Unit # 01

Physics and Measurements

Pride of Pakistan, World’s second highest peak, K-2, summit of 8611 meters.
In this unit student should be able to:
➢ Describe Physics.
➢ Describe the scope of Physics in science, technology and society.
➢ State SI units, derive units and supplementary units for various measurements.
➢ Express derived units as products or quotients of the base units.
➢ State the conventions for indicating units as set in the SI units.
➢ Measure, using appropriate techniques, the length, mass, time temperature and
electrical quantities by making use of both analogue scales and digital displays
particularly, short time interval by ticker timer and by C.R.O.
➢ Check the homogeneity of physical equations by using dimensionality and base units.
➢ Derive formulae in simple cases using dimensions.
➢ Why all measurements contain some uncertainty.
➢ Distinguish between systematic errors (including zero errors) and random errors.
➢ Measure the diameters of few ball bearings of different sizes and estimate their
volumes mention the uncertainty in each result.
➢ Analyze and evaluate the above experiment and suggest improvements.

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 ➢ Assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of actual, fractional or
percentage uncertainties.
➢ Identify dependent and independent variables.
➢ Draw line of best fit and error bar
➢ Draw extrapolation.
➢ Write answers with correct scientific notation, number of significant figures and units
in all numerical and practical work.
➢ Identify that least count or resolution of a measuring instrument is the smallest
increment measurable by it.
➢ Differentiate between precision and accuracy.
➢ Explain why it is important to use and instrument of smallest resolution.
➢ Explain the importance of increasing the number of readings in an experiment.
➢ Interpret the information from linear or nonlinear graphs / curves by measuring slopes
and intercepts.

1.1 Scope of Physics

What do fly birds, moving automobiles, looking blue Migrating birds use celestial
skies and vibrating cellular phones have in common? cues to navigate, much as sailors
They all follow physics or physical laws. of yore used the sun and stars to
Birds use the difference in air pressures above and below guide them. But unlike humans,
their wings to keep them aloft. Automobiles follow the birds also detect the magnetic
principles of mechanics and thermodynamics to transfer field generated by Earth's molten
stored gasoline for moving tires. The sky seems blue core and use it to determine their
when sunlight strikes and scatters off nitrogen and position and direction.
oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. Lastly, cellular
phones use electronic components and the principles of
electromagnetic waves to transfer energy and information
from one to another phone.

1.1.1 Physics
Physics is a branch of science which studies the nature and behavior of matter, energy,
and the interaction between them. It seeks to understand the underlying laws and principles
that govern the physical world and to explain a wide range of phenomenon, from the smallest
subatomic particles to the largest structures in the universe. The scope of physics includes
areas such as mechanics, electromagnetism, thermodynamics, optics and quantum mechanics.
It also has practical applications in field such as engineering, medicine, and technology. In
simple terms, physics is the study of how things work in natural world.
Apart from classical physics, the development of physics has evolved in further subdivided
specializations of physics fields. Some of them are enumerating here:
Mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of motion and its causes. It is
concerned with the relationships between forces and the motion of objects, as well as the
relationships between energy and motion. Mechanics is divided into two main branches:
classical mechanics and quantum mechanics.

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Classical mechanics is concerned with the study of macroscopic objects and their motion
under the influence of forces, such as the motion of planets and stars, the motion of objects on
Earth, and the motion of fluids. It includes the study of mechanics concepts such as Newton's
laws of motion, conservation of energy and momentum, and the laws of thermodynamics.
Quantum mechanics, on the other hand, is concerned with the behavior of particles on a
microscopic level and deals with the relationships between energy and matter. It is a
fundamental theory that forms the basis of our understanding of the behavior of atoms and
subatomic particles.
In short, mechanics is the study of motion and its causes, and encompasses both classical
mechanics and quantum mechanics.
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat,
energy, and work. It is concerned with the study of the laws that govern the transfer of energy
from one form to another and the conversion of energy into work. The field of
thermodynamics has a wide range of applications, including the design and optimization of
engines, power plants, and refrigeration systems, as well as the study of phase transitions and
chemical reactions. There are four laws of thermodynamics that form the basis of this field,
which are concerned with the conservation of energy, the direction of heat flow, and the
behavior of systems as they approach thermal equilibrium. In simple terms, thermodynamics is
the study of heat and its relationship to energy and work.
Cryogenics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of extremely low temperatures
and the behavior of materials at those temperatures. It involves the production and use of
temperatures below -150°C, which are referred to as cryogenic temperatures. The field of
cryogenics has a wide range of applications, including the preservation of biological materials,
the superconductivity of certain materials, and the study of materials at the molecular and
atomic level. It also plays a crucial role in the production and storage of liquid gases, such as
liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, which are used in a variety of industrial and scientific
applications. In short, cryogenics is the study of low temperatures and their effects on matter.
Plasma physics is a branch of physics that studies plasmas, which are highly ionized gases
consisting of ions, electrons, and neutral particles. Plasmas are found in many natural and
man-made environments, including stars, lightning, the sun, and fusion reactors. Plasma
physics seeks to understand the behavior of these ionized gases and the interactions between
the charged particles that make up the plasma. This includes the study of plasma confinement,
heating, and transport, as well as the development of plasma-based technologies such as fusion
energy, plasma processing, and plasma-based lighting. In short, plasma physics is the study of
the behavior of highly ionized gases and the interactions between their charged particles.
Solid-state physics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of solids, including their
structure, properties, and behavior. Solids are characterized by their rigid and ordered
arrangement of atoms, which give rise to unique properties such as high strength, low
compressibility, and electrical conductivity. Solid-state physics is concerned with
understanding these properties and how they are related to the underlying atomic and
molecular structure of solids.
The field of solid-state physics covers a wide range of topics, including crystal structures,
lattice vibrations, thermal properties, electronic properties, and the behavior of defects and

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impurities in solids. It also includes the study of phase transitions, such as the transition from a
solid to a liquid or gas, as well as the study of magnetic, optical, and superconducting
properties of solids.
In short, solid-state physics is the study of the properties and behavior of solids, including their
underlying atomic and molecular structure.
Geophysics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of the physical properties and
processes of the Earth and its environment. It seeks to understand the structure, composition,
and behavior of the Earth, including its atmosphere, oceans, and solid Earth, as well as the
processes that shape the planet and its environment.
Geophysics includes a wide range of subfields, such as seismology, which studies earthquakes
and the structure of the Earth's interior, and geomagnetism, which studies the Earth's magnetic
field. It also includes the study of geodynamics, which deals with the Earth's tectonic plates
and the movements of the Earth's crust, and geodesy, which deals with the shape and size of
the Earth.
In short, geophysics is the study of the physical properties and processes of the Earth and its
environment, including its structure, composition, and behavior.
Astrophysics is to "Discover how the universe works, explore how it began and evolved, and
search for life on planets around other stars."
Acoustics is to make the music or speech sound as good as possible. It is achieved by reducing
the sound barriers and increasing the factors that help in the proper transmission of sound
waves.
Electromagnetism is the study of the relationship between electricity and magnetism.
Fluid mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of liquids and gases and their
behavior and interactions with solid surfaces. It is concerned with the relationships between
fluid flow, pressure, and temperature, as well as the forces that fluids exert on objects in their
path.
Fluid mechanics is divided into two main branches: fluid statics and fluid dynamics. Fluid
statics deals with the behavior of fluids at rest, including the measurement and distribution of
fluid pressure. Fluid dynamics, on the other hand, deals with the behavior of fluids in motion,
including the study of fluid flow patterns and the forces that influence fluid flow.
The field of fluid mechanics has a wide range of applications, including the design of
hydraulic systems, the study of atmospheric dynamics, and the analysis of ocean currents. It is
also used in the design and optimization of aircraft, ships, and submarines, as well as in the
production of energy through hydropower and tidal power.
In short, fluid mechanics is the study of liquids and gases and their behavior and interactions
with solid surfaces, including the relationships between fluid flow, pressure, and temperature.
High energy physics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of subatomic particles
and their interactions at very high energies. It is concerned with understanding the behavior of
matter and energy at the smallest scales, including the structure and interactions of particles
such as electrons, quarks, and neutrinos.
High energy physics uses particle accelerators and detectors to study the interactions of
subatomic particles at extremely high energies. These interactions reveal the underlying
structure of matter and the basic forces that govern the behavior of the universe.

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The field of high energy physics includes a wide range of subfields, such as particle physics,
which deals with the study of individual particles and their interactions, and astrophysics,
which deals with the study of the behavior of particles and energy in the universe.
In short, high-energy physics is the study of subatomic particles and their interactions at very
high energies, including the behavior of matter and energy at the smallest scales.
Quantum physics, also known as quantum mechanics, is a branch of physics that deals with
the behavior of matter and energy at a microscopic scale, such as atoms and subatomic
particles. It is concerned with understanding how the behavior of these particles is governed
by the principles of quantum mechanics, which describe the behavior of particles in terms of
probabilities rather than definite outcomes.
Quantum physics is a fundamental theory that forms the basis of our understanding of the
behavior of the smallest building blocks of matter. It has a wide range of applications,
including the development of quantum computers, quantum communication, and quantum
cryptography.
One of the key concepts in quantum physics is the idea that particles can exist in multiple
states at the same time, known as superposition. It also introduces the concept of
entanglement, which describes the behavior of particles that are connected in such a way that
the state of one particle is dependent on the state of the other particle, regardless of the
distance between them.
In short, quantum physics is the study of the behavior of matter and energy at a microscopic
scale, including the principles of quantum mechanics that describe the behavior of subatomic
particles.

1.1.2 Physics: Scope in Science, Technology and Society.

Physics and technology refer to the interplay between the principles and discoveries of physics
and their application in the development of new technologies. Physics is a fundamental science
that provides the underlying knowledge and understanding needed to develop new
technologies and products.
In the modern world, physics continues to play a critical role in shaping our lives through the
development of new technologies, including renewable energy sources, medical technologies
and computer technologies. The study of physics is essential for understanding the underlying
principles behind these technologies and for developing new technologies in the future.
➢ New technologies that all of us use every day from solar panel technology to wind
turbine, engineering design, and the creation of new alloys and polymers.
➢ Nuclear physics which has given us nuclear power, and nuclear medicine which has
opened up new avenues of medical treatment for disease like cancer.
The following field reflects that how science has played a role in improving technology.
Robotics: Due to advances in electronics, materials, and machines, robot (this combination has
been evolved as a field called Mechatronics) commonly performs a variety of tasks from
assembling cars on a production line to explore the surface of Mars. NASA’s Sojourner was
the first robotic device to explore the surface of another red planet (Mars).

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Superconductors: Superconductors allow electric current to travel with virtually no resistance
through materials. Materials such as aluminum, lead, and niobium are cooled by liquid helium
to bring the temperature down to the low critical point. At low critical temperatures, the
materials achieve zero electric resistance. When a superconductor is exposed to a magnetic
field, it can exhibit a range of interesting behaviors. Superconductors trap and store magnetic
fields in a highly controlled manner, which has many potential applications in areas such as
magnetic levitation and energy storage.
Scientific research is underway to develop superconducting materials that can operate closer to
room temperature; this would bring about tremendous improvements in energy efficiency.
Bridges: Material science and structural engineering has paved the way for advances in bridge
design and construction. The Rohri Bridge over the Indus River at Sukkur is oldest
breakthrough of forces distribution and equilibrium which is survived near about century.
Magnetic Levitation: The speed limitations of traditional trains have created a need for super-
fast, magnetic levitation (maglev) trains. Such a vehicle is levitated off a monorail by virtue of
the magnetic repulsion between the train and the rail track. Electromagnets are used to propel
the train forward as it glides above the rail track. Such improvements greatly reduce frictional
resistance and allow trains to travel at twice the speed of conventional trains – near about 300
miles per hour.
Active Noise Cancellation: Audiologists will tell you that noise increases stress levels.
Acoustic and electrical engineers are now able to produce inverted noise patterns that cancel
out disturbing noise. Helicopter Pilots, factory workers and business travelers are using this
technology to reduce stressful noise levels in their environment.
Gyroscope: A gyroscope is a device that is used to measure or maintain orientation and
angular velocity. It consists of a spinning rotor, which is typically mounted on a set of gimbals
to allow it to rotate freely in any direction. When a gyroscope is set in motion, it has a property
called gyroscopic inertia, which causes it to resist any changes in its orientation or rotation.
This means that if the orientation of the gyroscope is changed, or if a torque is applied to it, the
rotor will tend to maintain its original position and rotation.
This property makes gyroscopes very useful in a wide range of applications, including in
navigation, robotics, and aerospace engineering. For example, gyroscopes are commonly used
in aircraft to measure pitch, roll, and yaw, and in spacecraft to maintain a stable attitude and
orientation.
Gyroscopes are also commonly used in many everyday devices, such as smartphones and
video game controllers, to measure orientation and detect motion. Overall, the gyroscope is a
fascinating device that has many important applications in science and technology.
Alternative Fuels: The ever-increasing demand for energy, coupled with the earth’s finite
supply of fossils fuels, has led scientists and engineers to discover and develop additional
source of energy. Alternative sources include solar energy, wind energy, hydropower,

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geothermal energy, hydrogen fuel cells, nuclear power, biofuel, and wave / tidal energy.
Technological advances with regard to efficiency of the various energy sources will lead to
higher cost benefits and more widespread use of such alternative energy sources.

Rohri Bridge A. Einstein Magnetic Levitation Mobile as gyroscope

Figure 1.1

Physics and Society

Physics and society refer to the interplay between the advancements and discoveries in the
field of physics and their impact on society and the world at large. Physics has had a profound
impact on society, shaping our understanding of the natural world and shaping the way we live
our lives.
From the development of technologies such as the wheel and the engine to the development of
nuclear energy, physics has been at the forefront of technological advancements. The
development of new technologies and the understanding of physical phenomena has had a
profound impact on society, changing the way we communicate, travel, and live.
In recent years, physics has continued to play a critical role in shaping our world, including the
development of renewable energy sources, the advancement of medical technologies, and the
exploration of outer space.
The relationship between physics and society is complex and dynamic, with advances in
physics leading to new technologies and innovations that shape our world, while societal
trends and needs continue to drive the direction of research in the field of physics.
In short, physics and society refer to the interplay between the advancements and discoveries
in the field of physics and their impact on society and the world at large. Physics has had a
profound impact on society and continues to shape our world through technological
advancements and scientific discovery.

1.2 SI Base, Derived Units and Supplementary Units

Units are standards of measurement that are used to express physical quantities such as
length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, and many others. Units provide a way to
quantify and compare the magnitude of physical quantities, and to communicate these
measurements in a clear and concise manner.
There are various systems of units, including the International System of Units (SI), which is
the most widely used system in the world. Other systems of units, such as the British system or
the U.S. customary system, are also used in certain regions or industries.

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1.2.1 SI Base Units
SI units, also known as the International System of Units, are a system of units used for
measurement that has been officially adopted by the International System of Units (SI). This
system is used for scientific, engineering, and technological applications, and it provides a
consistent and standardized way of measuring physical quantities.
The SI units are based on seven base units, including the meter for length, the kilogram for
mass, the second for time, the mole for the amount of a substance, the kelvin for temperature,
the ampere for electric current, and the candela for luminous intensity. These base units are
used to define other units of measurement, such as the newton for force, the pascal for
pressure, and the joule for energy.
The use of SI units helps ensure consistency and comparability of measurements across
different scientific disciplines and geographical locations. It also enables scientists and
engineers to work together and communicate more effectively, making it a critical tool for
international cooperation and collaboration in scientific research and development.
In short, SI units are a system of units used for measurement that has been officially adopted
by the International System of Units (SI) and provides a consistent and standardized way of
measuring physical quantities.
Table1-1 SI Base Quantities and Units
Quantity Unit Unit Abbreviation
Length meter m
Time second s
Mass kilogram kg
Electric Current ampere A
Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd

SI Derived Units
Derived units, in the context of measurement, are units of measure that are defined based on
combinations of base units. In the International System of Units (SI), there are many derived
units that are used to express different physical quantities.
Derived units are typically defined using mathematical relationships between the physical
quantities they represent and the base units. For example, the unit of force, the newton (N), is
defined as the amount of force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram at a rate of 1 meter
per second squared.
Other examples of derived units in the SI include the pascal (Pa) for pressure, the joule (J) for
energy, and the watt (W) for power.
The use of derived units helps to simplify and standardize the expression of physical
quantities, making it easier for scientists and engineers to communicate and collaborate.
Derived units are those which are obtained by the multiplication or division of base units.
For example, the SI unit of force is the derived unit newton (N): One newton is equal to 1
m·kg/s2.

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 Table 1-2: Units derived through base quantities and formula are derived units.
Physical Quantity Derived Unit Symbol
Volume liter L or l
Volume Cubic meter m3
Area Square meter m2
Force Newton N
Speed / Velocity Meter per second m/s
Energy Joule J
Power Watt W

Supplementary Units
Supplementary units, in the context of measurement, are units of measure that are not
part of the base units in the International System of Units (SI) but are used to express
certain physical quantities that are not directly covered by the base units.
Supplementary units are typically used to express units of measure that are specific to certain
fields or disciplines, such as the radian (rad) for plane angles in mathematics as shown in
figure 1.2, the astronomical unit (AU) for distances within the solar system, and the bel (B) for
the logarithmic measure of sound pressure levels in acoustics.
The use of supplementary units helps to simplify and standardize the expression of physical
quantities in specialized fields and disciplines.
Supplementary units are the dimensionless units that are used along with the base units in the
SI units. Supplementary quantities are geometrical quantities of circle and sphere.
Table 1-3: Supplementary Units
Physical Supplementary
Symbol Definition
Quantity unit
A unit of measurement of angles equal to
Plane 57.3o, equivalent to the angle subtended at
Radian rad
Angle the center of a circle by an arc equal in
length to the radius.
The solid angle subtended at the center of a
Solid
Steradian Sr sphere by an area of its surface equal to the
Angle
square of the radius of that sphere.

Radian Steradian
Figure 1.2

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1.2.2 Derived Units as Products or Derived units as quotients of the base units.
A derived quantity is defined based on a combination of base quantities and has a derived unit
that is the exponent, product or quotient of these base units. Some examples are given in table
1-4
Table 1-4:
Derived Quantity Unit Symbol Product / Quotient SI Base Units
Pressure Pascal Pa N / m2 kg m-1 s-2
Energy / Work Joule J N. m kg m2 s-2
Power Watt W J/s kg m2 s-3
Electric Resistance Ohm  V/A kg m2 s-3 A-2
Capacitance Farad F C/V Kg-1 m-2 s4 A2

1.2.3 Conventions for Units.

The use of units in science and engineering follows a number of conventions to ensure that
measurements are accurate, consistent, and clear. Some of the key conventions for units
include:
1. Consistent use of units: Measurements should always be expressed in the same units
throughout a calculation or a series of related measurements. For example, if
measuring the speed of an object, the distance should be measured in meters and the
time in seconds.
2. Standardization of units: Units are standardized to ensure that measurements can be
compared across different experiments or applications. The International System of
Units (SI) is the most widely used system of units, and is recognized internationally as
the standard for scientific and technical measurement. For example, the SI unit for
time is the second, and the SI unit for mass is the kilogram.
3. Appropriate choice of units: The choice of units should be appropriate to the quantity
being measured. For example, length is measured in meters, while mass is measured in
kilograms. Choosing the right units ensures that measurements are accurate and
meaningful. For example, the density of a material is measured in kilograms per cubic
meter, which is a more appropriate unit than kilograms per square meter.
4. Use of prefixes: Prefixes such as kilo-, milli-, and micro- are used to indicate orders of
magnitude. For example, a kilogram is 1000 times larger than a gram, while a
millisecond is 1000 times smaller than a second. This makes it easier to work with
very large or very small numbers. For example, the distance to the nearest star is about
4.2 light years, or 40 trillion kilometers.
5. Use of consistent notation: In scientific notation, units are written in lowercase letters
and without periods, and a space is placed between the numerical value and the unit
symbol. For example, 10 meters would be written as "10 m". This helps to avoid
confusion with other symbols or abbreviations

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1.2.4 Measurement Techniques
Measurement techniques are methods used to determine the value of a physical quantity. The
accuracy and precision of a measurement depend on the choice of measurement technique and
the skills of the person performing the measurement.
There are many different measurement techniques used in physics, each with its own strengths
and weaknesses. Some of the most common measurement techniques include:
Direct measurement; involves physically measuring the length, size, or other characteristic of
an object or system. For example, measuring the length of a piece of string with a ruler.
Indirect measurement; involves using a known relationship between two or more physical
quantities to determine the value of a quantity that is difficult or impossible to measure
directly. For example, measuring the speed of light by timing the flight of a light pulse
between two points.
Numerical simulation; involves using mathematical models and computer algorithms to
predict the behavior of a physical system. For example, using computer simulations to predict
the flow of a fluid in a pipe.
Instrumentation; involves the use of specialized tools and devices to make measurements.
For example, using a voltmeter to measure the voltage of a circuit.
Observational techniques; involve observing the behavior of a system to gather information
about its properties. For example, observing the movements of the planets to gather
information about their orbits.
Each measurement technique has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of
technique will depend on the physical quantity being measured and the accuracy and precision
required for a particular application.
Length
Length measurement techniques are methods used to determine the size or length of an object
or distance between two points. Some of the most common length measurement techniques
include:
Ruler or scale: A ruler or scale is a simple tool used to measure the length or size of an object.
Rulers and scales are typically made of a material with a known length and marked with
graduations to allow for accurate measurements.
Caliper: A caliper is a measuring tool used to measure the distance between two opposite
sides of an object. Calipers can be used to measure the thickness of a piece of material or the
diameter of a circular object.
Micrometer: A micrometer is a type of caliper that measures small distances or thicknesses.
Micrometers are often used in precision work, such as in manufacturing and laboratory
settings.
Laser interferometry: Laser interferometry is a technique that uses the interference of laser
light to measure distances or thicknesses. This technique is often used in precision work, such
as measuring the size of small objects or the distance between two points.
Optical distance measurement: Optical distance measurement involves using optical
devices, such as a rangefinder or laser distance meter, to measure the distance between two
points. This technique is often used in surveying and construction work.

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Each length measurement technique has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of
technique will depend on the accuracy and precision required for a particular application

Mass
There are several techniques for measuring mass, including:
Balance: This is a simple and commonly used method that measures the mass of an object
by comparing it to a known standard mass. Balances come in different types, including
spring balances, lever balances, and electronic balances.
Acceleration due to gravity method: In this method, the mass of an object is calculated by
measuring the gravitational force acting on it and then using the equation of motion to
calculate its mass.

Chemical methods: The mass of an object can also be determined by observing changes in
its chemical composition, such as during a chemical reaction or by measuring the amount
of material consumed or produced.
X-ray diffraction: This method uses X-rays to measure the spacing of atoms in a crystal
and determine its atomic mass.
Nuclear magnetic resonance: This method uses magnetic fields and radio waves to
measure the mass of a molecule.
Electron microscopy: This method uses electrons to generate an image of a sample and
determine its mass based on the intensity of the electrons that are scattered by the sample.
Each method has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of which method to use
depends on the specific requirements of the measurement

Time
There are several techniques for measuring time, including:
Mechanical clocks: This is a traditional method that uses a mechanism, such as a swinging
pendulum or a rotating escapement, to keep time. Examples include grandfather clocks,
cuckoo clocks, and wristwatches.
Atomic clocks: This is a highly precise method that uses the vibrations of atoms, such as
cesium or hydrogen, to keep time. Atomic clocks are the most accurate timekeepers available
and are used as the standard for international timekeeping.
Quartz clocks: This is an electronic method that uses the vibrations of a quartz crystal to keep
time. Quartz clocks are widely used in electronic devices and are often more accurate than
mechanical clocks.
GPS time: This is a global navigation method that uses the signals from GPS satellites to
determine the time with high accuracy.
Stopwatch: This is a manual method that allows you to measure the duration of an event by
starting and stopping a timer.
Hourglass: This is a simple method that uses sand flowing through a narrow opening to
measure a specific amount of time.
Each method has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of which method to use
depends on the specific requirements of the measurement. For example, atomic clocks are

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highly precise, but they are also complex and expensive. Mechanical clocks, on the other hand,
are simple and inexpensive but may not be as accurate.

Ancient Time Measurement Devices

Sundials- They came in use in 1500 B.C for dividing the time interval between sunrise and
sunset. It works on the principle of movement of shadows.

Sandglass- The conical glasses connect vertically via a narrow neck. The use of this device is
quite accurate for measuring time.

Water clock or candle clock- The device for time measurement happens by looking at the water
flow from one container to another. The candle was denoted with numbers and melting wax
denotes the period.
Pendulum – Galileo Galilei develops the concept of the pendulum. The motion of the pendulum
comes in use for measuring the time.
Quartz - It came in the 1930s when Albert Einstein proposed the theory of relativity. At the
current time, a piezoelectric crystal, quartz, come in use for time measurement. The atomic
inventions and lasers come in use to measure time.

Sundial Sandglass Pendulum Quartz

Activity: Make a water clock by using two water bottles with some color liquid. You are going to
create ancient time piece.

Measurement of Speed by the ticker timer.

The ticker timer is simply a piece of apparatus that we use to measure time. When you work
out the speed of an object you need to know how far it goes in a certain time.

Figure 1.3

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The distance is fairly easy to find, use a ruler, but if the object is moving quickly the time it
takes will be hard to measure.
The ticker-timer marks dot on the tape at regular intervals usually 0.02 s as shown in figure 1.3
and 1.4. Because it works with alternating current, and in most countries the frequency of the
alternating mains is 50 Hz. The patterns of dots act as a record of the trolley’s movement.
Start by checking the tape. This will give you a description of the trolley’s movement. Identify
the start of the tape and look at the spacing of the dots.
➢ Even spacing – constant speed
➢ Increasing spacing - increasing speed.
Measure the distance of every fifth dot from the start of the tape. This will give you the
trolley’s distance intervals of 0.1 s. Note the measurements in observation table and draw a
distance-time graph.

Figure 1.4
Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the average heat or thermal energy of the particles in a substance;
the more thermal energy in the substance the higher it's temperature. This thermal energy is
expressed in one of the many different units of temperature: Kelvin, Celsius, Rankine or
Fahrenheit.
Temperature Instruments
Many techniques have been developed for measuring temperature as shown in figure 1.5. One
of the most common devices for measuring temperature is the glass thermometer. This
consists of a glass tube filled with mercury or some other liquid, which acts as the working
fluid. Temperature increase causes the fluid to expand, so the temperature can be determined
by measuring the volume of the fluid. Such thermometers are usually calibrated so that one
can read the temperature simply by observing the level of the fluid in the thermometer.
Other important devices for measuring temperature include:

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Thermocouples are basically two wires, made of different metals and joined at one end.
Changes in the temperature at the joined end induce a change in electromotive force (emf)
between the other ends.

Figure 1.5
Resistance temperature detector (RTD) Resistive temperature devices work on the principle
that the electrical resistance of a material changes as its temperature changes. There are two
main type of resistive temperature device:
- Metallic devices (commonly referred to as RTDs). RTD’s rely on resistance change in a
metal, with the resistance rising more or less linearly with temperature,
- Thermistors. Thermistors rely on resistance change in a ceramic semiconductor with the
resistance dropping non linearly with temperature rise.
Bimetallic temperature measurement devices take advantage of
the difference in rate of thermal expansion between different
metals. Strips of two metals are bonded together. When heated,
one side will expand more than the other, and the resulting
bending is translated into a temperature reading by mechanical
linkage to a pointer. This simplicity in design and manufacture
has helped bimetallic devices to form the basis of most industrial
temperature gauges and dial thermometers. The two different set
are shown in figures 1.5 and 1.6. Figure 1.6
Infrared sensors are non-contacting devices. They infer temperature by measuring the thermal
radiation emitted by a material. They tend to be used when temperature measurements are
extremely high, perhaps around furnaces or fired heaters

Electrical Quantities
A multimeter is a popular type of electrical measuring instrument. Like its name, it works like
an ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter to measure current, voltage, and resistance respectively.
The multimeter is available into two different forms, like-

15
 1. Analog type Multimeter: The analog type of multimeter
shows the continuous signal. It detects and displays the
electrical reading by using the moving pointer as shown
in figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7
2. Digital type Multimeter as shown in figure 1.8, shows the
discrete signal. And it measures and displays the numeric
measuring unit or value.
So, digital multimeter (DMM) gives a more accurate, fast
response and readable digital output over analog
multimeter. Digital meter is also called as ‘Smart Meters
‘or ‘Advance Meters’. With this single smart meter, you
can measure multiple units. Instead of buying separate
meters to measure current, voltage, resistance, and so on,
you buy digital a multimeter.

Figure 1.8
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (C.R.O)
A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a type of electronic
instrument that can be used for a variety of measurement
techniques as shown in figure 1.9. Some common techniques
that can be performed with a CRO include:
Voltage measurement: A CRO can be used to measure the
voltage of a signal by displaying its waveform on the screen.
The vertical axis of the display represents the voltage, and the
horizontal axis represents time. The peak-to-peak voltage of the
signal can be measured by using the CRO's vertical and
horizontal cursors. Figure 1.9
Frequency measurement: A CRO can be used to measure the frequency of a signal by
displaying its waveform on the screen and observing the number of cycles that occur in a
given time period. The frequency can be calculated by dividing the time period by the number
of cycles.
Phase measurement: A CRO can be used to measure the phase difference between two
signals by displaying both signals on the screen and observing the relative position of their
waveforms. The phase difference can be calculated by using the CRO's time base and the
position of the waveforms on the screen.

16
Impedance measurement: A CRO can be used to measure the impedance of a circuit by
injecting a known frequency signal into the circuit and observing the response on the CRO's
screen. The impedance can be calculated from the ratio of the voltage to the current in the
circuit.
Distortion measurement: A CRO can be used to measure the amount of distortion in a signal
by comparing the waveform of the input signal to the waveform of the output signal. The
distortion can be calculated by comparing the shape of the two waveforms and determining the
difference between them.
These are just a few examples as of the measurement techniques that can be performed with a
CRO as shown in figure 1.10. The specific measurements that can be performed depend on the
capabilities of the CRO and the requirements of the measurement.

Direct current Direct current

Time base turned on Time base turned off

Alternating current Alternating current

Time base turned on Time base turned off
Figure 1.10

1.3 Dimensionality
Dimensionality refers to the number of independent variables or parameters that are needed to
describe a physical quantity. For example, a quantity like length has a single dimension and is
described by a single variable, such as meters. On the other hand, a quantity like velocity has
two dimensions, as it requires both a magnitude and a direction, and is described by two
variables, such as meters per second.
The dimensions of length [L], mass [M] and time [T]. Also, for electric current [A] and
thermodynamic temperature is [K]. As derived quantities are products or quotients which
means formula may differ but their dimensionality is equalized.
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the power to which the units of the base quantity are
raised to represent a derived unit of that quantity.

17
 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 [𝐿]
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = [𝑇]
= [𝑀0 𝐿𝑇 −1 ]
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Here the dimension of velocity is zero in mass, one in length and negative one in time.
Some dimensions of physical quantities are given as under in table 1-5.
Table 1-5:
Physical Quantity Expression Dimensional Formula
Area Length Breadth L2
Density Mass/ volume ML-3
Momentum Mass  velocity MLL-1
Work / Energy Force  displacement ML2T-1
Electric Charge Current  time AT
Gravitational Constant Force (distance)  / mass
2 2
M-1L3T-2
Moment of Inertia Mass  (distance)2 ML2
Moment of force Force  distance ML2T-2
Angular Momentum Linear Momentum  distance ML2T-1

Applications of Dimensionality

Dimensionality is a fundamental aspect of measurement and is applied in real-life physics. We

make use of dimensional analysis for three prominent reasons:
• To check the consistency of a dimensional equation
• To derive the relation between physical quantities in physical phenomena
• To change units from one system to another

Limitations of Dimensionality

Some limitations of dimensionality are:

• It doesn’t give information about the dimensional constant.
• The formula containing trigonometric function, exponential functions, logarithmic
function, etc. cannot be derived.
• It gives no information about whether a physical quantity is a scalar or vector.

1.3.1 Homogeneity of Physical Equation by Dimensionality

Dimensionality or dimensional analysis is a technique used in physics to check the consistency
of equations and measurements. It involves analyzing the dimensions of each term in an
equation to ensure that the units on both sides of the equation are equivalent. If the units on
both sides do not match, then the equation is either incorrect or incomplete. Dimensional
analysis can also be used to derive equations for physical quantities by analyzing the
dimensions of the various terms involved.

18
For example, S = V0t + ½ at2 expresses a relation between distance, speed, acceleration and
time. The dimensions of each quantity are added on both sides and then found equal i.e., L.
So, equation is homogenous equation or dimensionally correct.
On the contrary, dimensionally inhomogeneous equations produce results which differs if
different set of units is used. As an example, to cook pudding in time, which in minutes might
be t = 15+ 40 m where m is mass in kilograms. This cook the pudding perfectly, but if you
used hours rather than minutes then result will not be satisfactory. The equation works for the
specified units. such equations are obtained from experimental results and are important, but
care must be taken in evaluating them.

Example: 1-1
Show that the equation for impulse Ft = m V f – m Vi = m (Vf - Vi) = m ∆V is dimensionally
correct.

Solution:
Writing this in dimensional form we have
MLT-2]T = MLT-1 + MLT-1
Therefore MLT-1 = MLT-1 and the equation is correct, both sides having the
dimensions of momentum.

1.3.2 Using dimension to derive equation

Consider the oscillations of a simple pendulum. We assume that the period of the pendulum (t)
depends on following quantities:
(i) the mass of the pendulum bob (m)
(ii) the length of string of the pendulum (l), and
(iii) the gravitational acceleration (g)

Therefore, the equation can be written as:

t = k mx ly gz
Where x, y and z are unknown powers and k is a dimensionless constant.
The dimensional form is
T = Mx Ly Lz T-2z
Equating the indices for M, L and T on both sides of the equation, we get:
M: 0 = x
L: 0 = y + z
T: 1 = - 2z
Therefore
x =0, y = ½ and z = - ½
The original equation therefore becomes
t = k (l / g)1/2

19
Which is what we would expect for a simple pendulum. Dimensionality does not give us the
value of the dimensionless constant k which can be shown by other methods to be 2, so it
becomes
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

1.4 Errors and Uncertainty

The main difference between errors and uncertainties is that an error is the difference between
the actual value and the measured value, while an uncertainty is an estimate of the range
between them, representing the reliability of the measurement.

1.4.1 Uncertainty in measurements

Any experiment will have a number of measurements, and which will be made to a certain
degree of accuracy. There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the
uncertainty can be thought of as the difference between the actual reading taken (caused by
the equipment or techniques used) and the standard value. Uncertainties are not the same as
errors
➢ Errors can be because of issues with equipment or methodology that cause a reading
to be different from the standard value.
➢ The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true
value is expected to lie, and is an estimate.
For example: The calculations of velocity require the movement of a time and distance. Using
a stop watch to measure time nearest tenth of a second. and using a meter scale to find distance
to the nearest of millimeter (for small distances in a laboratory). It is very useful to have a
rough idea of the kind of result that you might expect before starting an experiment.

1.4.2 Systematic error and Random Error

Systematic Error
These errors happen because of faulty apparatus like an incorrectly labelled scale, an
incorrect zero mark on a meter or a stop watch running slowly. Repeating the
measurements, a number of times will have no effect on this type of error and it may not even
be suspected until the final result is calculated. The only way to eliminate this type of error is
to change or recalibrate the measuring instrument.
For example: Vernier Calipers, Micrometer Screw Gauge and Electro-mechanical meters.

Zero Error
This is a type of systematic error which occurs when an instrument gives a reading when the
true reading is zero.
Such zero error happens in our course domain are Vernier Calipers and Micrometer Screw
gauge, which are to be used in laboratory.

20
This introduces a fixed error into reading which must be accounted for when the results are
recorded.
In below table 1-6, a Micrometer Screw Gauge sample reading with zero error is shown:
Table 1-6

Random Error
When repeated measurements of the quantity yield different results under same
conditions.
The size of these errors depends upon how well the experimenter can use the apparatus. The
better the experimenter you are, the smaller will be the random error that you will introduce
into an experiment. Making number of readings of a given quantity and taking an average will

21
minimize the error. The way we reduce random error is to make many repeated measurements.
We can then take the mean of the set of values as a best estimate of the true value. To estimate
the uncertainty on that measurement, we can then give the range of values recorded, and the
uncertainty is again half of the range of likely values, so that
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
2
reduce the overall error.
Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrument’s readings as a result of
uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions.
Absolute Uncertainty
Absolute Uncertainity
% error = × 100%
Measured Value
For our measurement of 5 ± 0.5 cm.
0.5
% error = × 100% = 10 %
5
Example 1.2: Understanding Random Uncertainty
The length of a metal pipe is measured, and the length varies slightly for different
measurements. The measurements are shown in the table 1-7.
Table 1-7
Measurement 1 2 3 4 5

Length (cm) 100.6 100.3 100.2 100.2 100.1

1. Find the mean length of the pipe.
2. Find the uncertainty in the length of the pipe due to its length changes.
3. The pipe lengths are measured to a resolution of 0.1 cm. Is the uncertainty in the
pipe length due to the precision of the measurements greater than, less than, or
equal to the uncertainty due to the changes in the length?

Answer

Step 1
We have a metal pipe that we are trying to measure the length of. In the table, we see five
measurements that indicate the length is changing between measurements. The first part of the
question asks us to find the mean length of the pipe. To do this, we need to recall that
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
In this case, the number of measurements is 5, so we can substitute that and the measurements
themselves in and we find
100.6 + 100.3 + 100.2 + 100.2 + 100.1
Mean =
5
So, the mean length of the pipe is 100.28 cm.

22
Step 2
The uncertainty in this measurement is the random uncertainty due to the changes in the
length. We can find this uncertainty by taking
Maximum Value − Minimum Value
Random Uncertainity =
2
Here, the maximum value measured is 100.6 cm, and the minimum value is 100.1 cm, so we
have
𝑀𝑎𝑥−𝑀𝑖𝑛 100.6−100.1
Random Uncertainity = 2
= 2
= 0.25 cm
The uncertainty in the length of the pipe due to its length changes is therefore ± 0.25 cm.

Part 3
Finally, we are told that the resolution of the instrument used to measure the pipe is 0.1 cm.
Recall that uncertainty due to resolution is equal to half of the resolution of the instrument.
Therefore, the uncertainty due to the precision of the measurement is
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0.1
𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 0.05 𝑐𝑚
2 2
So, we have a random uncertainty due to length changes of ± 0.25 cm and uncertainty due to
the precision of the measurement of ± 0.05 cm. So, the uncertainty due to the precision of the
measurement is less than the uncertainty due to changes in the length.

1.4.3 Determine the Diameter of a small sphere using a Micrometer Screw Gauge
and calculate its volume.

APPARATUS:

➢ Screw gauge
➢ Small sphere
FORMULA:
Volume of sphere = 4/3 πr3
METHOD:
➢ Find pitch of screw gauge by giving one rotation to circular scale.
➢ Calculate least count of screw gauge.
➢ Place the sphere between studs and screw up till the sphere held gently.
➢ Note main scale reading and circular scale reading at line of reference.
➢ Multiply circular scale reading and least count to get fractional part.
➢ Add main scale reading and fractional part to get total diameter.
➢ Take three readings each time fixing the sphere from a different side.

OBSERVATIONS:
Pitch of screw gauge = 1 mm = I/10 cm = 0.1 cm
Least count = Pitch of the screw gauge / No. of circular scale divisions
L.C. = 0.1 / 100 = 0.001 cm

23
 Table 1-8: DIAMETER OF SPHERE:
OBS MAIN CIRCULAR FRACTIONAL TOTAL
SCALE SCALE PART DIAMETER MEAN
READING READING F.P. = C.S.R × L.C D = M.S.R + DIAMETER
(M.S.R) (C.S.R) cm F. P
cm div cm
20 × 0.001 = - 0.02
Z. E 0 20 div
cm
1.570 – 0.02
1 1.5 70 0.07
=1.55
1.55
1.569 – 0.02
2 1.5 69 .069
=1.55
1.571 – 0.02
3 1.5 71 0.071
= 1.55

RESULT:
Mean Diameter of sphere = 1.55 cm and
Radius = Diameter / 2= 1.55/2=0.7755 cm
Volume of sphere = 4/3 ( ) (0.7755)3 = 1.93 cm3

1.4.4 Analysis and evaluation of the Experiment

To analyze a physical measurement, you need to follow these general steps:

Define the measurement problem: Clearly define the quantity that you want to measure and
the goals of the measurement. Determine the measurement uncertainty and the precision
requirements.

Choose the appropriate measurement technique: Select the measurement technique that
best meets the requirements of the measurement problem. Consider factors such as accuracy,
precision, ease of use, cost, and the suitability of the technique for the specific quantity being
measured.

Perform the measurement: Follow the procedures of the selected measurement technique to
obtain a measurement of the physical quantity. Repeat the measurement multiple times to
obtain a series of measurements.

Evaluate the measurement results: Analyze the series of measurements to obtain a value for
the physical quantity. This may involve calculating the mean, median, mode, or other
statistical measures of the data.

Calculate the measurement uncertainty: Estimate the uncertainty associated with the
measurement. This may involve calculating the standard deviation, the confidence interval, or
other statistical measures of the uncertainty.

24
Interpret the results: Compare the results of the measurement to the goals of the
measurement and to any applicable standards or reference values. Consider the measurement
uncertainty and any sources of error in the measurement.

Draw conclusions: Draw conclusions about the physical quantity based on the results of the
measurement and the analysis. Report the results in a clear and concise manner, including the
value of the physical quantity, the measurement uncertainty, and any relevant observations or
conclusions.
These steps provide a general framework for analyzing a physical measurement. The specific
procedures used will depend on the measurement technique, the requirements of the
measurement problem, and the goals of the analysis.

Estimating Volumes of Ball Bearings with Uncertainty

1. If the radius of sphere is measured a 9 cm with an error of 0.02 cm. Find the approximate
error in calculating its volume.
Solution:
Step 1
R = 9 cm and R = 0.02 cm
4
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 By differentiating both sides, we get
∆𝑉 ∆𝑅
∴ 𝑉
= 3 𝑅
∆𝑉 ∆𝑅 0.02
𝑉
=3 × 𝑅 = 3 × ( 9 ) = 0.0067
So, the error in volume calculation is approximately 0.67%.
4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅 3
3
4
𝑉 = × 𝜋 × (93 ) = 904 𝑐𝑚3
3
The absolute error in volume is approximately 904 × 0.0067= 6.1 cm3
Therefore, the approximate error in calculating the volume of the sphere is 6.1 cm3.

2.If radius of a sphere is measured as 7.5 cm with error of 0.03 cm, find the approximate error
in calculating its volume.
Solution:
Let R be the radius and V be the volume of the sphere, then
4
𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑅 3 Differentiating both sides, we get
Let ∆𝑅 be the error in R and the corresponding error in V is ∆𝑉, then
∆𝑉 ∆𝑅 0.03
𝑉
= 3 × 𝑅 = 3 × ( 7.5 ) = 0.004
If R is given 7.5 cm and R is 0.03 cm
4
𝑉 = 3 𝜋 7.53 = 1767.15 𝑐𝑚3
The absolute error in volume is approximately 1767.15 × 0.004 = 7.1 cm3
Therefore, the approximate error in calculating the volume of a sphere is 7.1 cm3.

25
1.4.5 Uncertainty Calculation of Derived Quantities.

Uncertainty in a single measurement

A man weighs himself on his bathroom scale. The smallest divisions on the scale are 1-pound
marks, so the least count of the instrument is 1 pound.
He reads his weight as closest to the 142-pound mark. He knows his weight must be larger
than 141.5 pounds (or else it would be closer to the 141-pound mark), but smaller than 142.5
pounds (or else it would be closer to the 143-pound mark). So, his weight must be
Weight = 142 ± 0.5 pounds
In general, the uncertainty in a single measurement from a single instrument is half the least
count of the instrument.
Fractional and Percentage Uncertainty
What is the fractional uncertainty in man’s weight?
𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 0.5 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 0.0035
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 142 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠
What is the uncertainty in man’s weight, expressed as percentage of his weight?
0.5
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 = × 100% = 0.35 %
142

Combining Uncertainties: Adding or Subtracting

The length of a copper wire at 30oC is 18.2±0.04 cm and at 60oC is 19.7±0.02 cm. Find the
absolute uncertainty and the extension of the wire.
Absolute uncertainty = 0.04 + 0.02 = 0.06
Extension of the wire = (19.7-18.2) ±0.06
Extension of the wire = 1.5 mm ± 0.06
Multiplication or Division in an equation, percentage uncertainty of each value is added
together.
The weight of an iron block is 8.0±0.3 N and is placed on a wooden base of area, 3.5±0.2 m 2
Find the percentage uncertainties of the values and then calculate the pressure exerted by the
block.
0.3
Percentage uncertainty in the weight= ( 8 ) × 100 = 3.75%
0.2
Percentage uncertainty in the area =( ) × 100 = 5.71%
3.5
% uncertainty = 3.75 % + 5.71 % = 9.46 %
8
Pressure = 3.5 = 2.3 𝑃𝑎
9.46
Absolute Uncertainty in the pressure =( 100 ) × 2.3 = 0.22 − 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.
Since both the weight and the area have been approximated to two significant figures, so the
same final answer becomes same form.
Pressure = 2.3±0.22 Pa

26
Example1-4
Consider the length of cube is given as 5.75±0.3 cm and you want to find absolute uncertainty
in volume.
Solution:
Step 1
VOLUME = L3 = (5.75)3=190 cm3
Step 2
0.3
Percentage uncertainty =3 × (5.75) × 100 = 15.65%
Absolute uncertainty in volume = 190±15.65 cm3

Self-Assessment Question
A girl needs to calculate the volume of her pool, so that she knows how much water she will
need to fill it. She measures the length, width and height as under:
Length = 5.56±0.14 m
Width = 3.12 ± 0.08 m
height = 2.94±0.11 m
What will be the pool’s volume with uncertainty? (51.0 ± 8.8%)

1.5 Graph
Graphs are visuals that show relationships between; intended to display the data in a
way that is easy to understand and remember. Graphs are used to demonstrate trends,
patterns and relationships between sets of data. Graphs may be preferable to display certain
types of data. The graph you choose will often depend on the key points you want others to
learn from the data you’ve collected.

Types of Graphs
All kinds of graphs are shown in figure 1.11

Bar Graph
A bar graph is the representation of numerical data by rectangles (or bars) of equal width and
varying height. The gap between one bar and another is uniform throughout. Bar graphs can be
either horizontal or vertical. The height or length of each bar relates directly to its value.
Pictograph
The representation of the information through pictures is called pictograph. A certain number
of items is represented by each picture.
Line Graph
A line graph uses dots connected by lines to show the changes over a period of time.
Pie Chart
The pie chart is also known as a circle graph. It shows how a whole is divided into different
parts. The pie chart shows the relative size of each data set in proportion to the entire data set.
Percentages are used to show how much of the whole each category occupies.

27
Continuous Graph
A graph for a function that's smooth without any holes, jumps, or asymptotes is called
continuous.

Figure 1.11

1.5.1 Dependent and Independent Variables

In statistics and mathematical modeling, dependent and independent variables are terms used
to describe the relationship between two variables.
An independent variable is a variable that is manipulated in an experiment or study to
observe the effect it has on a dependent variable. The independent variable is also
sometimes called the predictor variable, explanatory variable, or input variable.
A dependent variable is a variable that is being measured or observed in an experiment or
study, and is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent
variable. The dependent variable is also sometimes called the response variable, outcome
variable, or output variable.
For example, in a study investigating the relationship between hours of study and exam scores,
hours of study would be the independent variable and exam scores would be the dependent
variable. The independent variable is manipulated (i.e., students are told to study a certain
number of hours) and the effect on the dependent variable (i.e., exam scores) is measured.
In a graphical representation, the independent variable is typically plotted on the x-axis and the
dependent variable is plotted on the y-axis. This is because the independent variable is seen as

28
the cause and the dependent variable is seen as the effect. By plotting the data points on a
graph, the relationship between the two variables can be visualized and analyzed.
For example, consider a study investigating the relationship between hours of study and exam
scores. On the x-axis, you would plot the hours of study and on the y-axis, you would plot the
exam scores. As you increase the hours of study, you would expect to see a corresponding
increase in exam scores, and this relationship can be visualized on the graph in figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12
There are different types of graphs that can be used to represent the relationship between
dependent and independent variables, including scatter plots, line graphs, and bar graphs. The
choice of graph depends on the type of data and the nature of the relationship between the
variables.

1.5.2 Best fit line graph.

A best fit line graph is a type of graph used to visualize the relationship between two variables
and is used to show the general trend in the data. The line of best fit is a straight line that is
drawn in a way that it best represents the underlying pattern in the data.
The line of best fit can be determined using regression analysis, which is a statistical method
that estimates the relationship between two variables based on the data points. The line of best
fit can either be a linear regression line, which is a straight line that best represents the data, or
a non-linear regression line, which is a curved line that best represents the data.
A best fit line graph is useful in many applications, including scientific research, economics,
and engineering, where it is used to model the relationship between variables and make
predictions about the behavior of one variable based on the values of the other variable.

29
In this graph of figure 1.13, the line of best fit is shown in black , and it is drawn in a way that
best represents the underlying pattern in the data. The line of bes t fit can be used to make
predictions about the value of the dependent variable based on the value of the independent
variable.

Figure 1.13
Error Bar
Error bars are graphical representations of the uncertainty or variability in a set of data points.
They are often used in scientific plots to indicate the precision of the data being plotted as
shown in figure 1.14.

Figure 1.14

30
Error bars typically show the standard deviation, standard error, or confidence interval of the
data. The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of the data points around the mean,
while the standard error is an estimate of the standard deviation of the mean of a sample. The
confidence interval is a range of values that is expected to contain the true mean of the
population with a certain level of confidence.
Error bars are usually plotted as vertical or horizontal lines extending from the data points on a
graph. The length of the error bars indicates the degree of uncertainty or variability in the data.
Shorter error bars indicate greater precision, while longer error bars indicate less precision.
Error bars are useful in indicating the reliability and accuracy of the data, and they allow the
reader to assess the significance of the results. In scientific research, error bars are often used
to determine the statistical significance of differences between groups or to compare the
results of different experiments.
The box plot shows the schematic distribution of the data at each time point. The boxes use the
interquartile range and whiskers to indicate the spread of the data. A line connects the means
of the responses at each time point.
A simpler display is a plot of the mean for each time point and error bars that indicate the
variation in the data.

1.5.3 Extrapolation
Extrapolation is a statistical technique that involves using observed data to estimate values
beyond the range of the data that was collected. In other words, it is the process of making
predictions or estimates about future or unseen data based on the trends or patterns in the
existing data.
Extrapolation is often taught in the context of mathematical modeling and regression analysis.
Extrapolation is often used when the goal is to make predictions about future values of a
dependent variable based on the values of an independent variable as shown in figure 1.
For example, in a study investigating the relationship between hours of study and exam scores,
extrapolation can be used to predict what the exam score will be for a certain number of hours
of study that was not included in the data that was collected, as shown in figure 1.12.
When performing extrapolation, it is important to be mindful of the limitations of the existing
data and the potential for error in the predictions. It is generally more uncertain to make
predictions beyond the range of the data that was collected, and there is always a risk that the
predictions will not be accurate.
In summary, extrapolation is a technique used to make predictions or estimates about future or
unseen data based on the trends or patterns in the existing data. It is an important concept in
mathematics and should be taught in the context of mathematical modeling and regression
analysis.

1.6 Significant Figures

Significant figures are the digits in a number that are meaningful in terms of the precision of
the measurement. They provide information about the degree of accuracy of a measurement
and are used to report the results of experiments and calculations.

31
1.6.1: Rules of Significant Figures
The rules for determining significant figures are as follows:
1. All non-zero digits are significant. For example, the number 12.3 has three significant
figures.
2. Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. For example, the number 102 has
three significant figures.
3. Zeros to the right of the decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are
significant. For example, the number 0.0056 has three significant figures.
4. Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit in a number are not significant. For
example, the number 0.0056 has two significant figures.
5. Zeros at the end of a number after the decimal point, but before the last non-zero digit,
are significant. For example, the number 12.300 has four significant figures.
It is important to be consistent in reporting the significant figures in a calculation, as this
provides information about the accuracy of the results. When performing calculations with
numbers of different precision, it is necessary to round the result to the appropriate number of
significant figures based on the rules above.

When performing calculations, we must consider the significant figures. When adding,
subtracting, multiplying or dividing numbers, the answer should contain only as many
significant figures as the number involved in the operation that has the least number of
significant figures.

Example 1.
1.
264.68 – 2.4711 = 262.2089 = 262.21.
In this operation, the least number of significant figures in the operation is five so the final
answer must have five significant figures.
2.
2.345 x 3.56 = 8.3482= 8.35.
The final answer has three significant figures because the least number of significant figures in
the operation is three that is 3.56.
3.
The following values are part of a set of experimental data: 618.5 cm and 1450.6mm.
Write the sum of these values correct to the right number of significant figures.

First, we need to convert 1450.6 mm to centimeters. Take note that you cannot add the two
values if they are of different units, so first you have to convert. Remember, 1cm= 10mm. So
to convert smaller to a bigger value, we divide 1450.6/10 = 145.06cm. Now they are of the
same unit, you can now add them.

618.5 cm + 145.06 cm = 763.56 cm

The least number of significant figures in the original values is 4, so write the answer to this
significance. The sum is written as 763.6cm.

32
Scientific Notations
Scientific notation is a way of expressing very large or very small numbers in a compact and
easy-to-read format. It is a standard way of writing numbers in the scientific and engineering
communities, and is commonly used in mathematical, scientific, and engineering calculations.
In scientific notation, a number is expressed as a power of 10 multiplied by a coefficient. The
coefficient is always a number between 1 and 10, and the power of 10 is chosen so that the
number can be expressed in the form of a coefficient times 10 to some power.
For example, consider the number 123,456. In scientific notation, this number can be
expressed as 1.23456 x 105. The coefficient is 1.23456 and the power of 10 is 5.
Another example is the number 0.00032. In scientific notation, this number can be expressed
as 3.2 x 10-4. The coefficient is 3.2 and the power of 10 is -4.
It is important to note that scientific notation does not change the value of the number, but it
provides a convenient way of expressing and manipulating very large or very small numbers.

1.7 Precision and Accuracy

Precision and accuracy are two important concepts in the field of measurement and are often
used interchangeably, but they refer to different aspects of measurement.
Precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a measurement. It describes the consistency
of the measurements made on a sample or the degree to which repeated measurements of the
same quantity give the same result. Precision can be thought of as the spread or variability of
the measurement results.
For example, if you throw a dart at a bullseye and it consistently lands near the same spot, but
not necessarily at the center, then you have good precision, but low accuracy.
Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness of a measurement to its true value. It describes how
close the measurement is to the actual value of the quantity being measured.
For example, if you throw a dart at a bullseye and it consistently lands at the center, then you
have good precision and good accuracy.

1.7.1 Least Count or Resolution

The least count or resolution of a measuring
instrument is the smallest increment that can be
measured by that instrument. It is the smallest
division on the scale of the instrument and
represents the smallest change that can be detected
in a measurement. For example, if the least count
of a ruler is 0.1 cm, then it can only measure
lengths to the nearest 0.1 cm. The least count or
resolution of a measuring instrument determines
the precision of the instrument and thus the level of
detail that can be obtained from a measurement. Figure 1.15
Least count is inversely proportional to the precision of measurement equipment. The
smaller the minimum value of an instrument can measure, the lower will be L.C., and the
higher will be the precision.

33
For better understanding, let’s consider an example of digital and mechanical Vernier calipers.
Since digital Vernier L.C. (0.01 mm) is smaller than mechanical Vernier L.C. ((0.02 mm).
Mechanical Vernier will measure a 60.21 mm dimension as 60.20 mm or 60.22 mm.
Whereas digital Vernier will measure it 60.21. Therefore, Digital Vernier is more precise
compared to mechanical Vernier because it has a smaller Least-Count.
Accuracy is also inversely proportional to the Least-Count. Accuracy of an instrument is
always less than its L.C. because it cannot measure better than the minimum value it can
measure.
1.7.2 Difference Between Accuracy and Precision.
Accuracy Precision
Accuracy is referred to the level of Precision suggests the level of variation
agreement between the actual measurement that happens in the values of several
and the absolute measurement. measurements of the same factor.
It represents how closely the results agree Represents how closely results agree with
with the standard value. one another.
Multiple measurements are needed to
Single-factor or measurement is required.
comment about precision.
It is likely for a measurement to be accurate
Results can be precise without being
on occasion as a fluke. For a measurement to
accurate.
be consistently accurate as well as precise.

1.7.3 Significance of Resolution

Using an instrument of smallest resolution is important for several reasons:
1. Precision: The smallest resolution of a measuring instrument determines its precision,
which is the degree of reproducibility of a measurement. Using an instrument of
smallest resolution ensures that the measurements are made with maximum precision
and consistency.
2. Accuracy: The smallest resolution of a measuring instrument also affects its
accuracy, which is the degree of closeness of a measurement to its true value. Using
an instrument of smallest resolution helps to ensure that the measurement is as close
as possible to the actual value of the quantity being measured.
3. Detail: The smallest resolution of a measuring instrument determines the level of
detail that can be obtained from a measurement. Using an instrument of smallest
resolution allows for the measurement of finer details and features, which can be
important in various applications, such as scientific experiments or engineering
design.
4. Reduced uncertainty: The smallest resolution of a measuring instrument is directly
proportional to the reduced uncertainty in a measurement. The smaller the resolution,
the smaller the uncertainty, and the more accurate the measurement.

34
Clock is mechanically sound; it should be very repeatable. Each movement of the second
hand should happen at a constant interval. The clock can be used to reliably time events, from
start to finish, but it may display the incorrect time. Until the time on the clock is compared to
some established measurement of time, there is no way to tell how accurate the clock is?
Once compared to a known standard, the accuracy of the clock can be determined. The
resolution of the clock can be determined by the number of ticks in a minute or the number of
increments shown on the face. If the clock has no second hand, the highest resolution you can
achieve is to half minutes. If the clock only had an hour hand, you would only be able to
determine the closest half hour. Most people would prefer to use an accurate and repeatable
clock, with a decent resolution.

1.7.4 Importance of Repeating Experiment

Increasing the number of readings in an experiment is important for several reasons:
1. Improved precision: The more readings taken in an experiment, the more accurate
and precise the data becomes. This is because additional readings can help to account
for any random errors that may have occurred in the first few readings.
2. Reduced uncertainty: Taking more readings in an experiment reduces the uncertainty
in the data, which is the degree of random error associated with a measurement. The
larger the number of readings, the smaller the uncertainty, and the more accurate the
data becomes.
3. Better representation of the underlying trend: Taking multiple readings in an
experiment can help to reveal underlying trends in the data. This can be especially
useful in cases where the data may be affected by outliers, or where the data may be
influenced by unknown factors.
4. Increased confidence: Taking multiple readings in an experiment increases the
confidence in the results of the experiment. The larger the number of readings, the
more robust and reliable the data becomes, and the more likely it is to represent the
true underlying relationship between variables.
In summary, increasing the number of readings in an experiment is important to improve the
precision, reduce the uncertainty, better represent the underlying trend, and increase the
confidence in the results of the experiment.

1.7. 5 Interpreting Data from Graphs

Linear and nonlinear graphs are graphical representations of mathematical relationships
between variables. By measuring slopes and intercepts, you can interpret important
information about the nature of the relationship between the variables represented on the
graph.
1. Slope: The slope of a line or curve represents the rate of change of one variable with
respect to another. It is calculated as the change in the vertical (y) coordinate divided
by the change in the horizontal (x) coordinate between two points on the line or
curve. The slope has units of y/x and represents the steepness of the line or curve. If
the slope is positive, the line or curve rises from left to right. If the slope is negative,
the line or curve falls from left to right.

35
 2. Intercept: The intercept of a line or curve is the point at which the line or curve
crosses the vertical (y) axis. It is the value of the dependent variable (y) when the
independent variable (x) is equal to zero. The intercept represents the initial value of
the dependent variable.
By measuring the slope and intercept of a line or curve, you can obtain important information
about the nature of the relationship between the variables represented on the graph. For
example, a steep slope indicates a strong relationship between the variables, while a shallow
slope indicates a weak relationship. A positive intercept indicates that the dependent variable
has a positive value even when the independent variable is zero, while a negative intercept
indicates that the dependent variable is negative when the independent variable is zero.
In nonlinear curves, the slope and intercept are not constant and may change as the value of
the independent variable changes. In this case, you may need to measure the slope and
intercept at different points along the curve to obtain a complete understanding of the
relationship between the variables.
In summary, by measuring slopes and intercepts, you can interpret important information
about the nature of the relationship between variables represented on a linear or nonlinear
graph or curve.
Position – Time Graph
Observe on the graph as shown in figure 1.16, X
axis is showing time and Y axis is showing
position. It is observed that position is linearly
increasing in positive direction with the time. The
independent variable of a linear function is raised
no higher than the first power. We understand from
this linear increasing; our velocity is constant. So,
the graph is linear.
Figure 1.16
∆𝑥 30−0
̅
𝑉 = ∆𝑡 = 15−0 = 2 m/s

Compare this position – time graph with straight line equation

y = mx + c
where m is the slope. If constant is zero, then slope becomes

𝑦 30 𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = = =2
𝑥 15 𝑠

➢ On a position-time graph
➢ slope is velocity
➢ the "y" intercept is the initial position
➢ when two curves coincide, the two objects have the same position at that time

36
In contrast to the previous examples, let's graph
the position of an object with a constant, non-
zero acceleration starting from rest at the origin
as shown in figure 1.17. The primary difference
between
this curve and those on the previous graph are
that this line actually curves. The relation
between position and time is quadratic when the
acceleration is constant and therefore this curve
is a parabola i.e., non-linear relationship. (The
variable of a quadratic function is raised no
higher than the second power.) Figure 1.17
1 2
∆𝑆 = 𝑎𝑡
2
2∆𝑆
𝑎= 2
𝑡
When a position-time graph is curved, it is not possible to calculate the velocity from its
slope. Slope is a property of straight lines only. Such an object doesn't have a velocity
because it doesn't have a slope. Here to stress the idea that there is no single velocity under
these circumstances. The velocity of such an object must be changing. It's accelerating.

➢ On a position-time graph
➢ straight segments imply constant velocity
➢ curve segments imply acceleration
➢ an object undergoing constant acceleration traces a portion of a parabola

37
 Unit = 01
Physics &
Measurm Measurment
Physi
cs ent Errors Graphs Significan
Scope: Units: t Figures
Science SI Base Measurmen
t Types of
Derived Random Graphs
Technol Techniques
ogy Supplimentar Systami
c Variables
Society y
Dimensio
nality
Application
s
Verificatio
n of
equations

38
Physics: is a branch of science which studies the nature and behavior of matter, energy, and
the interaction between them.
Derived Unit: A derived quantity is defined based on a combination of base quantities and
has a derived unit that is the exponent, product or quotient of these base units.
Ticker Timer: The ticker timer is simply a piece of apparatus that we use to measure time.
Electrical Quantities: The standard units of electrical measurement used for the expression
of voltage, current and resistance are the Volt [ V], Ampere [ A] and Ohm [ Ω] respectively.
Dimensionality: The way in which the derived quantity is related to the basic quantity can be
shown by the dimensions of the quantity.
Uncertainty in measurements: Any experiment will have a number of measurements, and
which will be made to a certain degree of accuracy.
Systematic Error: These errors happen because of faulty apparatus like an incorrectly
labelled scale, an incorrect zero mark on a meter or a stop watch running slowly.
Random Error: The size of these errors depends upon how well the experimenter can use
the apparatus.
Graphs: are visuals that show relationships between; intended to display the data in a way
that is easy to understand and remember. Graphs are used to demonstrate trends, patterns and
relationships between sets of data.
Independent Variable is the cause. Its value is independent of other variables in your study.
Dependent Variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the independent variable.
Significant Figures: The significant figures refer to the number of important single digit
(0 through 9 inclusive) in the coefficient of an expression in scientific notation.
Accuracy: The degree to which the result of a measurement conforms to the correct value or
a standard’ and essentially refers to how close a measurement is to its agreed value.
Precision: The quality of being exact’ and refers to how close two or more measurements are
to each other, regardless of whether those measurements are accurate or not.
Resolution is the ability of the measurement system to detect and faithfully indicate small
changes in the characteristic of the measurement result.

39
 Section (A): Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. The respective number of significant figures for the numbers 23.023, 0.0003 and 2.1×10 -3
are
a. 5, 1, 2 b. 5, 1, 5
c. 5, 5, 2 d. 4, 4, 2
2. Which among the following is the supplementary unit ------
a. Mass b. Time
c. Solid angle d. Luminosity
3. What is the unit of solid angle?
a. Second b. Steradian
c. Kilogram d. Candela
4. A student measured the length of a rod and wrote it as 3.50 cm. Which instrument did he
used to measure it?
a. A meter scale
b. A vernier caliper where the 10 divisions in vernier scale matches with 9 divisions
in main scale and main scale has 10 divisions in 1 cm
c. A screw gauge having 100 divisions in the circular scale and pitch as 1 mm
d. A screw gauge having 50 divisions in the circular scale and pitch as 1 mm
5. The quantity having the same unit in all system of unit is
a. mass b. time
c. length d. temperature
6. Accuracy represents
a. repeatability of measurement with an instrument
b. how close a measurement is to be true value?
c. an ideal number of measurements to make.
d. how poorly an instrument is operating.
7. L2 represents the dimension for which of the following?
a. kg2 b. square time
2
c. m d. J2
8. The scientific principle involves in production of ultra-high magnetic fields is ----
a. Superconductivity b. Photoelectric effect
c. Laws of thermodynamics d. Digital logic
9. Random errors can be eliminated by----
a. taking number of observations and their mean.
b. measuring the quantity with more than one instrument
c. eliminating the cause
d. careful observations
10. Zero error in an instrument is
a. systematic error c. least count error
b. random error d. personal error

40
11. Systemic error can be -----
a. either positive or negative c. positive only
b. negative only d. zero error
12. Interplanetary distances are measured in
a. mega meter c. light year
b. kilo meter d. watt
13. MLT  is dimensional formula of
-2

a. strain c. displacement
b. force d. pressure
14. Which of the following pair has the same dimension?
a. moment of inertia and torque c. impulse and momentum
b. surface tension and force d. specific heat and latent heat
15. Dependent variable is
a. cause c. cause and effect
b. effect d. reason
16. Graph is
a. line c. visual representation
b. curve d. polynomial
17.The magnitude of the difference between the individual measurement and true value of the
quantity is called
a. Absolute error c. Percentage error
b. Relative error d. None of these
18. By dimensional homogeneity
a. we can add or subtract similar physical quantities
b. we can subtract similar physical quantities
c. we can add or subtract any physical quantities
d. we can add similar physical quantities
19. The length, breadth and height of a rectangular block of wood were measured to be l =
12.13 ± 0.02 cm, b = 8.16 ± 0.01cm and h = 3.46 ± 0.01cm.
a. 0.88% c. 0.78%
b. 0.58% d. 0.68%
20. Dimensions of kinetic energy is the same as that of -----------
a. Acceleration c. Work
b. Velocity d. Force
Section (B): Structured Questions
CRQ’s
1. What are the advantages of the SI system?
2. Give an example of (I) a physical quantity which has a unit but no dimensions. (II) a
physical quantity which has neither unit not dimensions. (III) a constant which has a
unit. (IV) a constant which has no unit.
3. When rounding the product or quotient of two measurements, is it necessary to consider
significant digit?
4. Define SI unit of solid angle.

41
5. Deduce the equation for period of oscillations of a mass suspended on a vertical spring
𝑚
by dimensional analysis. i.e., 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘
6. What are the dimensions of the following?
(a) work (c) power
(b) energy (d) momentum
7. You measure the radius of a wheel to be 4.16 cm. If you multiply by 2 to get diameter,
should you write the result as 8 cm or as 8.32 cm? Justify your answer.
8. If y = a+bt+ct2 where y is in meters and t in seconds, what is the unit of c?
9. Differentiate between accuracy and precision.
10. Define dependent and independent variables.
11. Differentiate systematic error and random error.
12. What are the limitations of dimensional analysis?
13. Describe least count of Vernier and screw gauge micrometer.
14. Give any four conventions of units.
15. Describe extrapolation methods.
16. Interpret graph data with at least one example.

ERQ’s
1. Discuss graphs and its various types by supported an example?
2. Elaborate rules of significant figures. State the rules for determining the number of
significant figures in a given measurement.
3. What are the uses of dimensional analysis? Explain each of them.
4. Analysis of units, how it can assist in problem solving?

Problems
1. What is the percent uncertainty in the measurement 3.67  0.25 m? (6.8%)
2. What is the area, and its approximate uncertainty, of a circle with radius 3? 7  104 cm
(4.3  0.11)109 cm2
3. An aero plane travels at 850 km/h. How long does it take to travel 1.00 km? (4.23 s)
4. A rectangular holding tank 25.0 m in length and 15.0 m in width is used to store water
for short period of time in an industrial plant. If 2980 m3 water is pumped into the tank.
What is the depth of the water? (7.95 m)
5. Find the volume of rectangular underground water tank has storage facility of 1.9 m by
1.2 m by 0.8 m. (1.824 m3)
6. Two students derive following equations in which x refers to distance traveled, v the
speed, the acceleration, and t the time and the subscript (o) means a quantity at time t=0:
(a) x = vt2 + 2at and
(b) x = vo t + 2at2, which of these could possibly be correct according to dimensional
check? (a) Incorrect (b) Correct
7. One hectare is defined as 104 m2. One acre is 4  104 ft2. How many acres are in one
hectare? (Hint: 1 m = 3.28 ft.) (2.69 acres)

42
8. A watch factory claims that its watches gain or lose not more than 10 seconds in a year.
How accurate is this watch, express as percentage? (3.1610-5 %)
9. The diameter of Moon is 3480 km. What is the volume of the Moon? How many Moons
would be needed to create a volume equal to that of Earth?
(Hint: Radius of Earth = 6380 km) (2.21019 m3, 49.3)
10. A vernier and micrometer are shown as under. Observe their readings and write
correctly.

In pre-Copernican times the Sun and Moon were viewed as planets. Their planetary
status was removed when Copernicus substituted the Sun for Earth’s central position.
Only then was Earth regarded as a planet among others. More than 200 years later, in
1781, telescope observers added Uranus to the list of planets. Neptune was added in
1846. Pluto was added in 1930 – and removed in 2006.

Foot, pace, and yard are some other units of lengths based on body parts. However, these
units are not reliable as the length of body parts varies from person to person. Therefore,
people realized the need for
Standard Units of Measurement

Solar daytime, or simply "daytime," refers to the period of the day when the Sun is
visible in the sky. It is the time between sunrise and sunset, when the Sun is above the
horizon and illuminating the Earth.
The length of solar daytime varies depending on the time of year and the location on
Earth. At the equator, for example, the length of solar daytime is roughly 12 hours
throughout the year, while at the poles, the length of solar daytime can vary from zero
(during the winter solstice) to 24 hours (during the summer solstice).
Solar daytime is an important concept in many areas of science and technology,
including astronomy, climatology, and renewable energy. Understanding the patterns of
solar daytime is crucial for predicting weather patterns, designing solar energy systems,
and studying the behavior of the Earth's atmosphere and climate.

43
The sky appears blue because of a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering. As sunlight
enters the Earth's atmosphere, it collides with air molecules and is scattered in all
directions. This scattering is more effective for shorter-wavelength light, such as blue
and violet light, than for longer-wavelength light, such as red and yellow light.
Since blue light has a shorter wavelength than red light, it is scattered more easily and is
thus more likely to be redirected in many directions as it passes through the atmosphere.
This causes blue light to be scattered in all directions, making the sky appear blue to an
observer on the ground.
In addition, when the Sun is near the horizon, the light must pass through more of the
Earth's atmosphere to reach an observer on the ground. This causes the blue light to be
scattered even more, while the red and yellow light is scattered even less. This can cause
the Sun to appear more orange or red near sunrise or sunset.
Overall, the blue color of the sky is due to the scattering of sunlight by air molecules in
the Earth's atmosphere, and this effect is more pronounced for shorter-wavelength (blue)
light.

44
 +Unit # 02
Kinematics

Pride of Pakistan, Muhammad Asif is a Pakistani Professional snooker player. He is two

times winner of the amateur IBSF World Snooker Championship.

In this unit student should be able to:

➢ Describe a vector and its representation.
➢ Describe the Cartesian coordinate system.
➢ Resolve a vector into two perpendicular components.
➢ Describe vector nature of displacement.
➢ Analyze and interpret patterns of motion of objects using displacement-
time graph, velocity-time graph acceleration-time graph
➢ Determine the instantaneous velocity of an object moving along the same
straight line by measuring the slope of displacement-time graph.
➢ Derive equation of uniformly accelerated motion
➢ Solve the problems.
➢ Understand projectile motion
➢ Calculate height, range and time of flight using equations of projectile
motion

45
Physics is a mathematical science. The underlying concepts and principles have a
mathematical basis. Throughout the course of our study of physics, we will concrete a variety
of concepts that have a mathematical basis associated with them. While our emphasis will
often be upon the conceptual nature of physics, we will give considerable and persistent
attention to its mathematical aspect.
Even a person without a background in physics has a collection of words that can be used to
describe moving objects. Words and phrases such as going fast, stopped, slowing
down, speeding up, and turning provide a sufficient vocabulary for describing the motion of
objects. In physics, we use these words and many more. We will be expanding upon this
vocabulary list with words such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity,
and acceleration. As we will soon see, these words are associated with mathematical
quantities that have different definitions. The mathematical quantities that are used to describe
the motion of objects can be divided into two categories. The quantity is either a vector or a
scalar.

Scalar Quantities
All those physical quantities which can be completely understand/ specified by a
magnitude and a proper unit are known as "Scalar Quantities".
Scalar quantities do not need direction for their description. Examples are: the distance
between two points, mass of any object, the temperature of a body and the time at which a
certain event happened. Scalar quantities are added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the
simple rules of algebra.

Examples
Work, energy, electric flux, volume, time, speed, viscosity, density, power, mass, distance,
temperature, electric charge etc.

Vectors Quantities
All those physical quantities having both magnitude and direction with proper unit and
also obeys the Vectoral Algebra are known as "Vector Quantities".
We can't specify a vector quantity without mention its direction. Vector quantities are
expressed by using letter with arrow placed over a letter or bold face such as:

𝐴⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶, 𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐

Vector quantities can’t be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the simple rules of
algebra. Vector quantities added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the rules of normal
algebraic method.

Examples
Velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque, displacement, electric current, weight,
angular momentum etc.

46
Representation of Vectors
On paper vector quantities are represented by a straight line with arrow head pointing the
direction of vector or terminal point of vector. A vector quantity is first transformed into a
suitable scale and then a line is drawn with the help of the scale chosen in the given direction.
Vectors can be represented analytically and
graphically.
In analytical method vectors are denoted by a
letter with arrow or bold letters and their direction
are denoted by angle 𝜃 which it makes with x-axis
in anticlock wise as shown in figure.
In graphical method vectors are denoted by a line
segment with arrow and their directions are
denoted by an angle which makes geographically
direction as shown figure. Figure 2.1

Addition of vectors by Head to Tail method (Graphical Method)

Head to Tail method or graphical method is one of the easiest methods used to find the
resultant vector of two of more than two vectors.

Details of Method
Consider two vectors and acting in the directions as shown below:
Head to tail rule is a method of vector addition in which tail of second vector is connected by
head of first vector. All vectors are connected in this way. Finally, from tail of first vector to
the head of last vector we will draw a vector called resultant vector.

Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3

Mathematically for resultant vector ‘R’

47
Addition of Vectors

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

According to the parallelogram law of vector addition:
"If two vector quantities are represented by two adjacent sides or a parallelogram then the
diagonal of parallelogram will be equal to the resultant of these two vectors."

Explanation
Consider two vectors and Let the vectors have the following orientation

parallelogram of these vectors is:

According to parallelogram law:

Magnitude of resultant vector

Magnitude or resultant vector can be determined by using either Cosine law or Sine law.

48
Multiplication and division of vector by a number (scalar)
When a vector is multiplied by a positive number (for example 2, 3, 5, 60 unit etc.) or a scalar
only its magnitude is changed but its direction remains the same as that of the original vector.
If however a vector is multiplied by a negative number (for example -2, -3,-5, -60 unit etc) or
a scalar not only its magnitude is changed but its direction also reversed.

Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5

The product of a vector by a scalar quantity (m) follows the following rules:
(m) = (m) which is called commutative law of multiplication.
m(n ) = (mn) which is called associative law of multiplication .
(m + n) =m +n which is called distributive law of multiplication.

Division of a vector by a scalar

The division of a vector by a scalar number (n) involves the multiplication of the vector
by the reciprocal of the number (n) which generates a new vector.
Let n represents a number or scalar and m is its reciprocal then the new vector is given by
:
where m = 1/n

and its magnitude is given by:

The direction of is same as that of if (n) is a positive number.

The direction of is opposite as that of if (n) is a negative number.

Unit vector
"A unit vector is defined as a vector in any specified direction whose magnitude is unity
i.e. 1. A unit vector only specifies the direction of a given vector. "
A unit vector can be determined by dividing the vector by its magnitude.

49
 For example, unit vector of a vector A is given by:

The symbol is usually a lowercase letter with a "hat / cap / circumflex", such as:

(Pronounced "a-hat")
In three dimensional coordinate system unit vectors having the direction
of the positive X-axis, Y-axi and Z-axis are used as unit vectors. These unit vectors are
mutually perpendicular to each other.
Magnitude of a vector can be calculate by,

Free vector
A vector that can be displaced parallel to itself and applied at
any point is known as a FREEE VECTOR.
A free vector can be specified by giving its magnitude to any
angle between the vector and coordinate axes.

Figure 2.6
Position vector
A Vector that indicates the position of a point in a
coordinate system is referred to as position vector.
Suppose we have a fixed reference point O, then we can
specify the position the position of a given point P with
respect to point O by means of a vector having magnitude
and direction represented by a directed line
segment OP .This vector is called position vector.
In a three dimensional coordinate system if O is at origin
then,O(0,0,0) and P is any point say P (x, y, z) in this
situation position vector of point P will be: Figure 2.7

50
Null vector
A null vector is a vector having magnitude equal to zero.It is represented by . A null vector
has no direction or it may have any direction. Generally a null vector is either equal to
resultant of two equal vectors acting in opposite directions or multiple vectors in different
directions.

Figure 2.8
Cartesian coordinate system
Whether you are presenting data on a line graph,
plotting a route by boat along the coast, or simply
finding the location of a car park on a map of a
National Park, you will need to have an
understanding of coordinates.
A point is a single location anywhere. It could be
on a straight line (one dimension), on a two-
dimensional surface or plane (for example a dot
on a sheet of paper) or in three-dimensional space
(such as the position of an aircraft in flight at a
given instant in time). Cartesian coordinate
system is a system consist on three mutually
perpendicular lines (X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis) Figure 2.9
with common initial point called origin used to find out location of any point.

Resolution of vector
The process of splitting a vector into rectangular components or components is called
"RESOLUTION OF VECTOR" These parts of a vector may act in different directions and are
called "components of vector".
We can resolve a vector into a number of components. Generally there are three components
of vector.
Component along X-axis called x-component.
Component along Y-axis called y-component.
Here we will discuss only two components x-component and y-component which are
perpendicular to each other. These components are called rectangular components of vector.

51
Method of resolving a vector into rectangular components
Component along z-axis called z-component.
Consider a vector acting at a point making an angle θ with positive X axis. Vector is
represented by a line OA. From point A draw a perpendicular AB on X-axis. Suppose OB and
BA represents two vectors. Vector OA is parallel to X-axis and vector BA is parallel to Y-axis.
Magnitude of these vectors areVx and Vy respectively. By the method of head to tail we
notice that the sum of these vectors is equal to vector .
Thus Vx and Vy are the rectangular components of vector
Vx = Horizontal component of
Vy = Vertical component of

Magnitude of horizontal component

Consider right angled triangle

Magnitude of vertical component

Consider right angled triangle

52
Addition of vectors by rectangular components method

Consider two vectors making angles θ1and θ2 with +ve x-axis respectively.

Step #01

Resolve vector into two rectangular components and .

Magnitude of these components are:

and

Step #02
Resolve vector into two rectangular components and .
Magnitude of these components are:

and

Step #03

Now move vector parallel to itself so that

its initial point (tail) lies on the terminal point

(head) of vector as shown in the diagram.

Representative lines of and are OA and
OB respectively. Join O and B which is equal to
resultant vector of and

53
Step #04
Resultant vector along X-axis can be determined as:

Step # 05
Resultant vector along Y-axis can be determined as:

Step # 06
Now we will determine the magnitude of resultant vector.
In the right angled triangle BOD:
HYP2 = BASE2 + PERP2

Step # 07
Finally the direction of resultant vector will be determined.
Again in the right angled triangle <BOD:

54
Where θ is the angle that the resultant vector makes with the positive X-axis. In this way we
can add a number of vectors in a very easy manner. This method is known as ADDITION OF
VECTORS BY RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS METHOD.

Properties of vector addition

Commutative law of vector addition

Consider two vectors and . Let these two vectors
represent two adjacent sides of a parallelogram. We
construct a parallelogram
OACB as shown in the diagram. The diagonal OC represents
the resultant vector
This fact is referred to as the commutative law of vector
addition.

Associative law of vector addition

The law states that the sum of vectors remains same irrespective of their order or grouping in
which they are arranged.
Consider three vectors , and
Applying "head to tail rule" to obtain the resultant of ( + ) and ( + )
Then finally again find the resultant of these three vectors:

This fact is known as the Associative Law of Vector Addition.

Product of two vectors

There are two types of vector multiplications. Known as scalar product (dot product) and
vector product (cross product).

Scalar or dot product or inner product

The scalar product of two vectors A and B is written as A.B and is defined as,

55
“When two parallel vectors are multiply, their resultant quantity will be a scalar, this is
called scalar or dot product.”
A.B = AB cosθ
Where A and B are the magnitudes of vectors A and B and θ is the angle between them.
For physical interpretation of dot product of two vectors A and B, these are first brought to a
common origin.

Then, A.B = (A) (projection of B on A)

A.B = A (magnitude of component of B in the direction of A)
= A (B cos θ) = AB cos θ
Similarly B.A = B (A cos θ) = BA cos θ
We come across this type of product when we consider the work done by a force F whose
point of application moves a distance d in a direction making an angle θ with the line of action
of F, as shown in Fig.

Work done = Force x Displacement

Work done = Fd cos θ
F.d = Fd cos θ = work done

Characteristics of scalar product

A.B = AB cos θ
B.A = BA cos θ
It can be used to find the angle between two vectors.
A.B = B.A
➢ The order of multiplication is irrelevant. In other words scalar product is commutative.
➢ The scalar product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero, hence these vectors
are also called as Orthogonal vectors.
A.B = AB cos90⁰ = 0 since cos90⁰ = 0

56
 ➢ In case of unit vectors î , ĵ and k̂, since they are mutually perpendicular, therefore,
î . ĵ = ĵ . k̂ = k̂ . î = 0
➢ The scalar product of two parallel vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes.
Thus, for parallel vectors (θ = 0⁰)
A.B = AB cos0⁰ = AB since cos0⁰ = 1
➢ In case of unit vectors
î. î = ĵ. ĵ = k̂. k̂ = 1
➢ And for antiparallel vectors (θ = 180⁰)
A.B = AB cos180⁰ = -AB since cos0⁰ = -1
➢ The self-product of a vector A is equal to square of its magnitude.
A.A = AA cos0⁰ = A2
➢ Scalar product of two vectors A and B in terms of their rectangular components

A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

Vector or cross product

The vector product of two vectors A and B, is a vector which is defined as
“When two perpendicular vectors are multiplied, their resultant quantity will be a
vector, this is called vector or cross product.”
A x B = AB sinθ n̂
Where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B as shown in fig (a) its
direction can be determined by right hand rule. For that purpose, place together, the tails of
vectors A and B to define the plane of vectors A and B. the direction of the product vector is
perpendicular to this plane. Rotate the first vector A
into B through the smaller of the two possible angles
and curl the fingers of the right hand in the direction
of rotation, keeping the thumb erect. The direction of
the product vector will be along the erect thumb, as
shown in the fig (b). because of this direction rule, B
x A is a vector opposite in sign to A x B. Hence,

Figure 2.10

57
Characteristics of cross product
➢ Since A x B is not the same as B x A, the cross product is non-commutative.
A x B = —B x A
➢ The vector product is associative i.e. if m is a scalar, then
(m A) x B = A x (m B)
= m (A x B)
➢ Vector product is distributive over the addition i.e.
A x (B + C) = A x B + B x C
(A x B) + C = A x C + B x C
➢ The cross product of two perpendicular vectors has maximum magnitude
A x B = AB sin90⁰ n̂ since sin90⁰=1
= AB n ̂
➢ The cross product of two parallel vectors is null vector, because for such vectors
θ = 0⁰ or 180⁰. Hence
A x B = AB sin0⁰ n̂ sin0⁰=0, sin180⁰=0
A x B = AB sin 180⁰ n̂
AxB=0
As a consequence
AxA=0
Also
îxî=ĵxĵ=kxk=0
➢ In case of unit vectors, since they form a right handed system and are mutually
perpendicular.
î x ĵ = k̂,
ĵ x k̂ = î,
k̂ x î = ĵ
Cross product of two vectors A and B in terms of their rectangular components is:
A x B = (Axî + Ayĵ+Azk̂) x (Bxî +Byĵ+Bzk̂)
A x B = (AyBz — AzBy) i + (AzBx – AxBz) j + (AxBy — AyBx) k̂
Cross product or vector product can be written as,
i j k
AxB= Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

The magnitude of A x B is equal to the area of the parallelogram formed with A and B as two
adjacent sides.

58
Examples of vector product
When a force F is applied on a rigid body at a point whose position vector is r from any point
of the axis about which the body rotates, then the turning effect of the force, called the torque
τ=rxF
The force on a particle of charge q and velocity v in a magnetic field of strength B is given by
vector product.
F = q (v x B)

Position Vectors
Position vector : is a vector that
goes from the origin of the
coordinates to point P.
The position vector can be written in terms of its
components: So there are two ways to reach
position P: either directly along vector ; or by 3
displacements along each of the axes.

𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
In one dimension
x = x2 (t2 ) − x1 (t1 )
x1 (t1) = - 3.0 m, x2 (t2) = + 1.0 m
Δx = +1.0 m + 3.0 m = +4.0 m

In two dimensions
Position: the position of an object is described by

its position vector r (t ) always points to particle
from origin.
Displacement:
  
r = r2 − r1

r = ( x2iˆ + y2 ˆj ) − ( x1iˆ + y1 ˆj )
= ( x2 − x1 )iˆ + ( y2 − y1 ) ˆj
= xiˆ + yˆj

59
Speed and velocity
Speed is a measurement of how fast an object moves relative to a reference point. It does not
have a direction and is considered a magnitude or scalar quantity. So we can also consider the
speed as the magnitude of velocity. Speed can be figured by the formula:
Speed = Distance/Time
or
s = d/t
➢ The direction of is the same as the displacement .
➢ The standard unit for speed is m/s.
➢ Dimensional formula of speed is [LT-1].
There are different types of speed Such as:

Average speed:
The average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given interval of time. The two are equal only if the path length is equal to the
magnitude of the displacement.

Uniform Speed:
If an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time than the speed of the moving
object is called uniform speed. In this type of motion, position – time graph is always a
straight line.

Instantaneous speed:
Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at any particular moment in time. It is different
from average speed because average speed is the total distance divided by total time.
In this measurement, the time ∆t→0.
s
v = lim
Instantaneous speed t → 0 t

Velocity:
When an object is in motion, its position changes with time. But how fast is the position
changing with time and in what direction? To describe this, we define the quantity average
velocity. Average velocity is defined as the change in position or displacement (Δx) divided
by the time intervals (Δt), in which the displacement occurs:

The rate of change of displacement of an object in a particular direction with respect to time is
called velocity.
Velocity =Displacement /Time
Velocity is a vector quantity its SI unit is meter per second (m/s). Its dimensional formula is
[L T -1]. It may be negative, positive or zero. Velocity can be average, instantaneous, variable
as well as uniform.

60
Displacement-time graphs:
In physics graph is very powerful tool to find out the visually relation between two quantities.
Displacement-time graphs show how the displacement of a moving object changes with time.

(a) There is no velocity (b) Uniform velocity (c) Variable velocity

Figure 2.11

Average velocity:
It is the total displacement covered by a body divided by total time taken.
➢ If the instantaneous velocity of a body becomes equal to the average velocity, then
body is said to be moving with uniform velocity.
➢ Mathematically average velocity of a body can be written as:

 r
Average velocity vavg 
t
 x ˆ y ˆ
vavg = i+ j = vavg , x iˆ + vavg , y ˆj
t t
Instantaneous velocity is the speed of an object at any
particular moment in time. In this measurement, the time
∆t→0.
 
  r dr
v  lim vavg = lim =
t →0 t →0 t dt

 dr dx ˆ dy ˆ
v= = i+ j = v x iˆ + v y ˆj
dt dt dt
v is tangent to the path in x-y graph;

61
Example: A turtle starts at the origin and moves with the speed of v0=10 cm/s in the direction
of 25° to the horizontal.

(a) Find the coordinates of a turtle 10 seconds later.

(b) How far did the turtle walk in 10 seconds?

Note, you can solve the equations

independently for the horizontal (x) and
vertical (y) components of motion and then
combine them!
  
v0 = v x + v y
❑ X components:
v0 x = v0 cos 25 = 9.06 cm/s x = v0 x t = 90.6 cm
❑ Y components:
v0 y = v0 sin 25 = 4.23 cm/s y = v0 y t = 42.3 cm
❑ Distance from the origin:
d = x 2 + y 2 = 100.0 cm

Acceleration:
The velocity of an object, in general, changes during its course of motion. How to describe this
change? Should it be described as the rate of change in velocity with distance or with time?
This was a problem even in Galileo’s time. It was first thought that this change could be
described by the rate of change of velocity with distance. But, through his studies of motion of
freely falling objects and motion of objects on an inclined plane, Galileo concluded that the
rate of change of velocity with time is a constant of motion for all objects in free fall. On the
other hand, the change in velocity with distance is not constant– it decreases with the
increasing distance of fall this led to the concept of acceleration as the rate of change of
velocity with time. So, acceleration can be defined as the change in velocity with respect to
time.
Acceleration = Change in velocity /time taken
➢ It is a vector quantity, Its SI unit is meter/ sec2 (m/s2).
➢ Its dimension is [L T -2].
➢ It may be positive, negative or zero.
Positive Acceleration:
If the velocity of an object increases with time, its acceleration is positive.
Negative Acceleration:
If the velocity of an object decreases with time, its acceleration is negative. The negative
acceleration is also called retardation or deceleration.
(i) Uniform acceleration: A body is said to have uniform acceleration if magnitude and
direction of the acceleration remains constant during particle motion.

62
 Note: If a particle is moving with uniform acceleration, this does not necessarily imply
that particle is moving in straight line. e.g. Projectile motion.
(ii) Non-uniform acceleration: A body is said to have non-uniform acceleration, if
magnitude or direction or both, change during motion.
Average & Instantaneous Acceleration:
Average acceleration
The direction of average acceleration vector is the direction of the change in velocity vector as

 v
aavg 
t
 v v y
aavg = x iˆ + ˆj = aavg , xiˆ + aavg , y ˆj
t t
Instantaneous acceleration
  
  v dv  dv dvx ˆ dvy ˆ
a  lim aavg = lim = a= = i+ j = axiˆ + a y ˆj
t →0 t →0 t dt dt dt dt
Instantaneous acceleration is defined as. The ratio of change in velocity during a given time
interval such that the time interval goes to zero.
➢ The magnitude of the velocity (the speed) can change
➢ The direction of the velocity can change, even though the magnitude is constant
➢ Both the magnitude and the direction can change

A velocity time graph

A velocity time ( v-t graph ) shows the particle’s velocity vx as a function of time t.
The average acceleration of a body is related to the slope of an v-t graph as below:

63
A vx-t graph and a motion diagram
On vx-t graph the slope of the tangent is the instantaneous acceleration for a particle.

Various velocity – time graphs and their interpretation

 = 0, a = 0, v = constant
Velocity

i.e., line parallel to time axis represents that the particle is

moving with constant velocity.
O
Time

 = 90o, a = , v = increasing
i.e., line perpendicular to time axis represents that the particle
Velocity

is increasing its velocity, but time does not change. It means

the particle possesses infinite acceleration. Practically it is not
O
Time possible.
Velocity

 =constant, so a = constant and v is increasing uniformly

with time
O Time
i.e., line with constant slope represents uniform acceleration of
the particle.
Velocity

 increasing so acceleration increasing

i.e., line bending towards velocity axis represent the increasing
O acceleration in the body.
Time

64
 Velocity  decreasing so acceleration decreasing
i.e. line bending towards time axis represents the decreasing
acceleration in the body
O Time
Velocity

Positive constant acceleration because  is constant and < 90o

O
but initial velocity of the particle is negative.
Time
Velocity

Positive constant acceleration because  is constant and < 90o

but initial velocity of particle is positive.
O
Time
Velocity

Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and >

O 90o but initial velocity of the particle is positive.
Time
Velocity

Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and >

O 90o but initial velocity of the particle is zero.
Time
Velocity

Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and > 90o

O
Time but initial velocity of the particle is negative.

Equations of Motion For Uniform Acceleration

Either you are fan of Cricket, Hockey, Soccer or any other sport, What is the first thing that is
taught when you first start training for these or any other sports? It understands the correct
motion, speed acceleration or the Equations of Motion. Once you became the master the
Equations of Motion you will be capable to predict and understand every motion in the world.
As we have already discussed earlier, motion is the state of change in position of an object
over time. It is described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, time and
speed. Jogging, driving a car, and even simply taking a walk are all everyday examples of
motion. The relations between these quantities are known as the equations of motion. In case
of uniform acceleration, there are three equations of motion which are also known as the laws
of constant acceleration. Hence, these equations are used to derive the components like

65
displacement(s), velocity (initial and final), time(t) and acceleration(a). Therefore they can
only be applied when acceleration is constant and motion is a straight line. The three equations
are,

Vf = Vi + at
Vf = Vi2 + 2as
s = Vit + ½at²
where, s = displacement; vi = initial velocity; vf = final velocity; a = acceleration; t = time of
motion. Where displacement (s), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a) and
time (T).
➢ Equations of kinematics are valid for uniform acceleration.

Derivation of Equation of Motion

The equations of motion can be derived using the following methods:
➢ Derivation of equations of motion by Simple Algebraic Method
➢ Derivation of equations of Motion by Graphical Method
In the next few sections, the equations of motion are derived by all the three methods in a
simple and easy to understand way.

Derivation of First Equation of Motion

For the derivation, let us consider a body moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration.
Then, let the initial velocity be u, acceleration is denoted as a, time period is denoted as t,
velocity is denoted as v, and the distance travelled is denoted as s.
Derivation of First Equation of Motion by Algebraic Method
We know that the acceleration of the body is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
Mathematically, acceleration is represented as follows:
a=(v−u)/t
Where v is the final velocity and u is the initial velocity.
Rearranging the above equation, we arrive at the first equation of motion as follows:
v = u + at
Derivation of First Equation of Motion by Graphical Method
The first equation of motion can be derived using a velocity-time graph for a moving object
with an initial velocity of u, final velocity v, and
acceleration a.
In the above graph,
The velocity of the body changes from A to B in
time t at a uniform rate.
BC is the final velocity and OC is the total time t.
A perpendicular is drawn from B to OC, a parallel
line is drawn from A to D, and another
perpendicular is drawn from B to OE (represented
by dotted lines).
Following details are obtained from the graph above:

66
The initial velocity of the body, u = OA
The final velocity of the body, v = BC
From the graph, we know that
BC = BD + DC
Therefore, v = BD + DC
v = BD + OA (since DC = OA)
Finally,
v = BD + u (since OA = u) ………….Equation 1
Now, since the slope of a velocity-time graph is equal to acceleration a,
So,
a = slope of line AB
a = BD/AD
Since AD = AC = t, the above equation becomes:
BD = at ……….. Equation 2
Now, combining Equation 1 & 2, the following is obtained:
v = u + at

Derivation of Second Equation of Motion

For the derivation of the second equation of motion, consider the same variables that were
used for derivation of the first equation of motion.

Derivation of Second Equation of Motion by Algebraic Method

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement. This is mathematically represented
as:
Velocity = Displacement × Time
Rearranging, we get
Displacement = Average Velocity × Time
If the velocity is not constant then in the above equation we can use average velocity in the
place of velocity and rewrite the equation as follows:
Displacement = (Initial Velocity +Final Velocity)/2 ×Time
Substituting the above equations with the notations used in the derivation of the first equation
of motion, we get
s=(u+v)/2×t
From the first equation of motion, we know that v = u + at. Putting this value of v in the above
equation, we get
s=u+(u+at)/2×t
s=(2u+at)/2×t
s=(2u2+at)/2×t
s=(u+1/2at)×t
On further simplification, the equation becomes:
s=ut+1/2at2

67
Derivation of Second Equation of Motion by Graphical Method

From the graph above, we can say that

Distance travelled (s) = Area of figure OABC = Area of triangle ABD + Area of rectangle
OADC
s=(1/2AB×BD)+(OA×OC)
Since BD = EA, the above equation becomes
s=(1/2AB×EA)+(u×t)
As EA = at, the equation becomes because V= at; EA represent the velocity (V)
s=1/2×at×t+ut
by rearranging, the equation becomes
s=ut+1/2at2
Derivation of Third Equation of Motion
Derivation of Third Equation of Motion by Algebraic Method
We know that, displacement is the rate of change of position of an object. Mathematically, this
can be represented as:
Displacement=[(InitialVelocity+FinalVelocity/2)]×t
Substituting the standard notations, the above equation becomes
s=((u+v)/2)×t
From the first equation of motion, we know that
v=u+at
Rearranging the above formula, we get value of t
t=(v−u)a
Substituting the value of t in the displacement formula, we get
s=((v+u)/2)((v−u)a)
s=(v2−u2)/ 2a
2as=v2−u2
Rearranging, we get
v2=u2+2as

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Derivation of Third Equation of Motion by Graphical Method

From the graph, we can say that

The total distance travelled, s is given by the Area of trapezium OABC.
Hence,
S = ½ (Sum of Parallel Sides) × Height
S=1/2 (OA+CB)×OC
Since, OA = u, CB = v, and OC = t
The above equation becomes
S= ½ (u+v) × t
Now, since t = (v – u)/ a
The above equation can be written as:
S= ½ ((u+v) × (v-u))/a
Rearranging the equation, we get
S= ½ (v+u) × (v-u)/a
S = (v2-u2)/2a
Third equation of motion is obtained by solving the above equation:
v2 = u2+2aS
Motions in each dimension are independent components
   
vx = v0 x + a xt r − r = v0t + 12 at 2
Constant acceleration equations

vx = v0 x + a xt vy = v0 y + ayt
vx = v0 x + 2ax ( x − x0 ) y − y0 = v0 y t + 12 a y t 2
2 2

x − x0 = v0 x t + 12 a x t 2 v y = v0 y + 2a y ( y − y0 )
2 2

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➢ Constant acceleration equations hold in each dimension
➢ t = 0 beginning of the process;

➢ a = a x iˆ + a y ˆj where ax and ay are constant;
 
Initial velocity v0 = v0 x iˆ + v0 y ˆj initial displacement r0 = x0iˆ + y0 ˆj
Projectile Motion
Description: In this universe we see different objects motion in different dimensions, some are
moving along a linear path, like a car travelling along a rectilinear path and some are moving
along a circular path/track. If a cricketer hits a ball which is placed on the ground, this ball will
follow a curved path and will hit the ground, also if a missile is fired then we see it will always
follow a curved path which are the examples of two dimensional motion. In this section we
will be able to know the answers of these question that what affects the motion of bodies
which is responsible for the curved Path motion of bodies.

Projectile motion
➢ Definition: The motion of an object in a plane under the influence of force of gravity
of earth.
➢ Gravitational force of earth is responsible for the Projectile motion and the curved
path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory.

Assumptions for projectile motion

It is easy to analyze the projectile motion if following assumptions are in consider:

1. The value of acceleration due to gravity is considered as constant throughout the
projectile motion and it is always directed downwards.
2. The effect of air resistance is negligible.
3. Projectile motion is not affected due to rotation of an earth.

Average velocity vector

The red ball is dropped at the same time that the yellow ball
is fired horizontally. Photos are separated by equal time
intervals, ∆𝑡. At any time the two balls have the same: 𝑦,𝑦.
The yellow ball has equal ∆𝑥, and 𝑣𝑥 during each time ∆𝑡.
Projectile motion is analyzed to two motions: horizontal
motion with constant velocity and vertical motion with
constant acceleration

Figure 2.12

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The x and y motion in projectile motion

𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔
Horizontal Vertical

vx = v0 x + a xt vy = v0 y + ayt
x − x0 = v0 x t + 12 a x t 2 y − y0 = v0 y t + 12 a y t 2
vx = v0 x + 2ax ( x − x0 ) v y 2 = v0 y 2 + 2a y ( y − y0 )
2 2

2-D problem and define a coordinate system.

Horizontal: ax = 0 and vertical: ay = -g.
Try to pick x0 = 0, y0 = 0 at t = 0.
Velocity initial conditions:
v0 can have x, y components.

v0x is constant. v0 x = v0 cos 0

v0y changes continuously. v0 x = v0 sin 0
After considering all the conditions the
Equations will be

v x = v0 x v y = v0 y − gt
x = x0 + v0 xt y = y0 + v0 y t − 12 gt 2

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Trajectory of Projectile Motion
The path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory.
Initial conditions (t = 0): x0 = 0, y0 = 0
v0x = v0 cosθ0 and v0y = v0 sinθ0

Horizontal motion:
x
x = 0 + v0 x t  t=
v0 x
Vertical motion:
y = 0 + v0 y t − 12 gt 2 2
 x  g x 
y = v0 y   −  
 0x 
v 2  0x 
v
g
y = x tan  0 − x2
2v0 cos  0
2 2

Parabola;
θ0 = 0 and θ0 = 90 ?

What is R and h ?
Initial conditions (t = 0): x0 = 0, y0 = 0
v0x = v0 cosθ0 and v0y = v0 sinθ0, then
x = 0 + v0 xt 0 = 0 + v0 y t − 12 gt 2
2v0 y 2v0 sin 0
t= =
g g
2v0 cos 0 v0 sin  0 v0 sin 2 0
2
R = x − x0 = v0 x t = =
g g
2
t gt 
h = y − y0 = v0 y th − 12 gth = v0 y −  
2

2 2 2
v0 sin 2  0
2
h=
2g

v x = v0 x v y = v0 y − gt
2v0 y
v y = v0 y − gt = v0 y − g = −v0 y
g
x = x0 + v0 xt y = y0 + v0 y t − 12 gt 2

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Projectile Motion at Various Initial Angles
Complementary values of the initial angle
result in the same range
➢ The heights will be different
The maximum range occurs at a
projection angle of 45o
v sin 2
2
R= 0
g

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Section (A): Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. To get a resultant displacement of 10m, two displacement vectors of magnitude 6m and
8m should be combined _____________________:
(a) Parallel (b) Antiparallel
(c) At an angle of 45⁰ (d) Perpendicular to each other
2. The velocity of a particle at an instant is 10 m/s and after 5sec the velocity of particle is
20m/s. The velocity 3 sec before in m/s is _______________________:
(a) 8 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 7
3. A ball is thrown upwards with a velocity of 100 m/s. It will reach the ground after ____:
(a) 10 sec (b) 20 sec (c) 5 sec (d) 40 sec
4. Two projectiles are fired from the same point with the same speed at angles of
projection 60⁰ and 30⁰ respectively. Which one of the following is true?
(a) The range will be same (b) Their maximum height will be same
(c) Their landing velocity will be same (d) Their time of flight will be same
5. The ratio of numerical values of average velocity and average speed of a body is always
________:
(a) Unity (b) Unity or less (c) Unity or more (d) Less than unity
6. If the average velocities of a body become equal to the instantaneous velocity, body is
said to be moving with ____________________:
(a) Uniform acceleration (b) Uniform velocity
(c) Variable velocity (d) Variable acceleration
7. At the top of a trajectory of a projectile, the acceleration is____________:
(a) maximum (b) minimum (c) zero (d) g
8. A motorist travels A to B at a speed at 40 km/h and returns at a speed of 60 km/h. His
average speed will be ____________________:
(a) 40 km/h (b) 48 km/h (c) 50 km/h (d) 60 km/h
9. By which velocity a ball be projected vertically so that the distance covered by it in 5 th
second is twice the distance it covers in 6th second (g = 10 m/s2)
(a) 58.8 m/ (b) 49 m/s (c) 65 m/s (d) 19.6 m/s
10. At what angle the range of projectile becomes equal to the height of projectile?
(a) 65⁰ (b) 45 (c) 76⁰ (d) 30⁰
11. Distance travelled by a body falling from rest in the first, second and third second is in
the ratio of:
(a) 1: 2: 3 (b) 1: 3: 5 (c) 1 : 4 : 9 (d) None of these
12. If the water falls from a dam into a turbine wheel 19.6 m below, then the velocity of
water at the turbine is: (g = 10 m/s2)
(a) 9.8 m/s (b) 19.6 m/s (c) 39.2 m/s (d) 98 m/s
13. If an iron ball and a wooden ball of the same radius was released from a height h in
⁰ vacuum, then time taken by both of them to reach the ground will be ___________:
(a) Unequal (b) exactly equal (c) roughly equal (d) zero

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 14. If a body starts from rest and travels 120 cm in the 6th second then what is acceleration?
(a) 0.20 m/s2 (b) 0.027 m/s2 (c) 0.218 m/s2 (d) 0.03 m/s2
15. The range of projectile is maximum at an angle of _________________________:
(a) 65⁰ (b) 45⁰ (c) 76⁰ (d) 30⁰
16. A 2 kg body and a 3 kg body have equal momentum. If the kinetic energy of 3 kg body
is 10 J, the K.E of 2 kg body will be ____________________:
(a) 6.66 J (b) 15 J (c) 22.5 J (d) 45 J
17. A body whose momentum is constant, must have constant ___________________ :
(a) acceleration (b) velocity (c) force (d) None of these
18. The angle at which dot product becomes equal to the cross product is __________:
(a) 65⁰ (b) 45⁰ (c) 76⁰ (d) 30⁰
19. The resultant of n forces of different magnitudes acting at a point is zero, then minimum
value of n is:
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
20. If the dot product of two non-zero vectors vanishes; the vectors will be __________:
(a) in the same direction (b) opposite direction to each other
(c) perpendicular to each other (d) zero

ERQs
1. A helicopter is ascending at the rate of 12 m/s . At a height of 80 m above the ground,
a package is dropped. How long does the package take to reach the ground? (Ans: 5.4 sec)
2. Two tug boats are towing a ship each exerts a force of 6000 N, and the angle
between two ropes is 60⁰. Calculate the resultant force on the ship? (Ans: 10392 N)
3. The magnitude of dot and cross product of two vectors are 10√3 and 10 respectively.
Find the angle between the vectors? (Ans: 30⁰)
4. Find the projection of the vector 𝐴 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝐵 = 4𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 7𝑘 ?
(Ans: 19/9)
5. A car starts from rest and moves with a constant acceleration. During the 5 th second of its
motion, it covers a distance of 36 meters. Calculate:
(a) acceleration of the car
(b) the total distance covered by the car during this time. (Ans: 8m/s2, 100 m)
6. Show that the range of projectile at complementary angles are same with examples?
7. A football is thrown upward with an angle of 30⁰ with respect to the horizontal.
To throw a 40 m pass what must be the initial speed of the ball? (Ans: 21 m/s)
8. A marter shell is fired at a ground level target 500 m distance with an initial velocity
of 90 m/s. What is the launch angle? (Ans: 71.4⁰)
9. Determine the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of 𝐴⃗ = 2𝑖 − 6𝑗 − 3𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝟑 𝟐 𝟔
⃗⃗ = 4𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘 ?
𝐵 (Ans: 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌 )
𝟕 𝟕 𝟕

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