name the
2 Amide linkages are found in:
monomer which makes up the polymer you have
named. (2 marks)
I proteins
II terylene b The two compounds, E and F, illustrated below,
Ill nylon undergo polymerisation.
A I and II only O O
B II only c—x—c
C land Ill only O—H
D 1, 11 and 111

3 Amino acids are so called because they: i) Using TWO molecules of E and TWO molecules
A contain the NH2 group of F, show how the compounds are linked
B contain the COOH group together to form a polymer. (2 marks)
C turn blue litmus red ii) Name the type of linkage formed between the
D contain the NH2 group and the COOH group monomers in the polymer you have drawn
in part i) above and name the type of
4 In a condensation polymerisation reaction,
polymer. (2 marks)
A the polymer has a different empirical formula to the
monomer iii) Give a named example of the type of polymer
B one product is formed
drawn in i) above and state TWO of its uses.
(3 marks)
C the polymer is always formed from one type of
monomer only Total 15 marks
D water is always produced

5 The monomer of starch is:

Extended response question
A fructose 8 Polymers are found in every aspect of our daily lives.
B sucrose a What are polymers? (1 mark)
C galactose b Polymers can be classified into two groups, addition
D glucose polymers and condensation polymers. Briefly discuss
6 Which of the following is not true about plastics?
ONE named addition polymer and ONE named
synthetic condensation polymer. You should include
A They are flammable.
in your answer:
B They are easily biodegraded.
C They are good insulators. i) The structure of the monomer units of EACH
D They are easily moulded. polymer. (2 marks)
ii) Appropriate structures to show how the
monomers are linked to form EACH polymer.
Structured question
(4 marks)
7 a The structures A, B and C represent three types of iii) The name of the type of linkage formed between
polymers. the monomer units in EACH polymer. (2 marks)
iv) TWO uses of EACH polymer. (2 marks)
—c—c— c Addition polymers are formed by a process called
H CH3 H CH3H CH3 addition polymerisation and condensation polymers
are formed by condensation polymerisation.
Give TWO differences between the two types of
polymerisation. (2 marks)
N—C—C—N—C—C— d Give TWO disadvantages of the extensive use of
H CH3 H CH3 H synthetic polymers (plastics) in today's world.
CH3
(2 marks)

C —o—x—o—x—o—x— Total 15 marks

281
 Section C

C17 Characteristics of metals

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will metals account for about 80% of all the elements in the
be able to:
table. Metallurgy, i.e. the study of metals, is one of the
e describe the physical oldest applied sciences, dating back to 6000BC with
properties of metals
o relate the physical properties
the discovery of gold. Metals have a variety of physical
of metals to the way in which and chemical properties which enable them to play an
metal atoms are bonded in the
extremely important part in our daily lives.
metallic lattice.

C17.1 Physical properties of metals

Metals are elements whose atoms have a small number of valence electrons,
usually 1, 2 or 3. Most metals are found in Groups I, II and Ill of the periodic

table and between Groups II and Ill as the transition metals.

In Unit 5.4 you learnt that the type ofbonding between metal atoms in a metal
is known as metallic bonding and that metals have very distinct physical
properties as a result of this bonding. Recall that a metal lattice is composed

of metal cations surrounded by a 'sea' of delocalised, mobile electrons and

that the lattice is held together by the strong electrostatic force of attraction
between the positive cations and the delocalised, negative electrons known
as the metallic bond.

The way in which the metal atoms are bonded in metal lattices helps us to
understand the physical properties of metals. We will consider some of these
in detail below.

Metals have high melting points and boiling points

The electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive cations and
negative, delocalised electrons are relatively strong. As a result, large amounts
of heat energy are required to separate the atoms in order to melt or boil the
metals. All metals are found in the solid state at room temperature, with the
exception of mercury which is a liquid.

Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat

delocalised electrons in the metal lattice are not held in any fixed
positionand are free to move. These moving electrons act as charge carriers
allowing an electric current to be carried through the metal. They also act
A Figure 17.1.1 Because metals are as heat carriers allowing heat to be carried through the metal when, for
good conductors of heat they are example, one end of a piece of metal is placed in a hot environment, such as
used to make frying pans a flame, the other end of the metal quickly heats up.

Metals have a shiny lustre

Lustre is the shininess of a metal. Metals generally have a very

shiny, metallic lustre. This is because the mobile electrons
reflect the photons of light back from the metal surface before
they are allowed to penetrate far into the surface.
figure 17.1.2 This silver cup has a shiny metallic lustre

282
Characteristics of metals Chemical properties and reactions of metals

Metals are hard, malleable and ductile

Metals are considered to be hard because they are not easily damaged when
a force is applied to them. They are, however, malleable meaning that they

can be bent and hammered into different shapes. They are also ductile,
meaning that they can be drawn out into wires. This is because the atoms in
the metal are all of the same type, therefore they are all the same size. If force
is applied to the metal, the atoms can roll over each other into new positions

without breaking the metallic bond.

A Figure 17.1.3 This gold ring demonstrates the malleability of metals

Metals have high densities

The density of any substance is calculated by dividing the mass of the
substance by its volume. Metals have high densities because their atoms are
packed very closely together. This means that there are as many metal atoms
as possible in a given volume of metal.

Summary questions
1 Explain why metals have high melting points and boiling points.

2 Why are metals good conductors of electricity and heat?

3 Explain the terms 'malleable' and 'ductile'. Explain why metals are
malleable and ductile.

4 Why do metals have a high density?

Objectives
Because metals are elements whose atoms have a small number of valence By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
electrons, usually 1, 2 or 3, they form positive cations in chemical reactions
by losing these valence electrons. This can be summarised as follows: describe the reactions of
various metals with oxygen,
water and dilute acids
As a result, metals form ionic compounds when they react and the metal
name the products formed by
behaves as a reducing agent since it gives electrons to the other reactant, i.e. the reactions
it causes the other reactant to gain electrons (RIG).
write balanced chemical
Some metals are relatively stable while others react violently when exposed to equations for the reactions of
other substances, e.g. oxygen, water and acids. The way in which a particular various metals with oxygen,
metal reacts gives an indication of its reactivity. The reactivity of a metal is water and dilute acids.
related to the metal's position in the periodic table.

We will now look at the reactions of certain metals with oxygen, water and
dilute acids.

283
 Chemical properties and reactions of metals Characteristics of metals

The reactions of metals with oxygen

Some metals can be exposed to air without reacting to any great extent with
the oxygen in the air. These metals include the ones that we use regularly
and see around us. The surface of other metals oxidises immediately on
exposure to air and some metals react so vigorously with oxygen they have
to be stored under paraffin, e.g. potassium and sodium. The paraffin acts as a
barrier, preventing the metals from coming into contact with the air.

When metals react with oxygen, they form ionic compounds known as metal
oxides. This can be summarised by the following general word equation:

metal + oxygen metal oxide

A figure 17.2.1 Sodium has to be Table 17.2.1 shows what happens when certain metals react with oxygen in
stored under paraffin to prevent it from the air.
reacting with oxygen in the air

V Table 17.2.1 Reactions of metals with oxygen

Description of the reaction Description of the reaction

Metal Products formed when heated and equation
when exposed to dry air when heated in air

Potassium Reacts very readily forming Burns vigorously with a lilac

Forms a white powdery solid, potassium oxide:
potassium oxide flame
4K(s) + 02(g)

Sodium Reacts very readily forming Burns vigorously with an orange Forms a white powdery solid, sodium oxide:
sodium oxide flame
4Na(S) + 02(g) 2Na20(s)

Calcium Reacts readily to form coating of Burns very easily with a brick red Forms a white powdery solid called calcium oxide:
calcium oxide flame
2Ca(s) + 02(g)

Magnesium Reacts slowly to form a coating Burns easily with a bright white Forms a white powdery solid, magnesium oxide:
of magnesium oxide flame
2Mg(s) + 02(g) ...—4 2MgO(s)

Aluminium Reacts slowly to form a thin Burns when heated strongly, Forms a white powdery solid, aluminium oxide:
coating of aluminium oxide especially if powdered
4Al(s) + 302(g)

Zinc Reacts very slowly to form a thin Burns when heated strongly, Forms a white powdery solid, zinc oxide, which is yellow when hot:
coating of zirc oxide especially if powdered
2Zn(s) + 02(g) 2ZrO(s)

Iron Does rot react with dry air Burns when heated strongly, Forms a black powdery solid, iron(ll, II) oxide:
especially if powdered
3Fe(S) + 202(g) Fe304(s)

Copper Does not react with dry air Does rot burn when heated, but Forms a black solid, copper(ll) oxide:
does form an oxide coating if
2Cu(s) + 02(g) 2CuO(s)
heated very strongly

Silver Does rot react with dry air Does not react, even when
heated very strongly

If the metal oxides produced in these reactions can dissolve in water, the
resulting solution is alkaline. For example, potassium oxide reacts with
water to form soluble potassium hydroxide, sodium oxide reacts with water
to form soluble sodium hydroxide and calcium oxide reacts with water to
form calcium hydroxide which is slightly soluble. Potassium hydroxide,
sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide are alkalis. All the other oxides in
Table 17.2.1 are insoluble.

Looking at the reactions of metals with oxygen in the air we see that
potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium are the most reactive metals.
These metals are found in Groups I and II of the periodic table, i.e. to the far
left of the table. In general, the reactivity of metals decreases from left to right
across the periodic table.

284
Characteristics of metals Chemical properties and reactions of metals

The reactions of metals with water

Metals can also be added to water to determine their reactivity. In general,
metals that are very reactive with oxygen are highly reactive when exposed
to water.

When a metal reacts with water, the metal hydroxide and hydrogen are
produced. The reaction can be summarised by the following general word
equation:
metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen
When a metal reacts with steam, the metal oxide and hydrogen are produced.
The reaction can be summarised by the following general word equation:
metal + steam metal oxide + hydrogen
Table 17.2.2 shows what happens when certain metals are allowed to come
into contact with water or steam.

V Table 17.2.2 Reactions of metals with water or steam

Metal Description of the reaction Products formed and equation

Potassium Reacts very vigorously with cold Potassium hydroxide and hydrogen:
water producing a lilac flame
2K(s) + 2H20(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

Sodium Reacts vigorously with cold Sodium hydroxide and hydrogen:

vater, producirg an orarge flame
2Na(S) + 2H20(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Calcium Reacts moderately with cold Slightly soluble calcium hydroxide and hydrogen:
water
ca(s) + 2H20(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Magnesium Reacts very slowly with cold With water: very slightly soluble magnesium
water and slowly with hot water hydroxide and hydrogen:

Mg(s) + 2H20(l) + H2(g)

Reacts vigorously with steam With steam: magnesium oxide ard hydrogen:

Mg(s) + H20(g) MgO(s) + 2H2(g)

Aluminium Does not react with cold or hot Aluminium oxide and hydrogen:
water. Reacts Wth steam
2Al(s) + 3H20(g) AIL(s) + 3H2(g)

Zinc Does not react with cold or hot Zinc oxide and hydrogen:
vqater. Reacts with steam
Zn(s) + H20(g) ZnO(s) + H2(g)

Iron Does not react with cold or hot oxide and hydrogen:
water. Reacts Wth steam
3Fe(s) + 4H20(g) Fea04(s) + 4H2(g)

Copper Does not react with water or

steam

Silver Does not react with water or

steam

It 17.2.2 that some of the metals do not react with

can be seen from Table
water. They do, however, react with steam. The fact that they require steam
to react means that they are less reactive than the ones that react with cold
water. Once again, potassium, sodium and calcium are metals that react
most vigorously with water.
When potassium and sodium react with cold water, they both roll into a ball
and move rapidly around on the surface of the water as they decrease in size.
As they move, a lilac flame forms around the ball of potassium and an orange A Figure 17.2.2 A lilac flame forms
flame forms around the ball of sodium. The lilac flame around the potassium around potassium when it reacts with
is shown in Figure 17.2.2. cold water

285
 Chemical properties and reactions of metals Characteristics of metals

Practical activity

Investigating reactions of metals with water

(Teacher demonstration)
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

O observation, recording and reporting.

Your teacher will perform the following experiment.

Great care must be taken when reacting potassium and sodium with
water.

Method
1 Place about 2 cm3 of distilled water into a test tube and add a piece of
clean magnesium ribbon. Leave undisturbed for one hour.
2 Look for signs of effervescence and dip a piece of red litmus into the
solution.

3 Place about 2 cm3 of distilled water into another test tube and add a
piece of calcium.

4 Look for effervescence and test the gas for the presence of hydrogen
by placing a burning splint at the mouth of the tube. Dip a piece of red
litmus paper into the solution.

5 Half fill a large trough with water and place a very small piece of
potassium onto the surface of the water.

6 Look for a trail of effervescence as the potassium moves around on the

surface of the water. Note the colour of the flame that forms around the
potassium. When the potassium disappears, dip a piece of red litmus
paper into the solution.

7 Repeat step 6 with a small piece of sodium. If a flame does not form
around the ball of sodium, test for the presence of hydrogen by touching
the sodium with a burning splint.

8 Which metal reacted the most vigorously with water and which reacted
the least vigorously?

9 Write balanced chemical equations for the four reactions.

The reactions of metals with dilute acids

In general, reactive metals react with acids, except nitric acid, to form a salt
and hydrogen. We can again see that the metals which are very reactive
with oxygen and water are also very reactive with acids. The reaction can be
summarised by the following general word equation:

reactive metal + acid salt + hydrogen

The salt that is produced depends on the metal used and the acid.
Table 17.2.3 shows what happens when certain metals react with dilute
hydrochloric acid. When a metal reacts with hydrochloric acid the salt
formed is a chloride.
286
Characteristics of metals Chemical properties and reactions of metals

V Table 17.2.3 Reactions of metals with hydrochloric acid

Metal Description of the reaction Products formed and equation

Potassium An extremely violent reaction occurs potassium chloride and hydrogen: 2K(S) + 2HCl(aq) 2KCl(aq) + H2(g)

Sodium A violent reaction occurs Sodium chloride and hydrogen: 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

Calcium A fairly violent reaction occurs Calcium chloride and hydrogen: Ca(S) + 2HCl(aq) CaC12(aq) + H2(g)

Magnesium A very vigorous reaction occurs Magnesium chloride and hydrogen: Mg(S) + 2HCl(aq) MgC12(aq) + H2(g)

Aluminium A vigorous reaction occurs Aluminium chloride and hydrogen: 2Al(S) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCla(aq) + 3H2(g)

Zinc A fairly vigorous reaction occurs Zinc chloride and hydrogen: Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnC12(aq) + H2(g)

Iron A very sbw reaction occurs Iron(ll) chloride and hydrogen: Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeC12(aq) + H2(g)

Copper Does nd react with dilute acids

Silver Does not react with dilute acids

Looking at the reactions of metals with hydrochloric acid we can again see
that potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium are the most reactive ? Did you know?
metals.
It is unadvisable to perform the
The reactions between the metals and dilute sulfuric acid are very similar to
reactions of potassium, sodium and
the reactions which occur with dilute hydrochloric acid. However, when a calcium with an acid because these
metal reacts with sulfuric acid, the salt formed is a sulfate. three metals react so violently that
the reactions are dangerous.

Practical activity

Investigating reactions of metals with dilute acids

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

o observation, recording and reporting

analysis and interpretation.

You be supplied with samples of the metals magnesium, aluminium,

will

and copper, dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sulfuric acid, five test
zinc, iron
tubes and a wooden splint.

Method
1 Carefully place about 2 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into each of the
five test tubes.

2 Label each tube with the symbol of the particular metal that will be
added.
hydrogen gas
3 Add a small piece of metal to each tube so that each tube contains a
lighted splint
different metal as indicated by its label.

4 Observe each tube for signs of effervescence. If effervescence is seen,

test the gas presence of hydrogen by placing a lighted splint
for the
at the mouth of the tube and feel the bottom of the tube to see if it A Figure 17.2.3 The production of
hydrogen gas can be confirmed
becomes warm.
by holding a lighted splint near the
5 If no effervescence is seen, heat the tube gently. If effervescence is mouth of the test tube. A 'squeaky
seen on heating, test the gas for the presence of hydrogen. Make sure pop' sound will identify the gas as
hydrogen.
that you do not confuse effervescence with bubbling that occurs if the
acid boils. Effervescence continues after the tube is removed from the
source of heat, boiling does not.

287
 Reactions of metal compounds Characteristics of metals

Summary questions Repeat the method using dilute sulfuric acid in place of dilute

hydrochloric acid.
1 Write a balanced chemical
equation for each of the
7 Record your observations in a table, noting if the reaction needed

following reactions:
heating.

calcium reacting with oxygen 8 Did the metals differ in their reactivity with the acids? If they did, which
b zinc reacting with metal reacted the most vigorously and which showed no reaction at all,

hydrochloric acid even when heated?

c iron reacting with sulfuric 9 In what ways were the reactions between the metals and the two acids
acid.
similar? Were there any differences?
2 How do the products of the 10 Aluminium did not react as described in Table 17.2.3 until the test
reactions differ whenmagnesium tubes were heated. Can you suggest why?
reacts with water and when
11 Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions of the metals with
it reacts with steam? Write a
dilute sulfuric acid.
balanced chemical equation for
each reaction.

3 Which seems to be more During the experiment, you possibly discovered that aluminium did
not react with the acids until the test tubes were heated. This is because
reactive, iron or copper?
aluminium is coated with a thin film of aluminium oxide which prevents
4 Which seem to be the least
it from reacting with acids when cold. When heated, the acids react with

reactive, Group metals, Group

I II the aluminium oxide forming soluble aluminium chloride or aluminium
metals or the transition metals? sulfate. These salts dissolve and the aluminium is then able to react with
the acids.

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: You have already come across some of the reactions of metal compounds.
We will review these and look at some new reactions in this unit. The
describe the reactions of
compounds we will be looking at include metal oxides, metal hydroxides,
metal oxides, hydroxides and metal carbonates and metal nitrates.
carbonates with acids
describe the decomposition
reactions of metal nitrates, Reactions of metal oxides
carbonates and hydroxides.
Metal oxides react with acids to form a salt and water. The reaction can be
summarised by the following general word equation:
metal oxide + acid salt + water
This reaction is known as a neutralisation reaction since the metal oxide is
a base that neutralises the acid to form a salt and water. When a metal oxide
reacts with an acid the reaction becomes warmer because it is exothermic.

Examples
1 Copper(ll) oxide reacts with sulfuric acid to produce soluble copper(ll)
sulfate and water:

cu0(s) + H2S04(aq) CuS04(aq) + H20(1)

During the reaction, the black, powdery copper(ll) oxide disappears

A Figure 17.3.1 Black powdery copper(ll)
slowly and a blue solution forms. This is because soluble copper(ll)
oxide slowly disappears in sulfuric
acid as it reacts to form soluble, blue sulfate is produced which contains blue Cu2+ ions. The reaction can be
copper(ll) sulfate speeded up by heating it.
288
Characteristics of metals Reactions of metal compounds

2 Magnesium oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce soluble

magnesium chloride and water:

MgO(s) +2HCl(aq) MgC12(aq) + H20(1)

The white, powdery magnesium oxide disappears as it reacts with the

acid to form a colourless solution of magnesium chloride.

Reactions of metal hydroxides

Metal hydroxides also react with acids to form a salt and water. The reaction
can be summarised by the following general word equation:

metal hydroxide + acid salt + water

This reaction is also a neutralisation reaction since the metal hydroxide
is a base and it neutralises the acid to form a salt and water. The reaction is

exothermic, therefore it becomes warmer.

Examples
1 Copper(ll) hydroxide reacts with nitric acid to produce soluble copper(ll)
nitrate and water:

+ 2HN03(aq) + 2H20(1)

During the reaction, the blue copper(ll) hydroxide disappears and a blue
solution forms due to the production of soluble copper(ll) nitrate which
contains blue Cu2+ ions.

2 Zinc hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce soluble zinc

chloride and water:

+ 2HC1(aq) ZnC12(aq) + 2H20(1)

The white, powdery zinc hydroxide disappears at it reacts with the acid
to form a colourless solution of zinc chloride.

Reactions of metal carbonates

Metal carbonates react with acids to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
The reaction can be summarised by the following general word equation:
metal carbonate + acid salt + carbon dioxide + water
When a metal carbonate reacts with an acid, effervescence is seen as the
carbon dioxide is evolved.

Examples
1 Calcium carbonate reacts with nitric acid to produce soluble calcium
nitrate, carbon dioxide and water:

+ C02(g) + H20(1)

During the reaction, fairly vigorous effervescence occurs, and the white
calcium carbonate quickly disappears as it reacts with the acid to form a
colourless solution of calcium nitrate.

289
Reactions of metal compounds Characteristics of metals

2 carbonate reacts with sulfuric acid to produce iron(ll)

Iron(ll) sulfate,
carbon dioxide and water:

FeC03(s) + H2S04(aq) FeS04(aq) + C02 + H20(1)

Fairly vigorous effervescence occurs. The green iron(ll) carbonate quickly

disappears and a green solution forms due to the production of soluble
iron(ll) sulfate which contains green Fe2+ ions.

Decomposition of metal compounds

Many metal compounds decompose when they are heated. Table 17.3.1
summarises the effects of heat on metal nitrates, metal carbonates and metal
hydroxides.
V Table 17.3.1 The effect of heat on metal nitrates, metal carbonates and metal hydroxides

Metal compound
Metal
Nitrates Carbonates Hydroxides
Potassium Decompose to form the metal nitrite and oxygen: Do not decompose. Do not decompose.
The carbonates are stable. The hydroxides are stable.
Sodium 2NaN03(s) 2NaN02(s) + 02(g)

Calcium Decompose to form the metal oxide, nitrogen Decompose to form the metal oxide Decompose to form the metal oxide and
dioxide and oxygen: and carbon dioxide: water (as steam):
Magresium
Aluminium 2MgO(s) + 4N02(g) + 02(g) MgO(s) + C02(g) MgO(s) + H20(g)

Zinc 2Cu0(s) + 4N02(g) + 02(g) CUC03(S) CuO(s) + C02(g) CuO(s) + H20(g)

Iron

Lead

Copper
Sliver Decomposes to form the metal, silver, nitrogen Silver carbonate does not exist since it Silver hydroxide does not exist since it is

dioxide and oxygen: is too unstable. too unstable

2AgNOa(s) 2Ag(S) + 2N02(g) + 02(g)

When some metal compounds are heated and they decompose, colourchanges
are observed. For example, when the compounds of copper are heated they
change colour from blue or blue-green to black because black copper(ll) oxide
is formed in each reaction. When compounds of lead are heated, they change

colour from white to yellow because yellow lead(ll) oxide is produced. Tests
given in Table 22.3.1 on page 354 can be used to identify the oxygen, nitrogen
dioxide, carbon dioxide and water vapour produced when metal compounds
decompose.
Looking at the decomposition of metal compounds we can see that potassium
and sodium form stable compounds which do not decompose on heating or,
in the case of the nitrates, only decompose slightly. However, silver forms
compounds which are too unstable to exist or, in the case of silver nitrate,
decomposes very easily and completely when heated.

Practical activity

Investigating the decomposition of metal compounds

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:
O observation, recording and reporting.

You will be supplied with samples of sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate, sodium carbonate, copper(ll) carbonate,
magnesium hydroxide, lime water, a wooden splint, a piece of blue litmus paper, a piece of cobalt chloride paper
and dry test tubes, one fitted with a cork which has a delivery tube running through it.
Characteristics of metals Reactions of metal compounds

Method
1 Place a spatula of sodium nitrate into a test tube and heat strongly until you see vigorous effervescence. While
still heating test for the presence of oxygen by inserting a glowing splint slowly into the tube.
2 Repeat step 1 using calcium nitrate in place of sodium nitrate. This time test for oxygen when a brown gas
begins to be produced. Place a piece of moist blue litmus paper into the brown gas. Take care not to inhale the
fumes. If you have a fume cupboard available, you should do this in the fume cupboard.

3 Place a spatula of copper(ll) carbonate into a test tube. Place the cork into the mouth of the tube with the other

end of the delivery tube leading into a test tube containing lime water (see figure 8.1.2). Heat the test tube
strongly and observe the lime water.

4 Repeat step 3 using sodium carbonate in place of copper(ll) carbonate.

5 Place a spatula of magnesium hydroxide in a test tube and heat strongly. Place a piece of dry cobalt chloride
paper across the mouth of the tube.
6 Describe what you saw when each compound was heated.

7 Which compound did not decompose? Explain why.

8 Explain the colour change you saw when you heated copper(ll) carbonate.

9 Write balanced chemical equations for the decomposition reactions.

Summary questions
1 Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the following:
a the reaction between magnesium hydroxide and nitric acid
b the reaction between copper(ll) carbonate and hydrochloric acid
c the reaction between zinc oxide and sulfuric acid.

2 Describe and explain the colour change which occurs when copper(ll)
oxide is put into sulfuric acid and heated gently.
3 Write balanced chemical equations to show the effect of heat on the
following metal compounds:
a calcium carbonate
b potassium nitrate
c zinc hydroxide
d lead(ll) nitrate.

291
 Reactions of metal compounds Characteristics of metals

Key concepts
Metals are elements whose atoms have a small number of valence
electrons, usually 1, 2 or 3, and they form positive cations in chemical
reactions by losing these valence electrons.
A metal lattice is composed of metal cations surrounded by a 'sea' of
delocalised electrons.

The electrostatic attraction between positive cations and delocalised

negative electrons, known as the metallic bond, holds the metal lattice
together.
In general, metals have high melting points and boiling points, conduct
electricity and heat, have a shiny lustre, are malleable and ductile and
have high densities.
The properties of metals can be explained by relating them to the
structure of the metallic lattice.

Metals form positive cations in chemical reactions by losing valence

electrons. As a result they form ionic compounds.

Metals behave as reducing agents in reactions.

Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides.
If metal oxides can dissolve in water they form alkaline solutions.
Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium react with water to form
the metal hydroxide and hydrogen.
Other metals, except copper, react with steam to form the metal oxide
and hydrogen.
Reactive metals react with hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid to form a
salt and hydrogen.
Metal oxides react with acids to form a salt and water. The reaction is a
neutralisation reaction.
Metal hydroxides react with acids to form a salt and water. The reaction
is also a neutralisation reaction.

Metal carbonates react with acids to form a salt, carbon dioxide and
water.

The nitrates of potassium and sodium decompose when heated to form

the metal nitrite and oxygen.
The nitrates of other metals, except silver, decompose when heated to
form the metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
Silver nitrate decomposes when heated to form silver, nitrogen dioxide
and oxygen.
The carbonates and hydroxides of potassium and sodium are not
decomposed when heated.
The carbonates of other metals, except silver, decompose when heated
to form the metal oxide and carbon dioxide. Silver carbonate does not
exist.

The hydroxides of metals, except silver, decompose when heated to form

the metal oxide and water as steam. Silver hydroxide does not exist.

292
Characteristics of metals Practice exam-style questions

i) Complete the table by writing in the missing

Practice exam-style questions information. (3 marks)
ii) Using the symbols A and B, as shown in the
Multiple-choice questions table above, write balanced equations for the
1 All metals: following:
I are solid at room temperature - the reaction between A and steam
II lose electronswhen they react - the reaction between B and hydrochloric
Ill form soluble basic oxides when they react with oxygen acid
- the reaction between A and oxygen.
A II only
B land II only (5 marks)

C land Ill only b i) When most nitrates are heated, one or two
D II and Ill only gases may be given off. From the nitrates of
the metals calcium, sodium, zinc and copper,
2 The following statements are all true except: select ONE nitrate that:
A When calcium reacts with cold water it forms calcium - gives off ONE gas
hydroxide and hydrogen. - gives off TWO gases. (2 marks)
B Iron reacts more vigorously than zinc with hydrochloric ii) Write the equation for the reaction which
acid. gives off TWO gases above. (2 marks)
C Magnesium burns readily in air. c An unknown metal, Z, was found to react in a very
D When silver nitrate decomposes it forms silver. similar way to magnesium. How would the action

3 Metals can conduct an electric current because: of heat on the carbonate of Z differ from the
A the atoms in the metal vibrate action of heat on sodium carbonate?
B the cations in the metal lattice are mobile Give the relevant equation(s) given that Z forms
C there are small spaces between the atoms in the metal the Z2+ ion. (3 marks)

which allow electricity to pass through

lattice Total 15 marks
D some of the electrons in the metal lattice are mobile
4 Which of the following is a true statement? Extended response question
A Metals react with oxygen in the air to form acidic oxides. Metals have certain physical properties in
B All metal hydroxides decompose when heated. common. They are good conductors of electricity,
C Magnesium carbonate decomposes into magnesium they are malleable and ductile and they have
oxide and carbon dioxide when heated. high melting points. By reference to the bonding
D Copper reacts readily with hydrochloric acid. in metals, explain the reason for EACH of the
properties listed. (6 marks)
5 Zinc liberates hydrogen gas from:
I cold water
b Zinc carbonate, copper(ll) oxide and magnesium
hydroxide are each treated with excess dilute
II steam
nitric acid in three separate experiments. Discuss
Ill sulfuric acid
EACH reaction using the following sub-titles:
A land II only i) observations on adding dilute nitric acid
B II and Ill only ii) explanation of the observations
C 1,11 and 111 iii) equation for the reaction. (9 marks)
D Ill only
Total 15 marks
6 When sodium nitrate crystals are heated:
A they melt but do not decompose
B they form a brown, acidic gas
C they form a gas which relights a glowing splint
D they evolve a gas which causes a lighted splint to be
extinguished with a squeaky pop

Structured question
7 a The table below gives some information about two
metals, A and B, and their reactions.

Charge on the Action of dilute hydrochloric acid

Metal Action of water on the metal Action of air on the metal
metal ion on the metal
2+ Does not react with cold or hot water Burns when heated strongly, especially
but does react with steam if powdered
Reacts violently

293
 CIB Reactivity, extraction
uses of metals
and

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will so reactive that they must be stored out of contact
be able to:
with oxygen or moisture in the air. Others are extremely
discuss the reactivity of metals unreactive. The reactive metals occur in the Earth's
describe displacement
reactions between metals and crust compounds from which they are extracted.
in ionic
metal compounds These compounds are known as ores. The unreactive
explain the basis of the
ones occur in the Earth's crust in their elemental state.
reactivity series of metals
deduce the order of Metals are used extensively by man to make many
reactivity of metals based on of the things we see around us and this makes their
experimental results.
extraction extremely important.

C18.1 The reactivity of metals

It is possible to determine the reactivity series of metalsby looking at their
reactions.The reactivity series of metals is a list of metals arranged in order
from the most reactive to the least reactive based on the following:
the strength of their reactions with oxygen, water and dilute
hydrochloric acid or dilute sulfuric acid
how easily their compounds are decomposed when heated
displacement reactions between the metals and metal compounds.

We will now look at each of these.

Strength of reaction with oxygen, water and

dilute acids
You studied the reactions of a variety of metals with oxygen, water and dilute
acids in Unit 17.2. Looking at these we can see certain trends.

e Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium appear to be the most

reactive metals with oxygen, water and hydrochloric and
sulfuric acid.

Copper is the least reactive metal with oxygen and it does not react
with steam or dilute acid. Silver does not react with oxygen, water or
dilute acids.

Startingfrom potassium, the strength of the reaction of the metals

with oxygen, water and dilute acid decreases in the following order:
potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, copper and
finally silver.

In Unit 4 you learnt that the reactivity of a metal is determined by how

easily its atoms ionise, known The more easily a metal

as ease of ionisation.
ionises, the more reactive it is. Of the metals studied, potassium is the most
reactive metal because it ionises the most easily and silver is the least reactive
because it ionises the least easily.
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals The reactivity of metals

Decomposition of metal compounds

We studied the decomposition of metal compounds in Unit 17.3. Looking at
these reactions we can again see certain trends.
e The very reactive metals, potassium and sodium, form fairly stable
compounds. Their carbonates and hydroxides are so stable that they are
not decomposed when heated and their nitrates are decomposed only
very slightly.
e The compounds of silver are extremely unstable such that silver
carbonate and silver hydroxide are too unstable to exist and silver nitrate
decomposes very easily when heated.
Compounds of the other metals decompose when heated. Starting
from the compounds of calcium, the ease of decomposition of the
compounds increases in the following order: calcium, magnesium, zinc,
aluminium, iron, lead and finally copper.
From this it can be seen that the more reactive the metal is, the more stable
are its compounds. The less reactive the metal is, the less stable are its
compounds and the more easily they decompose. This is because the reactive
metals ionise easily and the ions they form are very stable. This makes their
compounds very stable. The less reactive metals do not ionise easily and
the ions they form are unstable. This means that their compounds are also
unstable.

Displacement reactions
displacement reaction occurs when a metal in its free state (chemically
uncombined) takes the place of (displaces) another metal from a compound.
A more reactive metal will always displace a less reactive metal from its
compounds.
If a more reactive metal is placed in a solution containing ions of a less
reactive metal, the more reactive metal will ionise and the ions of the less
reactive metal will be discharged to form atoms. As a result, a precipitate of
the less reactive metal will form on the surface of the more reactive metal.
This often drops off into the solution when disturbed and the more reactive
metal gradually decreases in size. Depending on the nature of the solution, it
may also undergo a colour change as the reaction proceeds.
Displacement reactions are exothermic reactions. The greater the
difference in the reactivity of the two metals, the more heat is produced in
the reaction.

A displacement reaction can be summarised by the following general

equation:

more less
reactive reactive
than B than A

Ais more reactive than B. A ionises to form An+ ions:

An + + ne

e Bis less reactive than A. The W + ions are discharged to form B atoms:

295
The reactivity of metals Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals

Displacement reactions are also redox reactions. The more reactive metal
Did you know? acts as a reducing agent because it gives electrons to the ions of the less
reactive metal. The more reactive the metal is, the more powerful it is as a
possible to make a 'silver tree'
It is
reducing agent.
by placing a coil of copper wire into
a solution of silver nitrate. Copper is
Example
more reactive than silver, therefore,
it displaces the silver from the The reaction between magnesium and copper(ll) sulfate solution:
silver nitrate and after a while silver
Mg(S) 4- CUS04(aq) ...—4 MgS04(aq) + cu(s)
isdeposited on the copper wire
forming a beautiful 'tree'. Magnesium is more reactive than copper, therefore, the magnesium ionises
and the Mg2+ ions enter the solution.

Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2e

The Cu2+ ions in the copper(ll) sulfate solution are discharged forming
copper atoms:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)

A pink precipitate of copper builds up on the magnesium and drops off into
the solution when disturbed. The magnesium becomes smaller and the blue
colour of the solution gradually fades as the blue Cu2+ ions are discharged.

The overall ionic equation for the reaction is:

Mg(S) + ct12+ (aq) Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Practical activity
A Figure 18.1.1 When copper is placed
into a solution containing silver ions,
Investigating displacement reactions
silver is deposited on the copper
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

analysis and interpretation.

You will be supplied with clean samples of the following metals of

approximately the same size: magnesium, zinc and copper, magnesium

sulfate solution, zinc sulfate solution, copper(ll) sulfate solution and six test
tubes.

Method
1 Place about 5 cm3 magnesium sulfate solution into each of two test
tubes, 5 cm3 of zinc sulfate solution into another two tubes and 5 cm3
of copper(ll) sulfate solution into the last two tubes. Measure and record
the temperature of each solution.

2 Add a piece of magnesium to the zinc sulfate and the copper(ll) sulfate
solutions, a piece of zinc to the magnesium sulfate and the copper(ll)

sulfate solutions and a piece of copper to the magnesium sulfate and

the zinc sulfate solutions.

3 Gently shake each tube periodically and observe what occurs in

each. If a displacement reaction occurs, it should be possible to see

the displaced metal deposited on the metal you added and possibly
dropping off from the metal into the solution when shaken.
4 After 10 minutes, measure the temperature of the contents of each
tube. If the temperature of any tube increases, calculate the increase.
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals The reactivity of metals

5 Observe the colour of the copper(ll) sulfate solution in each tube after

about 30 minutes.
6 Record your observations and any temperature increases in a table
similar to the one outlined below. The dash indicates that the reaction

was not carried out. If no reaction occurred, place a cross in the

appropriate place.

Observations on adding

Magnesium Zinc Copper

Magnesium sulfate
solution

Zirc sulfate solution

Copper(u) sulfate solution

7 Using the information from the table, draw up a list of the three metals
so that the most reactive metal occurs at the top and the least reactive
metal appears at the bottom.
8 Why was the temperature increase greater when magnesium was
placed in copper(ll) sulfate solution than when it was placed in zinc
sulfate solution?

9 Write balanced chemical equations for each reaction that occurred.

10 Explain the following:

why a reaction occurred between magnesium and copper(ll) sulfate
solution

b why no reaction occurred between copper and zinc sulfate solution

c why the blue colour of the solution faded in the reaction between
zinc and copper(ll) sulfate solution.

most reactive

potassium

magnesium zinc copper(ll) sodium

sulfate solution sulfate solution sulfate solution
calcium

magnesium
aluminium

zinc

iron

zinc copper magnesium copper magnesium zinc

(hydrogen)

A Figure 18.1.2 The displacement reactions of various metals with metal salts copper

mercury

silver

The reactivity series of metals gold

The reactivity series of some of the common

drawn up from the
metals,
strength of the reactions of the metals with oxygen, water and dilute acids, least reactive

the ease of decomposition of the metal compounds and displacement A figure 18.1.3 The reactivity series of
reactions, is given in Figure 18.1.3. metals

297
The reactivity of metals Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals

Potassium, at the top, is the most reactive. It ionises the most easily and forms
Exam tip the most stable ions which are very hard to discharge. Gold, at the bottom, is
the least reactive. It ionises with great difficulty and forms very unstable ions
It is realty important that you learn which are very easy to discharge.
the order of reactivity of the
metals in the reactivity series.
We can use the reactivity series of metals to make certain predictions.
We can predict how any metal will react if its position in the reactivity
series isknown. For example, if a metal occurs between calcium and
magnesium it will react less vigorously than calcium with oxygen,
water and dilute acids but more vigorously than magnesium. The metal
will also not displace calcium but will displace magnesium from their

compounds.
We can predict what position a metal will occupy in the reactivity series if
the way it reacts is known. For example, if a metal is found to react more
vigorously with dilute hydrochloric acid than zinc and is also found
to displace zinc from zinc sulfate solution but not magnesium from
magnesium sulfate solution, then the metal must occur above zinc but
below magnesium.
Iftwo metals are very similar in the way they react, then it is easy to determine
which is higher in the series by carrying out displacement reactions between
the two metals and their compounds. The higher metal will always displace
the lower metal from its compounds.

Ilydrogen is included in the reactivity series even though it is a non-metal.

We can use the position of hydrogen to predict how metals will react with
acids since acids contain the hydrogen ion, H

Exam tip if a metal is above hydrogen in the reactivity series, then it will react

with the acid because it displaces the hydrogen in the acid

It important that you know how
is if a metal is below hydrogen in the reactivity series, it will not react with
to deduce the order of reactivity the acid because it will not displace the hydrogen in the acid
of metals based on experimental
the higher up the metal is in the series, i.e. the further it is away from
results or data supplied.
hydrogen, the more vigorous the reaction will be with an acid.

Summary questions
1Why is sodium more reactive than copper?
2 Why don't potassium carbonate and sodium carbonate decompose
when heated?
3 Would a reaction occur if:

a piece of clean magnesium ribbon was placed into copper(ll)

sulfate solution
b a clean piece of copper was placed into sodium sulfate solution?

If a reaction occurs, explain why and give a balanced equation for the
reaction.

4 Explain the benefit of including hydrogen in the reactivity series of

metals even though it is a non-metal.
5 Metal A will react with a solution containing ions of metal B but will not
react with a solution containing ions of metal C. Write metals A, B and
C in their correct order of reactivity from the most reactive to the least
reactive.
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals The extraction of metals

C18.2 The extraction of metals Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
The very unreactive metals occur in the Earth's crust in their free elemental be able to:
state, e.g. silver and gold, and can, therefore, be mined directly from the
Earth. Most metals, however, occur combined with other elements in impure
explain how the position of a
metal in the reactivity series
ionic compounds and they then have to be extracted from these compounds.
determines its extraction
Compounds from which metals can be extracted are known as ores. The
method
most important ores are metal oxides, sulfides and carbonates.
describe the extraction of
The extraction of a metal from its ore is a reduction process because the aluminium
positive metal cations have to be discharged to form atoms by gaining describe the extraction of iron.
electrons:

The actual method used depends on the position ofthe metal in the reactivity
series.

Metals high in the reactivity series, i.e. potassium, sodium, calcium,

magnesium and aluminium, form very stable ions which are difficult to
reduce. They need a powerful method of reduction. The most powerful
method is electrolysis of the molten ore. This method uses the most
energy and is the most expensive.
Metals lower down in the reactivity series, i.e. zinc and below, form less
stable ions which are easier to reduce than those high in the series.
They need a less powerful method of reduction which involves heating
the ore with a reducing agent such as carbon, carbon monoxide or
hydrogen. This method uses less energy than electrolysis and is less
expensive.

Extraction of aluminium
Aluminium is the third most abundant in the Earth's crust after oxygen and
silicon, and the most abundant metal. The main ore from which aluminium
is extracted is known as bauxite. Bauxite is impure, hydrated aluminium
oxide, A1203.xH20. There are large bauxite reserves in both Jamaica and
Guyana. After the bauxite has been mined, it is purified to form pure,
anhydrous aluminium oxide, also known as alumina, A1203. The alumina
is then exported, mainly to Canada and the USA, where the aluminium is

extracted by electrolysis.

The of alumina takes place in a large steel tank lined with carbon
electrolysis
(graphite), electrolytic cell. The carbon lining acts as the
which forms an
negative cathode in the electrolysis process. In the middle ofthe tank there are
huge blocks of carbon, hung from above, which act as the positive anode.
An electrolytic cell used for the extraction of aluminium is shown in
Figure 18.2.1.

carbon blocks
(positive anode)
steel cell

bubbles of alumina dissolved

oxygen gas in molten cryolite

carbon lining molten aluminium

molten aluminium
(negative cathode) can be tapped off
A Figure 18.2.1 Extracting aluminium by
electrolysis
The extraction of metals Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals

The extraction process involves the following steps:

1 The pure alumina (aluminium oxide) is dissolved in molten cryolite
at about 950 oc. Cryolite is sodium aluminium fluoride, Na3AlF6. The
alumina is dissolved in the cryolite because the melting point of alumina
is extremely high, i.e. 2050 oc, and the liquid formed when it melts is a

poor conductor. By dissolving it in molten cryolite, its melting point is

reduced meaning less energy is required and the solution produced is a
much better conductor of electricity. Once the alumina has dissolved in
the molten cryolite, its ions are free to move.
2 The molten cryolite/alumina solution is electrolysed in the electrolytic cell:
The aluminium ions move towards the cathode where they are
reduced to form aluminium atoms:
A13+(l) + 3e- A1(1)

The molten aluminium that forms collects at the bottom of the cell
Did you know? and is tapped off. It is then made into sheets or blocks.

The extraction of aluminium by

The oxide ions move towards the anode where they are oxidised to
electrolysis is an expensive process form oxygen gas:
since it requires energy to melt the 202-0) 02(g) + 4e
cryolite, it uses huge amounts of
The oxygen gas that forms is released as bubbles. It forms carbon
electricity and replacing the anodes
dioxide by reacting with the carbon anodes, and over time the anodes
is costly.
need to be replaced since they disintegrate as a result of the reaction.

Extraction of iron
The main ores from which iron is extracted are haematite and magnetite.
Haematite is impure iron(lll) oxide, Fe203 and magnetite is impure iron(ll,
111) oxide Fe304. The extraction of iron from its ores involves reducing the

ores using the reducing agent, carbon monoxide, in a blast furnace.

A blast
furnace for the extraction of iron is shown in Figure 18.2.2. It is a
chimney shaped tower that can be up to 30 m tall.

iron ore, limestone

and coke

hot waste hot waste gases released;

gases they are used to heat the
released air that enters the furnace

iron(lll) oxide meets

carbon monoxide

hot air is
blasted into the hot air is blasted
into the furnace
furnace
molten slag from the reaction of silicon dioxide
slag can be and calcium oxide
drained off molten iron

iron is tapped off

A figure 18.2.2 A blast furnace used for extracting iron

Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals The extraction of metals

The extraction process

The following steps are involved in the extraction of iron from its ores.
1 A mixture of iron ore, limestone and coke is added through the top of
the furnace. The limestone is calcium carbonate and coke is the name
given to a substance that is made from coal which is mainly carbon. The
mixture is known as 'the charge'.

2 Hot air is blown in through the bottom of the furnace.

3 At the bottom of the furnace, the coke burns in the hot air forming
carbon dioxide:

C(s) + 02(g) C02(g) AH —ve

The reaction is exothermic and keeps the temperature at the bottom of
the furnace at about 1900 oc. The carbon dioxide rises further up the
furnace.

4 In the middle of the furnace, the carbon dioxide reacts with more coke to
form carbon monoxide:

C02(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)

The carbon monoxide then rises further up the furnace.

5 In the upperpart of the furnace, the carbon monoxide then reduces the Did you know?
iron ores to iron:
The iron that runs out of the bottom
Fe203(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(1) + 3C02(g) of the blast furnace flows intoa
or series ofmoulds that branch off
from the main channel. These
Fe304(s) + 4CO(g) 3Fe(l) + 4C02(g) moulds resemble a litter of suckling
The molten iron runs to the bottom of the furnace where it is tapped way that the piglets lie
piglets in the
next to each otherwhen they are
off.This iron contains a fairly high percentage of carbon (about 4%), as
feeding from a sow. This is why the
well as other impurities such as silicon and phosphorus, and is known as
iron that is tapped off from the blast
'pig iron'. Most of the pig iron is then purified and converted into steel,
furnace is known as 'pig iron'.
an alloy of iron.

A Figure 18.2.3 'Pig iron' gets its name from the moulds in which liquid iron collects.
These moulds resemble a litter of suckling piglets.

The function of the limestone

Iron ore contains a lot of impurities, mainly silicon dioxide (sand), which
would eventually build up and 'clog up' the blast furnace. Limestone is added
to remove the silicon dioxide. The steps involved are as follows:

The heat in the upperpart of the blast furnace causes the calcium
carbonate to decompose forming calcium oxide and carbon dioxide:

CaC03(s) CaO(s) + C02(g)

301
 Uses of metals and their alloys Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals

The calcium oxide, being basic, then reacts with the acidic silicon dioxide
to form calcium silicate, CaSi03. Calcium silicate is also known as slag:

(s) + Si02(s) CaSi03(1)

slag

The slag melts and runs down to the bottom of the blast furnace where it
forms a layer above the molten iron and is tapped off separately. It is then
used in road building or can be finely ground and mixed with cement.
In the extraction of iron it is possible to use carbon or hydrogen in place of
carbon monoxide as the reducing agent to reduce the iron ore, for example,
the Ispat steel plant in Port Lisas, Trinidad, uses hydrogen. Hydrogen is ideal
since it produces water vapour as a product and no other harmful gases.
Pollution problems associated with the use of coke, such as the release of
carbon dioxide and other waste gases into the atmosphere, are avoided with
the use of hydrogen.

Summary questions
1 Why are different methods used to extract aluminium and iron

from their ores?

Name the ore from which aluminium is extracted.

b Outline the process by which aluminium is extracted from the ore
named in a above.
3 The diagram shows a blast furnace:
a What are the three materials that are added to the top of the blast ironore
reduced
furnace at A in the extraction of iron? to iron
b What is removed at B and C?
c Explain why air is blown into the blast furnace.
d The carbon monoxide acts as a reducing agent when molten iron
it reacts with
the iron(lll) oxide. What does this mean?
Why is it easy to remove the slag? hot air -...+ hot air

4 Write the balanced chemical equation to show how

c
iron(lll) oxide is converted to iron in the blast furnace.

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will C18.3 Uses of metals and their alloys
be able to:
Metals are used extensively by man. The use of a metal is directly linked to
describe the uses of aluminium,
its particular properties, especially its physical properties. Metals are used
lead and iron
because they are strong and last a relatively long time. They are also shiny,
relate the uses of aluminium, malleable and ductile, have high densities and can conduct electricity and
lead and iron to their properties heat. All of these properties make metals particularly useful. Metals can also
explain what an alloy is
be mixed with other metals to make alloys. This is done to improve or modify
explain why metal alloys are the properties of the metals.
often used in place of the metals
describe the uses of aluminium,
iron and lead alloys Uses of metals
relate the uses of aluminium,
In this unit we will look at the uses of three metals, aluminium, lead
iron and lead alloys to their and iron.
properties.

302
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals Uses of metals and their alloys

Aluminium
Aluminium is a particularly useful metal because it has a thin layer of

aluminium oxide on its surface. This layer adheres to the metal and makes
it very resistant to corrosion (Unit 19). Because of this, aluminium is used to

produce louvred windows and window frames, which can resist corrosion
when they are exposed to oxygen and moisture in the air. Another major use
of aluminium is to make aluminium cans used as containers to store food
and drink.

Coconut
Cooler

A figure 18.3.1 Aluminium is used to A Figure 18.3.2 Aluminium cans A Figure 18.3.3 Aluminium can be used
make louvred windows are used to store drinks to make saucepans

Aluminium is a good conductor of electricity which enables it to be used

in overhead power cables. These cables have a steel core down the centre to Did you know?
strengthen them. Aluminium is also a good conductor of heat which makes
it useful to make saucepans. Aluminium cooking since it is
foil is used for There was a time when aluminium
protected by the thin, unreactive layer of aluminium oxide and it has a was considered more precious than
highly reflective surface that allows it to reflect heat back into the food, thus gold. Napoleon was believed
Ill

to have helda banquet where

keeping it warm for a longer period of time.
the honoured guests were given
Aluminium has the disadvantage that it is not the strongest of metals. For aluminium utensils to eat with while
this reason it is usually alloyed with other metals to make it stronger. We will the other guests were only given
be discussing some of the uses of aluminium alloys in the next section. gold utensils.

Lead
As one of the first metals to be discovered, lead has been used for several
thousand years. The largest use of lead today is in lead-acid batteries because
it is highly resistant to corrosion and conducts electricity. A typical 12-volt

battery used in motor vehicles consists of six cells. Each cell has an anode
made of lead alloyed with a small quantity of antimony, a cathode made of
lead(lv) oxide (Pb02) and an electrolyte of sulfuric acid. Chemical reactions
occurring in each cell produce electricity. Since the reactions are reversible, wee
the battery can be recharged.

Another important use of lead is as a radiation shield around X-ray equipment

and nuclear reactors because X-rays and nuclear radiation do not penetrate A Figure 18.3.4 A lead—acid battery
through it. Whenever you have an X-ray taken you are given a lead apron to
wear which shields you from the harmful effects of the X-rays.

Iron

Today, iron is the most widely used of all metals because of its high
abundance, low cost and h igh strength. However, because pure iron is quite
1
Uses of metals and their alloys Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals

soft usually hardened by alloying it with carbon to form steel. Pure

it is

Did you know? iron, commercially known as wrought iron, has been used for centuries
to make a variety of ornamental structures, such as furniture, lighting
The word plumbing was derived fixtures, gates and railings. Most items described as wrought iron today
from the Latin plumbum, meaning are actually made of mild steel because it is easier and cheaper to produce
lead. Plumbing was originated by than wrought iron. The description wrought iron is still used because
ancient civilisations such as Roman these items have the bent and shaped appearance of items formerly made
and Greek as they developed
of wrought iron.
public baths, piped drinking water
and drainage systems. Some
historians have speculated that
the decline of the Roman Empire
was due to lead from water pipes
getting into the water supply and
causing widespread lead poisoning.

Exam tip

It is important that you can relate A Figure 18.3.5 Wrought iron gates
the uses of metals and their alloys
The uses of metals and the properties that make them particularly suitable
to their physical properties.
for each use are summarised in Table 18.3.1.

V Table 18.3.1 Properties and uses of metals

Metal I Use Propert

Aluminium to make overhead electrical • good conductor of electricity, resistant to
cables (with a steel core) corrosion, light in weight, ductile

to make saucepans good conductor of heat, resistant to

corrosion, non-toxic, light in weight,
attractive appearance
to make aluminium cans to store resistant to corrosion, non-toxic, light in
food and drink weight, malleable
to make window frames • resistant to corrosion

• to make foil for cooking • unreactive (due to the aluminium oxide

coating), therefore does rot react with food,
non-toxic, highly reflective
• manufacture of aluminium alloys • easily alloyed with other metals

Lead to make lead—acid batteries, e.g. • good conductor of electricity, resistant to

car batteries corrosion
as a radiation shield • high density prevents radiation from
penetrating through
to make weights, e.g. fishing
• high density, malleable
weights, keel weights for sailboats
• manufacture of lead alloys easily alloyed with other metals
• to produce ornamental iron work • malleable and ductile, therefore easily
Wrought
iron shaped, easily welded, strong therefore
(rarely used) resistant to stress
• manufacture of steel easily alloyed with carbon and other metals
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals Uses of metals and their alloys

Alloys and their uses

There are many situations where metals are not used in their pure form. More
atoms of the
than one metal may be combined to produce a mixture of metals known as original metal

an alloy. Sometimes a non-metal may also be added.

atoms of the

To make an the metals are heated, mixed thoroughly and cooled so

alloy, alloying element

that they solidify again. Alloys are solid metallic solutions. The purpose of A Figure 18.3.6 Structure of an alloy
making an alloy is to improve the properties of the metals or to modify their
properties. Alloys are usually harder, stronger and more resistant to corrosion
than the original metals. Did you know?
The atoms of the metals that are mixed are usually of different sizes. Even Brass isa copper alloy consisting
if they are only slightly different in size,the regular packing of atoms is of about 70% copper and 30%
changed and it makes it more difficult for the atoms to slide over each other zinc. It is used to manufacture

when a force is applied. This is why alloys are harder and stronger than the electrical pins for plugs since it is

metals alone. stronger than copper and to make

musical instruments due to being
We will now look at the alloys of aluminium, lead and iron. malleable and having very good
acoustic properties.
Aluminium alloys
Aluminium is often mixed with copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon
and zinc to produce different alloys. IWo of the most common alloys of
aluminium are duralumin and magnalium. The composition, uses and
? Did you know?
properties of duralumin and magnalium are given in Table 18.3.2. Duralumin was developed and
V Table 18.3.2 Composition, uses and properties of aluminium alloys
patented by a German metallurgist
called Alfred Wilm in 1909.
Aluminium alloy I Composition Uses Properties it was only made by a
Originally
Duralumin About 94% aluminium, In the construction of Stronger than aluminium German company called Dürener
4% copper with small aircraft and to make so it can withstand Metallwerke. The name duralumin
amounts of magnesium precision tools greater stress, as light in
is a contraction of 'Dürener' and
and manganese væight as aluminium
'Aluminium'. In 1917 during World
Magnalium About 95% aluminium Construction of aircraft Stronger, harder
War Hugo Junkers, a German
l,
and 5% magnesium and automobile parts, and more resistant
aircraft designer, pioneered the use
to make metallic mirrors to corrosion than
and scientific instruments aluminium, lighter in
of duralumin in the construction of
weight than aluminium the J 7 fighter plane.

? Did you know?

Iron can be alloyed with a variety
of metals to form what are known
as specialist steels. For example,
A figure 18.3.7 Duralumin is strong and lightweight and is used to construct aircraft
titanium steel is an alloy of iron and
titanium, manganese steel is an
Iron alloys alloy of iron and manganese and

The building industry makes extensive use of iron, usually in the form of cobalt steel is an alloy of iron and
cobalt. Each steel has specialist
steel. Steel is an carbon or various other metals. There are
alloy of iron with
uses; titanium steel can withstand
quite a few different types of steel. Steels formed by alloying iron with carbon
very high temperatures so is used
are known as carbon steels Generally the amount of carbon in carbon steels
.

to make spacecrafts, cobalt steel

varies between 0.1% and 1.5%. As the carbon content increases, the steel
is magnetised easily so is used to
becomes harder but less malleable and ductile and therefore becomes more make magnets.
brittle and harder to weld.
305
Uses of metals and their alloys Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals

The composition, uses and properties of some of the common alloys of iron
are given in Table 18.3.3.

V Table 18.3.3 Composition, uses and properties of some iron alloys

Iron alloy I Composition I Uses Properties

Mild steel Contains less than 0.25% In the construction of Harder and stronger than
carbon buildirgs, bridges, ships iron, malleable and ductile
and motor vehicles. To so easily shaped, easy to
make wire, nails and 'tin weld
cans' to store food and
other items, i.e. 'tin cans'
are made of steel coated
in a thin layer of tin to
prevent corrosion.

High carbon Contains between 0.25% To make cutting tools, drill Harder than mild steel, but
steel and 1.5% carbon bits, knives and masonry more brittle

nails

Stainless steel Typical values are about To make cutlery, cooking Hard, strong and much
70% iron, 20% chromium utensils, kitchen sinks, more resistant to corrosion
and 10% nickel hospital equipment, (rusting) than carbon
catering equipment steels. Has a shiny,
A Figure 18.3.8 Steel is widely used in
attractive appearance,
the construction industry but is more expensive
to produce than carbon
steels.

Cast iron Contains about 4% To make small castings, Inexpensive and easy to
carbon e.g. manhole covers, cast into exact shapes.
railings, grates, cylinder Hard, but more brittle than
blocks in engires and steel, therefore it tends to
saucepans shatter rather than bend
when hit.

Lead alloys
Lead is often mixed with tin, antimony or copper to make alloys. One
common alloy of lead is lead solder. Lead solder is composed of about 60%
lead and 40% tin. It is used to join metallic items together. To do this, the
solder is melted so that it flows into the joint between the items. On cooling
the solder solidifies, joining the items together. The melting points of the
metals being joined must be higher than that of the lead solder.

By alloying lead with tin, the lead solder produced has a lower melting point
than lead and is also harder and stronger than lead.

Summary questions
1 What properties of aluminium make it useful for:
a making overhead electrical cables
b making saucepans?
2 Other than making alloys, give two uses of lead and in each case explain
why lead is suitable for the use given.

3 What is an alloy?
4 What are the advantages of using an alloy rather than a pure metal?
5 Discuss two named alloys of aluminium by referring to the composition
and the uses of each.
Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals Uses of metals and their alloys

Key concepts
It is possible to determine the reactivity series of metals by looking at the strength of
and dilute acids, how easily their compounds are
their reactions with oxygen, water
decomposed when heated, and displacement reactions between the metals and metal
compounds.
The more reactive the metal, the more stable its compounds.
In a displacement reaction, a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its
compounds.
The reactivity series of the common metals from the most reactive to the least reactive
is: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead (hydrogen),
copper, mercury, silver, gold.
The position of hydrogen in the reactivity series can be used to compare how certain
metals will react with dilute acids.
The very unreactive metals occur in the Earth's crust in their free el emental state,
e.g. silver and gold, and can, therefore, be mined directly from the Earth.

Most metals occur in the Earth's crust combined with other elements in impure ionic
compounds and they have to be extracted from these compounds.
Compounds from which metals can be extracted are known as ores. The most important
ores are metal oxides, sulfides and carbonates.
The extraction of a metal from its ore is a reduction process.
Metals high in the reactivity series, i.e. potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and
aluminium, form very stable ions which are difficult to reduce. They need a powerful
method of reduction, i.e. electrolysis of the molten ore.
Metals lower down in the reactivity series, i.e. zinc and below, form less stable ions which
are easier to reduce. They need a less powerful method of reduction, i.e. heating the ore
with a reducing agent.
Aluminium is extracted from its ore, bauxite, by electrolysis.
Bauxite is impure, hydrated aluminium oxide, A1203.xH20.
During electrolysis, aluminium forms at the cathode and oxygen forms at the anode.
Iron is extracted from its ores, haematite and magnetite by reducing the ores using
carbon monoxide as the reducing agent in a blast furnace.
Haematite is impure iron(lll) oxide, Fe203 and magnetite is impure iron(ll, 111) oxide
Fe304.
Molten iron and molten slag, calcium silicate (CaSi03), are produced in the blast furnace.
The physical properties of metals make them very useful to man.
The main uses of aluminium are to make overhead electrical cables, saucepans, window
frames, aluminium storage cans and foil for cooking.
The main use of lead is to make lead-acid batteries. It is also used to make radiation
shields and weights.
The main use of iron is to manufacture steel.
An alloy is a mixture of metals although sometimes a non-metal can be added.
Alloys are oftenmore useful than the pure metal because they are harder, stronger and
more resistant to corrosion than the pure metal
Duralumin and magnalium are alloys of aluminium. Their main use is in the
construction of aircraft.
Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon or other elements. Different types of steel have
different properties and uses.
Solder is an alloy of lead and tin. It is used to join metal items.
307
Practice exam-style questions Reactivity, extraction and uses of metals

iii) Explain your answer to a ii). (1 mark)

Practice exam-style questions iv) What would be the colour of the solid
precipitate that was seen in the bottom of the
Multiple-choice questions beaker after several hours? (1 mark)
1 Which of the following reactions is likely to take place v) Name the type of reaction occurring in the
most readily? beaker. (1 mark)
A Mg(S) -F 2AgN03(aq) + 2Ag(s) vi) How would the rate of the reaction be affected
B Mg(S) -F + Pb(s) if the zinc rod was replaced with a piece of
C Mg(S) -F Cu + Cu(s) magnesium of the same dimensions? (1 mark)
D Mg(S) -F + Zn(s) vii) Explain your answer to a vi). (2 marks)
b Another student carried out experiments 1 and 2
2 The method used to extract a metal from its ore is
below in order to determine the relative reactivity
determined by: of lead, iron and an unknown metal X, which has a
A the melting point of the metal valency of 2.
B the position of the metal in the reactivity series Experiment 1: A piece of metal X was placed into a
C the solubility of the ore
solution of lead(ll) nitrate. Metal X became coated
D the electrical conductivity of the molten ore with lead.
3 Aluminium is extracted from alumina by. Experiment 2: A piece of metal X was placed into a
A reduction of molten alumina using carbon solution of iron(ll) sulfate. There was no change in
B reduction of alumina dissolved in cryolite using the appearance of metal X.
carbon monoxide i) Use the information given to place lead, iron and
C electrolysis of molten alumina metal X in order of reactivity, starting with the
D electrolysis of alumina dissolved in molten cryolite most reactive. (2 marks)
ii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction between
4 Which of the following is a list of the raw materials used metal X and the lead(ll) nitrate solution.
in the extraction of iron ?
(2 marks)
A haematite, limestone, air, carbon monoxide iii) How would you expect metal X to react with
B limestone, carbon dioxide, magnetite, coke
hydrochloric acid? (1 mark)
C haematite, air, limestone, coke
Total 15 marks
D coke, air, haematite, silicon dioxide

5 Which of the following is most widely used in the Extended response question
construction industry?
A stainless steel
Chemical and electrolytic reduction are the two
B mild steel
main methods used to extract metals from their ores.
Identify ONE factor that determines the method that
C duralumin
D solder
should be employed in the extraction of metals from
their ores. Explain how this factor determines the
method to be used. (3 marks)
Structured question
b Outline the main steps involved in the extraction of
6 a A student places a zinc rod in a beaker containing iron from its ore, iron(lll) oxide. Your answer must
copper(ll) sulfate solution and leaves it for several include THREE relevant equations. Details of how the
hours, gently shaking the solution occasionally. impurity, silicon dioxide, is removed are not required.
The diagrams below show what the student saw at (7 marks)
the start of the experiment and then again after c Stainless steel, an alloy of iron, is used to make
several hours. cooking utensils.
i) What is an alloy? (1 mark)
ii) Suggest TWO reasons why stainless steel is used
to make cooking utensils instead of iron.
zinc rod zinc rod
(2 marks)
copper(l l) solution d Aluminium is another metal used to make alloys.
sulfate
solid precipitate Name ONE alloy of aluminium and give its main use.
solution
start of the experiment after (2 marks)
experiment several hours
Total 15 marks
i) Explain why the zinc rod decreased in size
during the experiment. Give a relevant ionic
equation to support your answer. (3 marks)
ii) What change would you expect to observe in the
solution? (1 mark)
 C19 Metals in living systems and
the environment
Objectives
plants and animals, while others can cause severe By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
poisoning if consumed and can have harmful effects
on the environment. Conversely, the environment can explain what happens when
metals corrode
have devastating effects on metals and can lead to their e give the conditions necessary
corrosion. for metals to corrode
explain what happens when
aluminium corrodes
explain what happens when
C19.1 The corrosion of metals iron rusts.

Metals, especially those used outdoors, tend to undergo corrosion.

Corrosion occurs when the surface of the metal gradually wears away due
to its reaction with chemicals in the environment, mainly oxygen and
moisture, and it is speeded up by the presence of certain pollutants. In some
cases it may lead to the total destruction of the metal object. When metals
corrode, they are oxidised to their oxides. They sometimes also form salts,
e.g. carbonates are formed by the reaction with carbon dioxide.

The rate at which most metals corrode is linked to the metal's reactivity. In
general, the more reactive the metal, the faster it will corrode. Metals that
an even faster rate than
are used close to the sea will tend to corrode at
normal because of the presence of sodium chloride in the atmosphere.
Aluminium and iron corrode with quite different results; the corrosion of
aluminium is mostly beneficial while the corrosion of iron is detrimental.
We will now look at the corrosion of both these metals in more detail.

The corrosion of aluminium

On exposure to air, a fresh piece of aluminium immediately forms a layer
of aluminium oxide, A1203. This layer adheres to the metal below, does not
peel offand is relatively unreactive. As a result, it protects the aluminium
from further corrosion. It is because of this aluminium oxide layer that
aluminium appears less reactive than is predicted by its position in the
reactivity series.

If a piece of aluminium is scratched and the oxide layer

is removed, it is

possible to see the shiny metal underneath. does not take very long for
It

that shiny section to become dull as the aluminium reacts with the oxygen
in the air again and renews its oxide film.

Aluminium can be made even more resistant to corrosion by anodising. This

is the process by which the thickness of the oxide layer on the aluminium is

artificially thickened by electrolysis (Unit 10.5). The oxide layer gives added
advantages to the aluminium; it makes the surface harder and it readily
absorbs dyes, so anodised objects can be coloured attractively. Because of
these added advantages, anodised aluminium has a great many uses, from
making cookware such as pots and pans to protecting satellites from space
debris.
 The corrosion of metals Metals in living systems and the environment

The corrosion of iron

On exposure to oxygen and moisture in the iron and steel objects air

immediately begin to corrode to form mainly hydrated iron(lll) oxide,

Fe203.xH20, which has an orange-brown colour. Hydrated iron(lll) oxide is
commonly known as rust. Corrosion of iron and steel is known as rusting.
In order for iron to both oxygen and water or moisture must be present.
rust,
It does not occur only one is present. The rusting of iron can be both
if

damaging and costly. Unlike the adherent coating of aluminium oxide that
A Figure 19.1.1 Rust formation on a forms on the surface of aluminium, rust does not adhere to the iron below.
padlock Rust flakes off and exposes fresh iron to oxygen and moisture. The newly
exposed iron then rusts and the process continues and gradually wears away
the iron.

Practical activity

To investigate what conditions are needed for rusting to occur

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting.

You will be supplied with three steel nails, some calcium chloride, some oil and three test tubes with corks.

Method
1 Place one nail into the first test tube, add enough water to half cover the nail and cork the tube.
2 Place the second nail into a dry test tube. Add a small amount of calcium chloride and cork the tube.
The calcium chloride absorbs any moisture from the air in the tube.

3 Boil some water to remove the dissolved oxygen and allow it to cool quickly. Place the third nail into another
test tube and add enough of this boiled water to completely cover the nail. Gently pour some oil down the side
of the tube so that it forms a layer on top of the water. Cork the tube.
4 Leave the nails in the three test tubes for a few days and carefully observe any changes in the nails.

5 Record your observations in a suitable table.

6 What was the purpose of adding the oil layer to the third tube?
7 Which nail rusted the most? What conditions were present in this case?
8 Did any nails show no signs of rusting? If so, what condition was absent in each case?
9 What conclusion can you draw about the conditions necessary for rusting?

10 Explain how you could test whether a steel nail rusts more quickly in sea water or tap water.

air

air dry air

layer of oil

boiled water
steel nail

calcium
water
chloride

Test tube 1 Test tube 2 Test tube 3

A Figure 19.1.2 Investigating the conditions needed for rusting

310
Metals in living systems and the environment The impact of metals on living systems and the environment

Summary questions
1 What happens when a metal corrodes?
2 You are given the four metals copper, iron, zinc and aluminium.
a Which metal tends appear less reactive than
to its position in the
reactivity series would suggest? Why is this?
b Which metal rusts?

3 What conditions must be present for rusting to occur?

4 Explain why aluminium and iron corrode differently.

5 Suggest reasons for the following.

a Metal railings made of iron tend to rust more at the bottom of the
railing than at the top.
b Pieces of iron on shipwrecks tend to rust very slowly when found
deep below the surface of the water.

Objectives
and the environment By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
Many metals and their compounds are extremely important to living
explain the importance of
organisms. However, certain metals and their compounds can have harmful
metals and their compounds in
effects on the same living organisms and also on the environment.
living organisms
discuss the harmful effects of
The importance of metals and their compounds metals and their compounds
Metal ions play a the functioning of living organisms. Some of
vital role in on living organisms and the
these ions are required by the human body in amounts in excess of 100 mg per environment.
day, e.g. calcium, potassium, sodium and magnesium. These are sometimes
referred to as macro-minerals. Others are recommended in smaller amounts
for good health, these include manganese, iron, zinc, cobalt, copper,
molybdenum, selenium and chromium. These are referred to as micro-
minerals or trace minerals. Plants also require certain metal ions for healthy
growth. Some of the ions required by plants and animals are used to make
organometallic compounds, for example, chlorophyll and haemoglobin.
Table 19.2.1 summarises the importance of certain metal ions in living
organisms.

V Table 19.2.1 The importance of metals and their compounds in living organisms

Metal ion Importance in living organisms

Magnesium Magnesium ions are necessary for the formation of chlorophyll in green plants.
Chlorophyll is the green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plant cells. It gives green
plant parts their colour. Chlorophyll is essential in plants to trap the sunlight energy
so that the plant can manufacture its own food by photosynthesis. The equation for
photosynthesis is given below:

energy
6C02(g) + 6H20(l) C6H1206(aq) + 602 (g)
absorbed by chlcxophy41 gucose

A shortage of magnesium causes the leaves of plants to become yellow, a condition

krown as chlorosis.

Magnesium ions are also required for more than 300 biochemical reactions in the
human body since they are essential for the functionirg of many enzymes. The ions
play a vital role in the production of energy in cells, in the formation of strorg bones
and teeth, in the transmission of nerve impulses and in the contraction of muscles.

311
 The impact of metals on living systems and the environment Metals in living systems and the environment

Table 19.2.1 (continued)

Metal ion Importance in living organisms
Iron Iron ions are necessary for the formation of haemoglobin in animals. Haemoglobin is

the red pigment found in the red blood cells. It is essential to carry oxygen around the
body. The oxygen is then used by the body cells in respiration to provide the body
with energy. The equation for respiration is given below:

C6H1206(aq) + 602(g) 6C02(g) + 6H20(l) + energy

gucose

A shortage of iron leads to a reduction in the number of red blood cells in the body,
tiredness and a lack of energy, a condition known as anaemia.
Calcium Calcium ions are recessary for the production of calcium phosphate in the body.
Calcium phosphate is needed to build strong bones and teeth. Calcium ions are also
necessary for the blood to clot at a cut.

A shortage of calcium leads to bones and teeth becoming soft and weak. It may also
lead to tickets, a condition in which the legs become bowed.

Zinc Zinc ions play an important part in the functioning of the immune system, in the
Key fact healing of wounds, and in cell and tissue growth and repair.

Sodium and Sodium and potassium ions play an important role in the transmission of nerve
Pollution is the contamination of potassium impulses and the contraction of muscles.
the natural environment by the
release of unpleasant and harmful
substances. The harmful effects of metals and their compounds
Some of the same metals required by living organisms to maintain their
health become toxic to the same living organisms when their levels become
Did you know? too high. Other metals, not required by living organisms, can also be toxic to
them. Many of these are in a group known as heavy metals, which mainly
The phrase 'mad as a hatter'
includes the transition metals and some of the metalloids. All of these metals
was coined during the 1800s
occur naturally in ionic compounds, however, their concentrations within the
when mercury was used in the
production of felt, which was then
environment are increasing due to pollution caused by man's activities.
used by felters to make hats. The Heavy metal ions become particularly toxic when they form organometallic
felters were exposed daily to trace
compounds by combining with organic compounds, e.g. tetraethyl lead and
levels of mercury. This gradually methyl mercury. Table 19.2.2 summarises some metal ions that can have
accumulated in their bodies
harmful effects on the human body.
causing them to develop symptoms
of dementia (madness).
V Table 19.2.2 Harmful effects of metals

Metal ion I Sources in the environment Toxic effects

Lead Disused car car exhaust fumes Lead damages a variety of body
Did you know? when
batteries,

using leaded petrol, lead based tissues and organs, in particular the
paints. kidreys, bones and the nervous system,
Minamata disease was first especially the brain. It also interferes
discovered in the city of Minamata, with the rormal formation of red blood

Japan, in 1956. It was caused cells leading to anæmia. It is especially

harmful to young children causing
by the release of methyl mercury
reduced IQ and potentially permanent
in industrial wastewater from a
learning disorders.
chemical factory into Minamata
Mercury Disused thermometers from hospitals Mercury damages the central nervous
Bay. This methyl mercury gradually and laboratories, disused fluorescent system impairing muscular coordination,
built up in shellfish and fish in the combustion of coal,
lights, industry, e.g. hearing, sight, speech and the sense of
bay, which, when eaten by the extraction and metals such as
refining of touch known as Minamata disease.
local population, resulted in severe gold, manufacture of sodium hydroxide.

mercury poisoning and over 1700 Cadmium Disused nickel-cadmium batteries, Cadmium causes damage to the
deaths. smoke, industry, e.g.
cigarette and liver. It
respiratory system, kidreys
combustion of fossil fuels, extraction and can also cause osteoporosis where the
refining of ffEtals, manufacture of paint bores become weakened and fragile.
and certain plastics, e.g. PVC.

Arsenic Mining of certain metals, especially gold, Arsenic can cause cancer and skin
extraction and purification of metals, problems. It also damages the nervous
burning of fossil fuels, especially coal. system, heart and blood vessels.

312
Metals in living systems and the environment The impact of metals on living systems and the environment

Heavy metal ions are particularly harmful in the environment because they
are persistent, i.e. they remain in the environment and do not decay like
Did you know?
organic pollutants. They also have the potential to build up in the tissues
In general women need more
of living organisms, especially fatty tissue, and they concentrate up food
ironthan men since they lose iron
chains, harming the top consumers such as humans. from their bodies each month in
Consumption of fish, especially large fish, is the major source of ingested haemoglobin during menstruation.
Also women must ensure that
mercury in humans due to mercury concentrating up the food chain. Small
they get adequate supplies of
fish eat plankton. If this plankton contains small amounts of mercury,
zinc during pregnancy since it is
this mercury gradually builds up in the bodies of the fish throughout their
essential for growth of the cells and
lifetime. Larger fishthen eat the smaller fish, constantly building up the tissues of the foetus.
mercury in their bodies throughout their lifespan. This continues up the
food chain to the very large, long-lived fish such as sharks, marlin, tuna and
swordfish.

Disposal of solid waste containing heavy metals poses a serious problem

since these metals should not be allowed to enter the environment. This
waste includes:
e lead-acid batteries from motor vehicles
e thermometers containing mercury from hospitals and laboratories
e compact fluorescent light bulbs and other fluorescent bulbs containing
mercury vapour
nickel-cadmium batteries.

These items should not be disposed of in landfill sites because of the possibility
of contaminating groundwater and nearby soil. They should also not be
incinerated because of the possibility of releasing harmful gases containing
the metal ions into the air. The problem of their disposal can be solved to a A Figure 19.2.1 Compact fluorescent
light bulbs contain mercury vapour
large extent by recycling all items containing heavy metals.

Summary questions
1 What is haemoglobin? Why is it important in our bodies?
2 What is chlorophyll? Why is important to plants?
it

3 Why are zinc and calcium important to humans?

4 Name three different metals whose ions have negative effects on the
human body.
b Describe some of the negative effects of each metal named in a.

5 Explain why it may be dangerous to consume large fish such as

swordfish or marlin.

313
 The impact of metals on living systems and the environment Metals in living systems and the environment

Key concepts
Metals, especially those used outdoors, tend to undergo corrosion.
Corrosion occurs when the surface of the metal gradually wears away
due to its reaction with chemicals in the environment, mainly oxygen
and moisture, and it is speeded up by the presence of certain pollutants.
When metals corrode, they are oxidised to their oxides and sometimes
they form salts.
Reactive metals tend to corrode much faster than those that are lower in
the reactivity series.
When aluminium corrodes it forms a layer of aluminium oxide which is
relatively unreactive and adheres to the metal below, protecting it from
further corrosion.

The layer of aluminium oxide can be thickened by anodising.

When iron corrodes it forms hydrated iron(lll) oxide, also known as
rust.

In order for iron to rust, both oxygen and water or moisture must be
present.
Rust flakes off over time exposing fresh iron to oxygen and moisture.
The newly exposed iron then rusts and the process continues and
gradually wears away the iron.
Metal ions play a vital role in the functioning of living organisms. Some
of these are combined with organic compounds to form organometallic
compounds.
Macro-minerals are needed by the human body in amounts in excess
of 100 mg per day. Calcium, potassium, sodium and magnesium are the
macro-minerals needed.
Micro-minerals are required in small amounts by the human body for
good health. TWO of the most important micro-minerals are iron and
zinc.

One important metal ion required by plants is magnesium.

Metals can have a negative effect on living organisms. Many of these
are in a group known as heavy metals, which mainly includes the
transition metals and some of the metalloids.
The concentration of these harmful heavy metals within the
environment is increasing due to pollution caused by man's activities.
The most harmful metals include lead, mercury, cadmium and arsenic.
Heavy metal ions are harmful in the environment because they do not
decay and they concentrate up food chains, harming the top consumers
such as humans.
Consumption of fish, especially large fish, is the major source of ingested
mercury in humans due to mercury concentrating up the food chain.
Disposal of solid waste containing heavy metals poses a serious problem
since these metals should not be allowed to enter the environment. This
waste includes lead-acid batteries, mercury thermometers, fluorescent
light bulbs and nickel-cadmium batteries.

Waste containing heavy metals should be recycled.

314
Metals in living systems and the environment Practice exam-style questions

Extended response question

Practice exam-style questions
Most metals undergo corrosion. In the case of
Multiple-choice questions aluminium this can be beneficial to the metal while
in the case of iron it can be harmful and costly.
1 Which of the following must be present for iron to rust?
i) What happens when a metal corrodes? (1 mark)
I oxygen
ii) Explain why the corrosion of aluminium is
II carbon dioxide
beneficial while the corrosion of iron is not. Your
Ill moisture
answer should include reference to the products
A I only of corrosion and their properties. (6 marks)
B land Ill only b 'Metal ions are extremely important to living
C II and Ill only organisms.' By reference to magnesium, iron and
D 1, 11 and 111
calcium, provide evidence to support this statement.
2 Which of the following is not a benefit to be gained from (6 marks)
the corrosion of aluminium? c Certain metals are harmful to living organisms.
A It causes aluminium to be less reactive than its Explain why these metals are so harmful when

position in the reactivity series predicts. they are released into the environment by human
B It forms an oxide layer on the aluminium, which can activities. (2 marks)
be coloured attractively. Total 15 nlarks
C The oxide layer formed flakes off easily.
D It forms a relatively unreactive oxide layer on the

aluminium.

3 Which of the following metals is a constituent of

chlorophyll?
A magnesium
B zinc
C calcium
D iron

4 Which of the following is a trace mineral needed by the

human body for good health?
A calcium
B potassium
C zinc
D magnesium
5 Which of the following is a list of heavy metal ions that
are harmful to the human body?
A arsenic, iron, mercury, lead
B arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury
C cadmium, calcium, mercury, lead
D arsenic, cadmium, magnesium, mercury
6 Consumption of large fish is most likely to cause:
A rickets
B anaemia
C cancer
D Minamata disease

315
 c 20 Non-metals

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will rest make up a group of elements known as the non-
be able to:
metals. The non-metals are found on the right-hand
give the general physical side of the table. Many non-metals are found naturally
properties of non-metals
give the specific physical
elemental state, mostly as gases or solids.
in their

properties of hydrogen, They are also found combined with other non-metals
oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine,
carbon and sulfur
in covalent compounds and combined with metals in

state where hydrogen, oxygen, ioniccompounds. Non-metals are used extensively by

nitrogen, chlorine, carbon and man. However, because the properties of the different
sulfur occur naturally.
non-metals vary significantly, their uses also vary quite
considerably.

C20.1 Physical properties of non-metals

Non-metals are elements whose atoms usually have a large number of
valence electrons, usually 5, 6, 7 or 8. Most non-metals are found in Groups
V, VI, VII and O of the periodic table.

The bonding between non-metal atoms in a non-metal varies. In Unit 5.5

you learnt about the bonding in the two allotropes of carbon, i.e. diamond
and graphite. Several of the other non-metals are composed of diatomic
molecules. Each diatomic molecule is made up of two atoms of the non-
metal bonded covalently. Weak intermolecular forces then exist between the
diatomic molecules. Non-metals composed of diatomic molecules include
hydrogen (H), oxygen (02), nitrogen (N2) and all the halogens, i.e. those
in Group VII of the periodic table including fluorine (F2), chlorine (C12),
bromine (Bro and iodine (12). The non-metals in Group 0, i.e. the noble gases,
exist as individual atoms due to having full valence electron shells. Bonding
between the atoms of other non-metals varies.

Because the way in which the non-metal atoms are bonded differs, the
physical properties of the different non-metals also vary to some extent.
However, non-metals have the following general physical properties:
Exam tip
they have low melting points and boiling points

It important that you can give

is
they are poor conductors of heat and electricity
the differences between the they are dull in appearance when in the solid state
physical properties of metals and
they are weak and brittle when in the solid state
non-metals.
they have low densities.

Many of the non-metals are gases at room temperature because of the weak
forces of attraction between the diatomic molecules or atoms, e.g. hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine and all the noble gases. Bromine is
found as a liquid at room temperature and the other non-metals are solids.

The specific properties and characteristics of some of the non-metals are

given in Table 20.1.1.

316
Non-metals Physical properties of non-metals

V Table 20.1.1 Properties and characteristics of some non-metals

Non-metal Properties and characteristics Occurrence

Hydrogen (H2) A colourless, tasteless, odourless gas Occurs in the compound water (H20), in hydrocarbons and in most other organic
The lightest all elements compounds

Acts as a reducirg agent

Oxygen (02) A colourless, tasteless, odourless gas Occurs in the elemental state as 02 molecules in the air. It makes up about 21 % of the air.

Acts as an oxidisirg agent Occurs in water, in oxides of metals and non-metals, e.g. metal ores, silicon dioxide (sand)
and carbon dioxide, in metal carbonates and metal sulfates, in many organic compounds
and in very many other compounds
Nitrogen (N2) A colourless, tasteless, odourless gas Occurs in the elemental state as N2 molecules in the air. It makes up about 78% of the air.

One of the least reactive non-metals; Occurs in proteins, metal nitrates and ammonium compounds
it is considered relatively inert

Chlorine (C12) A yellow green gas Occurs combined in metal chlorides, e.g. sodium chloride (table salt)

Has a strong odour

Poisonous to humans

Acts as an oxidising agent

Carbon Has two main allotropes, diamond and Occurs in the elemental state as diamond and graphite
graphite (Unit 5.5) Occurs in all organic compounds, in metal carbonates and metal hydrogencarbonates and
Diamond is an extremely hard, in carbon dioxide

transparent, colourless, sparkling sdid.

It has a very high melting point.

Graphite is a soft, flaky, opaque, dark

grey solid. It has a very high meltirg

point and conducts electricity.

Acts as a reducirg agent
Sulfur A light yellow solid Occurs in the elemental state, e.g. near hot springs and in volcanic regions

Occurs in metal sulfides and metal sulfates

Practical activity

Comparing the properties of two metals and two non-metals

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

o observation, recording and reporting.

You will be supplied with samples of two metals, e.g. aluminium foil and
copper, samples of two non-metals, e.g. graphite and roll sulfur, a cell,a
bulb, a switch, conducting wire and two crocodile clips.

Method Summary questions

1 Set up a circuit using the cell, and
bulb, switch, connecting wire 1 List five properties of

crocodile clips as shown in Figure 20.1.1. Attach each metal and hydrogen.
non-metal in turn between the crocodile clips and close the switch. 2 Name seven diatomic
In each case, does the bulb light up? elements.
2 Classify each metal and metal or non-metal 3 Where would you find oxygen
to be tested
non-metal according to the in nature?
following criteria: 4 Compare diamond and
Is it shiny or dull? bulb
graphite, giving the similarities
O Is it malleable or brittle? and the differences between
Is a conductor or a
it them.
non-conductor? 5 By means of a table, compare
cell switch

3 Record your findings in a A figure 20.1.1 A circuit to test electrical the properties of metals with
table. conductivity those of non-metals.

317
 Chemical properties and reactions of non-metals Non-metals

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will non-metals
be able to:
Because non-metals are elements whose atoms usually have a large number
describe the reactions of non-
of valence electrons, usually 5, 6, 7 or 8, they form negative anions in
metals with oxygen and metals
chemical reactions with metals by gaining electrons into their valence
state the products formed by electron shell.
the reactions of non-metals
with oxygen and metals Nil—
explain the oxidising and
reducing properties of non- As a result they form ionic compounds when they react with metals. The
metals. non-metal behaves as an oxidising agent since it gains electrons from the
metal, i.e. it causes the metal to lose electrons (OIL).

Non-metals can also react with each other. In these reactions they share
valence electrons forming covalent compounds and may behave as oxidising
and reducing agents.
We will now look at the reactions of certain non-metals with oxygen and
metals, and at the oxidising and reducing properties of non-metals.

Reactions of non-metals with oxygen

Non-metals react with oxygen to form compounds known as non-metal
oxides These non-metal oxides are usually gases at room temperature. This
.

is in contrast with metal oxides which are solids at room temperature.

Most non-metal oxides are acidic, e.g. carbon dioxide (C02), sulfur dioxide
(SO), sulfur trioxide (S03) and nitrogen dioxide (N02). These oxides are also
known as acid anhydrides (Unit 8.1) since they react with water to form
acidic solutions. A few non-metal oxides are neutral, e.g. water (H20), carbon
monoxide (CO) and nitrogen monoxide (NO). They don't react with acids
or alkalis.

Table 20.2.1 summarises the reactions of certain non-metals with oxygen.

V Table 20.2.1 Reactions of some non-metals with oxygen

Non-metal Reaction with oxygen

Did you know? Hydrogen Hydrogen burns with a very pale

steam:
blue, almost colourless, flanne forming water as

The destruction of the Hindenburg 2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g)

airship killing 35 passengers A mixture of hydrogen and air or oxygen explodes when lit.

is an infamous example of the

Nitrogen Nitrogen reacts with oxygen if the temperature is high enough, forming nitrogen
combustion of hydrogen. The monoxide (nitrogen(l) oxide):
Hindenburg was a luxurious airship
N2(g) + 02(g) 2NO(g)
measuring 804 feet long and
This reaction occurs during lightning storms and in the ergines of motor vehicles.
1 35 feet tall. Inside were

decks for passengers and crew Carbon Carbon burns forming either carbon moroxide or carbon dioxide.
and sixteen gas cells filled with If the oxygen supply is limited, carbon moroxide is produced:
hydrogen to make it lighter than air. 2C(s) + 02(g)
As it was coming to land in New
If the oxygen supply is plentiful, carbon dioxide is produced:
Jersey on 6 May 1937, a flame
appeared at the rear of the ship C(s) + 02(g) C02(g)

and within 34 seconds the entire Sulfur Sulfur burns with a blue flame forming sulfur dioxide (sulfur(w) oxide):

ship was consumed in flames. S(s) + 02(g) S02(g)

318
Non-metals Chemical properties and reactions of non-metals

Practical activity

Investigating reactions of non-metals with oxygen

(Teacher demonstration)
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting.

Your teacher will perform the following experiment.

Method
1 Place a small piece of carbon on to a deflagrating spoon.

2 Carefully heat the spoon in a Bunsen burner flame until the carbon
begins to burn. Once burning, place it into a gas jar full of oxygen and
observe what happens.
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 using sulfur in place of carbon.

4 Compare the violence of the reaction of carbon with oxygen and sulfur

with oxygen. Which seems more reactive?

5 What products were formed in each reaction?

Reactions of non-metals with metals

Non-metals react with metals to form ionic compounds. A reaction between
a metal and a non-metal is a redox reaction because the metal loses electrons,
i.e. it is oxidised, and the non-metal gains these electrons, i.e. it is reduced. The

non-metal acts as an oxidising agent in all of these reactions.

Hydrogen reacts with metals to form metal hydrides,

e.g. Ca(s) + H2(g) caH2(s)
calcium hydride

Oxygen reacts with metals to form metal oxides,

e.g. 2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s)
magnesium oxide

Nitrogen reacts with metals to form metal nitrides,

e.g. 3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s)

magnesium nitride

Chlorine reacts with metals to form metal chlorides,

e.g. 2Al(S) + 3C12(s) 2AIC13(s)
aluminium chloride

Sulfur reacts with metals to form metal sulfides,

e.g. Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)

iron(ll) sulfide

Non-metals as oxidising and reducing agents

Non-metals can behave as both oxidising agents and reducing agents. They
generally behave as oxidising agents, however, some non-metals can also behave
as reducing agents, for example, hydrogen, carbon and sulfur.
319
 Chemical properties and reactions of non-metals Non-metals

Non-metals as oxidising agents

All non-metals behave as oxidising agents when they react with metals
to form ionic compounds. They remove electrons from the metal atoms,
e.g. 2Zn(s) + 02(g) 2ZnO(s)
2Fe(S) + 3C12(s) 2FeC13(s)

Mg(s) + S(s) Mgs(s)

Chlorine and oxygen are particularly powerful oxidising agents.
Whenever they react with another element or compound they act as
oxidising agents,
e.g. S02(g)
2KBr(aq) + C12(g) 2KC1(aq) + Br2(aq)
Oxygen caused the oxidation number of sulfur to increase from 0 to +4 in
the first reaction. Chlorine removed electrons from the Br- ions causing
their oxidation number to increase from — 1 to 0 in the second reaction.

Non-metals as reducing agents

Ilydrogen, carbon and sulfur act as reducing agents when they react
with oxygen, a very powerful oxidising agent,
e.g. 2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g)
C(s) + 02(g) C02(g)
S(s) + 02(g) S02(g)
In each these reactions, the non-metal caused the oxidation number of
each oxygen atom in the oxygen to decrease from 0 to —2.
Hydrogen and carbon also act as reducing agents when they react with
metal oxides. They reduce the metal ions to atoms,
e.g. CuO(s) + H2(g) cu(s) + H20(1)
2Fe203(s) + 3c(s) 4Fe(S) + 3C02(g)
Hydrogen caused the oxidation number of the Cu2+ ion in the copper(ll)
oxide to decrease from +2 to 0 in the first reaction. Carbon caused the
oxidation number of each Fe3+ ion in the iron(lll) oxide to decrease from
+3 to 0 in the second reaction.

Summary questions
1 What is produced when a non-metal reacts with oxygen?
2 When carbon reacts with oxygen it can form one of two different oxides.
a What determines which oxide is produced?
b Write balanced chemical equations to show the formation of the
two different oxides.

3 Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions:

the reaction between aluminium and chlorine
b the reaction between sodium and hydrogen.
4 When a non-metal reacts with a metal, the non-metal always acts as an
oxidising agent. Explain the reason for this.

5 Certain non-metals can act as both oxidising agents and reducing

agents. Name one non-metal that can behave as both and support your
answer by reference to two different reactions of the named non-metal.
Include balanced equations for the reactions.

320
Non-metals Laboratory preparation and uses of gases

Objectives
Oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia are all gases which, if required, can be By the end of this topic you will
made with relative ease in the laboratory. These same gases also have some be able to:
very important uses in today's world. describe how oxygen, carbon
When considering the method to be used to prepare a gas in the laboratory, dioxide and ammonia can be
the following properties of the gas need to be considered: prepared in the laboratory
relate the methods of drying
e The solubility of the gas in water to determine if the gas can be collected
and collecting the gases to
by bubbling it through water.
their properties
o The reactivity of the gas with different dryingagents to determine which explain the uses of oxygen and
drying agents can be used. carbon dioxide based on their
The density of the gas relative to the density of air to determine the properties.
method used to collect the dry gas.

Laboratory preparation of oxygen

Oxygen is prepared in the laboratory by the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide solution using a catalyst of manganese(lv) oxide. The hydrogen
oxyger
peroxide decomposes according to the following equation:
o
0
Mn02
2H202(aq) 2H20(1) + 02(g) hydrogen o
peroxide
0
The oxygen that is produced can then be collected in one of two ways solution
0
0
which depends on whether dry oxygen is required or not. water
00
If dry oxygen is not required, then the gas can be collected by O
bubbling it through water into an upside down gas jar, as shown in o
Figure 20.3.1, since oxygen is not very soluble in water. As the oxygen
fills the gas jar, the water level in the jar drops. This is known as
manganeseOv)
downward displacement of water and it is easy to see when the jar is oxide catalyst

full. The oxygen collected in this way contains water vapour due to it A Figure 20.3.1 The laboratory
having been bubbled through water. preparation of oxygen

If dry oxygen is required, then it can be dried bypassing it through a

U-tube containing anhydrous calcium chloride or calcium oxide, or by

bubbling it through a wash bottle containing concentrated sulfuric acid,
as shown in Figure 20.3.2. All these compounds absorb the water vapour
in the oxygen. The dry gas is then collected directly into a gas jar by
upward displacement of air since it is slightly denser than air and sinks
in the jar, displacing the air upwards. The problem with this method is
that it cannot be determined when the jar is full.

Laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide can be prepared by reacting a carbonate with an acid. The
usual method is to react calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid as shown
in the following equation:

CaC03(s) + 2HC1(aq) CaC12(aq) + C02(g) + H20(1)

As with the preparation of oxygen, the method of collection depends on

whether dry carbon dioxide is required or not.
o If dry carbon dioxide is not required, then the gas can be collected by

bubbling it through water into an upside down gas jar since it is not very
soluble in water. However, the carbon dioxide collected will contain
water vapour.
321
 Laboratory preparation and uses of gases Non-metals

If dry carbon dioxide is required, then it can be dried bypassing it

Exam tip through a U-tube containing anhydrous calcium chloride or by bubbling

it through a wash bottle containing concentrated sulfuric acid. Calcium

It is very important that you oxide cannot be used to dry the gas because carbon dioxide reacts
can draw line drawings of the with it. The dry gas is then collected directly into a gas jar by upward
apparatus used to prepare oxygen, displacement of air since it is denser than air.
carbon dioxide and ammonia in the
laboratory.

hydrochloric acid

carbon
dioxide

concentrated
sulfuric acid

calcium carbonate

A Figure 20.3.2 The laboratory preparation of dry carbon dioxide

It isimportant to note that calcium carbonate and sulfuric acid cannot

be used to produce carbon dioxide since the reaction produces insoluble
calcium sulfate. This forms a layer around the calcium carbonate crystals,
which prevents them from continuing to react with the acid and the reaction
quickly stops.

Laboratory preparation of ammonia

ammonium chloride
and calcium hydroxide
Ammonia can be prepared in the laboratory by reacting an alkali with an
ammonium salt, for example, calcium hydroxide and ammonium chloride
ammonia
as shown in the following equation:
II

Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4C1(s) CaC12(s) + 2NH3(g) + 2H20(g)

heat The solid calcium hydroxide and ammonium chloride are mixed together in
a boiling tube. They are then heated using a Bunsen burner with the boiling
calcium tube placed horizontally, as shown in Figure 20.3.3. Since ammonia is very
oxide
soluble in water, it cannot be collected over water. The gas is dried by passing
it through a U-tube or up a drying tower containing calcium oxide. Neither

calcium chloride nor concentrated sulfuric acid can be used to dry the gas
A Figure 20.3.3 The laboratory
preparation of dry ammonia since ammonia reacts with both of them.

The ammonia is collected in a gas jar by downward displacement of air

since dense than air and rises to the top of the jar, displacing the air
it less
downwards. It is possible to determine when the gas jar is full of ammonia by
placing a piece of moist red litmus paper at the mouth of the jar. If the litmus
turns blue, the jar is full.

Table 20.3.1 summarises the methods used to prepare oxygen, carbon dioxide
and ammonia in the laboratory.

322
Non-metals Laboratory preparation and uses of gases

V Table 20.3.1 Summary of the methods used to prepare gases in the laboratory

Usual reagents I Solubility of gas in water Drying agent(s) Method of collecting the dry gas

Oxygen Hydrogen peroxide Slightly soluble. Can be collected over Anhydrous calcium chloride Upward displacement of air. Oxygen is

and a catalyst of water.

Calcium oxide slightly denser than air.

manganese@l) oxide
Concentrated sulfuric acid

Carbon Calcium carbonate and Slightly soluble. Can be collected over Anhydrous calcium chloride Upward displacement of air. Carbon
dioxide hydrochloric acid water.
Concentrated sulfuric acid
dioxide is slightly denser than air.

Ammonia Calcium hydroxide and very soluble. Ammonia reacts with water Calcium oxide Downward displacement of air.
ammonium chloride to form ammonium hydroxide, therefore, Ammonia is less dense than air.
cannot be collected over water.

Uses of gases
The gases which we can make in the laboratory also have many important
uses. We will look at some of the uses of oxygen and carbon dioxide based on
their properties.

Uses of oxygen
Oxygen is essential for all living organisms to make energy during the process
of aerobic respiration. obtain this oxygen from the air when we
Humans
breathe. Oxygen is also essential for combustion to occur. Because of these
two properties, humans have found a variety of uses for oxygen, some of A Figure 20.3.4 A fire extinguisher
which are given below.

Oxygen is used in hospitals for patients who have difficulty breathing Summary questions
and also to ease certain medical disorders, e.g. emphysema, asthma,
chronic bronchitis and heart disease.
1 Describe how you could
prepare dry oxygen in the
Oxygen is carried on aeroplanes and submarines for breathing purposes
laboratory.
in emergencies.
2 Ammonia can be prepared in
e Nearly pure oxygen is used in spacesuits for astronauts to breathe.
the laboratory by heating a
e Oxygen is used in oxyacetylene and oxyhydrogen torches to burn the
mixture of calcium hydroxide
acetylene or hydrogen and produce extremely high-temperature flames
and ammonium chloride.
that are used to weld and cut metals.
a Write a balanced equation
e Liquid oxygen is used to burn the fuel that generates the lift in spaceships.
for the reaction.
b Name a suitable drying
Uses of carbon dioxide
agent for the gas.
Carbon dioxide has certain properties that make it useful to humans. c What method would be
Pressurised liquid carbon dioxide used in fire extinguishers. When the
is
used to collect the dry gas
pressure is reduced by opening the valve of the extinguisher, the carbon
and why is this method
dioxide is released. The carbon dioxide is non-flammable and denser used?
than air, so it smothers the flames, keeping out the oxygen in the air. d Why is ammonia not
collected over water?
e Solid carbon dioxide ('dry ice') is used as a refrigerant in the food
industry. It sublimes at — 78.5 oc, therefore, it can be used to keep food What method is used to
items extremely cold and leaves no liquid when it sublimes to a gas. collect dry carbon dioxide
e Carbon dioxide is used to make carbonated soft drinks. The solubility of in the laboratory?
the gas increases as the pressure increases. The carbon dioxide is dissolved b Why is this method used?
in the drink under pressure. When the pressure is released by opening the 4 Explain why oxygen is used:
bottle or can, its solubility decreases and bubbles form causing the drink a in hospitals b in welding.
to 'fizz'. The carbon dioxide also adds a pleasant taste to the drink.
5 Explain why carbon dioxide is
e Carbon dioxide used as an aerosol propellant in cans containing
is
used in fire extinguishers.
certain foodstuffs, such as whipped cream, because it is relatively inert.
323
 The uses of non-metals Non-metals

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
Although only a small number of elements in the periodic table are non-
be able to:
metals, these elements are used in a wide range of applications. Some of
list the uses of various non- them play a particularly important role in industry. The uses of some non-
metals and their compounds. metals and their compounds are given in Tables 20.4.1-20.4.6.

V Table 20.4.1 The uses of carbon and its compounds

Non-metal/compound I Uses
Carbon (diamond) • in jewellery

to cut and engrave glass and other diamonds

• in the tips of drills

• diamond powder is used as an abrasive for polishirg and fire grinding

Carbon (graphite) as the 'lead' in pencils

to make electrodes for use in industry

as a solid lubricant

to make carbon fibres to strengthen plastics

Sodium carbonate to soften hard water

(Nao,) • in the manufacture of glass

Sodium as a raising agent in baking powder

hydrogercarbonate as an antacid
(NaHC03)
• in fire extinguishers

A Figure 20.4.1 This tennis racquet has

been reinforced with carbon fibre

A figure 20.4.2 Carbon in the form of diamond is used to make jewellery

? Did you know? V Table 20.4.2 The uses of sulfur and its compounds

Vulcanisation is the process of Non-metal/compound I Uses

hardening rubber. The rubber Sulfur • to vulcanise (harden) rubber, e.g. for car tyres

is heated with sulfur to make it • in the manufacture of medicinal drugs and ointments to treat fungal
infections
stronger, more elastic and more
resistant to chemical attack. This • in the manufacture of fungicides to prevent fungal attacks on crops and

is achieved by the sulfur forming garden plants

cross-links between the polymer • to make the heads of matches

chains of the rubber. Charles to manufacture sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid

Goodyear is generally credited with Sulfur dioxide (SO) as a food preservative, e.g. in jams and fruit juices
its discovery 1839, however, the
in as a bleachirg agent in the manufacture of paper
history of stabilising rubber dates Sulfuric acid (HSQ) • in the manufacture of fertilisers, e.g. ammonium sulfate
back to 1600 BC. • in lead-acid batteries, e.g. car batteries

324
Non-metals The uses of non-metals

V Table 20.4.3 The uses of phosphorus and its compounds

Non-metal/compound Uses Did you know?

Phosphorus to make the strikirg surface of safety matches
Fertilisers are added to the soil
• to make flares, fireworks and explosives to supply plants with one or more
to make pesticides of the elements that they require
• the manufacture of phosphoric acid
in for healthy growth. Three of the
Phosphoric acid (HaP04) to manufacture phosphate fertilisers, e.g. ammonium phosphate major elements needed by plants
[(NH4)3P04] are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)

as a rust remover and potassium (K). Fertilisers which

supply mainly these elements are
Phosphorus sulfides, to make the heads of matches
known as NPK fertilisers.
e.g. P4S3

• A LA HUMEOAO.

40
UWTED

FOSFOROS
Guarde 10', en un y i}egutese
l' 'au dr emend" el fir,'oro. enoend.a fnsforo

del de n•no•, deituego

MARAV,U PORT Y TOBAGO. W.l.

A Figure 20.4.3 The heads of these matches contain a phosphorus sulfide

V Table 20.4.4 The uses of chlorine and its compounds

Non-metal/compound Uses A figure 20.4.4 Chlorine is used to

Chlorine to treat drinking water to destroy bacteria manufacture chlorine bleaches
to make solvents and dry-cleaning fluids, e.g. tetrachloroethene (C2C14)

• to make pesticides, e.g. DDT

• to make antiseptics, e.g. TCP and Dettol ? Did you know?
to make morochloroethene, which is used to make PVC for pipes,
window frames and guttering Chlorine gas was used as a
• to manufacture sodium chlorate(l) and calcium chlorate(l) poison gas during World War I in

the trenches in Europe.

Sodium chlorate(l) as bleaching agents
(NaClO) and calcium to sterilise drinking water and swimming pool water — the compound
chlorate(l) releases 'free chlorine' which is toxic to bacteria

as disinfectants

V Table 20.4.5 The uses of nitrogen and its compounds

Non-metal/compound Uses
• liquid nitrogen is used to quick freeze foods
Nitrogen

to fill light bulbs together with argon

• in food packaging to provide an inert atmosphere which prevents

ærobic decay
• in the manufacture of ammonia

Ammonia (NH) • in household clearers, e.g. oven and window cleaners

to manufacture fertilisers, e.g. ammonium nitrate (NH4N03),
ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2S04] and ammonium phosphate
[(NH4)3P04]
• in the manufacture of nitric acid

Nitric acid (HN03) to manufacture fertilisers, e.g. ammonium nitrate (NH4N03)

•
A Figure 20.4.5 Ammonia is often used
to manufacture explosives and dyes
in cleaning agents

325
 Harmful effects of non-metals and their compounds Non-metals

V Table 20.4.6 The uses of silicon and its compounds

Non-metal/compound I Uses
Silicon • in the manufacture of silicon chips used in electronic devices from
pocket calculators to computers

to make silicone implants for plastic and reconstructive surgery

to make a silicon steel alloy in the steel industry

Silicon dioxide (quartz) • in jewellery, e.g. amethyst is purple quartz

(Si02) • in the manufacture of glass - silicon dioxide is the main ingredient of
glass
• in the manufacture of cement
• mixed with cement and aggregate to make corcrete
Metal silicates to make ceramic products, such as pottery and porcelain products,
roof tiles, floor tiles, building bricks and sewer pipes

Summary questions
1 Which four compounds of non-metals are used to make fertilisers?
2 What is mean by 'vulcanisation of rubber'? Name the non-metal that is
used to vulcanise rubber and explain what happens during the process
of vulcanisation.

3 Discuss some of the uses of the following non-metals and their

compounds:
carbon b chlorine c silicon.

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: compounds
e discuss the harmful effects While non-metals and their compounds are extremely useful to humans,
of non-metals and their
some compounds of the same non-metals can have harmful effects on living
systems and the environment. Like certain metals, the concentrations of
compounds on living systems
and the environment. these non-metal compounds within the environment are increasing due
to pollution caused by man's activities. These harmful substances are called
pollutants.

We will now look at some of the sources of some of

these pollutants and their negative effects on the
environment in Table 20.5.1. Some of these effects
will also be discussed in more detail after the table.
figure 20.5.1 Pollution harms the environment

V Table 20.5.1 Harmful effects of some compounds of non-metals

Non-metal compound/
Sources in the environment Harmful effects
pollutant

Sulfur dioxide (SO) Combustion of fossil fuels, especially coal and Sulfur dioxide causes respiratory problems in humans,
heavy oils, e.g. in industry and power stations e.g. bronchitis. It reduces the growth of plants and

dissolves in rainwater forming an acidic solution knom

as acid rain (see later in this unit).

Carbon monoxide (CO) Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, nunly Carbon moroxide binds with haemoglobin much more
in motor vehicles readily than oxygen causirg a reduction in the amount of
oxygen reaching body tissues. This reduces respiration
and mental awareness, causes visual impairment,
dizziness, headaches, unconsciousness and even death.

326
Non-metals Harmful effects of non-metals and their compounds

V Table 20.5.1 (continued)

Non-metal compound/
Sources in the environment Harmful effects
pollutant

Carbon dioxide (C02) Complete combustion of fossil fuels, e.g. in Carbon dioxide, together with other gases, builds up in

motor vehicles, industry, power stations and the upper atmosphere contributing to the greenhouse
aeroplares effect and global warming (see later in this unit).

About 25% of the carbon dioxide released is absorbed

by the oceans leading to ocean acidification. This
ircrease in acidity is expected to affect the ability of
shellfish such as oysters, sea urchins and corals to
produce and nuntain their shells.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) Decay of organic matter in garbage dumps, Hydrogen sulfide is extremely toxic. Like carbon
landfills and farmyards. Released from monoxide, it combines readily with hæmoglobin, which
petroleum refineries. reduces cellular respiration and causes dizziness,
headaches, unconsciousress and even death. Low
concentrations irritate the eyes and respiratory system.

Oxides of nitrogen (NO and N02) Combustion at high temperatures in motor Oxides of nitrogen are extremely toxic causing lung
vehicle ergines and power stations causing damage. Low corcentrations irritate the skin, eyes and
nitrogen and oxygen in the air to react respiratory system. They also cause leaves to die, reduce
the growth of plants, play a major role in the development
d photochemical smog and dissolve in rainwater forming
acid rain (see later in this unit).

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Used as a refrigerant in air-conditiorers and CFCs break down the ozore layer in the upper
refrigerators and as a propellant in some atmosphere allowing more ultraviolet light to reach the
ærosol sprays Earth's surface (see later in this unit).

Carbon particles (C) Combustion of fossil fuels, e.g. in industry. Carbon particles blacken trees reducing photosynthesis
Bush fires and cigarettes. and blacken buildings. They combire with water vapour
and sulfur dioxide to form smog, which causes poor
visibility for drivers and aircraft pilots and respiratory

problems, e.g. bronchitis, asthma and lung disease.

Nitrate ions (NOg-) and phosphate ions Fertilisers used in agriculture, especially in These ions cause eutrophication (see later in this unit).

(P043-) intensive farming. Synthetic detergents.

Pesticides, e.g. insecticides, fungicides and Used in agriculture for pest control, disease Pesticides concentrate up food chains harming top
herbicides control and control of weeds. Used to control consumers (see They can also harm
later in this unit).

vectors of disease, e.g. mosquitoes. useful as well as harmful organisms, for example, bees
which are essential for pollination are being killed by
insecticides.

Acid rain
Acid rain is formed when pollutant gases such as sulfur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen are released into the atmosphere. These oxides are acidic and
when they react with rainwater they form acidic solutions, for example:

S02(g) + H20(1) H2S03(aq)

sulfurous acid

2N02(g) + H20(1) HN02(aq) + HN03(aq)

nitrous acid nitric acid

These acidic solutions then fall to Earth as acid rain which can have a serious
effect on plants, animals, the soil and water. Acid rain decreases the pH of
the soil, damages crops, trees and other plants and harms animals. It also
corrodes buildings, cars, machinery and historical monuments and it
causes lakes, streams and rivers to become acidic and unsuitable for aquatic A Figure 20.5.2 A limestone statue
organisms, such as fish. corroded by acid rain

327
 Harmful effects of non-metals and their compounds Non-metals

The greenhouse effect and global warming

When fossil fuels are burnt a number of gases are produced and released into
the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is known as a
greenhouse gas. Other greenhouse gases include water vapour, dinitrogen
monoxide (N20) and methane (CH4).
Greenhouse gases form a layer around the Earth. Radiation from the Sun
passes through this layer, reaches the Earth's surface and warms the Earth.
The Earth's surface then radiates this heat back into the atmosphere as
infrared radiation. Some of this radiation goes back into space and some is
absorbed by the greenhouse gases around the Earth. The greenhouse gases
then re-emit this radiation. Some of it is re-emitted into space, however, most
of it is re-emitted back towards the Earth as heat. The heat causes a warming
known as the greenhouse effect.
the Earth radiates
A Figure 20.5.3 The effects of acid rain heat back into space
on trees

some absorbed radiation

is radiated into space

radiation from
the Sun warms H20 CH4
the Earth c02 greenhouse gases
2 absorb so radiation

H20 H20
400
space CH4 C02
most absorbed radiation
C02 H20
is radiated ba towards Earth
380 atmosphere
H20 C02
b 360
A Figure 20.5.4 The greenhouse effect
340
An increase in greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide caused by the
320 combustion of fossil fuels, is resulting in the Earth getting warmer. The
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
warming of the Earth's surface as a result of increasing concentrations of
Year greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is called global warming. This global

A Figure 20.5.5 Average carbon dioxide warming is causing polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, sea levels to rise,
levels in the atmosphere from 1960 to flooding of low-lying coastal areas, global climate changes and more severe
2012 weather patterns.

Did you know? Ozone layer depletion

Ozone (03) isa gas found in theupper atmosphere which shields the Earth from
In1800 the average carbon dioxide dangerous ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This ozone layer is becoming depleted
concentration in the atmosphere by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which, until recently, were used extensively
was about 280 parts per million in aerosol sprays, refrigerators and air-conditioners. These CFCs are inert and
(ppm) or 0.028%. In 1960 the figure insoluble in water causing them to accumulate in the atmosphere where they
was about 316 ppm and in 2012 it are damaging the ozone layer. Depletion of the ozone layer means that more
had risen to about 394 ppm. The
UV light is reaching the Earth and this is leading to more and more people
concentration is currently increasing
developing skin cancer, cataracts and depressed immune systems.
at about 2 ppm per year.

Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the rapid growth of green plants and algae in waterways
such as lakes, ponds and rivers caused by nitrates and phosphates entering the
water. Nitrate and phosphate ions are needed by green plants to make proteins
so they can grow. When their concentrations increase, it promotes the growth
of plant life, especially algae. This rapid growth causes the water to turn
328
Non-metals Harmful effects of non-metals and their compounds

green. Underwater plants then begin to die due to reduced light penetration
and the algae start to die due to overcrowding. The dead plants and algae are
decomposed by aerobic bacteria which multiply and use up all the dissolved
oxygen. This leads to the death of other aquatic organisms such as fish.

Effects of pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals used to destroy pests. They are used especially in
agricultureand in the control of vectors of disease such as mosquitoes. There 40 -

are different types of pesticides: herbicides are used to kill weeds, insectici des
are used to kill insects and fungicides are used to destroy fungi. A Figure 20.5.6 Eutrophication occurs
when there is uncontrolled growth of
Some pesticides are particularly harmful in the environment because they green algae in water
are persistent, i.e. they do not break down in the environment. They also
have the potential for bioaccumulation which occurs when organisms
absorb toxic substances at a faster rate than they excrete them. For example,
if fat soluble pesticides such as DDT are absorbed by living organisms they are

stored in fatty tissues of the organisms where they gradually accumulate. The
concentration of the pesticides in the fatty tissues of animals then increases
moving up food chains. As a result, consumers at the top of the food chain
are very often harmed, especially birds of prey.

Disposal of solid waste

Plastics are organic compounds composed of non-metals. Even though
they are organic compounds, most plastics are non-biodegradable, i.e. they
cannot be broken down by microorganisms and therefore they remain in the
environment for very long periods of time. This makes the disposal of solid
waste containing plastics a serious problem.
e Plastics make up about 25% of all solid waste going to landfills, meaning
that more and more land is being used up to extend and build landfills
to accept all these plastics.
e Some plastics release toxic chemicals which are persistent within the
environment. When plastics are disposed of in landfills there is the
danger of these chemicals contaminating groundwater and nearby soil.
e Plastics produce toxic gases when burnt which can lead to air pollution
and serious health problems if they are disposed of in incinerators.

When not disposed of properly, plastics very often land up in waterways

and oceans where they are particularly harmful to aquatic organisms,
often leading to their death by being ingested or by causing suffocation.

The problem of the disposal of plastics can be solved to a large extent by

recycling all items made of plastic.

Summary questions
1 Explain how carbon dioxide contributes to global warming and suggest some of the consequences of global
warming.
2 Name two gases which can form acid rain and discuss some of the effects of acid rain.

3 What are pesticides and why are they harmful to organisms at the top of food chains?

4 a What is eutrophication and what is it caused by?

b Why is eutrophication a problem in aquatic environments?
5 What are some of the problems of disposing of plastics?

329
Green chemistry Non-metals

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Green chemistry is also known as sustainable chemistry. Green chemistry
involves designing chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate
define green chemistry the use or generation of substances that are hazardous to living organisms
o outline the principles of green and the environment.
chemistry.
The principles of green chemistry provide a framework for chemists to use
when they are designing new materials, products, processes and systems.
The principles focus on the development of sustainable designs which allow
for economic development at the same time as protecting human health
and the environment.
Traditional chemical processes usually take place in several steps and
Key fact use a variety of reagents, including solvents. They often require elevated
temperatures and pressures and purification has to take place at each step.
Green chemistry is the utilisation They usually create yields below 100%, generate substantial waste, incur
of a set of principles that reduces heavy costs associated with raw materials, energy usage and waste disposal
or eliminates the use or generation
and have a negative impact on the environment.
of hazardous substances in

the design, manufacture and Green chemistry is doing chemistry the way nature does chemistry; using

application of chemical products renewable, biodegradable materials which do not persist in the environment
and processes. or harm the environment.

Using the technologies of green chemistry provides a number of benefits

including:
e reduced wastage
e reduced pollution
e safer products
e reduced use of energy and natural resources
improved competitiveness of chemical manufacturers.

The twelve principles of green chemistry

There are twelve principles of green chemistry, which provide a road map
for chemists to follow when designing new materials, products, processes
and systems. The term 'green chemistry' was coined by Paul Anastas in 1991
while working at the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and, together with John Warner, he developed the twelve principles. These
twelve principles are stated below with a short explanation of each.

1 Prevent waste

'It's better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been
created.'

Chemical processes should be designed to produce as little hazardous

waste as possible.

2 Maximise atom economy

'Synthetic methods should be designed to maximise the incorporation ofall
materials used in the process into the final product. '

Chemical processes which incorporate most or all of the starting

materials into the final products should be used. This would then result
in few, if any, wasted atoms.
Non-metals Green chemistry

3 Design less hazardous chemical syntheses

'Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed which use and

generate substances thatpossess little or no toxicity to human health and the
environment.'

Chemical processes should be designed using reactants which pose the

least risk to human health and the environment and which produce
harmless by-products.

4 Design safer chemicals and products

'Chemical products should be designed which perform their desired functions

while minimising their toxicity. '

All new products should be designed to be safer. These products should

still be effective for their specific uses, but have minimum toxicity.

5 Use safer solvents and auxiliaries

'The use of auxiliary substances should be minimised wherever possible and

they should be made innocuous when used. '

Many chemical processes use auxiliary substances such as solvents and

separating agents. Many of these are hazardous and lead to considerable
waste. The use of these substances should be reduced to a minimum,
eliminated totally or they should be replaced with less hazardous
alternatives.

6 Increase energy efficiency

'The energy requirements ofchemical processes should be minimised and

synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure
ifpossible.'

Chemical processes should be designed to use the minimum amounts

of energy. If possible, processes should be carried out at the ambient
(surrounding) temperature and pressure to avoid the need for large
amounts of energy associated with using higher temperatures and
pressures.

7 Use renewable feedstocks

'Raw materials or feedstocks should be renewable rather than depleting

whenever practicable.'

The term feedstock refers to any raw material used in an industrial

process. Whenever possible, chemical processes should use raw
materials which are renewable. These include agricultural products
such as purpose-grown crops, wood chips, processed solid waste and
waste from other processes.

The use of non-renewable raw materials should be reduced to a minimum

since they are rapidly running out. Non-renewable raw materials include
those obtained from fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural gas and coal,
and those which are mined from the Earth, such as ores.
331
 Green chemistry Non-metals

8 Reduce derivatives

'Unnecessary derivatisation should be minimised or avoided ifpossible. '

Derivatisation involves temporarily modifying physical and chemical

processes. Since this requires additional reagents and can generate
waste, derivatisation should be avoided or minimised.

9 Use catalysts

'Catalytic reagents are superior to stoichiometric reagents.'

Catalysts are not used up in reactions since they do not take part in the
reaction Stoichiometric reagents take part in the reaction so they
itself.

are used up and the reaction often forms unwanted or hazardous by-
products.

Catalysts should be used in chemical processes for several reasons. The

reaction occurs faster, the catalyst reduces the temperature needed for
the reaction which saves energy, it improves the conversion of reactants
to products reducing wastage of reagents and it reduces the production
of by-products.

10 Design for degradation

'Chemical products should be designed so they break down into innocuous

products that do not persist in the environment. '

Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their

functional they break down into harmless products which do not
life

persist in the environment.

11 Analyse in real-time to prevent pollution

'Analytical methods should be developed to allow for real-time, in-process

monitoring and control to minimise the formation of hazardous substances. '

The progress of any chemical process should always be monitored to

know when the reaction is complete and to detect the formation of any
unwanted or hazardous by-products.

12 Minimise the potential for accidents

'Choose reagents to be used in chemical processes which minimise the

potential for chemical accidents, including explosions, fires and toxic releases
into the atmosphere. '

Reagents should always be chosen to reduce the risk of chemical

accidents to a minimum.

Green chemistry in action

The best way to understand the potential of green chemistry is to see it in
action.Each year, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sponsors
various awards including The Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge
Awards. The following are a few examples of award-wining innovations
which show how the effective application of the principles of green
chemistry by small businesses and larger corporations is beginning to solve
our environmental challenges.
332
Non-metals Green chemistry

Virent Energy Systems use a water-based, catalytic method to make

gasoline, diesel and jet fuel from the sugar, starch and cellulose of
The process requires little external energy and can compete
plants.
economically with fuels produced from petroleum. Plants are a renewable
resource so their use helps reduce dependence on petroleum.
Eastman Chemical Company has developed a new method to make
esters for use in cosmetics and personal care products. Their method
uses enzymes to make the esters which saves energy, avoids using strong
acids and organic solvents, minimises the production of undesirable by-
products and takes place at lower temperatures than traditional methods.
Battelleand its partners have developed a toner for laser printers
and photocopiers made from soya oil and protein together with
carbohydrates from corn. This toner is much easier to remove from
paper than traditional toners which are made from petroleum-based
starting materials, allowing the paper to be easily recycled. Its production
also saves considerable amounts of energy and reduces the use of
petroleum.
Buckman International has carefully selected and designed enzymes,
derived from natural sources, to modify the cellulose fibres in wood in
order to make paper. Paper made using these modified fibres is much
stronger and of higher quality than paper made by traditional methods.
This means that the paper can be made using less wood fibre and more
recycled paper, thus conserving natural resources. The process also
saves significant amounts of energy and reduces the use of additional
chemicals.

e Seventh Generation produces green cleaning, paper and personal care

products, such as laundry and dishwasher detergents, paper towels, baby
diapers, body washes and lotions. The company uses biodegradable and
phosphate- and chlorine-free ingredients in its products and recycled
materials in its packaging.

Figure 20.6.1 Seventh Generation products use

biodegradable and phosphate- and chlorine-free
ingredients

Summary questions
1 Define 'green chemistry'.
2 Suggest some benefits of using the technologies of green chemistry.

3 Outline six principles of green chemistry.

Green chemistry Non-metals

Key concepts
Non-metals are elements whose atoms usually have a large number of
valence electrons, usually 5, 6, 7 or 8.
In general, non-metals have low melting points and boiling points, do
not conduct electricity and heat, are dull, weak and brittle in the solid
state and have low densities.
Many non-metals are gases at room temperature. Bromine is a liquid and
a few are solids.

Hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are colourless, tasteless and odourless

gases, chlorine is a yellow green gas and sulfur is a yellow solid.
Carbon has two allotropes, diamond and graphite.
Diamond is a transparent, colourless, sparkling solid.
Graphite is a soft, flaky, opaque, dark grey solid.
Non-metals form negative anions in chemical reactions with metals by
gaining electrons into their valence electron shell. As a result they form
ionic compounds.
Non-metals share valence electrons when they react with each other
forming covalent compounds.
Non-metals react with oxygen to form non-metal oxides.
Non-metals react with metals to form ionic compounds.
All non-metals behave as oxidising agents when they react with metals.
Oxygen and chlorine always act as oxidising agents when they react
with other non-metals or compounds.
Hydrogen, carbon and sulfur act as reducing agents when they react
with oxygen.
Hydrogen and carbon act as reducing agents when they react with metal
oxides.

Oxygen can be prepared in the laboratory by the decomposition of

hydrogen peroxide in the presence of a manganese(lv) oxide catalyst.
Carbon dioxide can be prepared in the laboratory by reacting a carbonate
with anacid, usually calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.

Ammonia can be prepared in the laboratory by reacting an alkali with an

ammonium salt, e.g. calcium hydroxide and ammonium chloride.
Calcium chloride, calcium oxide and concentrated sulfuric acid may be
used to dry gases made in the laboratory.
Dry oxygen and carbon dioxide are collected by upward displacement of
air, dry ammonia is collected by downward displacement of air.

Two important uses of oxygen are in hospitals and for welding and
cutting metals.
Carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers, as a refrigerant, to make
carbonated soft drinks and as an aerosol propellant.
Non-metals and their compounds have a great many uses including
making fibres to strengthen plastics, to strengthen rubber used in tyres,
in jewellery and to make insecticides, matches, fertilisers, bleaches, glass
and ceramics.
Non-metals and their compounds can have a negative effect on living
organisms and the environment.
Non-metals Green chemistry

The concentration of these harmful non-metals and their compounds

within the environment is increasing due to pollution caused by man's
activities.

The most harmful non-metal compounds include sulfur dioxide,

carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, oxides of nitrogen,
chlorofluorocarbons, carbon particles, nitrate and phosphate ions and
compounds in pesticides.
Acid rain forms when sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen react with
rainwater.

Carbon dioxide is contributing to the greenhouse effect and global

warming.
Chlorofluorocarbons are breaking down the ozone layer in the upper
atmosphere allowing more ultraviolet light to reach the Earth's surface.
Nitrate and phosphate ions are causing eutrophication.
Pesticides concentrate up food chains, harming the top consumers.
Disposal of solid waste containing plastics poses a serious problem.
Waste containing plastics should be recycled.
Green chemistry is the utilisation of a set of principles that reduces or
eliminates the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design,
manufacture and application of chemical products and processes.
Using the technologies of green chemistry provides a number of benefits
including reduced wastage, reduced pollution, safer products, reduced
use of energy and natural resources and improved competitiveness of
chemical manufacturers.
There are twelve principles of green chemistry.
Practice exam-style questions Non-metals

9 Acid rain is caused by:

Practice exam-style questions I sulfur dioxide
II nitrogen dioxide
Multiple-choice questions Ill carbon monoxide

1 Which of the following is true of non-metals?

A I only
A Most have high densities. B land II only
B They are all non-conductors of electricity. C II and Ill only
C They are usually solid at room temperature. D 1, 11 and 111

D Most have low melting points. 10 The increase in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere
are predicted to cause all of the following except:
2 Which of the following is a list of gaseous diatomic non-
A depletion of the ozone layer
metals at room temperature?
B changes in global weather patterns
A chlorine, oxygen, bromine, nitrogen
C melting of polar ice caps
B hydrogen, oxygen, neon, nitrogen D flooding of low-lying coastal areas
C fluorine, oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine
D oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, helium Structured question
3 Most oxides of non-metals are: 11 a The diagram below shows the apparatus that could
A acidic be used to prepare a dry sample of oxygen in the
B amphoteric laboratory.
C basic
D neutral liquid X

4 In which of the following reactions is the non-metal

behaving as a reducing agent?
A Zn(s) + S(s) ZnS(s)
B + C12(g)
2K1(aq) 2KCl(aq) + 12(aq)
C PbO(s) + H2(g) Pb(s)+ H20(1)
D 2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s)

5 Oxygen can be prepared in the laboratory by the

dry
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Manganese(lv) oxygen
oxide is also usually used in the preparation as: solid Z
A a source of the oxygen solid Y
B a catalyst
i) Identify the liquid X and the solid Y. (2 marks)
C an oxidising agent ii) State the role of the solid Y. (1 mark)
D a reducing agent
iii)Write an equation to show how oxygen is
6 Which of the following is used as the drying agent in the produced by X and Y. (2 marks)
iv) Name ONE compound that could be Z and state
preparation of dry ammonia in the laboratory?
A calcium oxide its role. (2 marks)
B calcium chloride v) Give ONE reason for collecting the oxygen by the
C calcium carbonate method shown and name the method. (2 marks)
D concentrated sulfuric acid b Oxygen can react with both metals and non-metals
to form oxides.
7 Which of the following pairs of reactants would be the Write a balanced equation for the reaction
i)

least suitable to prepare a sample of carbon dioxide in between zinc and oxygen. (2 marks)
the laboratory? ii) If water, followed by a few drops of blue litmus
A calcium carbonate and dilute nitric acid solution, is added to the oxide formed when
B magnesium carbonate and dilute sulfuric acid oxygen reacts with sulfur, what would you expect
C copper(ll) carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid to observe? Give a reason for your answer.
D calcium carbonate and dilute sulfuric acid (2 marks)
c The non-metal hydrogen can behave as both an
8 Carbon dioxide is used in all of the following except: oxidising agent and a reducing agent. Write TWO
A fire extinguishers equations, one to show hydrogen behaving as an
B soft drinks oxidising agent and one to show it behaving as a
C hospitals reducing agent. (2 marks)
D aerosol sprays
Total 15 marks
Non-metals Practice exam-style questions

Extended response question

12 a The Fourth Annual Assessment Report of the United
Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change published in 2007 predicts that overall global
warming is likely to be about 0.2 oc per decade for
the next two decades. This global warming has been
partially attributed to the increase in greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.
i) Name the main greenhouse gas. (1 mark)
ii) Explain how the greenhouse effect works.
(4 marks)
iii) Discuss the possible effects of global warming on
the environment. (3 marks)
b Over the years studies have shown that there has
been a significant depletion of the ozone layer.
This has been linked with the extensive use of
chlorofluorocarbons for many years.
Discuss some of the consequences of this depletion.
Your answer must include reference to the function
of the ozone layer. (3 marks)
c 'Non-metals and their compounds are used
extensively by man. By reference to TWO different
'

non-metals, provide evidence to support this

statement. (4 marks)
Total 15 marks

337
 Water

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will body and it covers 71 % of the Earth's surface. Water is
be able to:
a liquid at room temperature and pressure, however,
describe some of the unique it exists on Earth in all three states, solid (ice), liquid
properties of water
explain why the properties and gas (water vapour or steam). Water has certain
of water can have useful unique properties that make it essential for life on Earth.
and harmful effects on living
These properties help us to understand such things as
systems
discuss the consequences of how water becomes polluted and why life can exist at
the solvent properties of water the bottom of lakes when the top is frozen.
distinguish between the two
types of water hardness.

C21.1 The unique properties of water

Pure water, i.e. water that does not contain any impurities, is a colourless,
tasteless and odourless liquid that boils at 100 oc and freezes at OOC at
standard pressure. Water molecules are polar, meaning that each molecule
has a side that has a partial positive charge and a side that has a partial
negative charge. The two hydrogen atoms in each molecule have partial
positive charges and the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge. This is

shown in Figure 21.1.1.

partially oxygen
hydrogen
negative
partially
side of
positive
molecule side of
hydrogen molecule

A figure 21.1.1 A polar water molecule

The partial positive hydrogen atoms and partial negative oxygen atoms of
the water molecules are attracted to each other. This attraction forms what
is known as the hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bonds are usually stronger
hydrogen than other intermolecular forces which exist between molecules and this
bonds
gives water several unique properties. We will now look at some of these
properties and at their significance to living organisms.

The maximum density of water occurs at 4 oc

6-1
Density is a measure of how compact a substance is. It is defined as the mass
of a substance divided by its volume, i.e.

mass
A Figure 21.1.2 Hydrogen bonding
density =
in volume
water
If the volume of a fixed mass of a substance decreases, its density increases.
If its volume increases, its density decreases.
When most liquids are cooled and become solids they contract. The volume
of the solid is less than the volume of the liquid from which it forms. The
solid is, therefore, denser than the liquid and if it is placed in more of the
liquid it sinks.
Water The unique properties of water

Something slightly different happens in the case of water. When water is

cooled down to 4 oc it contracts and becomes denser, just like other liquids.
However, if it is cooled below 4 oc it starts to expand and continues to expand
until it freezes at 0 oc. This means that the volume of ice is greater than the
volume of the water from which it forms. Solid ice is, therefore, less dense
than the liquid water from which it formed and it floats on the liquid as it
forms. This is why ice cubes float in a cold drink.

1.0000

0.9995

0.9990

0.9985

0.9980
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Temperature (oc)

A figure 21.1.3 The maximum density of water occurs at 4 oc A Figure 21.1.4 Ice floats in water

When a pond or lake freezes, ice forms at the surface and the denser, warmer
water remains below the ice. This enables aquatic organisms to survive under
the ice.

ice
summer winter

ooc

goc

A Figure 21.1.5 The temperature of water in a lake in summer and in winter

Water has a high specific heat capacity

In Unit 12.2 you learnt that the specific heat capacity of a substance is
the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the
substance, e.g. 1 g, by Because water has a high specific heat capacity, it
1 oc.
requires a lot of heat energy to increaseits temperature by 1 oc. This means

that water can absorb a lot of heat energy without its temperature changing
very much or, in other words, when the temperature of the surroundings
changes, the temperature of water does not change very much. This is of
significance to living organisms for two main reasons.

The bodies of living organisms contain between 60% and 70% water.
Because of this, living organisms can absorb a lot of heat energy without
their body temperature changing very much. This means they can
survive in extremes of temperature.

As environmental temperatures change, e.g. from winter to summer,

the temperature of large bodies of water such as lakes and seas does
not change very much. This means that organisms living in aquatic
environments do not experience extreme fluctuations in temperature.

339
The unique properties of water Water

Water has a high heat of vaporisation

The heat of vaporisation the amount of heat energy required to change
is

a liquid to a gas. A lot of heat energy is required to change liquid water to a

gas due to the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules. This means
that water is not very volatile. Because water has a high heat of vaporisation,
when water evaporates from the surface of a living organism it removes a
large amount of heat energy from the organism. This makes sweating and
transpiration very effective methods of cooling organisms.

Water has a relatively high melting point and boiling point

The melting point of ice and the boiling point of water are much higher
than other molecules of a similar size due to the hydrogen bonds between
the molecules. Water exists as a liquid between 0 oc and 100 oc, which means
that at the temperatures experienced on Earth, most water is in the liquid
state. Because of this, lakes, rivers and seas exist and provide an environment
in which aquatic organisms can live.

Water dissolves a large number of substances

Water is sometimes referred to as a 'universal solvent' because it dissolves
a large number of substances. Because water molecules are polar, water can
dissolve both ionic and polar covalent substances.

ionic crystal water molecule crystal lattice breaking up ions become surrounded by polar
water molecules forming hydrated ions
(a) Dissolving ionic substances

The fact that water can dissolve so many substances is of great significance
to living organisms.
Water dissolves chemicals in cells so that chemical reactions can take
place, e.g. respiration.
o Water dissolves many useful substances so that they can be absorbed and
41
transported around the bodies of organisms, e.g. food and mineral salts.
water molecule Water dissolves waste products so that they can be excreted, e.g. urea.

ethanol molecule
However, the solvent properties of water can also cause problems.
(b) Dissolving covalent substances o Water can become hard.
A Figure 21.1.6 Water can dissolve both o Water can become polluted.
ionic (a) and covalent (b) substances
Mineral salts can be leached out of the soil.

Consequences of the solvent properties of water

We will now look at some of the consequences of the solvent properties of
water in detail.
Water The unique properties of water

Water hardness
[lard water is water that does not lather easily with soap, whereas soft
water lathers easily when soap is added. Water hardness is caused by
dissolved calcium and magnesium salts. When soap is put into hard water
containing Ca2+ or Mg2+ ions, it forms unpleasant scum. This can be
shown by the following equation using the soap sodium octadecanoate
(C17H35COONa):
2C17H35COONa(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2Na+(aq)
soap scum

Soap only lathers when all of the calcium and magnesium ions have
been precipitated out as scum, therefore, hard water wastes soap. Also
scum forms a grey, greasy layer around sinks and showers and discolours
clothes.

There are two types of water hardness, temporary hardness and permanent
hardness.

Temporary water hardness

Temporary hardness of water is hardness that can be removed by boiling.
Temporary hardness is caused by dissolved calcium hydrogencarbonate
and dissolved magnesium hydrogencarbonate
It is found in areas rich in limestone, i.e. calcium carbonate (CaC03).

Rainwater contains dissolved carbon dioxide. When this rainwater

passes through rocks containing calcium carbonate the dissolved carbon
dioxide reacts with the calcium carbonate forming soluble calcium
hydrogencarbonate. This is shown in the following equation:
CaC03(s) + H20(1) + C02(g)
The soluble calcium hydrogencarbonate then dissolves in the water making
it hard. This process is responsible for forming caves in limestone regions.

Permanent water hardness

Permanent hardness of water is hardness that cannot be removed by boiling.
Permanent hardness is caused by dissolved calcium sulfate (CaS04) and
dissolved magnesium Calcium sulfate and magnesium
sulfate (MgS04).
sulfate are only slightly soluble and they dissolve in rainwater passing
through rocks containing them.

Water pollution

When water dissolves harmful substances in the environment it becomes

polluted (Units 19.2 and 20.5). The main water pollutants are summarised
in the list below.

Heavy metal ions, mainly from industry.

Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen which are produced during
combustion dissolve in water to form acid rain.
Nitrate and phosphate ions present in fertilisers and detergents.
Pesticides used in agriculture and the control of vectors of disease.
Organic waste from untreated sewage and farmyards.
341
 The treatment of water for domestic purposes Water

Leaching
Leaching is the loss of water soluble substances from the soil as water passes
through it. When rainwater or irrigation water washes through the soil, it
dissolves water soluble mineral salts and takes the salts with it into deeper
layers of the soil. This often takes the salts out of the reach of plant roots,
making the soil less fertile.

Summary questions
Explain why water has unique physical properties.

2 Explain why ice floats in water.

3 Explain how each of the following properties of water is useful to living

organisms.
a Water has a high specific heat capacity
b Water has a high heat of vaporisation
4 Discuss:
a the advantages of water having good solvent properties
b the disadvantages of water having good solvent properties.
5 What is water hardness and how is it caused?

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
purposes
describe the stages in the The water that is piped to our homes comes from sources such as reservoirs,
large-scale treatment of water lakes, rivers and aquifers. It is sometimes cloudy, may have an unpleasant

describe ways in which water taste and may contain harmful microorganisms, so it must be treated to
can be treated home
at reduce or remove all the contaminants and make it safe to use. Water, which
describe how hard water can is safe enough to be consumed by humans, is known as drinking water or

be softened. potable water.

Various methods are used to treat water to make it safe for use.

Did you know? Large-scale water treatment

Inmany parts of the world, Large-scale water treatment is used to treat water before it is piped to homes.
humans have inadequate access It involves the following stages.
to potable water and use sources
contaminated with pathogens, Flocculation and sedimentation
and suspended
toxic chemicals
solids. Drinking this water or using Flocculation is the first step in the treatment process. Certain chemicals,
it in food preparation is a cause of e.g. alum, are added to the water to cause any fine suspended solid particles
death in these countries. to clump together to form larger particles called floc. This floc is then allowed
to settle within the water supply, a process known as sedimentation.

Filtration

Once the floc has settled, the clear water above it is passed through filters
in order to remove any remaining particles, including some bacteria and
viruses. The filters,
which are usually beds of gravel, sand and charcoal, have
varying compositions and pore sizes.
342
Water The treatment of water for domestic purposes

Chlorination

Chlorination is carried out after filtration to destroy any bacteria and

viruses remaining in the water supply. The water is treated with chlorine
gas, which is highly toxic to bacteria and viruses. Since chlorine is so

toxic, only very small amounts are added (5 parts per million). One
disadvantage of this is that it can cause the water to have an unpleasant
taste if too much is added. Monochloroamine (NH2Cl) is now being
used as an alternative to chlorine since it is more stable than chlorine so
remains effective for longer periods and it lacks the distinctive odour and
taste of gaseous chlorine.

Water treatment at home

We can also treat the water in our homes to ensure it is safe to drink using the
following methods.

Filtration

Suspended sediment can be removed from water in homes by using

fibre filters made from spun cellulose or rayon fibres. Dissolved organic
compounds, odours and unpleasant tastes can be removed by using carbon
filters containing activated charcoal.

Chlorination

Water can be chlorinated in the home by adding sodium chlorate(l)

solution (NaClO) or calcium chlorate(l) tablets to the water.
Sodium chlorate(l) is found in chlorine bleaches. Ten drops of chlorine
bleach added to 5 dm3 of water, stirred and left for 30 minutes, is sufficient
to destroy any microorganisms in the water, but not leave an unpleasant
A Figure 21.2.1 A home water filter
taste.

Boiling

Boiling water for 15 minutes is sufficient to kill any microorganisms in the

water. After boiling, the water should be cooled before drinking.

Softening hard water

Water softening removes dissolved calcium and magnesium ions. It
therefore converts hard water to soft water. With the exception of boiling,
it removes both temporary and permanent hardness. There are five methods

of softening hard water.

Boiling

Boiling water only removes temporary hardness. Boiling water causes the
dissolved calcium hydrogencarbonate and magnesium hydrogencarbonate
to decompose into insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate,
water and carbon dioxide. The insoluble carbonates precipitate out of the
water thus removing the calcium and magnesium ions.
heat
e.g. CaC03(s) + H20(1) + C02(g)
Calcium carbonate is also known as limescale. You often see it accumulating
inside kettles and around shower heads.
 The treatment of water for domestic purposes Water

Addition of sodium carbonate

Sodium carbonate is washing soda. When added to hard

also known as
water it and magnesium ions as
precipitates out the dissolved calcium
insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. Adding sodium
carbonate removes both temporary and permanent hardness, as shown in
the following equations.

Removal of temporary hardness:

e.g. + Na2C03(aq) CaC03(s) + 2NaHC03(aq)
Removal of permanent hardness:
e.g. CaS04(aq) + Na2C03(aq) CaC03(s) + Na2S04(aq)
These reactions can be represented by the common ionic equation:

Ca (aq) + C032¯ (aq) CaC03(s)

A Figure 21.2.2 An ion-exchange water Ion-exchange

softener. The black cylinders contain
In an ion-exchange water softening device, water is slowly passed through
the ion-exchange resin and the grey
tank contains the sodium chloride
an ion-exchange column containing an ion-exchange resin known as
zeolite. Zeolite is a complex compound containing sodium ions. It can be
used during regeneration.
represented by the formula Nag. As the water passes through the zeolite,
the calcium and magnesium ions displace the sodium ions and are absorbed
Exam tip into the zeolite. The calcium and magnesium ions are, therefore, removed
from the water and the sodium ions enter the water in their place. Sodium
Itis important that you can write ions do not cause water to be hard.
equations to show the different
methods to soften hard water. E.g. Ca2+(aq) + Nag(s) CaZ(s) + 2Na (aq)
ion-
exchange
resin

The calcium and magnesium ions are periodically removed from the zeolite
by passing a highly concentrated solution of sodium chloride (brine) through
it, a process known as regeneration.

Distillation

During distillation, water is boiled and the steam produced is condensed to

form pure disti Iled water. This leaves any dissolved salts and microorganisms
behind. This method can be used to desalinate sea water in areas where water
is in short supply. However, it is not an economical method since it uses a

lot of energy to heat the water and a residue of solid builds up in the heating
vessel. It can be used on a small scale in areas with a lot of sunshine where
solar energy is used to heat the water in a solar still.

Reverse osmosis

During reverse osmosis, water is forced through a semi-permeable membrane

under pressure. Only water molecules are forced through the membrane and all
dissolved substances remain behind on the pressurised side. This has the advantage
over other methods of softening water since it removes the ions which cause water
hardness and it also removes other ions and any dissolved organic matter.

Most desalination plants make use of reverse osmosis to desalinate sea

water or brackish water to produce fresh water. Brackish water contains more
dissolved salts than fresh water, but less than sea water.

344
Water The treatment of water for domestic purposes

sea water or
brackish water man similar units Summary questions
membrane modules
1 Describe what happens at
fresh
pre-treatment
water each stage in the large-scale
treatment of water.

List three ways that water

high pressure brine disposal can be treated in a home.
pump b What, in terms of
A figure 21.2.3 Reverse osmosis obtains fresh water from sea water palatability, do you think
could be a disadvantage
of using a chlorine bleach
to treat water?
Key concepts 3 Explain how water can be
e Water molecules are polar. softened by:

The attraction between the partial positive and partial negative parts of boiling

water molecules forms the hydrogen bond which has a significant effect b using an ion-exchange
resin
on the physical properties of water, giving it several unique properties.
c using sodium carbonate.
The unique properties of water make it extremely valuable in living
systems. Give the relevant equations for
each of your answers.
The maximum density of water occurs at 4 oc. When a pond or lake
freezes, ice forms at the surface and the denser, warmer water remains 4 What is reverse osmosis and
below the ice enabling aquatic organisms to survive under the ice. how is used to obtain fresh
it

water from sea water?

Water has a high specific heat capacity. Living organisms and
large bodies of water can absorb a lot of heat energy without their
temperatures changing very much.
Water has a high heat of vaporisation. This means water is not very
volatile. When water evaporates from the surface of a living organism it
removes heat energy cooling the organism.
Water has relatively high melting and boiling points. At temperatures
experienced on Earth most water is in the liquid state making the
existence of aquatic environments possible.
Water dissolves a very large number of substances. Water dissolves
chemicals in cells so they can react, food and minerals so they can be
transported around organisms' bodies and waste products so they can be
excreted.

Water hardness, water pollution and leaching all result from water's
solvent properties.
Temporary water hardness is caused by dissolved calcium
hydrogencarbonate and dissolved magnesium hydrogencarbonate.
Permanent water hardness is caused by dissolved calcium sulfate and
dissolved magnesium sulfate.

Large-scale treatment of water for domestic purposes involves

flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and chlorination.
Water can be treated in the home by filtration, chlorination and boiling.
Temporary water hardness can be removed by boiling.
Temporary and permanent water hardness can be removed by adding
sodium carbonate to the water, passing the water through an ion-
exchange resin, distillation and reverse osmosis.
Practice exam-style questions Water

Extended response question

Practice exam-style questions
Water possesses a number of unique properties which
Multiple-choice questions make it essential for life on Earth. Outline THREE of
these properties and explain how EACH is essential
1 Which of the following properties of water is important
to living organisms. (6 marks)
in the control of body temperature?
b The presence of certain ions in water can cause
A its boiling point
temporary and permanent hardness.
B its density
i) What is meant by the term 'hard water'? (1 mark)
C its heat of vaporisation
ii) Sodium carbonate is used to remove both
D its solvent properties
temporary and permanent hardness, while
2 Aquatic organisms can live on the bottom of a lake in temporary hardness can also be removed by
winter even though the surface is frozen because: boiling. Write an equation to show the removal
A water has a relatively low melting point of EACH of the following:
B the maximum density of water occurs at 4 oc - permanent hardness using sodium carbonate
C water is not very volatile - temporary hardness by boiling. (4 marks)
D water has a high specific heat capacity iii) SuggestTWO reasons why it is useful to remove
hardness from water. (2 marks)
3 All of the following result from the solvent properties of
c Briefly outline how water is treated before it is piped
water except:
to homes. (2 marks)
A acid rain
B water hardness Total 15 marks
C chemical reactions in cells
D soil erosion

4 The compound mainly responsible for temporary

hardness of water is:
A calcium sulfate
B calcium hydrogencarbonate
C calcium carbonate
D calcium chloride

5 Permanent hardness can be removed by:

I adding sodium carbonate to the water

II passing the water through an ion-exchange column

Ill boiling the water

A II only
B land II only
C land Ill only
D 1, 11 and 111

6 Which of the following lists the stages involved in the

large-scale treatment of water in the correct order?
A flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, chlorination
B sedimentation, flocculation, filtration, chlorination
C chlorination, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration
D flocculation, chlorination, sedimentation, filtration
 Qualitative analysis

Ionic compounds are composed of positive cations Objectives

and negative anions. Being able to identify the cations By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
and anions present in unknown ionic compounds
is extremely important. This known as qualitative
is describe tests to identify
cations using sodium
analysis. Simple observations of a compound may hydroxide solution, aqueous
indicate what it contains, e.g. the copper(ll) ion is blue. ammonia and potassium iodide
solution
Positively identifying ions makes use of their reactions
give results of tests to identify
with other chemical compounds. Being able to identify cations

different gases is also very important. This makes use of write ionic equations for the
reactions occurring in tests to
the chemical properties of the gases. identify cations.

C22.1 Identification of cations

Cations are positively charged ions. The cation present in a compound can
be identified by carrying out various tests on the compound.

Identification of cations using sodium hydroxide

solution
All hydroxides are insoluble except ammonium hydroxide and those of
the alkali metals, i.e. the metals in Group I of the periodic table including
sodium and potassium. This means that if sodium hydroxide solution is
added to a solution containing any metal ion, except ions of the alkali
metals, a precipitate will form since the metal ion reacts with the hydroxide
ion (OH-) forming an insoluble metal hydroxide. This can be summarised
by the following general ionic equation:

Mn+(aq) + n0H (aq)

The colour of the precipitate and its solubility in excess sodium hydroxide
solution can give us some idea of the identity of the metal cation present in
a solution.

The test is by making a solution of a salt containing the cation

carried out
to be identified in a test tubeand adding a few drops of sodium hydroxide
solution. The colour of the precipitate is noted. Sodium hydroxide solution
is then added until it is in excess to see if the precipitate dissolves. If no

precipitate forms, then the solution is warmed and tested for the presence
of ammonia by placing a piece of moist red litmus paper across the mouth
of the tube.

Table 22.1.1 shows the colour of the precipitate formed on adding a few drops
ofsodium hydroxide solution to salt solutions containing different cations,
and the solubility of the precipitate formed when excess sodium hydroxide
solution is added.

347
Identification of cations Qualitative analysis

V Table 22.1.1 Effect of sodium hydroxide solution on cations

Effect of adding excess sodium

Colour of precipitate after dropwise
Cation Equation for the reaction hydroxide solution on the
addition of sodium hydroxide solution
precipitate

Ca2+ White Ca2+(aq) + 20H-(aq) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore

it remains.

White A13+(aq) + 30H-(aq) Precipitate is soluble in excess; it

dissolves and forms a colourless solution.

Zn2+ White Zn2+(aq) + 20H Precipitate is soluble in excess; it

dissolves and forms a colourless solution.

White Pb2+(aq) + 20H Precipitate is soluble in excess; it

dissolves and forms a colourless solution.

Green, turns brown on standing Fe2+(aq) + 20H Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore
it remains

Red-brown Fe3+(aq) + 30H Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore

it remains

Cu2+ Blue Cu2+(aq) + 20H Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore

it remains

No precipitate. Ammonia is evolved on warming, NH4+(aq) + (aq) NHa(g) + H20(l) —

which turns moist red litmus paper blue.

A Figure 22.1.1 A blue precipitate forms when sodium hydroxide solution is added to a
solution containing Cu2+ ions

Calcium hydroxide, iron(ll) hydroxide, iron(lll) hydroxide and

copper(ll) hydroxide are basic hydroxides which do not react with sodium
hydroxide.When all the metal ions have been precipitated out and excess
sodium hydroxide solution is added, these precipitates remain.
Aluminium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide and lead(ll) hydroxide are
amphoteric hydroxides which react with the strong alkali, sodium
hydroxide. When all the metal ions have been precipitated out and excess
sodium hydroxide solution is added, these precipitates react with the sodium
hydroxide forming soluble salts that dissolve, hence the precipitate dissolves
and a solution is formed.
Ammonium hydroxide is soluble, therefore, no precipitate forms on adding
sodium hydroxide to an ammonium salt. Warming the solution causes the
ammonium ion and the hydroxide ion to react and form ammonia gas as
shown in the equation in Table 22.1.1.
If an ammonium salt is heated directly in a dry test tube, ammonia gas is also
produced:

e.g. NH4C1(s) NH3(g) + HC1(g)

Qualitative analysis Identification of cations

Identification of cations using aqueous ammonia

(ammonium hydroxide solution) Exam tip

Aqueous ammonia (NH40H) also contains the hydroxide ion. If this is added You must be able to write the ionic
to a solution containing any metal ion, except ions of the alkali metals, a equations for all the reactions
precipitate of an insoluble metal hydroxide forms. The colour of the occurring in the tests to identify
precipitate and its solubility in excess ammonium hydroxide solution can also cations and anions. When writing
these equations is essential that
give us some idea of the identity of the metal cation present in a solution.
it

you remember to put the charges

The method used is the same as the one used with sodium hydroxide solution. on the ions, that you balance the
Table 22.1.2 shows the colour ofthe precipitate formed on adding a few drops equations and that you give the
of aqueous ammonia and its solubility in excess aqueous ammonia. correct state symbols.

V Table 22.1.2 Effect of aqueous ammonia on cations

Colour of precipitate after dropwise Effect of adding excess aqueous ammonia on

Cation Equation for the reaction
addition of aqueous ammonia the precipitate

No precipitate
Wnite Ald+(aq) + 30H-(aq) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore it remains.

Zn2+ mite Zn2+(aq) + 20H-(aq) Precipitate is soluble in excess; it dissolves and forms
a colourless solution.

mite Pb2+(aq) + Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore it remains.

Fe2+ Green, turns brown on standing Fe2+(aq) + Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore it remains.

Fe3+ Red-brown Fe3+(aq) + 30H-(aq) Precipitate is insoluble in excess, therefore it remains.

Cu2+ Blue Cu2+(aq) + 20H-(aq) Precipitate is soluble in excess; it dissolves and forms
a deep blue solution.

Aluminium hydroxide, lead(ll) hydroxide, iron(ll) hydroxide and

iron (111) hydroxide do not react with the weak alkali, ammonium hydroxide.
When all the metal ions have been precipitated out and excess ammonium
hydroxide solution is added, these precipitates remain.

Zinc hydroxide and copper(ll) hydroxide react with ammonium hydroxide.

When all the metal ions have been precipitated out and excess ammonium
hydroxide solution is added, these precipitates react with the ammonium
hydroxide forming complex soluble salts that dissolve, hence the precipitate
dissolves and a solution is formed.

Distinguishing between the A13+ ion and the

Pb2+ ion
Combining the results of the tests using sodium hydroxide solution and
aqueous ammonia, the only cations which cannot be distinguished are the
A13+ ion and the Pb2+ ion. Both ions form a white precipitate with sodium
hydroxide solution that is soluble in excess and a white precipitate with
aqueous ammonia that is insoluble in excess. Therefore, it is necessary to
perform a further test to distinguish between these two ions.

The test can be performed by adding a few drops of potassium iodide solution
to a solution containing the metal cation. The A13+ ion does not produce a
precipitate, however, the Pb2+ ion reacts with the iodide ion to produce Figure 22.1.2 A bright yellow
a bright yellow precipitate of lead(ll) iodide: precipitate forms when potassium
iodide solution is added to a solution
(aq) + 21 (aq) Pb12(s) containing Pb2+ ions

349
Identification of cations Qualitative analysis

Practical activity

To identify cations

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

O observation, recording and reporting.

You be supplied with samples of salts containing calcium, aluminium, zinc, lead(l), iron(ll), iron(lll), copper(ll) and
will
ammonium ions, sodium hydroxide solution, aqueous ammonia, potassium iodide solution, a piece of red litmus
paper and test tubes.

Method
1 Carefully place a very small spatula of each salt into a separate test tube. Add 2 cm3 of distilled water to each
tube and shake to dissolve the salt.

2 Label each tube with the symbol of the cation it contains.

3 Add a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution to each tube. Observe the colour of the precipitate.
4 Add excess sodium hydroxide solution to each tube and see if the precipitate dissolves.
5 If no precipitate forms, gently heat the contents of the test tube and test for ammonia gas by placing a piece of
moist red litmus paper across the mouth of the tube.
6 Record your results in a table using the following headings for the columns: cation, colour of the precipitate on
adding sodium hydroxide dropwise, ionic equation for the reaction occurring, solubility of the precipitate on
adding excess sodium hydroxide solution.
7 Explain why the precipitates dissolved when excess sodium hydroxide was added to the test tubes containing
aluminium, zinc and lead(ll) ions, but did not dissolve when excess solution was added to the test tubes
containing calcium, iron(ll), iron(lll) and copper(ll) ions.

8 Repeat steps 1 to 6 replacing sodium hydroxide solution with aqueous ammonia.

9 Explain why the precipitates dissolved when excess aqueous ammonia was added to the test tubes containing
zinc and copper(ll) ions.

10 Place small spatulas of the salts containing aluminium and lead(ll) ions into two separate test tubes. Add 2 cm3
of distilled water to each and shake to make solutions.

11 Add a few drops of potassium iodide solution to each and look for a precipitate forming. Record the colour of
the precipitate.

Summary questions
1 When a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution were added to an unknown solution, a blue precipitate formed.
When excess sodium hydroxide solution was added, the precipitate remained.
a Suggest an identity for the cation present in the solution.
b Explain why the precipitate formed.
c Write an ionic equation for the formation of the precipitate.
d Explain why the precipitate remained when excess sodium hydroxide was added.
2 When a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution were added to a solution containing lead(ll) ions, a white
precipitate formed. When excess sodium hydroxide solution was added, the precipitate dissolved.
a Explain why the precipitate formed.
b Write an ionic equation for the formation of the precipitate.
c Explain why the precipitate dissolved when excess sodium hydroxide was added.
3 Explain how you could distinguish between a solution containing aluminium ions and one containing zinc ions.
4 Ammonium chloride solution does not form a precipitate when sodium hydroxide solution is added, however, on
heating, ammonia gas is evolved.
a Explain why ammonia is evolved on heating. b Write an ionic equation for the reaction.
Qualitative analysis Identification of anions

C22.2 Identification of anions Objectives

By the end of this topic you will
Anions The anion present in a compound can
are negatively charged ions. be able to:
be identified by carrying out various tests on the compound.
describe tests to identify
anions
Identification of anions by heating the solid
give results of the tests to
Carbonate (C032-) and nitrate (N03-) ions can be identified by heating a identify anions
sample of the solid in a dry test tube and testing the gas evolved. Heating write ionic equations for the
causes the ions to decompose as shown in Table 22.2.1. reactions occurring in the tests
to identify anions.
V Table 22.2.1 Effect of heat on a sample of the solid

Anion I Observations on heating Equation for the reaction

Carbon dioxide is evolved, which heat

forms a white precipitate in lime C032-(s) 02-(s) + C02(g)

vater.

3 Oxygen is evolved, which relights 2NOa-(S) 2N02-(s) + 02(g)

d potassium a glowing splint.
or sodium
Nitrogen dioxide is evolved, which heat
3
of calcium and isa brown gas. Oxygen is evolved 4N0a-(s) 202-(s) + 4N02(g) + 02(g)
below which relights a glowing splint.

Identification of anions using dilute acid

Carbonate and can be identified by adding dilute nitric
sulfite (S032-) ions
(or hydrochloric) acid to a sample of the solid, heating if necessary, and
testing the gas evolved. The anions react with the hydrogen ions (H+) in the
acid as shown in Table 22.2.2.

V Table 22.2.2 Effect of dilute acid on a sample of the solid

Anion Observations on adding dilute acid Equation for the reaction

CO 2- Effervescence occurs. Carbon dioxide 0032 (s) + 2H+(aq) H20(l) + C02(g)
is evolved, which forms a white
precipitate in lime water.

Effervescence occurs. Sulfur dioxide is SOg2-(s) + 2H+(aq) H20(l) + S02(g)

evolved on heating, which turns acidified
potassium manganate(vu) solution from
purple to colourless.

acid

effervescence

a white precipitate forms

in the lime water in the
calcium carbonate
presence of carbon dioxide

A Figure 22.2.1 Identification of a carbonate

Identification of anions using concentrated

sulfuric acid
Carbonate, sulfite, chloride (Cl-), bromide (Br-) and iodide ions can be
identified by adding concentrated sulfuric acid to a sample of the solid in a dry
test tube and testing the gas evolved. The reactions are shown in Table 22.2.3.
351
 Identification of anions Qualitative analysis

V Table 22.2.3 Effect of concentrated sulfuric acid on the solid

Anion Observation on adding concentrated sulfuric acid

Carbon dioxide is evolved, which forms a white precipitate in lime water

Sulfur dioxide is evolved, which turns acidified potassium manganate(vu) solution from
purple to colourless

a- Hydrogen chloride is evolved, which forms white fumes with ammonia gas

Bromine vapour is evolved, which is red-brown

Iodine is formed, which is a grey-black solid. The solid sublimes if heated to form a
purple vapour.

Identification of anions using silver nitrate solution

Chloride, bromide and iodide ions can be identified by making a solution
of the solid in dilute nitric acid, adding a few drops of silver nitrate solution,
observing the colour of the precipitate and then adding aqueous ammonia
and looking to see if the precipitate dissolves. The reactions are shown in
Table 22.2.4.

V Table 22.2.4 Effect of silver nitrate solution followed by aqueous ammonia on the solid

Observation on
Observations on adding
Anion Equation for the reaction adding aqueous
silver nitrate solution
ammonia
a- A white precipitate of Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s) Precipitate dissolves
silver chloride forms, which
turns slightly purple-grey in

sunlight

Br- A cream precipitate of Ag+(aq) + AgBr(s) Precipitate partially

silver bromide forms, which dissolves
turns slightly green in

sunlight

A pale yellow precipitate of Ag+(aq) + 1-(aq) Agl(s) Precipitate remains

silver iodide forms

Identification of anions using barium nitrate

(or chloride) solution
The sulfate (S042-) ion can be identified by making a solution of the solid in
distilled water, adding a few drops of barium nitrate (or chloride) solution,
observing the precipitate and then adding dilute nitric (or hydrochloric)
acid. This test will also detect carbonate and sulfite ions. The reactions are
shown in Table 22.2.5.

V Table 22.2.5 Effect of barium nitrate followed by dilute acid on the solid

Observations on
Observation on
Anion adding barium Equation for the reaction
adding dilute acid
nitrate solution

S042- A white precipitate of Ba2+(aq) + S042 (aq) BaS04(s) White precipitate

barium sulfate forms remains

A white precipitate Ba2+(aq) + (aq) BaC03(s) Precipitate dissolves

of barium carbonate releasing carbon
forms dioxide

S032- A white precipitate of Ba2+(aq) + S032 (aq) Basoa(s) Precipitate dissolves

barium sulfite forms releasirg sulfur
dioxide on heating

352
Qualitative analysis Identification of anions

Further test to identify the nitrate ion

To confirm the presence of the nitrate ion, concentrated sulfuric acid and a
few copper turnings are added to a sample of the solid in a test tube and the
tube is heated. A blue solution is formed and brown nitrogen dioxide gas is
evolved.

Practical activity

To identify anions

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

analysis and interpretation. A figure 22.2.2 Testing for the nitrate ion

You will be supplied with samples of four salts labelled A to D (A is

sodium sulfate, B is sodium chloride, C is sodium nitrate and D is sodium
carbonate), test tubes and any other reagents that you have learnt about in Exam tip
this unit.
You may be given the results of
Method various tests on an unknown salt
and be asked to identify the ions
1 You are required to carry out appropriate tests to confirm the identity of
present in the salt. Alternatively,
each salt. Use the information in this unit to decide on the tests you will
the names of the ions present
use. You may make use of any of the reagents you have learnt about in
willbe given to you and you will
this unit and may carry out more than one test on each salt. be asked to record the expected
2 Once you have decided on the tests to use, proceed with these tests to
observations when various tests
are performed on the salt.
confirm the identity of each salt.

3 For each salt:

a record the method used for each test you carried out and the results
of the test
b explain the results of each test
c write ionic equations where appropriate.

Summary questions
1 Barium chloride is added to a solution that contains either a sulfate or a sulfite and a white precipitate forms.
What additional test should be done to determine if it is a sulfate or a sulfite?

2 Describe how you would distinguish between the following pairs of compounds:
a sodium carbonate and sodium sulfite
b sodium chloride and sodium iodide
c magnesium nitrate and magnesium carbonate.
3 An unknown salt was heated and brown fumes were produced.
a Which anion was present in the salt?
b What other products would have been produced?
c Write an ionic equation to show the effect of heat on the anion.
4 An unknown salt does not effervesce when dilute nitric acid is added. When barium nitrate solution is added to a
solution of the salt a white precipitate forms that is insoluble in nitric acid.
a What anion is present in the salt?
b Write an ionic equation to show the formation of the white precipitate.
Identification of gases Qualitative analysis

Objectives
By the end of this topic you will
be able to: Many gases that are produced in chemical reactions in the laboratory or
are used in the laboratory are colourless. Some of them, however, do have
describe tests to identify
characteristic smells. It important to know how to test for the different
is
various gases
gases as this can help to identify the products formed in various reactions.
give results of the tests to
Table 22.3.1 summarises the different tests for gases produced in chemical
identify gases
explain the chemical principles reactions and explains the chemical principles of the tests.
of the tests used to identify
V Table 22.3.1 Identification of gases
gases.
Gas Properties Test for the presence of the gas

Hydrogen (H) A colourless gas. Place a lighted splint in the gas. A 'squeaky pop' sound is
Has no smell. heard and the splint is extinguished. The pop is the sound of a
small explosion as the hydrogen reacts explosively with oxygen

Did you know? in the air to form steam:

2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g)

The explosive reaction which
Oxygen (02) A colourless gas. Place a glowing splint in the gas. The glowirg splint glows
occurs when hydrogen combines Has no smell. brighter or re-lights.
with oxygen produces so much Carbon A colourless gas. Bubble the gas into lime water (a sdution of calcium
energy that it is used to propel dioxide (C02) Has no smell. hydroxide). A white precipitate d calcium carbonate
space rockets. forms:

+ C02(g) CaC03(s) + H20(l)

The precipitate redissolves on continued bubbling due to the

formation of soluble calcium hydrogencarbonate:

CaC03(s) + C02(g) + H20(l) Ca(HCOJ)2(aq)

Ammonia A colourless gas. Hold a piece of moist red litmus paper in the gas. The litmus
(NHa) Has a purgent paper turns blue in colour. Ammonia reacts with water on the
sulfur dioxide in
odour. paper forming ammonium hydroxide, which is alkaline.

NH3(g) + H20(l) NH40H(aq)

Place a drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid on a glass
rod near the gas. The acid gives off hydrogen chloride fumes,
which react with the ammonia and form white fumes of
acidified potassium ammonium chloride:
manganate(vll) solution
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)

the solution changes from

Hydrogen A colourless gas. Place a drop of concentrated ammonia solution on a glass
chloride (HOI) Has a sharp acid rod near the gas. The ammonia solution gives off ammonia
purple to colourless
smell. fumes, which react with the hydrogen chloride forming white
A Figure 22.3.1 The test for sulfur fumes of ammonium chloride, as above.

dioxide
Sulfur dioxide A colourless gas. Bubble the gas into acidified potassium manganate(vll)
Has a choking solution. The solution turns from purple to colourless. The
smell. sulfur dioxide reduces the purple Mn04- ion to the colourless
Did you know? Mn2+ ion.

Bubble the gas into acidified potassium dichromate(vl)

Silica gel used to absorb
is
solution. The solution turns from orange to green. The sulfur
dioxide reduces the orange Cr2072- ion to the green Cr3+ ion.
moisture in anything from shoe
boxes to boxes containing Chlorine (C12) A yellow-green gas. Hold a piece of moist blue litmus paper in the gas. The
Has a sharp odour. litmus turns red and is then bleached white. Chlorine reacts
electronic items. Silica gel beads
Is poisomus. with water on the paper, forming hydrochloric acid (HOI) and
are often impregnated with cobalt(ll)
chloric(l) acid (HCIO).
chloride, which becomes pink when
C12(g) + HAI) HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
the gel is saturated with water and
The chloric(l) acid oxidises the coloured litmus to colourless.
is no longer effective. In the past,
weather-predicting novelty items Nitrogen A brown gas. Its brown colour makes
fairly easy to identify. Place a piece
it

were coated with cobalt(ll) chloride. dioxide (N02) Has a sharp, of moist blue litmus paper in the gas. The paper turns red
irritating odour. but is not bleached. Nitrogen dioxide reacts with the water on
The item was supposed to predict
Is toxic. the paper formirg an acidic solution containing nitrous acid
good weather when turned it blue
(HN02) and nitric acid (HN03):
and rain when it turned pink.
2N02(g) + HAI) HN02(aq) + HNOa(aq)
Qualitative analysis Identification of gases

V Table 22.3.1 (continued)

Gas Properties Test for the presence of the gas

Water vapour A colourless gas. Place a piece of dry cobalt(ll) chloride paper in the gas. The
Exam tip
(H20) Has no smell. paper changes from blue to pink. The water vapour causes the
you are asked to describe how to
If
blue, anhydrous cobalt(") chloride (COC12) to change to pink,
hydrated cobalt(ll) chloride (CoC12.6H20). test fora particular gas, you must
Bring the gas into contact with anhydrous copper(ll) sulfate.
give both the method you would
The copper(ll) sulfate turns from white to blue. The water use and the result you would
vapour causes the white, anhydrous copper(ll) sulfate (CuS04) expect to get.
to change to blue, hydrated copper(ll) sulfate (CuS04.5H20).

Practical activity

To identify gases
Your teacher may use this activity to assess:

observation, recording and reporting

manipulation and measurement
analysis and interpretation.

You be supplied with a sample of ammonium carbonate, a sample of magnesium nitrate, some lime water, pieces
will

of red litmus paper, blue litmus paper and dry cobalt chloride paper, tweezers, a wooden splint and test tubes, one of
which is fitted with a cork with a delivery tube running through it.

Method
1 Place a spatula of ammonium carbonate into a dry test tube and place the cork with the delivery tube into the
mouth of the test tube.
Place about 2 cm3 of lime water into another tube.

2 Heat the test tube gently using a Bunsen flame. While heating, hold a piece of moist red litmus paper across the
end of the delivery tube using tweezers. Observe the change in colour of the paper.

3 While still heating the tube, place a piece of dry cobalt chloride paper across the end of the delivery tube.
Observe the change in colour of the paper.

4 While still heating the tube, bubble the gas into the lime water.
Observe what happens in the lime water.

5 As you are heating, observe what happens to the ammonium carbonate in the test tube.

6 Identify the three gases produced when ammonium carbonate is heated.

ammonium
Hence write an equation for the decomposition of ammonium carbonate. carbonate

7 Explain why the quantity of ammonium carbonate decreased as it was heated

and possibly disappeared completely.
8 Place a small spatula of magnesium nitrate into another dry test tube.

9 Heat the test tube gently using a Bunsen flame. As soon as a brown gas is seen,
litmus
slowly insert a glowing splint into the tube. Observe what happens to the splint.
paper
10 While still heating, place a piece of moist blue litmus paper into the brown gas.
Observe the change in colour of the paper.

11 Identify the two gases produced when magnesium nitrate is heated.

A Figure 22.3.2
Identification of gases
Given that the solid remaining in the tube is magnesium oxide, write a balanced produced from the
equation for the reaction. decomposition of
ammonium carbonate
Identification of gases Qualitative analysis

Summary questions
How would you test for the presence of oxygen gas?
2 A lighted splint is held near the mouth of a test tube and a popping
sound is heard.
a What gas is present in the tube?
b Why did the splint make a popping sound?
c Write a balanced equation for the reaction occurring.
3 An unknown solid was added to some hydrochloric acid in a test tube
and the tube was heated. During heating, a piece of paper with acidified
potassium dichromate(v) solution on it changed colour from orange to
green.
What gas was produced?
b Explain why the colour of the paper changed.
4 How would you test for the presence of chlorine gas?

Key concepts
Ifsodium hydroxide solution or ammonium hydroxide solution
(aqueous ammonia) are added to a solution containing any metal ion,
except ions of the alkali metals, a precipitate of an insoluble metal
hydroxide will form.
The colour of the precipitate and its solubility in excess sodium
hydroxide or ammonium hydroxide solution can indicate the identity of
a metal cation present in a solution.

The Ca2+ forms a white precipitate with sodium hydroxide which

remains in excess and does not form a precipitate with aqueous
ammonia.
e A13+ and Pb2+ ions all form white precipitate which are soluble in excess
sodium hydroxide solution and insoluble in excess aqueous ammonia.
The Zn2+ ion forms a white precipitate which is soluble in excess sodium
hydroxide solution and excess aqueous ammonia.
The Fe2+ ion forms a green precipitate which is insoluble in excess sodium
hydroxide solution and excess aqueous ammonia.
The Fe3+ ion forms a red-brown precipitate which is insoluble in excess
sodium hydroxide solution and excess aqueous ammonia.
The Cu2+ ion forms a blue precipitate which is insoluble in excess sodium
hydroxide solution and dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia forming a
deep blue solution.
The NH4+ ion does not form an insoluble hydroxide but, on heating,
ammonia gas is evolved.
o A13+ and Pb2+ ions can be distinguished by using potassium iodide
solution; Pb2+ ions form a yellow precipitate.

e When a sample of a solid is heated, the C032- ion produces carbon

dioxide and the N03- ion produces brown nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
When dilute nitric (or hydrochloric) acid is added to a solid, the C032-
ion produces carbon dioxide and the S032- ion produces sulfur dioxide on
heating.
Qualitative analysis Identification of gases

When concentrated sulfuric acid is added to a solid, the C032- ion

produces carbon dioxide, the S032- ion produces sulfur dioxide, the Cl
ion produces hydrogen chloride, the Br- ion produces red-brown bromine
and the I- ion produces grey-black iodine.
When a solution of a solid is made in nitric acid and silver nitrate
solution added followed by aqueous ammonia, the Cl- ion forms a
is

white precipitate which is soluble in aqueous ammonia, the Br- ion

forms a cream precipitate which is partially soluble and the I- ion forms
a pale yellow precipitate which is insoluble.
If barium nitrate (or chloride) solution is added to a solution containing

the S042- ion, a white precipitate forms which remains when dilute
nitric (or hydrochloric) acid is added.

Ifconcentrated sulfuric acid and a few copper turnings are added to a

solid containing the NOE
ion and heated, a blue solution and brown
nitrogen dioxide form.

Hydrogen causes a lighted splint to be extinguished with a squeaky pop.

Oxygen causes a glowing splint to glow brighter or re-light.

Carbon dioxide forms a white precipitate in lime water.
Hydrogen chloride forms white fumes with ammonia.
Ammonia causes moist red litmus to turn blue and forms white fumes
with hydrogen chloride.
Sulfur dioxide causes acidified potassium manganate(vll) to turn from
purple to colourless and acidified potassium dichromate(vl) to turn from
orange to green.
Chlorine causes moist blue litmus paper to turn red and then white.
Nitrogen dioxide is a brown gas which causes moist blue litmus paper to
turn red.
Water vapour causes dry cobalt(ll) chloride paper to turn from blue to
pink and anhydrous copper(ll) sulfate to turn from white to blue.

357
Practice exam-style questions Qualitative analysis

7 Which of the following is a list of colourless, odourless

Practice exam-style questions gases?
A hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur dioxide
Multiple-choice questions B oxygen, water vapour, ammonia
Questions 1 and 2 refer to the following table. C carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen
Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with D water vapour, hydrogen, sulfur dioxide
excess sodium potassium iodide excess aqueous 8 Sulfur dioxide will:
hydroxide solution solution ammonia
I form white fumes with ammonia gas
A No precipitate No precipitate No precipitate II cause acidified potassium dichromate(V1) solution to
B No precipitate No precipitate White precipitate change from green to orange
111 decolourise acidified potassium manganate(vll)
C No precipitate Yellow precipitate White precipitate
solution
D White precipitate No precipitate No precipitate A I and Ill only
Match each of the ions below to the letter that best describes B Ill only
its characteristics. Each letter may be used more than once,
C II and Ill only
once or not at all. D I and II only

1 Pb2+ ion.
Structured question
2 Zn2+ ion.
9 a A student conducts a number of tests on a solution
3 When excess dilute nitric acid is added to salt Z, a green in order to identify the ions present. Some of the
solution forms. On adding barium nitrate solution observations and inferences made from the tests
to half of the solution, a white precipitate forms. are recorded in a copy of the table below. You are
On adding excess aqueous ammonia to the other half of required to complete the missing observations and
the solution, a green precipitate forms. Salt Z is: inferences in the table, including the identity of
A iron(ll) carbonate any ions present and any gases evolved, and ionic
B iron(ll) sulfate equations where required.
C copper(ll) carbonate Test Observation Inference
D
I I

copper(ll) sulfate
A few drops of silver Cl- ions present
4 A metal oxide dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid. nitrate solution are
The ionic equation is:
added to a sample of
On addition of sodium hydroxide to the solution a the solution
white precipitate formed which remained on adding
excess sodium hydroxide solution. The metal oxide was:
A zinc oxide A few drops of barium White precipitate
B oxide
lead(ll) nitrate solution are forms
C calcium oxide added to a sample of • Precipitate is

D aluminium oxide the solution followed insoluble in dilute

by dilute nitric acid nitric acid
5 A solid X was heated in a dry test tube and produced a Sodium hydroxide • Green precipitate
brown gas. When a glowing splint was inserted into the solution is added to a forms which is

tube it re-lit. X was most likely to be: sample of the solution insoluble in excess
The ionic equation is:

A potassium bromide until in excess. The sodium hydroxide

B potassium nitrate mixture is warmed solution
gently and the gas
C magnesium bromide tested with moist red
Litmus paper turns
blue
D magnesium nitrate litmus paper.

6 Aqueous silver nitrate followed by aqueous ammonia is (8 marks)

added to a solution containing chloride ions. Which of b Another student was provided with two colourless
the following observations was made? solutions labelled A and B, respectively. One of the
A A white precipitate formed which was soluble in solutions contained aluminium nitrate and the other
aqueous ammonia. contained zinc nitrate. In order to identify the TWO
B A white precipitate formed which was partially solutions, the following experiment was performed:
soluble in aqueous ammonia. To 25.0 cm3 portions of EACH solution, aqueous
C A white precipitate formed which was insoluble in ammonia was gradually added and the mass of
aqueous ammonia. the precipitate obtained was determined at regular
D A cream precipitate formed which was soluble in intervals. The results obtained were used to plot the

aqueous ammonia. following graphs:

Qualitative analysis Practice exam-style questions

Solution A Solution B Extended response question

10 a i) Identify substances W to Zin the following
reaction scheme. (4 marks)

W (white crystalline solid)

Volume of aqueous Volume of aqueous

Y
X (pale yellow solid) (colourless gas)
ammonia added ammonia added
bubbled into
dilute HN03(aq)
i) Identify solutions A and B. (2 marks)
ii) Would there be any difference in the shapes of Z (colourless solution) white precipitate

few drops of few drops of

either of the graphs if aqueous sodium hydroxide
NaOH(aq) added KI(aq) added
had been used as the precipitating agent? Explain
white precipitate yellow precipitate
your answer. (2 marks)
excess
iii) Write the ionic equation for the reaction
NaOH(aq) added
between aluminium ions and aqueous ammonia.
colourless solution
(2 marks)
iv) Describe what you would expect to observe if ii) Write chemical equations for EACH of the
aqueous sodium hydroxide was added, until in following reactions:
excess, to a solution containing copper(ll) ions. the effect of heat on solid W
mark)
(1 the reaction of gas Y with calcium hydroxide
Total 15 marks solution. (2 marks)
iii) Write the ionic equation for the formation of
the yellow precipitate on adding a few drops of
potassium iodide solution to solution Z.
(2 marks)
iv) On continued bubbling of gas Y into the calcium
hydroxide solution, the white precipitate
disappeared and a colourless solution formed.
Explain the reason for this observation. (2 marks)
b A student was given two white solids labelled T and
U. She was told that T was potassium sulfite and U
was calcium nitrate. Describe ONE test she could
perform to confirm the identity of the anion in T and
ONE test she could perform to confirm the identity
of the cation in U. Your answer must include an ionic
equation for ONE of the tests she used. (5 marks)
Total 15 marks

359
 The periodic table

sese6 z
elqou

sue6qeq

00 2>02

1.0m cu

1.0
C.D•-O.J

ozo

1.0 Cu OE

slelew

au!lehle

slelew
 Index

anodes 195 carbon 38, 84-5, 317, 318, 324, 334

accidents 332 anodising 194, 309, 314 in organic compounds 226—7
acid anhydrides 127, 1525 anthocyanins 134 carbon dating 42
acid hydrolysis 265, 270 antifreezes 251 carbon dioxide 68, 77, 127, 318, 327, 334,
acid rain 327, 335 argon 60, 61, 62, 65 354
acid salts 136, 142-3 arsenic 312 laboratory preparation 321
acids 121-7, 152 ascorbic acid 127, 151 uses 323
classification126—7 astatine 56 carbon monoxide 132, 300, 318, 326
dilute and concentrated 127 atom bomb 43 carbon particles 327
electrolytes 178 atomic mass 101 carbonate ion 351, 351—2, 357
ionisation 122 relative 41 carbonates 123-4, 139, 262, 289-90
in living systems 127—8 atomic number 35, 44 carbonic acid 136
reactions 123—6 atomic symbols 34 carboxylic acids see alkanoic acids
with metals 286—7 34—6, 44 catalysts 89, 207, 209, 216, 223
salt preparation and 139 electronic configuration 37_9, catalytic converters 207
strength 127, 132-3, 133 48-50 catalytic cracking 252
activation energy 199, 204, 215—16, 217 isotopy 40-1 cathode 195
223 mass number 36 cations 51, 54, 73, 79, 86, 292
addition polymers 250, 272—4, 280 Avogadro's constant 102 identification 347—8
addition reactions 248—9, 252 centrifugation 31
alcohols 231, 255-62, 269 chemical bonding 65—6, 86
esterification 262 barium 34, 51, 53 covalent 66, 76
volatility 256 barium nitrate 352 ionic 69—76
alkalis 128-9, 153 bases 129-30, 139, 152 metallic 66, 79-80, 282
electrolytes 178 batteries, lead—acid 303, 313 organic compounds 227—8
strength 133 bauxite 307 chemical equations 89—90, 99
alkanes 230-1, 242-5, 247 beryllium 34, 51, 54 balancing 90-1
substitution reactions 243—5 beta particles 41 ionic compounds 94—5, 99
uses 245 binary compounds 66—8 chemical formulae 18, 66, 86, 111—12
see also haloalkanes bioaccumulation 313, 329 covalent compounds 79
alkanoic acids 231, 258, 260-2, 270 biodegradability 33 chemical kinetics 198
alkanols see alcohols biogas 245, 252 chemical nomenclature 230
alkenes 231, 246-9, 252 bitumen 240 chemical reactions 96—8
polymerisation 272-3 bleaches 156—7 collision theory 199
uses 251 boiling 11, 13, 343 rates see rates of reaction
allotropes 87 boiling point 11, 13, 16, 17, 52 chloride ion 73, 352
allotropy 86—7 Group VII 55, 57 chlorination 343
alloys 305-6 metals 60, 282 chlorine 56, 60, 61, 62, 317, 325
alpha particles 41 non-metals 60, 316 gas 76, 139, 158, 175, 244, 343
alumina 299—300 organic compounds 230, 240, 242, isotopes 41
aluminium 34, 60, 61, 62, 284, 287 256, 261 chlorofluorocarbons 327, 335
alloys 305 separating mixtures 25, 26, 27, chlorophyll 29, 311
corrosion 309 239-40 chlorosis 311
extraction 299 water 340 chromatography 28—9
ions 349 bond breaking and formation 213—14 chromium 34, 193
uses 303, 304 branched chains 228 cobalt 34
aluminium chloride 139, 288, 319 brass 305 coefficients 90, 99
aluminium oxide 67, 71, 132, 194, 309 breathalyser test 157, 258 collision theory 199
amide functional group 276—7 bromide ion 73 colloids 20, 32
ammonia 5, 116, 130, 325, 348, 354 bromide ions 351—2 combustion, alkanes 243
laboratory preparation 322 bromine 176, 244, 316 compounds 18, 66—8
ammonium chloride 98 butane 239, 242 binary 66—8
ammonium hydroxide 349 butanol 255 ionic see ionic compounds
ammonium ion 348, 356 organic see organic compounds
ammonium salts 140 c percentage composition 112—13
amphoteric oxides and hydroxides cadmium 312 concentration 119, 198, 202—3
130-2, 132, 153 calcium 34, 51, 53, 284, 287, 294, 312 condensation 11
anaemia 312 348, 356 condensation polymers 275—8, 280
Anastas, Paul 330 calcium carbonate 143, 200, 322, 343 conduction see electrical conduction
anhydrous salts 137 calcium chlorate 325 conductors 176, 195
anions 73, 86 calcium hydrogencarbonate 341 conservation of matter 114, 119
identification 351—3 calcium sulfate 144, 341 cooling curves 12—13
see also ionic compounds calorimeters 218 copper 34, 284, 287, 294, 348

361
 Index

copper sulfate 139, 182, 187 electrorefining 192

corrosion 193—4, 313 electrostatic forces 37 haematite 300, 301
aluminium 309 elements 17—18 haemoglobin 312
iron 310 see also a toms; periodic table haloalkanes 244, 248
covalent bonding 66, 76, 87 empirical formulae 66, 66—7, 72, 111 halogens 55-9, 243-4, 316
covalent compounds 111, 318, 334 end point see neutralisation point hard water 268, 343—4, 345
cracking 240—1 endothermic reactions 212, 213, 214—15, heart pacemakers 43
crystals 87 223 heat of neutralisation 218—21, 223
giant molecular 83—5 energy profile diagrams 215—17, 223 heat of reaction 217—18, 223
ionic 81 energy shells 44 heat of solution 223
see also ionic compounds enthalpy change 214—15, 2223 heat of vaporisation 340
simple molecular 82 neutralisation 218—21 heating curves 12—13
cyclohexane 228 reactions 217—18 heavy metals 312, 314
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), hexene 247
332 Hoffmann's voltameter 183
enzymes 207, 333 homologous series 230-5, 236
decomposition reactions 96, 99
Epsom salt 143, 144 types 231
dehydration 257 262
esterification hydration 249
deliquescence 8
esters 263-8,270 hydrides 319
density 283
hydrolysis 265 hydrocarbons 239—51
derivatisation 332
saponification 265—6 cracking 240-1, 252
desalination 344
ethane 214, 239, 244 sources 239—40
detergents 267—8
ethanoic acid 127, 136, 226, 270 see also alkanes; alkenes
diacids 276
ethanol 226, 256-9, 270 hydrochloric acid 136, 199, 200, 205,
dialcohols 276
sample preparation 259 218-19
diamond 84, 87, 317, 324, 334
reactions with metals 287
ether linkage 278, 280
diatomic molecules 316
dibasic acids 126
eutrophication 328, 329, 3335 hydrogen 174, 316, 317, 334
evaporation 11, 26 gas 56, 287, 318, 354
differentially permeable membrane 6
exothermic reactions 145, 212— 13, 223 isotopes 40-1
diffusion 4—5
295 hydrogen bond 338
displacement reactions 57, 59, 96—7, 295,
enthalpy change 214—15 hydrogen chloride 5, 122, 354
307
reversible 215 hydrogen peroxide 167, 207
metals 173—4
see also enthalpy change hydrogen sulfide 166, 327
non-metals 175—6
hydrogenation 248, 252
oxidising strength and 59
hydrogencarbonates 123—4
distillation 344
fermentation 258—9, 270 hydronium ion 122
see also fractional distillation
fertilisers 324 hydrophilicity 267
Döbereiner, Johann 46
filtration 25, 342, 343 hydroxide ion 73, 128, 133, 145, 347
double bonds 227, 246
fireworks 53 hydroxides 262, 289, 347
dry oxygen 321 flocculation 342 hydroxyl group 255
ductility 283 fluoride ion 73
fluorine 56, 316 1

food preservation 8, 157 ice 338-9, 345

ease of ionisation 50, 60, 294—5 formula unit 70, 72 intermolecular forces 57
effective collision 199, 209 fractional distillation 25, 259 International Union of Pure and Applied
electric current 176 freezing 11 Chemistry (IUPAC), 48, 230
electrical conduction 176—9, 303 fruit 157 iodide ion 73, 351—2
electrolytic 177—8 fruit juice 152 iodine 42, 316
metals 177, 282 functional groups 228—9, 236 ion-exchange 344
electrochemical series 181 ionic bonding 66, 69, 86, 87, 159
metals 173, 195 ionic compounds 69—76, 177-8, 283, 292,
non-metals 175, 195 gamma radiation 41 318, 334
electrodes 195 gases 3, 10, 198, 354-6 chemical equations 94—5
electrolysis 180, 195, 307 diffusion 5 crystals 81
aqueous solutions 181—3 identification 354—5 state symbols 93—4
industrial applications 191 —4 laboratory preparation 321—3 ionic equations 94—5, 99
molten electrolytes 180-1 mole and volume 106—7 ionic precipitation reactions 97, 99
quantitative 188—91 giant molecular crystals 83, 87 ionisation 61, 69, 173
electrolytes 178—9, 180-1, 195 global warming 328, 335 acids 122
electrolytic cell 179 glucose 112, 226, 278 ease of 50, 60, 294-5
electronegativity 56, 63 gold 34, 193 iron 34, 284, 285, 287, 312, 348
electronic configuration 44 graphite 84-5, 87, 317, 324 alloys 305
electrons 35, 37 green chemistry 330, 335 corrosion 157, 310
configuration 36, 37—9, 48—50 twelve principles 330-2 extraction 300-2
mobile 79 greenhouse gases 328, 335 uses 303—4
oxidation—reduction and 157—8 groups 48, 49 iron(lll) chloride 139
shell diagrams 38—9 Group 11 51-4, 63 isotopes 40-1, 44
valence 39, 61, 65, 70-1, 70-2, 282 Group VII 55-9, 63 radioactive 42—3
electroplating 193 gypsum plaster 144 isotopy 44

362
 Index

with oxygen 284—5 number 159—61, 170

oxidation
keratin 277 with water 285—6 compound naming and 161
kerosene oil 240 reactivity 294—9, 307 redox reactions and 162—4
kinetic energy 3, 10-11, 204—5 uses 302—4 oxidation—reduction reactions see redox
alloys 305-6 reactions
methane 226, 228, 239
77, oxides 132-4, 262, 288-91, 319
methanoic acid 127 acidic 131
lactic acid 127
Law of Octaves 47 methyl orange 145 amphoteric 130-1, 132
micro-minerals 311, 314 basic 131
leaching 342
Minamata disease 312 neutral 132
lead 303, 304, 312, 348
mixtures 16, 18—19, 25—8 non-metal 318
cations 348, 349
molar concentration 108— 10, 117-18 oxidising agents 164—9, 167, 334
limestone 301
molar mass 103—4, 119 non-metals as 319—20
liquefied gas (LNG and LPG), 239
molar volume 106—7 oxidising strength 59, 63
liquids 3, 17
lithium 34, 69
mole 102, 104-5, 119 oxygen 77, 316, 317, 354
mole ratios 148—9 laboratory preparation 321
litmus 134
molecular formulae 111 reactions
lustre 282
molecules 76, 87 metals 285
see also compounds non-metals 318
monobasic acids 126 uses 323
macro-minerals 311, 314 monochloroamine 343 ozone 328
magnesium 34, 51, 60, 61, 62, 158, 199 Moseley, Henry 47
287, 311
magnesium fluoride 71 paper chromatography 28
magnesium oxide 114—15 natural gas 239 particulate theory 2—3
magnesium sulfate 144, 341 neutral oxides 132 evidence 3—4
magnetite 300 neutralisation point 145 percentage composition 112—13
malleability 283 temperature change 146 periodic table 46—50, 62, 360
manganate(vll) ion 161 neutralisation reactions 97, 145— 7, electronic configuration and 48—9
manganese 34 292 general trends 50
manganese oxide 161, 207 heat 218-19 see also groups; periods
mass number 36 neutrons 35 periodicity 62
matter 32 Newlands, John 47 periods 48
conservation 113—14 nickel 34, 193 Period 3 60-3
particulate theory 2—3 nitrate ion 161, 327, 351, 353 pesticides 327, 329, 335
evidence 4—9 nitric acid 132, 136, 325 pests 8
states of 3, 9—10 nitrides 319 petroleum 239
changes 10-11 nitrogen 69, 78, 316, 317, 318, 325 pH scale 133
melanins 157 nitrogen dioxide 127, 161, 327, 354 phenolphthalein 145
melting 11, 13 nitrogen monoxide 161, 318 phosphoric acid 132, 136, 325
melting point 11, 13, 16, 52, 55, 82 noble gases 65 phosphorus 60, 61, 62, 325
carbon 84, 85, 317 non-conductors 176 phosphorus sulfides 325
Group VII 55, 57 non-metals 60, 61, 69, 334 photosynthesis 311
homologous series 230 displacement reactions 97 physical change 3
metals 60, 80, 282 electrochemical series 175 physical properties 9
non-metals 60, 316 physical properties 316—17 plastics 251, 279
water 340 uses 324—6 see also polymers
Mendeleev, Dmitri 47, 62 normal salts 136, 153 plutonium-235 43
mercury 34, 312 nuclear fission 43 polar molecules 78-9, 261, 269, 340, 345
metallic bonding 66, 79—80, 87, 282 nuclear notation 36—7 pollution 312, 326-7, 332, 341
metalloids 60, 62 nucleons 35, 44 polyalkenes 272—3, 280
metals 34, 60, 61, 69, 291 nucleus 35, 44 polyamides 276—7, 280
acids and 123 natural 277—8
chemical properties 283—5 O polyatomic ions 72, 87, 95, 160
compounds organic compounds 226—9 polyesters 276, 280
decomposition 295 alcohols 255-62 polyethene 226, 272—3
see also carbonates; hydrides; alkanes 230-1, 242-5, 247 polymers 279, 329
hydrogencarbonates; hydroxides; alkanoic acids 231, 258, 260-2 addition 272—4
nitrides; oxides; silicates; sulfides alkenes 231, 246-9, 272-3 condensation 275—8
displacement reactions 173—4, 295 bonding and structure 227—8 environmental effects 279—80
electrical conduction 177—8 esters 263—8 polypropene 273—4
electrochemical series 173, 173—6 functional groups 228—9 polysaccharides 278, 280
in living organisms 311—12 homologous series 230-5 potassium 34, 38, 39, 312
harmful effects 312—13 naming 233—5, 264 reactivity 173, 284, 287, 294, 295
physical properties 282—3 structural isomers 232—5 potassium chlorate(v), 22—3
purification 192—3 see also hydrocarbons; polymers potassium dichromate(vl), 258
reactions organometallic compounds 311—12 potassium iodide 167
with dilute acids 286—7 osmosis 6—9 potassium manganate(vll), 4, 161
with non-metals 319 reverse 344 potassium nitride 72

363
Index

potassium salts 140 separating funnels 25, 28 sulfides 319

precipitate 94, 97, 99, 198, 356 shell diagrams 38 sulfite ions 351
precipitation 30, 97 silica gel 354 sulfur 60, 62, 317, 324
preferential discharge 181, 195 silicates 326 sulfur dioxide 127, 166, 318, 326, 327, 354
products 89 silicon 60, 61, 62, 326 uses 157, 324
propane 239 silicon dioxide 84, 326 sulfur trioxide 127
propanol 255 silver 34, 193, 284, 287, 295 sulfuric acid 132, 182, 257, 287, 322, 352
propene 248, 273 silver nitrate 352 salt formation 136, 142
proteins 226, 277 simple molecular crystals 82, 87 uses 324
protium 40 single bonds 227 suspensions 20, 32
protons 35, 44 single displacement reactions 96, 99 sweat 7
pure substances 16—17, 32 soap 266 synthesis reactions 96, 99
sodium 34, 60, 61, 62, 159, 257, 284, 287,
294, 295, 312
qualitative analysis sodium benzoate 144 technetium-99 42
anions 351—3 sodium carbonate 143, 324, 344 temperature 204—5
cations 347—50 sodium chlorate(l), 325 tetrachloromethane 244
gases 354—5 sodium chloride 8, 17, 56, 70-1, 81, 144, tetraethyl lead 207
182 thermal cracking 241, 252
sodium hydrogencarbonate 143, 324 tin 34
radioactivity 41—2, 44 sodium hydroxide 142, 218, 347—9, 356 titration 140-1, 145, 148, 153, 220
uses 42—3 sodium iodide 175 tracers 42
radiotherapy 42 sodium nitrate 144 triads 46
radium 51 sodium salts 140 tribasic acids126
rate curves 207—8, 209 sodium sulfite 157 trichloromethane 244
rate of reaction see reaction rates sodium thiosulfate 205 Trinidad and Tobago 241
reactants 89 solder 306, 307
reaction rates 209 solid waste 313, 329
catalysts and 207 solids 3 unbranched chains 228
collision theory 199 crystals 81—5 universal indicator 134
concentration and 202—4 reaction rates 206 upward displacement 322
particle size and 206 solubility 22—4
rate curves 207—8 structure and properties 80—8
temperature and 204—5 solubility 22-3, 22-5, 32 vacuum distillation 30
recycling 313, 314, 329 alcohols 256 valence electrons 39, 61, 65, 70-2, 282
redox reactions 97-8, 99, 156, 157-8, 170 curves 22, 32 valence number 66—8, 78, 86
oxidation number and 159, 162, 162—4 ionic compounds 93—4 vitamin C 127, 151
reducing agents 164—7, 170, 173, 292 solution, concentration 119, 198, 202-3 volumetric analysis 148—50, 153
reduction 156, 158, 170, 307 solutions 19, 22—4, 32 vulcanisation 324
refinery gas 240 concentration 119
relative atomic mass see atomic mass, heat of 221
relative molar concentration 108-10 washing soda 344
renewable materials 331 saturated 20 water 6, 77
residue 25 solvents 19, 22—4, 245 boiling point 340
reverse osmosis 344, 345 green 331 of crystallisation 137
reversible reactions 90, 98, 99, 215 water as 340 as electrolyte 179
rickets 312 soya oil 333 hardness 268, 341, 345
rings 228 space rockets 354 heat of vaporisation 340
rum 260 specific heat capacity 217, 223, 339-40 heating and cooling curves 13
rusting 157, 310, 314 345 ionisation of acids in 122
spectator ions 94, 99 melting point 340
s standard solutions 108—9, 119 metal reactions with 285—6
salts 135-6, 153 starch 278 pollution 341
acid 136, 142-3 states of matter 3—4 properties 338—9
dangers 144—5 steel 305, 307 reactions, Group II metals 53
electrolytes 178 strong acids 132—3 solvent properties 340-1
insoluble 137—8 structural formulae 66, 78 treatment 342—4
preparation 137—43 structural isomers 232, 236, 242 vapour 340, 355
normal 136, 153 alcohols 255—6 weak acids 132
soluble 138-41 alkenes 246—7 winemaking 259—60
uses 143—4 subatomic particles 35
water of crystallisa tion 137 sublimation 11, 12 z
saponification 265—6 substitution reactions 243— 4, 250, 252 zeolite 344
saturated solutions 20, 32 sucrose 30-1 zinc 34, 158, 284, 287, 312, 356
semi-metals 60 sugar cane 30—1 zinc oxide 132
 Chemistry
f0rCSEC@ 2nd Edition

Chemistry for CSEC@ 2nd Edition is part of the Nelson Thornes CSEC@ Science
series. This newly updated title has been carefully tailored to the needs of
students of the CSEC@ Chemistry syllabus for first examination in 2015.

Written by a team of experienced teachers from across the region, Chemistry for
CSEC@ 2nd Edition now includes an interactive CD to bring the science to life.

Key features:
Objectives at the beginning of each topic clearly describe what will

be covered

Key facts draw out the most important points from the topic

• Did you know? features highlight interesting and unexpected facts

Exam tips support student exam practice and revision

• Practical activities help students put their theory into practice

Summary questions check knowledge

• Key concepts at the end of each section assist with revision

Practice exam-style questions provide realistic exam practice with

questions modelled on the real CSEC@ examination

Data analysis questions support students with a particular aspect of

the exam.

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