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Sustainable Structure and Materials, Vol. 1, No. 2 (2018) 12-20

DOI: https://doi.org/10.26392/SSM.2018.01.01.012

A REVIEW ON SELF-HEALING CONCRETE USING BACTERIA

Chigozirim G. Iheanyichukwu*1, Sadiq A. Umar1, Prince C. Ekwueme1

1
Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research
*Corresponding author/ E-mail address: [email protected]

(Received December 25, 2017, Revised January 15, 2018, Accepted February 09, 2018)

ABSTRACT. Recent interests in the field of Bio-technology and Civil Engineering have raised the topics on the
precipitation of Calcium Carbonate by certain bacteria strains. The relationship between cracks and possible
self-healing techniques; artificial and natural are considered. Importance has been laid on the bio-
mineralization process and the mechanism of bacterial concrete. The methods of application of these artificial
substances that aid the self-healing process in concrete and the effects of engineered self-healing in concrete
are discussed in this review.

Keywords: Concrete, Crack sealing, Self-healing, Bacteria, Autogenous healing, Permeability, Bio-
mineralization

1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete is a material widely used for construction that can withstand compressive loads but needs steel in order to
resist tensile stresses; its brittle nature makes it susceptible to cracks. Cracks pave way for the ingress of aggressive and
potentially harmful fluids or substances such as sulfate, chlorides and carbonates. These aggressive fluids permeate
inside the concrete, affecting the reinforcement by corrosion, thereby reducing the durability of the concrete structure.
Cracks may not be regarded as failure of the concrete but the introduction of harmful substances create the need to seal
these cracks by repairing the structure. The rising costs associated with repairs have led researchers to consider
alternatives of crack sealing with growing interests in crack healing. Studies on the subject of self-healing have shown
promise in the use of organic and inorganic materials for sealing cracks. The introduction of bacteria into the concrete
mixture is one of such organic methods and works by precipitation of calcium carbonate to fill up cracks in concrete.
This paper contains an extensive review detailing the different methods whereby bacteria can be applied to concrete in
order to achieve self-healing.
2. CRACKS AND SELF-HEALING
Joshi et al [1] defines healing as “the phenomenon of restoration of concrete structure from a state of damage”.
Gupta et al [2] describes self-healing as “an emerging concept of delivering high quality materials combined with the
capability to heal damages and it has received much attention in past decade for application in building structures.
Therefore, an effective self-healing mechanism may be able to reduce repair and maintenance works substantially and
concomitant environmental and economic impacts”. Concrete has been found to repair itself over time when cracks
have widths less than 0.2mm, when cracks exceed this width, man-made solutions can be applied [3, 4]. Man-made
solutions have incorporated different means of self-healing with different levels of viability.
2.1Autogenous Healing
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Different researches have been carried to find out how concrete heals itself and different results have been obtained.
Huang et al [5] has identified three mechanisms of autogenous self- healing as continuous hydration of unhydrated
cement, the recrystallization of calcium hydroxide, and the formation of calcium carbonate. Li et al [6] reports that a
relationship exists between the cement composition and crack healing properties, and mixes having higher binder
particles tend to have better crack healing properties and this occurrence is caused by delayed hydration of unhydrated
cement when in contact with water that passes through cracks [7].
In the absence of stress and in the presence of water, calcite is formed which closes up the cracks that are present
on the concrete surface. The rate at which the crack is healed dependent on the concentration of water and the rate at
which calcium carbonate is formed.
2.2 Autonomous Healing
Different mechanisms have been proposed by different researchers detailing artificial solutions with their major
advantages being that they can close up cracks in concrete with widths greater than 0.1mm. Huang et al. [5] categorizes
autogenous mechanisms of healing concrete into:
 Use of mineral admixtures which reacts with water that penetrates the surface of the cracked concrete
 Use of adhesive agents that hardens and connects the cracked surfaces
 Use of bacteria which precipitates calcium carbonate to repair cracks.
These mechanisms can be applied to the concrete via different methods and have a wide range of applications with
respect to natural self-healing.
3. BIO-MINERALIZATION
The use of bacterial spores as a method of self-healing follows the mechanism of formation of calcite from
autogenous healing. The process by which living organisms produce minerals through metabolic activities from their
interaction with the environment is Bio-mineralization. Joshi et al [1] defines Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate
Precipitation (MICCP) as “the capability of microbes to form calcium carbonate extracellularly through a metabolic
activity”.
Zhang et al [8] noted that the factors affecting the rate of calcium carbonate precipitation are: the amount of calcium
present in the concrete matrix and the external environment, the pH of the concrete matrix, the presence of dissolved
carbon and the availability of (nucleation) sites where the precipitation can occur via bacterial metabolism (usually the
bacterial cell walls). The formation of calcium carbonate can be mediated through different metabolic pathways
3.1 Autotrophic-medi ated Pathw ays
In autotrophic pathways (non-methylotrophic methanogenesis, oxygenic photosynthesis and anoxygenic
photosynthesis) precipitation of calcium carbonate is done by the dissolution of carbon dioxide in the presence of
calcium ions from the environment. Castanier et al [9] noted that the bacterial spores “induce CO2 depletion of the
medium or of the immediate environment of the bacteria. When calcium ions are present in the medium, such depletion
favors calcium-carbonate precipitation”. Table-1 shows the different metabolic pathways by which Calcium Carbonate
formation can occur
Table -1: Different pathways of Bio-mineralization for MICP [10]
Autotrophic bacteria Heterotrophic bacteria
non‐methylotrophic Assimilatory pathways Dissimilatory pathways
methanogenesis
Urea decomposition Oxidation of organic carbon
an oxygenic Aerobic Anaerobic
photosynthesis
Process e–acceptor Process e–acceptor
oxygenic photosynthesis Ammonification of Respiration O2 NOx NO3−/NO2−
amino acids reduction
Methane CH4/O2 Sulfate SO42
oxidation reduction
.

3.2 Heterotrophic-mediated Pathw ays

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Castanier et al [9] defines two processes that could possibly occur simultaneously, which are passive precipitation
and active precipitation. These processes involve two metabolic cycles: Sulfur cycle which occurs when Sulfur
Reducing Bacteria (SRB) is used in an anoxic where organic matter is sufficient and the Nitrogen cycle which involves
the conversion of amino acids in the presence of dissolved oxygen, organic matter and calcium into ammonia, the
denitrification of nitrogen in the absence or low amounts of oxygen or the decomposition of urea or uric acid in the
presence of oxygen and organic matter; all three pathways produce carbonates ions while ammonia is the metabolic end
product. The production of ammonia increases the pH of the environment creating an alkaline environment which
conforms to the pH of the concrete microstructure.
4. METHODS OF APPLICATION
Different modes of incorporation of the bacterial agents into the concrete have been researched and while some are
not feasible, some have shown promise. Gupta et al [2] in their report highlighted two major methods of application:
directly to the concrete and by means of encapsulation (in polymeric capsules, in additives, in lightweight concrete
aggregate, and in special mineral compounds). Muhammad et al [12] depicted a table showing bacteria could be sprayed
or injected into the concrete material or the concrete could be cured in bacterial culture to prevent or heal early age
cracking. In addition to the above mentioned methods, Huang et al [5] also reported the use of vascular systems which
are embedded inside the structure.
4.1 Direct Application
Jonkers et al [1] and Luo et al [11] studied the effect of direct application of bacterial spores to the concrete mix and
determined that while it is a viable option (the spores precipitated calcite when examined within the 7 days of placement
but the precipitate could not be found after 28 days), it could not be sustainable because the spores would die off due to
the increased pH and the reduced pore size in the concrete microstructure. The repair rates at different cracking ages
were also studied with respect of crack width (range 0.1mm to 0.5mm). An 85% healing rate was recorded with curing
by water and the use of wet-dry cycles reporting the best restorative performance. Luo et al [11] also concluded that
early age cracks were healed efficiently in contrast to late age cracks which they attributed to lack of protective shell
for the spores and the distance to the nutrients which caused a low survival rate of the spores.
4.2 Encapsulation
Spores can be encapsulated physically or chemically. Experience and applications from self-healing in polymers,
the food industry and the pharmaceutical industry have been useful for the process of encapsulation of spores. This is
an efficient method of supplying spores within the concrete matrix with long term effects.
4.2.1 Pol ymeric Capsules
Report by Wang et al [13] where polymeric microcapsules were used to encapsulate the spores with precursors
(nutrients such as calcium nitrate, urea and yeast extracts) and showed 48%-80% healing ratio compared to a 50%
healing ratio via autogenous healing. Gupta et al [14] defined the optimum dosage of the capsule application as 3%
because higher doses of 5% could result in increase in permeability and reduction of the compressive strength of the
structure.
4.2.2 Special Cement Additive
Hydrogel encapsulation of bacteria by Wang et al. [15] resulted in a 40%-90% increase in the healing efficiency of
the spores, provides water for bacterial growth while decreasing the water permeability of the concrete by about 68%.
The addition of spores does not affect the workability of the concrete but reduces compressive and tensile strengths due
to the formation of voids from the capsules.
4.2.3 Li ght Wei ght Aggregate
Jonkers [16] experimented with Expended perlite and expanded clay to immobilize and encapsulate spores with
precursor compounds. Soft aggregates such as clay aggregates when ruptured, exposes the bacteria to air which triggers
the precipitation process. Crack healing of widths of 0.46mm were recorded and while the soft plane of the aggregates
might draw crack towards them, the spores were still viable after 6 months. The use of soft aggregates however was
found to reduce the strength of the structure making them unfeasible for structural applications. [17]
4.2.4 Application of Mineral Compounds
Gupta et al, [14] defines “Diatomaceous earth (DE) is a type of mineral compound rich in silica and formed from
shell of microorganisms called diatoms”. Wang et al. [18] immobilized bacteria in DE and when it cracks and the spores
are exposed to air or water, urea is hydrolyzed and calcium carbonate is formed from the precursor (Calcium Nitrate).
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The width of healing is dependent on the medium used for the immersion – water based or nutrient based medium
nonetheless smaller crack widths were almost or completely healed. Usage of DE in large quantities leads to the mortar
drying up due to the fine particles of the DE leading to a higher water absorption rate. Table 2 shows a summary of
bacteria species and encapsulation materials that have been tested with respect to self-healing and its application and
the findings associated with the research for each specie.

Table -2: Summary of capsule materials, bacterial species and their self-healing properties [2]
Species of Encapsulated (Capsule Directly
Mechanism Major findings Reference
bacteria used material) added
a) High early healing was observed
Spore forming
Not mentioned in the by water curing
bacteria (species X [11]
study b) Higher the cracking age, lower is
not mentioned)
the extent of healing
a) Calcium source affects healing
Decomposition of ratio- calcium glutamate performs
Bacillus X calcium source to better than lactate [19]
precipitate carbonate b) Bacteria remained viable for
4 months
a) Crack width of 0.15 mm with
Metabolic conversion
Bacillus cohnii X (Clay aggregates) length 8 cm completely sealed [16]
of calcium lactate
b) No loss of viability up to 6 months
a) PU immobilized bacteria
specimens showed lowest
Ureolytic permeability
Bacillus X (immobilized in PU and
decomposition of b) Higher bacteria activity in silica [15]
Sphaericus silica gel inside glass)
calcium nitrate sol
c) Higher strength recovery in case of
PU immobilization
a) Highest reduction of water
absorption was observed in bacteria
Ureolytic
Bacillus containing specimen
X (Diatomaceous earth) decomposition of [20]
Sphaericus b) Dosage of DE must be carefully
calcium nitrate
adjusted because it causes loss in
concrete workability
a) Crack healing ratio of 48% to 80%;
highest crack width healed is 970 µm
Ureolytic b) Permeability recorded for bacteria
Bacillus X (Melamine based
decomposition of specimen is about 10 times compared [21]
Sphaericus capsules)
calcium nitrate to control
c) highest reduction in crack area in
case of wet-dry cycle
a)Maximum crack sealing of 500 µm
√ (hydrogel) – one
under wet-dry cycles
component (only bacteria) Ureolytic
Bacillus b) Permeability decrease of 68% for
and two component decomposition of [12]
Sphaericus specimens containing hydrogel
(bacteria and nutrient) calcium nitrate
encapsulating both bacteria and
system
nutrients together
Bacterial activity was observed only
Ureolytic
Bacillus √ (Sodium alginate based for encapsulated samples at crack
decomposition of [15]
Sphaericus hydrogel) face measured by oxygen
calcium nitrate
consumption
a) Bacteria can be distributed
uniformly in concrete when
immobilized in graphite nano-
platelets (GNP) due to fine particle
size and uniform dispersion of GNP
b) Bacteria immobilized in GNP
√(Lightweight aggregates Decomposition of
Bacillus Subtilis showed high self-healing when [22]
and graphite nano-platelets) calcium lactate
samples were pre-cracked at early
stages (3 day and 7 day)
c) Lightweight aggregates are more
effective when samples are pre-
damaged at later stage (14 day and
28 day)
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4.3Vascular Method
A vascular network can be built in the structure by pre embedding smooth glass tube bars into the concrete and
removing them later, leaving spaces in the structures where the bacterial spores can be injected or pumped into the
canals if cracks intersect these spaces [23-25]. In this case, to the holes or tunnels created in the structure, the healing
agent can be applied over long periods of time leading to higher healing rate and greater efficiency of the healing
process. The fig-1 shows a modified version of the vascular system proposed by C. M. Dry [26].

Fig-1: Modified Vascular System for self-healing [5]

5. EFFECT OF BACTERIA ON CONCRETE PROPERTIES

5.1 Precursors and Setting Time

The effect of the addition of precursors into the concrete mix resulted in mixed results. Depending on the type of
nutrient use for bacterial spores in concrete, the setting time can be accelerated or retarded. Calcium Lactate delays
setting time whereas Calcium Formate and Calcium Nitrate quickens the setting time. [27, 28]
5.2 Compressive Strength
Using bio concrete could increase or decrease the compressive strengths of the concrete depending on the bacterial
species used, the percent of cement replaced with pozzolans, the use of admixtures such as Rice Husk Ash and Fly Ash
and the mode of supply of bacteria to the concrete structure.[29, 10, 30-33]. Tables 3 points out bacteria types, their
compressive strength increase with respect to control concrete and the concentration of cells per milliliter of concrete.
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Table -3: Bacteria types and their compressive strengths with respect to normal concrete [10]
S.NO Bacteria used Best results Bacterial Reference
concentration
1 Bacillus sp. CT-5 Compressive strength 40% more than 5 × 107 [28]
the control concrete cells/mm3
2 Bacillus megaterium Maximum rate of strength development 30 × 105 cfu/ml [31]
was 24% achieved in highest grade of
concrete 50 Mpa
3 Bacillus subtilis Improvement of 12% in compressive 2.8 × 108 [22]
strength as compared to controlled cells/ml
concrete specimens with light weight
aggregates
4 Bacillus aerius Increase in compressive strength by 105 cells/ml [34]
11.8% in bacterial concrete compared
to control with 10% dosage of RHA
5 Sporosarcina Compressive strength 35% more than 105 cells/ml [35]
pasteurii the control concrete
6 AKKR5 10% increase in compressive strength 105 cells/ml [36]
as compared to control concrete
7 Shewanella Species 25% increase in compressive strength 100,000 [37]
of cement mortar compared with the cells/ml
control mortar

5.3 Permeability (Water and Chloride ions)

Ingress of harmful fluids is directly related to permeability. The activity of bacteria in the concrete reduces the
permeability because the pores are filled with Calcium Carbonate from precipitation. Some spores (Pasteurii spp.),
reduces the absorption rate of water and reduces the rate of chloride penetration [33, 39]. Aerius spp. decreases water
absorption and porosity which increases durability and also reduces the amount of charges passing through the concrete
[35]. Ingress of Chloride ions is dependent on the internal pore and capillary structure of the concrete and the pore and
capillary structure is determined by factors such as mix design, degree of hydration, curing, etc. Comparing control
concrete to bio-concrete, Bio-crete enhances the resistance of concrete to Chloride penetration [36, 32]

5.4 Microstructure
Research carried out using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) showed that rod shaped bacteria which carry out
calcite precipitation improved the micro structure of concrete. The addition of additives further enhances the micro
structure by filling up voids in the concrete micro structure. [39, 32, 40, 41].
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Fig -2: Scanning electron microscope (SEM) Images showing a. Normal Concrete b. Bacterial Concrete c. 5% RHA
Concrete d. Bacterial concrete with 5% RHA [10]

6. CONCLUSION
While, the study of bacterial concrete is still far off from being cost efficient or general feasible for use in all
conditions, it shows promising interest and can be used in controlled environments. Gupta et al [2] suggested that to
make bacterial concrete commercially viable the cost of production should be reduced or by making the design more
viable for long life applications so that it would work under continuous cycle of loading and extreme conditions.
Bacteria induced self- healing has drawn much attention due to its ability to be applied or long term constructions,
eco-friendly and being well-matched with the concrete mix. It can be applied to virtually any structure (under-ground
structures, bridges, pavements, etc.) as its application is versatile due to the different modes of application.
While more research is needed to consolidate its shortcomings such as the time it takes to heal cracks which usually
take longer for larger widths of cracks; a more sustainable approach needs to be found to make it a more viable option
in the industry. The ability of bacterial concrete to heal cracks deeper in the concrete should also be studied. The
nutrients required for use by the bacteria should also be considered and the cost of obtaining them could be reduced.
The cost and efficiency of the bacterial concrete with respect to conventional repairs should also be looked into to make
it cheaper and accessible. Bio-concrete can be the future of sustainable engineering but research needs to assess the life
cycle and means to further improve the current life cycle of the system.
Over the past few years, the interest in bacterial concrete has been astounding and the research and studies
conducting have been quite progressive which leads us to believe that its implementation in the industry isn’t far.

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