INWK 6111 Lec 5 Chapter 5 4/25/2023

William Stallings
Data and Computer
Communications

Ed.10 Chapter 5
Signal Encoding

Lec 5

4/25/2023

Encoding Techniques

Digital data, digital signal

Analog data, digital signal

Digital data, analog signal

Analog data, analog signal

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5.1 Digital Data, Digital Signal

 A Digital signal
 consists of discrete, discontinuous
voltage pulses
 each pulse is a signal element
 binary data is encoded into signal
elements

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Based on/from William Stalling’s Data & Computer Communications

Digital Data, Digital Signal

Terms : 1
 Unipolar
 All signal elements have the same sign
 Polar
 One logic state is represented by a positive
voltage the other by a negative voltage
 Bipolar
 For one logic level successive pulses alternate
between positive and negative voltages
 Data rate
 Rate of data transmission is R bits per second

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Digital Data, Digital Signal

Terms : 2
 Duration or length of a bit
 the time taken for the transmitter
to emit the bit : 1/R seconds
 Modulation rate
 the rate at which the signal level
changes
 the measure is in baud
 baud= signal elements per second

 Mark and Space

 Binary 1 and Binary 0 respectively

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Digital Data, Digital Signal

Interpreting Signals
 We need to know
 the bit timing
 when a bit starts and
 when a bit ends
 the signal levels
 Factors affecting the successful
interpretation of signals
 Signal to noise ratio (deciBels)
 Data rate
 Bandwidth
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Encoding Schemes

 Binary data is encoded for

transmission using, for example
 Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
 Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
 Bipolar -Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)
 Pseudoternary
 Manchester
 Differential Manchester
 Details follow in later slides
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Comparison of Encoding
Schemes : 1

 Signal Spectrum facts

 a lack of high frequencies reduces
the required bandwidth
 the lack of a dc component allows ac
coupling with a transformer thus
providing isolation
 power is normally concentrated in
the middle of the signal bandwidth

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Comparison of Encoding
Schemes : 2 Signal Spectrum

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Comparison of Encoding
Schemes : 3

 Clocking
 Is required for synchronizing the
transmitter and the receiver
 An external clock may be
required- however this is
expensive
 Synchronization mechanisms
based on the transmitted signal
are cost effective

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Comparison of Encoding
Schemes : 4
 Error detection
 Can be built into the signal encoding
 See Chapter 7 for Data Link Control error
techniques
 Signal interference and noise
immunity
 Some codes are better than others
and this is measured by their Bit Error
Rate (BER)

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Comparison of Encoding
Schemes : 5

 Cost and complexity

 In general higher signal rates (&
thus higher data rates) lead to
higher costs
 Some codes require a signal rate
greater than their data rate
 e.g. Manchester

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Non Return to Zero (NRZ) : 1

 NRZ-Level (NRZ-L)
 NRZ-Invert-on-ones (NRZ-I)

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Non-return to Zero: 2
NRZ-L : 1

 Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits

 The voltage is constant during a bit interval
 no transition i.e. no return to zero voltage
 e.g. NRZ can use the absence of voltage for a zero, and
a constant positive voltage for a one

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Nonreturn to Zero: 3
NRZ-L : 2

 often, a negative voltage is used for one value

and a positive voltage for the other
 this is NRZ-L
 it is used by terminals

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Nonreturn to Zero : 4
Nonreturn to Zero Inverted : 1

 Non return to zero invert on ones

 its data is encoded as the presence or
absence of a signal transition at the
beginning of a bit time
 it has a constant voltage level for the
duration of a bit

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Nonreturn to Zero: 5
Nonreturn to Zero Inverted : 2
 A transition (low to high or high to low)
denotes a binary 1
 No transition denotes a binary 0
 This is an example of differential encoding

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Nonreturn to Zero: 6
NRZ-I : Differential Encoding

 Data is represented by changes

rather than by levels because
 detection of transitions is more reliable
than detection of levels
 in complex transmission layouts it is easy
to lose a sense of polarity

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Nonreturn to Zero: 7
Signal Spectrum NRZ

High DC Component

Good use of bandwidth

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Nonreturn to Zero: 8
NRZ pros and cons
 Pros
 it is easy to engineer
 it makes good use of bandwidth
 Cons
 it has a dc component
 it lacks synchronization
capability if strings of “0” are
sent
 Used for magnetic recording
 Not often used for signal
transmission
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Multilevel Binary : 1
 Use more than two levels
Opposite levels

(Alternate Mark Inversion)

Opposite levels
 See following slides
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Multilevel Binary :2
Bipolar-AMI

 a binary zero is represented by no line signal

 a binary one is represented by a positive or a
negative pulse
 one-pulses alternate in polarity
 there is no loss of sync if a long string of
ones occurs (zeros are still a problem)
 there is no net dc component
 has a low bandwidth requirement
 has easy error detection

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Multilevel Binary : 3
Pseudoternary
 A binary one is represented by the
absence of a line signal
 A binary zero is represented by
alternating positive and negative
pulses
 It has no advantage or disadvantage
over bipolar-AMI

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Multilevel Binary : 4
Trade Off for Multilevel Binary
 Not as efficient as NRZ where each signal
element can only represent one bit as here
the code has the potential (unrealized) to
hold more than one bit
 In a 3 level system a signal element could
represent log23 = 1.58 bits
 The receiver must distinguish between three
levels
(+A, -A, 0)
 It requires approx. 3dB more signal power than
a two-valued signal for the same probability of
bit error (See Figure 5.4)
 Pseudoternary is used in ISDN

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Multilevel Binary : 5
Signal Spectrum

No DC Component

Reasonable Bandwidth

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Biphase : 1
Manchester
 Used by IEEE 802.3
 A transition occurs in the middle of each bit period
 A transition serves as both clock and data
 Low to high represents a binary one
 High to low represents a binary zero

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Biphase : 2
Differential Manchester
 Used by IEEE 802.5
 A mid-bit transition is clocking only
 A transition at the start of a bit period
represents a binary zero
 No transition at the start of a bit period
represents a binary one
 Note: this is a differential encoding
scheme

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BiPhase : 4
Signal Spectrum

No DC component

Inefficient use of Bandwidth

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Biphase : 3
Pros and Cons : 1

 Pros
 Has synchronization on a mid bit
transition (self clocking)
 Has no dc component
 Has error detection
 Absence of an expected mid-bit transition

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Biphase : 3
Pros and Cons : 2

 Cons
 It has at least one transition per bit
time and possibly two
 The maximum modulation rate is
twice that of NRZ (see next slide)
 It has a wide bandwidth

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Modulation Rate

One signal
element per
bit time

2 signal
elements per
bit time

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Recap Encoding Schemes

Levels for bits

Differential

Multilevel Binary

Biphase

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Scrambling techniques: 1
 Coding schemes to remove
constant voltages (thus enabling
synchronization)
 Bipolar with 8-zeros substitution
 B8ZS
 High Density Bipolar-3 zeros
 HDB3

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Scrambling techniques: 2
 Use scrambling to replace sequences
that would produce constant voltage
 A filling sequence must
 produce enough transitions to synchronize
 be recognized by the receiver and be
replaced by the original sequence
 be the same length as the original signal

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Scrambling techniques : 3

 Scrambling techniques have

 no dc component
 no long sequences of zero level line
signal
 no reduction in data rate (over
original signal)
 error detection capability

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Scrambling techniques : 4
B8ZS : 1
 Based on Bipolar-Alternate Mark Inversion
 If an octet of all zeros is present,
 and the last voltage pulse preceding it was positive,
encode as 000+-0-+ (Note 000VB0VB)
 and last voltage pulse preceding it was negative,
encode as 000-+0+- (Note (000VB0VB)

V- violation - + 0+-
of alternating 1’s

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Scrambling techniques : 5
B8ZS : 2

 B8ZS causes two violations of

the Alternate Mark Inversion
(AMI) code as the levels of
successive pulses are incorrect
 These violations are unlikely to
occur as a result of noise
 the receiver detects the violations
and interprets errors as an octet of
all zeros
AMI : Alternate Mark Inversion
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Scrambling techniques : 6
High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros
 HDB3
 Based on bipolar-AMI
 String of four zeros changed with one
pulse for an odd # pulses or two pulses
for an even # pulses since last
substitution (V causes voltage on line)

even even

Violation: same as previous different from last V

different from last V
Based on/from William Stalling’s Data & Computer Communications
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Scrambling techniques : 7
B8ZS and HDB3

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Problem 5.5/5.9
 Apply the encoding of Q5.5 to the binary pattern am of 5.9
and sketch the result.
 b0 = 0 : bm = (am + bm-1) mod 2
 cm = bm – bm-1
 am = 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 for m= 0 to 9

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 THE END

 Do problems

 Ed.10 : 5.3, 5, 10 , 12, 16

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