Biology

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Worksheet 1

Question 2:
Sickle Cell Anemia

Sickle cell anemia is the result of a type of mutation in the gene that codes for part of the hemoglobin molecule.
Hemoglobin carries oxygen in your red bloods cells. The mutation causes these red blood cells to become stiff &
sickle-shaped when they release their oxygen. The sickled cells tend to get stuck in blood vessels, causing pain and
increased risk of stroke, blindness, damage to the heart & lungs, and other conditions.

--- Analyze the DNA strands below to determine what amino acid is changed AND what type of mutation occurred

Normal hemoglobin DNA CACGTAGACTGAGGACTC…

Normal hemoglobin mRNA

Normal hemoglobin AA sequence

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sickle cell hemoglobin DNA CACGTAGACTGAGGACAC…

Sickle cell hemoglobin mRNA

Sickle cell hemoglobin AA sequence

1. What type of mutation is this? Please explain why.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Additional Questions:

1. Name one amino acid that has more than one codon.

2. Name one amino acid that only has one codon.

3. Given the following three mRNA sequences, 2 code for the same protein. Which two? Circle
them.

#1. AGU UUA GCA ACG AGA UCA

#2 UCG CUA GCG ACC AGU UCA

#3 AGC CUC GCC ACU CGU AGU

Worksheet 2

The DNA fingerprints were made from blood samples taken from a puppy

and four possible sires of this puppy in an effort to determine the puppy’s

pedigree. According to this information, which sire was probably the

father of this puppy? Remember, a child must share at least 50% of its

DNA with each of its parents. So, you are looking for the father with the

closest match to the puppy.

ANSWER: _______________________

The picture shows a segment of DNA from a cat and 4 possible

offspring from that cat. Which of these is most likely the kitten from

that cat’s litter?

ANSWER: ____________
Mrs. Smith has a baby named Tyra. She believes one of two men

can be the father of her child. A paternity test is done, and the

results are shown here. Which of the 2 men is baby Tyra’s father?

________

Lt. Russ is investigating a murder scene. The felon was scratched by

his victim & some of his skin cells were found under the victim’s

fingernails. A DNA test was performed. To which of the suspects do

the skin cells collected from under the fingernails of the victim

belong? _______
The millionaire, Mr. Big, has just died. He has left behind a wife,

daughter and a large inheritance. The news of his death has brought

forth 2 men who claim to be the long-lost son of Mr. & Mrs. Big.

Before Mr. & Mrs. Big were married, they had an illegitimate child

and had placed him up for adoption. They had tried to find him after

they became wealthy but had no luck in locating him. A DNA sample

was taken from Mrs. Big, the big daughter and the two men who claim

to be the long lost son. Which, if any, of the men are telling the truth?

_____________

Mr. & Mrs. Jones just gave birth to fraternal

twins- Bob and Jane. Unfortunately, the

nurse has confused the Jones twins with 4

other babies. The doctors took samples of

DNA from each of the babies and Mr. &

Mrs. Jones. Which of the 6 children are Mr.

& Mrs. Jones twins?

__________________
Mr. I. M. Megabucks, the wealthiest man in the world, recently died. Since his death, three women have
come forward. Each woman claims to have a child by Megabucks and demands a substantial share of his
estate for her child. Lawyers for the estate have insisted on DNA typing of each of the alleged heirs.
Fortunately, Megabucks anticipated trouble like this before he died, and he arranged to have a sample of
his blood frozen for DNA typing. The results of the typing are shown in the figure. Your job is to
analyze the data and determine whether any of the children could be Megabucks' heir.

Remember that every person has two of each chromosome, one inherited from his mother and one inherited
from his father. Half of every person's DNA comes from his mother, and half comes from his father, so
some of the DNA bands showing in the children will come from their mothers, and the rest will come from
their fathers. The question is, could that father be Megabucks?

1. For the first child, identify the bands in the DNA profile that came from the mother. (Remember
that not all of the mother's DNA is transmitted to the child; just one of each pair of chromosomes
is transmitted.) Mark the bands that came from the mother with an M. Circle the remaining bands.
2. Compare the remaining bands with the DNA profile from Megabucks. If he is the father, then all
of the circled bands in the child's profile should have a corresponding band in his profile. Use a
straightedge to help you line up the bands accurately. (Remember that only half of the father's
chromosomes are transmitted to a child, so not every band from the father would match the child's
profile.)
3. Repeat the analysis for the other alleged heirs.
4. Could any of them be Megabucks' children?
Worksheet 3

1. Genetics and the transmission of hereditary traits

1. Solve the cryptogram.

2. Put the blocks of text in the correct order.

A hereditary trait - or physiological - from parents to offspring - is an anatomical - which is passed -
characteristic.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Examples of - and height - are eye color, hair color - hereditary traits.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

A gene - which determines - is a fragment of DNA - a hereditary trait.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Alleles - of a particular trait - are the variants of - the different expressions - which control - a gene.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Alleles - on homologous chromosomes - occupy - the same locus.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Homologous chromosomes – but - different alleles – have - they may have - the same genes.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. Fill the gaps in the text.

In humans, each cell in our body contains 23 ______ of chromosomes, so we have _____ chromosomes

in total. ______ of them come from our _______ and half from our _______. Each pair of chromosomes

is made up of ______ homologous chromosomes which contain _______ about the same ______ or genes.

Our somatic cells contain ______ alleles for _______ trait. In genetics, an organism with two similar alleles

is known as a _____________, and an organism with two different alleles is known as a _____________.

4. Identify and correct the false statements.

a. A dominant allele (A) is one that is always manifested in the phenotype, whether it is homozygous
or heterozygous.
______________________________________________________________________________

b. A recessive allele (a) is one that is only manifested when it is heterozygous.

______________________________________________________________________________

c. Dominant alleles are transmitted and may remain ‘hidden’ in their descendants’ genotypes.
______________________________________________________________________________

d. A genotype is the collection of traits in an organism, i.e. the external appearance of the
phenotype.
______________________________________________________________________________

e. The observable color of our eyes refers to someone’s phenotype.

______________________________________________________________________________
Worksheet 4
Practice with Monohybrid Punnett Squares
Question 1: Read the following passage and answer the questions.
Often times, people will refer to a trait or characteristic such as eye color or hair color as being genetic, but
what does the word genetic really mean? Genetics is termed as the study of heredity and how traits in
offspring are based upon those of the parents. Heredity is the process in which traits (characteristics that
can be passed only from a living thing to its young) are passed from parents to offspring. A Punnett square
is a grid system that can be set up and used to predict the possible outcomes that may result from the mating
process between two individuals, when their genotypes are known. Each cell within the square is
representative of one possible genotypic outcome for any offspring. The term genotype refers to the genetic
make-up of an organism. Genotype is represented by using letters of the alphabet to stand for each allele
that has been passed from the parents. A capital letter represents the dominant allele and a lower-case letter
represents the recessive allele. Alleles are all the forms of a gene for any given trait. There are usually two
allele possibilities for every trait. For example: B and b are both alleles for the trait of hair color. Since
genotype is the genetic make-up, phenotype is the physical result of a gene combination. Dominance is
when one allele can mask the presence of another (B is the dominant gene for brown hair). Recessive refers
to a characteristic that is masked by the presence of a dominant allele (b is a recessive gene for blonde hair).
The only way to have a recessive trait expressed is to have both alleles be recessive (bb, resulting in the
blond hair color). Homozygous is defined by the occurrence where the paired alleles for a specific trait, in
this case hair color, are identical (BB or bb). If both parents are homozygous, they can each only pass on
one allele type to their offspring. This means that all the offspring will have one B and one b allele and will
be Bb genotype. This Bb genotype is termed as heterozygous. A heterozygous genotype is when the genes
that an offspring receives are different, Bb. In this instance, dominance will also be expressed because the
offspring will have the dominant trait of brown hair.

1. Genetics is the study of _______________.

2. Traits are characteristic that can be passed only from a ___________ thing to its
_______________.
3. The process in which traits are passed from parents to offspring is _________________.
4. Each cell of a Punnett square represents one possible _______________ outcome for any
offspring of two specific parents.
5. Genotype refers to the ______________ make-up of an organism.
6. _____________ is the physical trait that is expressed in an individual.
7. __________ are the different forms of a gene for any given trait.
8. For each trait, there are _____ allele possibilities.
9. When the expression of one allele is masked by the presence of another, it is said to be
___________________.
10. When an allele masks the presence of another allele, it is said to be ________________.
11. When both alleles of a parent or offspring are identical, one is said to be _______________.
12. A heterozygous genotype is when the alleles present are ______________, such as Bb.
 13. It is proper to put the _____________ allele before a recessive allele when determining the
genotype of the offspring in a Punnett square.
14. For an offspring to ___________ a recessive trait, both parents must have at least one
________________ allele in their genotype.

Question 2: For the following pairs of traits, conduct a monohybrid cross to determine the genotype
and phenotype of the offspring.
1. Dominant trait: R (round seed)
Recessive trait: r (wrinkled seed)

Parent’s genotype:
- Paternal: ________________
- Maternal: ________________

Parent’s phenotype:
- Paternal: ________________
- Maternal: ________________

Results:
Possible Genotypes: ________________
Possible Phenotypes: ________________

2. Dominant trait: B (brown hair)

Recessive trait: b (blonde hair)

Parent’s genotype:
- Paternal: ________________
- Maternal: ________________

Parent’s phenotype:
- Paternal: ________________
- Maternal: ________________

Results:
Possible Genotypes: ________________
Possible Phenotypes: ________________
3. Dominant trait: C (circular flower)
Recessive trait: c (round flower)
 Parent’s genotype:
- Paternal: ________________
- Maternal: ________________

Parent’s phenotype:
- Paternal: ________________
- Maternal: ________________

Results:
Possible Genotypes: ________________
Possible Phenotypes: ________________

4. Dominant trait: W (White fur)

Recessive trait: w (black fur)

Parent’s genotype:
- Paternal: ________________
- Maternal: ________________

Parent’s phenotype:
- Paternal: ________________
- Maternal: ________________

Results:
Possible Genotypes: ________________
Possible Phenotypes: ________________

Question 3: For each problem, draw a Punnett square and write the genotypes and phenotypes of
the offspring.
1. Predict the genotypic and phenotypic outcome (offspring) of a cross between two heterozygous
tall pea plants.

2. In pea plants, yellow peas are dominant over green peas. Predict the genotypic and phenotypic
outcome of a cross between a plant heterozygous for yellow peas and a plant homozygous for
green peas.

3. Predict the phenotypic and genotypic outcome (offspring) of a cross between two plants
heterozygous for yellow peas.
4. In pea plants, round peas are dominant over wrinkled peas. Predict the phenotypic and genotypic
outcome (offspring) of a cross between a plant homozygous for round peas and a plant
homozygous for wrinkled peas.

5. Predict the phenotypic and genotypic outcome (offspring) of a cross between two plants
heterozygous for round peas.
6. A woman who is a carrier (heterozygous) for Cystic Fibrosis marries a man who has Cystic
Fibrosis, a recessive disease. What are the genotypes? What is the probability (percentage) that
their children will have the disease? What is the probability that their children will not have the
disease? Show a Punnett square!

7. A woman who is a carrier (heterozygous) for Huntington’s Disease, which is a dominant disease,
marries a man who is also a carrier for the disease. What are the genotypes? What is the
probability that their children will have the disease? What is the probability that their children
will not have the disease? Show a Punnett square!
8. One cat carries heterozygous, long-haired traits (Ss), and its mate carries homozygous short-
haired traits (ss). Use a Punnett square to determine the probability of their offspring having long
hair and the probability of their offspring having short hair.
Worksheet 5

In rabbits, gray hair is dominant to white hair. Also in

rabbits, black eyes are dominant to red eyes. These letters
represent the genotypes of the rabbits:

1. What are the phenotypes (descriptions) of rabbit that have the

following genotypes?

Ggbb ____________________

ggBB ____________________

ggbb ____________________

GgBb ____________________

1. A male rabbit with the genotype GGbb is crossed with

a female rabbit with the genotype ggBb. Carry out a cross to
show all the possible genotypes (and phenotypes) of the offspring
obtained.

2. A male rabbit with the genotype GgBb is crossed with

a female rabbit with the genotype GgBb. Carry out a cross to
show all the possible genotypes (and phenotypes) of the offspring
obtained.
3. An aquatic arthropod called a Cyclops has antennae that are
either smooth or barbed. The allele for barbs (B) is
dominant over smooth (b). In the same organism Non-
­­resistance to pesticides (N) is dominant over resistance.
to pesticides (nn). show all the possible genotypes (and
phenotypes). Carry out a cross to show all the possible genotypes (and
phenotypes) of the offspring obtained.

4. In man, assume that spotted skin (S) is dominant over non-spotted skin (s) and
that wooly hair (W) is dominant over non-wooly hair (w). Cross a marriage
between a heterozygous spotted, non-wooly man with a heterozygous wooly-
haired, non-spotted woman. Give genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring.

5. In horses, black is dependent upon a dominant gene, B, and chestnut upon its
recessive allele, b. The trotting gait is due to a dominant gene, T, the pacing gait
to its recessive allele, t. If a homozygous black pacer is mated to a homozygous
chestnut trotter, what will be the appearance of the F 1 generation?
 6. In mice, the ability to run normally is a dominant trait. Mice with this trait are called
running mice (R). The recessive trait causes mice to run in circles only. Mice with
this trait are called waltzing mice (r). Hair color is also inherited in mice. Black hair
(B) is dominant over brown hair (b).
a) A cross is done homozygous running, black mouse with a waltzing brown
mouse. Carry out a cross to determine all the possible genotypic and
phenotypic ratios of the F1 generation.

b) A cross is done between two F1 offspring. Carry out a cross to determine all the
possible genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the F2 generation.

7. In summer squash, white fruit color (W) is dominant over yellow fruit color (w) and disk-shaped
fruit (D) is dominant over sphere-shaped fruit (d).
a) If a squash plant true-breeding for white, disk-shaped fruit is crossed with a plant true-breeding
for yellow, sphere­shaped fruit, what all the possible genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the F1
generation be?

b) Another cross was done between 2 F1 plants. Carry out a cross to determine all the possible
genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
Worksheet 6 – Test cross

In plants and animals, organisms exhibiting the dominant trait may be either hybrid (heterozygous) or
homozygous dominant (purebred). Since we cannot see an organism’s genes from the outside, and in
breeding selectively it may be important to know the exact genotype; a test cross may be helpful.
To make a test cross, the organism whose genotype is being tested is crossed with an organism that is
homozygous recessive for that trait. From these results we would know that the other parent was
hybrid and not pure for the dominant characteristic.
If the offspring does not receive a recessive allele from the other parent, then it will show the dominant
phenotype.
TEST-CROSS RULE: Always cross the organism with the unknown genotype with an organism that is
Homozygous Recessive (two lowercase alleles)

1. In fruit flies, red eyes are dominant over brown eyes. You manage to capture a red-eyed fruit fly and
desire to learn more about its genotype.
a) Give the phenotypes (physical eye color) of the flies involved in your test-cross:

b) If the two flies have 400 offspring that all turn out to be red-eyed, what would be the genotypes
of the flies used in your test-cross? (Use “R” and “r”)

What percentage is heterozygous? = ______________%

What percentage shows the dominant trait? =______________%

c) If you performed the same experiment but this time 200 of the 400 flies had brown eyes, what
would be the genotype of the red-eyed fly?

What percentage is heterozygous? = ______________%

What percentage shows the dominant trait? =______________%

2. Let’s say you decide to become a mink farmer. In mink, black fur is dominant to white fur. Since
black mink coats cost more than white mink, you decide to only raise black mink. Everything is going
well but the guy you bought your mink from seemed a little crooked! You want to make sure they
are pure breeds so you run a test-cross.
a) Give the phenotypes of the mink in your test-cross:

b) In your first test-cross, 30 out of 60 offspring are black and the rest are white! What are the
genotypes of the mink used in your test-cross? (Use “B” and “b”)

What percentage is heterozygous? = ______________%

What percentage shows the dominant trait? =______________%
Worksheet 7 – Intermediate dominance and Co-dominance
1. In a certain fish, scales are colored blue and red. When a fish has the hybrid genotype, it has a
patchwork of blue and red scales. (Use the letter B)
a) What is the genotype for blue fish? ______________
b) What is the genotype for red fish? ______________
c) What is the genotype for patchwork fish? ___________

2. What happens if you breed a patchwork fish with a fish that only has Blue Scales?
a) What is the probability of having fish with red scales? ________%
b) What is the probability of having fish with patchwork scales? _________%

3. Two patchwork fish are crossed.

What is the probability that they will have patchwork fish? _______________%

4. Two short-tailed (Manx) cats are bred together. They produce three kittens with long tails, five
short tails, and two without any tails. From these results, how do you think tail length in these
cats are inherited? Show the genotypes for both the parents and the offspring to support your
answer.
5. In snapdragon flowers, two alleles red (R) and white (r) can be expressed. The heterozygous
genotype is expressed as pink.
a) What is the phenotype of a plant with the genotype RR? ___________
b) What is the phenotype of a plant with the genotype Rr? ___________
c) What is the phenotype of a plant with the genotype rr? ___________

6. A pink-flowered plant is crossed with a white-flowered plant. What is the probability of

producing a pink-flowered plant? ___________%

7. What cross will produce the most pink-flowered plants? Show Punnett square to support your
answer and explain.

8. In Andalusian fowls, black individuals (BB) and white individuals (bb) are homozygous. A
homozygous black bird is crossed with a homozygous white bird. The offspring are all bluish
gray. Show the cross as well as the genotypes and phenotypes of the parents and offspring.
Deduce the type of cross.
Human blood types are determined by genes that follow the CODOMINANCE pattern of inheritance.
There are two dominant alleles (IA and IB) and one recessive allele (i).

Blood Type
Genotype Can donate blood to: Can receive blood from:
(Phenotype)

A IAIA OR IAi A, AB A, O

B IBIB OR IBi B, AB B, O
A, B, AB, and O (universal
AB IAIB AB
receiver)
A, B, AB, and O (universal
O ii O
donor)

9. Write the genotype for each person based on the description:

a) Homozygous for the “B” allele ______________
b) Heterozygous for the “A” allele ______________
c) Type O ______________
d) Type “A” and had a type “O” parent ______________
e) Type “AB” _______________
f) Can only get blood from a type “O” donor ______________

10. Mrs. Clink is blood type “A” and Mr. Clink is blood type “O.” They have three children named
Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Mark is blood type “O,” Matthew is blood type “A,” and Luke is
blood type “AB.” Based on this information: SHOW WORK TO PROVE YOUR ANSWERS!
a) Mr. Clink must have the genotype ___________
b) Mrs. Clink must have the genotype ______ because ___________ has blood type ______
c) Luke cannot be the child of these parents because neither parent has the allele _____.

11. Two parents think their baby was switched at the hospital. Its 1968, so DNA fingerprinting
technology does not exist yet. The mother has blood type “O,” the father has blood type “AB,”
and the baby has blood type “B.”
a) Mother’s genotype: _______
b) Father’s genotype: _______
c) Baby’s genotype: ______ or ________
d) Punnett square showing all possible genotypes for children produced
by this couple

e) Was the baby switched? ________

Worksheet 8 – gene linkage

Question 1:
In pea plants, tall (T) is dominant over short (t). Also, green color (G) is dominant over yellow color (g).
A heterozygous tall and green pea plant is crossed with a short and yellow pea plant. 1000 offspring were
obtained. The results of the offspring are as follows:
Tall and green 253
Tall and yellow 247
Short and green 243
Short and yellow 257
Total 1000
Based on the data obtained and your previous knowledge, what can you tell about those genes? Are they
linked or unlinked?

Question 2:
In pea plants, tall (T) is dominant over short (t). Also, green color (G) is dominant over yellow color (g).
A heterozygous tall and green pea plant is crossed with a short and yellow pea plant. 1000 offspring were
obtained. The results of the offspring are as follows:
Tall and green 510
Tall and yellow 0
Short and green 0
Short and yellow 490
Total 1000
Based on the data obtained and your previous knowledge, what can you tell about those genes? Are they
linked or unlinked?
Question 3:

You are doing a genetics experiment with the fruit fly. In the “P” generation (Parents’ generations), you
cross two true-breeding flies. The female parent is brown with normal wings and the male parent is black
and wingless. All of the flies in the F1 generation are brown and have normal wings.

a) Indicate the alleles associated with dominant phenotypes by uppercase letters and alleles
associated with recessive phenotypes by lowercase letters.

b) What is the genotype and phenotype of the flies in the F1 generation? Carry out the cross to
obtain the results.

c) You now take an F1 female and cross her to a true-breeding black, wingless male.

What is the male’s genotype?

d) You count 1600 offspring in the F2 generation and you got those results.

800 of brown, normal wings (of the genotype BbNn)

0 of black, normal wings (of the genotype bbNn)

0 of brown, wingless flies (of the genotype Bbnn)

800 of black, wingless flies (of the genotype bbnn)

Based on the data obtained and your previous knowledge, what can you tell about those genes?
Are they linked or unlinked? Are they in cis or trans position?
Question 4:

You are doing a genetics experiment with the fruit fly. In the “P” generation (Parents’ generations), you
cross two true-breeding flies. The female parent is brown and wingless and the male parent is black with
normal wings. All of the flies in the F1 generation are brown and have normal wings.

a) Indicate the alleles associated with dominant phenotypes by uppercase letters and alleles
associated with recessive phenotypes by lowercase letters.

b) What is the genotype and phenotype of the flies in the F1 generation? Carry out the cross to
obtain the results.

c) You now take an F1 female and cross her to a true-breeding black, wingless male.

What is the male’s genotype?

d) You count 1600 offspring in the F2 generation and you got those results.

0 of brown, normal wings (of the genotype BbNn)

800 of black, normal wings (of the genotype Bbnn)

800 of brown, wingless flies (of the genotype bbNn)

0 of black, wingless flies (of the genotype bbnn)

Based on the data obtained and your previous knowledge, what can you tell about those genes?
Are they linked or unlinked? Are they in cis or trans position?
Question 5:
In species of newt, dominant allele T produces a normal length tail and recessive allele t produces a
shorter length tail. The gene for scale color has two alleles: Dominant allele G produces green scales
Recessive allele g produces white scales.
a) A purebred newt with tall tail and green scales was crossed with another purebred newt with short
tail and white scales.
i- What are the genotypes of both parents?

ii- What are the results obtained in F1 generation

b) An F1 newt offspring was crossed with a purebred newt with short tail and white scales. 320
offspring are produced. The results of the offspring are as follows:
Tall tail, green scales 160
Tall tail, white scales 0
Short tail, green scales 0
Short tail, white scales 160
Total 320
Based on the data obtained and your previous knowledge, what can you tell about those genes? Are they
linked or unlinked?
Worksheet 9 – gene mapping

Question 1:
A cross was done between a female fruity fly which is heterozygous for brown and normal wings, and a
true-breeding black, wingless male.
a) Write the genotypes of the parents

b) When you count the F1 generation, you really get:

85 = brown winged flies
728 = black winged flies
712 = brown wingless flies
75 = black wingless flies

What is the recombination frequency between those 2 genes

c) A series of fruit fly mating shows that the recombinant frequency between the gene for wing size
and the gene for antenna length is 5%, and the recombinant frequency between the gene for
antenna length and the gene for body color is also 5%. Draw the gene map involving the 3 genes.

Question 2:
In drosophila, genes for eye color (A), wing shape (B), and body color (C) are all found on the same
chromosome. The following crossover frequencies for genes were determined by experiments.
Question 3:
Given the crossover (recombinant) frequency of each of the genes on the chart, construct a chromosome
map

Question 4:
The following chart shows the crossover frequencies for genes on an autosome (non-sex chromosome).
Construct the chromosome map

Question 5:
The following chart shows the crossover frequencies for genes on an autosome (non-sex chromosome).
Construct the chromosome map

Genes Crossover frequency

A&B 12%
A&C 15%
A&D 4%
B&C 3%
B&D 8%
C&D 11%
Worksheet 10 – probability

1. In pea plants, purple (P) is dominant over blue (b). A cross is done between 2 heterozygous
purple (Pp) plants. What is the probability that the offspring will be homozygous recessive?

2. In pea plants, purple (P) is dominant over blue (b). A cross is done between 2 heterozygous
purple (Pp) plants. What is the probability that the offspring will be heterozygous?

3. In a cross between AA and Aa, what is the probability that the offspring will be Aa?

4. In a cross between Aa and Aa what is the probability that the offspring will be Aa?

5. In a cross between AaBbCc and AaBBCC, what is the probability that the offspring will be
AaBbCC?
6. In a cross between AaBbCc and AaBBCC, what is the probability that the offspring will be
AABbCC or AABBCC?

7. In a dihybrid cross between RrYy heterozygotes, what is the probability of the offspring genotype
being RrYy?

8. In a dihybrid cross between RrYy heterozygotes, what is the probability of the offspring genotype
being Rryy

9. In a dihybrid cross between RrYy heterozygotes, what is the probability of the offspring genotype
being RRYY or rryy?

10. In a dihybrid cross between RrYy heterozygotes, what is the probability of the offspring genotype
being RrYy or rrYy?
Worksheet 11 – chi-square

Chi-square data sheet

Step 1: Identify hypotheses
A chi-squared test seeks to distinguish between two distinct possibilities and hence requires two
contrasting hypotheses:
Null hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference between observed and expected frequencies (i.e.
genes are unlinked)
Alternative hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference between observed and expected frequencies
(i.e. genes are linked)

How to Use and Interpret the Table of Chi-Square Values

1. You must first determine the degrees of freedom (df) for your experiment. The df value is the number
of phenotypic classes in your cross minus 1 .
To calculate degrees of freedom for different types of crosses:
• monohybrid cross: expect 2 different phenotype classes, so I degree of freedom.
• dihybrid cross: expect 4 different phenotype classes, so 3 degrees of freedom. (for both these crosses, do
not separate males and females into a separate class).
2. You can now find the probability (p) value. The p-value is located on the top row of the chart.
If calculated ꭓ2 is less than the critical table value at the 0.05 level, do not reject the null hypothesis;
differences are due to chance alone.
If calculated ꭓ2 is more than the critical table value at the 0.05 level, reject the null hypothesis;
differences Are significant, and are not due to chance alone.
Question 1
In peas, smooth seeds (R) are dominant over wrinkled (r) seeds. In the P generation, a plant homozygous
for smooth seeds is crossed with a plant with wrinkled seeds. The resulting F, plants are crossed. The
seeds of the observed F2 generation were:
Smooth = 5474
Wrinkled =1850
Does the data fit the predicted phenotypic ratio?

(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
Phenotypes Observed (O) Expected (E) O-E (O-E)2
𝐸

Total

Question 2:
In corn, purple kernels (D) are dominant over yellow (d), and smooth kernels (G) are dominant over
shrunken (g). An ear of corn has 381 kernels, illustrated at right:
A: purple, smooth = 216
B: purple, shrunken = 79
C: yellow, smooth = 65
D: yellow, shrunken = 21
c (Your prediction would be the kernels are the result of a
double heterozygous cross with a ratio of 9:3:3:1)

(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
Phenotypes Observed (O) Expected (E) O-E (O-E)2
𝐸

Total
Question 3:
The following results were found when examining corn kernels for the traits of seed color: yellow (Y)
dominant to white (y) recessive:
7758 yellow seeds
2436 white seeds
Does the data fit your predicted phenotypic ratio?

(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
Phenotypes Observed (O) Expected (E) O-E (O-E)2
𝐸

Total

Question 4:
The following results were found when examining pea plants for the traits of plant height, tall (T)
dominant to short (t) recessive, and flower color, purple (P) dominant to white (p) recessive.
Tall purple: 7542
Tall white: 2616
Short purple: 2532
Short white: 868
Does the data fit your predicted phenotypic ratio?

(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
Phenotypes Observed (O) Expected (E) O-E (O-E)2
𝐸

Total
Question 5
In the garden pea, yellow seed color is dominant to green, and inflated pod shape is dominant to the
constricted form. Considering both of these traits jointly in self-fertilized dihybrids, the progeny appeared
in the following numbers:
193 green, inflated
184 yellow constricted
556 yellow, inflated
61 green, constricted
Does the data fit your predicted phenotypic ratio?

(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
Phenotypes Observed (O) Expected (E) O-E (O-E)2
𝐸

Total
Quiz 1

Question 1:
Specify if each of the following mutations is Spontaneous or Induced.

1. Mutations caused by X-rays _______________

2. Mutations caused by pollutants _______________

3. Mutations caused within a gene during replication _______________

4. Mutations caused by errors in the RNA polymerase during transcription _______________

5. Mutations due to chemicals from cigarettes _______________

Question 2:
Read the following sentences. Answer by True or False. Correct the false one(s).

1. A gene mutation is a permanent change in the sequence of bases in DNA

______________________________________________________________________________

2. Induced mutations may result from abnormalities in normal biological processes.

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Spontaneous mutations may result from abnormalities in normal biological processes.

______________________________________________________________________________

4. In Point mutations the codons downstream of the mutation are now shifted.

______________________________________________________________________________

5. Frameshift mutations involves a change in a single DNA nucleotide.

______________________________________________________________________________
Question 3
The template DNA sequence below is rewritten in different mutations. Compare each mutated DNA
sequence with the original one.
Transcribe and translate the original sequence, then repeat for each mutated sequence. (The codon table is
on the last page).
Classify each type of mutations as point (substitution) or frameshift (insertion or deletion).

Original DNA sequence: TAC GCG AAT TGC CCC GAT AAA ACT
mRNA sequence:
amino acid sequence:

Mutated DNA sequence: TAC GCG AAT AGC CCC GAT AAA ACT
mRNA sequence:
amino acid sequence:
Type of mutation:
Change in protein sequence: Yes No

Mutated DNA sequence: TAC GCG ATT GCC CCG ATA AAA CT
mRNA sequence:
amino acid sequence:
Type of mutation:
Change in protein sequence: Yes No

Original DNA sequence: TAC GCG AAA TTG CCC CGA TAA AAC T
mRNA sequence:
amino acid sequence:
Type of mutation:
Change in protein sequence: Yes No
Mutated DNA sequence: TAC GCG AAT AGC CCC GAT AAG ACT
mRNA sequence:
amino acid sequence:
Type of mutation:
Change in protein sequence: Yes No
Quiz 2

Question 1:
Match the definition on the left side to its meaning on the right side.

1. Producing genetically identical copies of an

organism by asexual means a. Cuts the DNA at specific sites

2. Uses DNA Polymerase to amplify fragments of

DNA. b. Gel electrophoresis

3. Technique used to determine the order of

nucleotides in a DNA. c. Transgenic organisms

4. Producing many identical copies of the same gene

d. PCR
5. Enables us to compare samples of different DNA
sources. e. CRISPR-Cas9

6. An organism whose genome has been modified by

introducing a DNA sequence from another
f. Cloning
organism.

7. Restriction enzyme
g. DNA sequencing
8. A gene-editing technology that makes it possible to
h. Gene cloning
correct errors in the genome

Question 2:
Arrange the following steps of CRIPSR-Cas9 in order by assigning numbers from 1-4 next to each step.
a) Cas9 cuts the DNA _________

b) Target the right gene by the help of guide RNA _________

c) Repair and edit the DNA _________

d) Cas9 binds to the target gene _________

Question 3:

If this gel were used in a court case as DNA evidence taken from
the crime scene, which of the following suspects appears to be
guilty?

A. Suspect A
B. Suspect B
C. Suspect C
D. Suspect D

Which two suspects, while not guilty, could possibly be identical

twins?

A. A and B
B. A and C
C. B and C
D. B and D

Question 4:
A female chimpanzee recently gave birth to an infant while in captivity. Because the paternity of the
infant is unclear, scientists tested the DNA from two male chimpanzees, along with the female and infant.
The resulting electrophoresis gel is shown.

Which labeled DNA fragment is largest?

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5

Based on the gel electrophoresis result, what can

be concluded?
Question 5:
At a crime scene a blood sample was found and
investigated using gel electrophoresis. Based on
the gel, the blood at the crime scene belongs to
which of the suspects?

A Jenny
B Bob
C Mike
D Lisa
E The blood at the crime scene does not belong
to any of these suspects.

Question 6:
The parents of a new baby believe that the hospital sent them home with someone else’s baby. The
hospital takes DNA samples from both parents and the baby. The DNA is investigated using gel
electrophoresis. Do the parents possess their biological child or did the hospital give them the wrong
baby?

The parents have the correct baby, their DNA matches.

B The parents have the wrong baby, their DNA does not
match.
C There is no way to tell using this gel. Practice
Question 7:
The figure below is an example of a typical paternity
test, showing the DNA profiles of the mother, her two
children and an alleged father. Which child is more
likely to be the child of the alleged father?
Answer: ________________
Quiz 3
Question 1:
In mice, the ability to run normally is a dominant trait. Mice with this trait are called running mice (R).
The recessive trait causes mice to run in circles only. Mice with this trait are called waltzing mice (r).
Hair color is also inherited in mice. Black hair (B) is dominant over brown hair (b). For each of the
following problems, determine the parent genotypes, determine possible gametes then construct a Punnett
square to solve.
1. A cross is done between a waltzing brown mouse with another waltzing brown mouse. Determine
the parent genotypes, the possible gametes then construct a Punnett square to analyze the cross
and determine the phenotypic ratio of the F1 generation.

2. Another cross is done 2 F1 offspring. Determine the parent genotypes, the possible gametes then
construct a Punnet square to analyze the cross and determine the phenotypic ratio of the F2
generation.

Question 2:
In the petunia, a pure breeding red flower is crossed with a white one to produce pink offspring.
a) What form of inheritance is this?

b) Show the genotypes of the parents and the F1 generation of a cross between a red and white
petunia.

c) What would be the anticipated offspring if the F1 plant from (a) above were test-crossed to the
red parent?

d) What would be the anticipated offspring if the F1 plant from (a) above were test-crossed to the
white parent?
Question 3:

1. A man with type AB blood is married to a woman with type O blood. They have two natural
children and one adopted child. Jane has type A blood, Jordan has type B blood, and Marlin has
type O blood. Which child was adopted? How do you know?

2. A woman is searching for her father and she has type O blood. She looks through records of men
who could be her father. Which blood type can she eliminate from her search? (In other words, her
dad CANNOT be what blood type.) Explain how you know this.
 Biotechnology notes

Cloning
Cloning is the production of genetically identical copies of DNA, cells, or organisms through some asexual
means.
Examples: Making Dolly the sheep by cloning

1. The nucleus of an egg from a black faced sheep was removed.

2. The nucleus from a white-faced sheep was inserted into that egg. Now, they had just one
cell with the nucleus of a white-faced sheep, but the rest of the cell containing items from
a black faced sheep.
3. That cell was placed into the black faced sheep who's egg it started out as.
4. The cell eventually grew up and made Dolly. When Dolly was born, her face was white!
5. Scientists double checked Dolly's genetic material. They found that Dolly did have the
exact same genetic material as the white-faced sheep that donated the nucleus.

Gene cloning
Gene cloning can be done to produce many identical copies of the same gene.

Restriction enzymes
Restriction enzymes are enzymes that cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences. When added to a solution
containing DNA, the enzymes cut the DNA wherever the enzyme’s particular sequence appears.

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) - Bacterial transformation

Recombinant DNA is generated by combining DNA from multiple sources to create a unique DNA
molecule that is not found in nature. A common application of recombinant DNA technology is the
introduction of a eukaryotic gene of interest (such as insulin) into a bacterium for production. In other
words, bacteria can be hijacked and put to work as little protein factories.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) contains DNA from two or more different sources, such as a human cell and a
bacterial cell.
To make rDNA, a technician needs a vector (L. vehere, “to carry”) by which rDNA will be introduced into
a host cell. One common vector is a plasmid. Plasmids are small accessory rings of DNA found in
bacteria. The ring is not part of the main bacterial chromosome; it replicates on its own and can be easily
removed from or introduced into a bacterial cell. (The bacteria are now called transgenic bacteria).
The process of giving bacteria foreign DNA is called transformation.
Two enzymes are needed to introduce foreign DNA into vector DNA:
(1) a restriction enzyme, which cleaves (cuts) DNA
(2) an enzyme called DNA ligase
Steps:
1. Human DNA and plasmid DNA are cleaved by a specific type of restriction enzyme.
2. The human DNA, perhaps containing the insulin gene, is inserted into a plasmid, and sealed with
the by the enzyme DNA ligase.
3. Gene cloning is achieved after a bacterium takes up the plasmid.
4. If the gene functions normally, as expected, the product (e.g., insulin) may also be retrieved.
5. Insulin is purified and ready to be used by patients.

Transgenic organism:
An organism whose genome has been modified by introducing a DNA sequence from another species into
its genome. This is done by biotechnological methods.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Polymerase Chain Reaction Think of this technique as a high-speed copy machine. It is used to produce
large quantities of a particular sequence of DNA in a very short amount of time.

DNA Sequencing
In 2003, the international science community completed sequencing of the human genome. Using cutting
edge techniques, scientists were able to determine the sequence of nucleotide bases for a human’s DNA.
This discovery has led to new techniques and technologies that allow for the sequencing of small pieces of
DNA to entire genomes of organisms.

Gel Electrophoresis
This technique is used to separate and examine DNA fragments The DNA is cut with our new friends,
the restriction enzymes, and then separated by electrophoresis. The pieces of DNA are separated on the
basis of size with the help of an electric charge. DNA is added to the wells. When the electric current is
turned on, the migration begins. Smaller pieces travel farther along the gel, and larger pieces do not travel
as far. The bigger you are, the harder it is to move. This technique can be used to sequence DNA and
determine the order in which the nucleotides appear.

CRISPR-Cas9
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats – Cas9 (CRISPR-Cas9) is a gene-editing
technology that makes it possible to correct errors in the genome (mutations).
It involves two essential components: a guide RNA to match a desired target gene, and Cas9—an enzymes
which cuts the DNA, allowing modifications to the genome.
Steps:
1. Target the right gene by the help of guide RNA.

2. Bind the target.

An enzyme called Cas9 binds to the target DNA

3. Cut the DNA

The Cas9 enzyme cuts both strands of the DNA double helix.

4. Repair and edit the DNA.

A correct sequence of nucleotides (DNA nucleotides) is added to replace the mutated ones and
sealed to the genome.