Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Types of sexual life cycles

Sexual life cycles involve an alternation between meiosis and fertilization. Meiosis is where a

diploid cell gives rise to haploid cells, and fertilization is where two haploid cells (gametes) fuse

to form a diploid zygote. What happens between these two events, however, can differ a lot

between different organisms—say, between you and a mushroom or oak tree!

There are three main categories of sexual life cycles.

 In a diploid-dominant life cycle, the multicellular diploid stage is the most obvious life stage,

and the only haploid cells are the gametes. Humans and most animals have this type of life

cycle.

 In a haploid-dominant life cycle, the multicellular (or sometimes unicellular) haploid stage is

the most obvious life stage and is often multicellular. In this type of life cycle, the single-celled

zygote is the only diploid cell. Fungi and some algae have this type of life cycle.

 In alternation of generations, both the haploid and the diploid stages are multicellular,

though they may be dominant to different degrees in different species. Plants and some algae

have this type of life cycle.

Let's make these ideas more concrete by looking at an example of each type of life cycle.

Diploid-dominant life cycle

Nearly all animals have a diploid-dominant life cycle in which the only haploid cells are the

gametes. Early in the development of an animal embryo, special diploid cells, called germ

cells, are made in the gonads (testes and ovaries). Germ cells can divide by mitosis to make

more germ cells, but some of them undergo meiosis, making haploid gametes (sperm and egg

cells). Fertilization involves the fusion of two gametes, usually from different individuals,

restoring the diploid state.

Example of a diploid-dominant life cycle: the human life cycle. In a mature human (2n), eggs

are produced by meiosis in the ovary of a woman, or sperm are produced by meiosis in the

testis of a man. The eggs and sperm are 1n, and they combine in fertilization to form a zygote

(2n). The zygote divides by mitosis to produce a mature human.

Haploid-dominant life cycle

Most fungi and some protists (unicellular eukaryotes) have a haploid-dominant life cycle, in

which the “body” of the organism—that is, the mature, ecologically important form—is haploid.

An example of a fungus with a haploid-dominant life cycle is black bread mold, whose sexual

life cycle is shown in the diagram below. In sexual reproduction of this

mold, hyphae (multicellular, thread-like haploid structures) from two compatible individuals

first grow towards each other.

Where the hyphae meet, they form a structure called the zygosporangium. A

zygosporangium contains multiple haploid nuclei from the two parents within a single cell. The

haploid nuclei fuse to form diploid nuclei, which are equivalent to zygotes. The cell containing

the nuclei is called the zygospore.

Example of a haploid-dominant life cycle: black bread mold. A haploid spore (1n) undergoes

mitosis to produce a multicellular individual (1n) with thread-like structures called hyphae. Two

hyphae of compatible (+ and -) mating types extend protrusions towards one another, and

where the protrusions meet, they form a zygosporangium with multiple haploid nuclei inside

(some from both parent hyphae). Nuclear fusion then takes place, in which the haploid nuclei

fuse to form diploid nuclei, and the cell containing the diploid nuclei is called the zygospore. The

diploid nuclei in the zygospore undergo meiosis to produce haploid nuclei, which are released as

unicellular spores (1n), and the cycle repeats.

The zygospore may stay dormant for long periods of time, but under the right conditions, the

diploid nuclei undergo meiosis to make haploid nuclei that are released in single cells

called spores^44start superscript, 4, end superscript. Because they were formed through

meiosis, each spore has a unique combination of genetic material. The spores germinate and

divide by mitosis to make new, multicellular haploid fungi.

Alternation of generations

The third type of life cycle, alternation of generations, is a blend of the haploid-dominant and

diploid-dominant extremes. This life cycle is found in some algae and all plants. Species with

alternation of generations have both haploid and diploid multicellular stages.

The haploid multicellular plants (or algae) are called gametophytes, because they make

gametes using specialized cells. Meiosis is not directly involved in making the gametes in this

case, because the organism is already a haploid. Fertilization between the haploid gametes

forms a diploid zygote.

The zygote will undergo many rounds of mitosis and give rise to a diploid multicellular plant

called a sporophyte. Specialized cells of the sporophyte will undergo meiosis and produce

haploid spores. The spores will then develop into the multicellular gametophytes.
 Example of alternation of generations: life cycle of a fern. Haploid (1n) spores germinate and

undergo mitosis to produce a multicellular gametophyte (1n).Specialized cells of the

gametophyte undergo mitosis to produce sperm and egg cells (1n), which combine in

fertilization to make a zygote (2n). The zygote undergoes mitosis to form a multicellular, diploid

sporophyte, the frond-bearing structure that we usually think of as a fern. On the sporophyte,

specialized structures called sporangia form, and inside of them, haploid cells (spores, 1n) are

formed by meiosis. The spores are released and can germinate, starting the cycle over again.

Although all sexually reproducing plants go through some version of alternation of generations,

the relative sizes of the sporophyte and the gametophyte and the relationship between them

vary among species.

In plants such as moss, the gametophyte is a free-living, relatively large plant, while the

sporophyte is small and dependent on the gametophyte. In other plants, such as ferns, both

the gametophyte and sporophyte are free-living; however, the sporophyte is much larger, and

is what we normally think of as a fern.

In seed plants, such as magnolia trees and daisies, the sporophyte is much larger than the

gametophyte: what we consider the “plant” is almost entirely sporophyte tissue. The

gametophyte is made up of just a few cells and, in the case of the female gametophyte, is

completely contained inside of the sporophyte (within a flower).

Why is sexual reproduction widespread?

In some ways, asexual reproduction, which makes offspring that are genetic clones of the

parent, seems like a simpler and more efficient system than sexual reproduction. After all, if the

parent is living successfully in a particular habitat, shouldn’t offspring with the same genes be

successful too? In addition, asexual reproduction only calls for one individual, removing the

problem of finding a mate and making it possible for an isolated organism to reproduce.

Despite all this, few multicellular organisms are completely asexual. Why, then, is sexual

reproduction so common? This question has been hotly debated, and there is still disagreement

about the exact answer. In general, though, it’s thought that sexual reproduction offers an

evolutionary advantage – and thus, is widespread among organisms alive today – because it

increases genetic variation, reshuffling gene variants to make new combinations. The processes

that generate genetic variation in all sexual life cycles are: crossing over in meiosis, random

assortment of homologous chromosomes, and fertilization.

Why is this genetic variation a good thing? As an example, let’s consider the case where a

population’s environment changes, perhaps through the introduction of a new pathogen or

predator. Sexual reproduction continually makes new, random combinations of gene variants.

This makes it more likely that one or more members of a sexually reproducing population will

happen to have a combination that allows survival under the new conditions (e.g., one that

provides resistance to the pathogen or allows escape from the predator).

Over generations, beneficial gene variants can spread through the population, allowing it to

survive as a group under the new conditions.

 Term Meaning

Process of creating new individual using two parent

Sexual reproduction organisms

Asexual reproduction Process of creating new individual using one parent organism

Offspring New organism that results from reproduction

Gamete Sex cell (in males: sperm; in females: eggs)

Fertilization The joining of gametes to form a new organism

Zygote Cell formed during the fusion of two gametes

Types of reproduction

There are two major forms of reproduction: sexual and asexual.

Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction requires two parents. Each parent contributes a gamete - a sex cell that
has half of the normal DNA of a regular body cell. In males, the gametes are sperm and in

females, the gametes are eggs.

When these two gamete combine during fertilization, the result is a zygote, which then

continues to develop into an embryo.

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction requires only one parent.

There are many types of asexual reproduction. Four major types are:

1) Binary fission: Single parent cell doubles its DNA, then divides into two cells. Usually

occurs in bacteria.
 Prokaryotic cell undergoing the process of binary fission

2) Budding: Small growth on surface of parent breaks off, resulting in the formation of two

individuals. Occurs in yeast and some animals (like the hydra below).
 Hydra reproduce asexually through budding

3) Fragmentation: Organisms break into two or more fragments that develop into a new

individual. Occurs in many plants, as well as some animals (like coral, sponges, and starfish).

Starfish losing an arm. The arm fragment grows into another starfish and the original starfish

regrows its lost arm.

This starfish has lost its arm. The fragment is growing into a new individual, while the parent
regrows its lost arm.

4) Parthenogenesis: An embryo develops from an unfertilized cell. Occurs in invertebrates, as

well as in some fish, amphibians, and reptiles.

Baby Komodo dragon produced through parthenogenesis.

Comparing sexual vs asexual reproduction

Sexual Asexual

Requires 2 parents Requires 1 parent

Sperm fertilizes egg Single organism makes an exact copy of itself

 Sexual Asexual

Used by animals, flowering plants, some Bacteria, some plants and fungi, few animals

fungi (sponges)

Offspring are different from parents Offspring are identical to parent

Provides genetic variation, but time-

consuming Fast and easy, but no genetic variation

Common mistakes and misconceptions

 Budding and fragmentation are not the same thing. Although they do appear similar, in

fragmentation, the parent body breaks into distinct fragments and each fragment develops into

a new individual or offspring. In budding, there must be an outgrowth (bud) that develops on

the parent.

 Some organisms are able to do both sexual and asexual reproduction. This is

particularly true for fungi and plants (and rarely, animals - as in parthenogenesis). Often, the

type of reproduction that they undergo depends on their environmental conditions or the point

in their growth cycles.

 Although sexual reproduction requires two parents, they do not always have to be

two separate individuals. This may sound confusing, but some organisms are

hermaphroditic, meaning they contain both male and female gametes. In this instance, those

organisms are able to self-fertilize. Despite the fact that these gametes come from the same

individual, we still consider this sexual reproduction, as two gametes are involved.