SALEM SECONDARY SCHOOL LUGBE

FIRST TERM NOTES

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY CLASS: SS 3

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC

1. Sense Organs: (i) Functions of the eye and part played by light ,image
formation and accommodation (ii) Organ of sight: the eye and its various parts
(iii) Eye defects-myopic, hyper-metropia, astigmatism, cataract and night
blindness
2. Sense organs: Structure of the ear and part played by its various parts
3. Sense Organs :(a) Organ of smell (i) The mechanism of smelling with the help
of olfactory chemo receptions (ii) Adaptation for survival-animal that sniff for
hunting e.g. Dog –presence of chemo receptor on butterfly antennae for sensing
its environment (b) Taste buds on tongue and the parts played in tasting (c) The
skin-sensory nerve endings or receptions associated with the skin-touch, deep
pressure, heat and pain.
4. Ecology of Population:(a)Succession (i)Meaning of succession (ii)Structural
changes in species composition, variety and increase in number (iii)primary
succession –in an aquatic and terrestrial habitat (iv) Secondary succession-
meaning and examples (v) Characteristics of a stable community
(b)Overcrowding (i)Population density (ii)Importance of factors affecting
population.
5. Ecology of Population: (c) Explanation on relationship between competition
and succession (d) Factors that may cause overcrowding e.g. increased mortality,
reduced mortality, reduced death rate, absence of predators etc. (e)Discussion
on measures adopted by nature to avoid overcrowding e.g. dispersal of seeds
and fruits, migration of organisms during unfavorable periods, territorial behavior
in some organisms e.g. lizards. (f)Effects of food shortage –competition,
emigration, reproduction and increase in mortality rate.
6. Ecology of Population: (a)Dynamic equilibrium in nature and factors that
maintain it (i) Density independent factors like availability of food (ii) Density
dependent factor e.g. natural disasters (b) Family planning: natural and artificial
method used by man to control his population.
7. Development of new organisms (Courtship behavior in animals, Stages in development of
 toad, insects)
8. Development of new organisms (Seeds, fruits in plants, Germination of seeds)

WEEK 1

TOPIC: SENSE ORGANS

CONTENT: 1. Receptors
2. The skin
3. The eye

SUB-TOPIC 1: SENSE ORGANS

A sense organ is defined as a group of specialized cells or tissues or which are able to receive,
perceive or detect stimulus and transmit the information to the central nervous system.
Information about the mechanical, thermal, chemical and electromagnetic changes in
the internal and external environment are perceived by sensory receptors in our bodies.
These process the information and make us aware of changes.
There are four main groups of sensory receptors namely;
Mechanoreceptors: these detect mechanical stimuli such as sound, gravity, pressure,
vibrations, etc.
Thermo receptors: These detect thermal stimuli such as heat and cold.
Chemo receptors: These detect chemical stimuli such as odour and taste.
Photo receptors: These detect electromagnetic visual stimuli such as light intensities
and colour.
The sensory receptors transform the stimulus received into a nerve impulse which is
transmitted to the central nervous system for interpretation and appropriate response.
The human body has five sense organs namely;
1. The eye for vision.
2. The ear for hearing and balancing.
3. The nose for smelling
4. The tongue (taste buds) for tasting.
5. The skin for receiving sensations of temperature, pain, touch and pressure.

SKIN AS A SENSE ORGAN

In the mammalian skin, there are many sensory receptors for detecting several stimuli like touch,
pressure, pain, cold and heat unlike other sense organs which detect one type of stimulus each.

Generally, sensory receptors are not evenly distributed through out the skin. Each type is more
concentrated in certain body region.

Sensory nerves ending sensitive to pressure (called pacinia corpuscles) are found deepest in the
skin. Hence they need stronger stimulation. Those sensitive to touch (meissner’s corpuscles) are
largely distributed closest to the skin surface (in the epidermis) especially in hairless regions like
tongue, fingers, lips, forehead etc. hence they need a gentle stimulation. In between pressure and
touch receptors are those detecting cold, heat(thermoreceptors)and pain(nociceptors).

THE ORGAN OF SIGHT (EYE)

The eye is the organ of sight, spherical in shape and protected by occular or optical structures like
eye sockets, eyelids, eyelashes, tear or lacrimal glands and conjunctiva.

1. The eye sockets house the eyes.

2. Eye lids (upper and lower) protect the eye from foreign particles or mechanical injury.
3. Tear or lacrimal glands, at the meeting point of the eyelids secretes a salty fluid called tear
which moistens the eyeball, washes dust and destroys bacteria using its chemical substance
called lysozyme.
4. Eye lashes are rows of hairs on the eyelid which protect the eye ball from dust, excessive
light and shield the eye against sweat and water.
5. Conjunctiva is a thin transparent membrane lining the inside of the eyelids and protectively
covers the cornea. The conjunctiva gets inflamed during infection (conjunctivitis).

STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

The wall of the eye ball consists of three layers namely (from outside inwards): sclera, choroid and
retina

1. THE SCLERA: - the outermost white layer which gives shape to the eye and protects the inner
part of the eye. The sclerotic layer bulges out in front of the eye to form the transparent
cornea. The cornea admits light into the eye, brings the light to focus on the retina and
protects the eye externally.
2. THE CHOROID LAYER: - This is highly vascularized and pigmented (black). This layer
provides food and oxygen to the cells in the eye. The black pigment helps to absorb light
rays and prevents light reflection. It consists of the ciliary muscles, iris, pupils, suspensory
ligaments and the lens.
i. IRIS: - a band of muscle fibres that contracts and relaxes to alter the size of the pupils
thereby controlling the amount of light passing through the eye.
ii. PUPIL: - This is the opening between the upper and lower Iris and it controls the amount
of light which enters the eye. Bright light makes the pupil small while dim light makes it
big.
iii. CILIARY MUSCLE: - It consists of circular and radial muscles which contracts and relaxes
to alter the focal length of the lens to focus near and distant objects.
iv. SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS: - Hold the lens in place
v. LENS: - This is a transparent biconvex elastic structure held in position by suspensory
ligament. It helps to refract light rays entering the eye. It also makes fine adjustment to
focus the image of an object on the retina.
 3. THE RETINA: - This is the part of the eye sensitive to light. It is also vascularized, pigmented
and elastic. Light rays come to focus on the retina. Images formed on the retina are always
real, inverted, and smaller than the real object. Two types of sensory cells (photo receptors)
found in retina are cones and rods.
i. Cones are cells in the retina, which are sensitive to coloured visions and high light
intensities. They contain a photochemical substance called iodopsin which is not easily
bleached by high light intensities.
ii. Rods are more than the cones. They are sensitive to colourless vision and low light
intensities. A purple pigment – protein complex made from vitamin A called rhodopsin
is found on the surface of rods. Rhodopsin is easily bleached when light falls on it.

iii. YELLOW SPOT (Fovea centralis): - This is the most sensitive part of the retina from
where the fullest visual information is sent to the brain. It is the point where image is
focused.
iv. BLIND SPOT: - This is the point where the cells are not sensitive to light i.e no cones or
rods here. The optic nerve goes out of the eye to the brain from the blind spot.
4. OPTIC NERVES: This nerve transmits sensory impulses to and from the brain.
5. AQUEOUS HUMOUR: - This is the transparent watery liquid which fills the space between the
cornea and the lens. It is made up of solutions of protein, sugar, salt and water. This liquid
refracts light rays onto the retina and helps to maintain the spherical shape of the eye.
6. VITREOUS HUMOUR: - This is wider, transparent, jelly-like liquid which fills the space
between the lens and the retina. It is also a mixture of protein, sugar, salt and water. It
carries out the same function as the aqueous humour.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EYE

1. Image Formation:-

Light rays from any object enter the eye through cornea, aqueous humour, pupil, lens and vitreous
humour to the retina. These structures are all transparent and contribute to the refraction (bending)
of the light rays thus enabling the rays to converge on the retina. The image of the object (real,
inverted and smaller) is then formed on the retina. The stimulus of light reflected from the object is
received by the rods or cones depending on the light intensity and are converted to electrical impulse.
The impulse is transmitted through the optic nerve to the optic lobe of the brain which correctly
interpretes the image. To form a sharp image of the object, all the light rays refracted meet at a
particular point on the retina called yellow spot.

2. Accommodation:-

This is the ability of the eye to focus near and distant objects on the retina i.e. the ability to see
clearly through the adjustment of the focal length of the lens.

TO SEE NEAR OBJECTS

 1. The ciliary muscles contracts, making the suspensory ligaments relax their attention on the
lens.
2. The lens then becomes more convex in shape thus reducing the focal length of the lens to
focus the image on the retina.
TO SEE DISTANT OBJECTS
1. The ciliary muscles relax, making the suspensory ligaments contract and pulling on the lens.
2. The lens becomes flattened (elongated) increasing its focal length to focus the image on the
retina.

EYE DEFECTS AND CORRECTIONS

An eye is defected when an image cannot be properly formed on the retina. The defects include;

1. Short sightedness (myopia): - This is a defect in which a person sees nearby object clearly
but distant ones appear blurred because the eye ball is longer than normal (from back to
front). Therefore, light rays from distant object are brought to focus in front of the retina.
CORRECTION: - Using spectacles or glasses with suitable concave or diverging lens which
diverge the light rays from a distant object before entering the eye so that the eye can bring
the rays to a focus right on the retina.
2. Long Sightedness (hypermetropia) :- This is the defect in which a person sees far object
clearly but near ones appear blurred because the eye ball is shorter than normal,. Therefore
light rays from near object are brought to a focus behind the retina.
CORRECTION: - Using spectacles or glasses with suitable convex or converging lens which
converge the light rays from the near object before entering the eye so that the eye can bring
the rays to a focus right on the retina.
3. Presbyopia: - This is an eye defect resulting when the lens and the ciliary muscle lose their
elasticity with advancing age. Therefore, light rays from nearby object are not bent inward
sufficiently and so are brought to a focus behind the retina. CORRECTION:
- By the use of converging lens.
4. Astigmatism: - This is caused by uneven cornea surface and can be corrected by using lens
with compensating uneven surface.
5. Cataract:- This occurs mainly in old people in which eye lens becomes cloudy and can be
corrected with a plastic lens or spectacles with suitable lens.
6. Night Blindness:- This is due to deficiency of vitamin A
7. Conjunctivitis:- Inflammation of the conjunctiva caused by the bacteria or irritants in the
wind.

WEEK TWO & THREE

ORGAN OF HEARING, SMELL AND TASTE

CONTENT

The organ of hearing (Structure of the ear and their functions)

Mechanism of hearing
Mechanism of balancing

Organ of smell (structure and function of nose)

Organ of taste (structure and functions of the tongue

THE EAR

The ear is for hearing as well as for maintaining balance.

STRUCTURE OF THE EAR AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The mammalian ear is divided into 3 parts.

1. The outer ear.

2. The middle ear.
3. The inner ear.

THE OUTER EAR

This is made up of the following from outside the organism:

1. The Pinna: - This is flexible being made up of soft cartilage covered with skin. The pinna
collects sounds, detects their direction and directs them into the ear canal.
2. External Auditory Meatus: - This consists of fine hairs and glands which produce wax.
Therefore it prevents germs, insects and dusts from entering and affecting the ear. It allows
the passage of sound waves from the pinna to the ear drum.
3. The Tympanic Membrane (Ear Drum):- This is a thin membrane which vibrates when sound
waves get to it. It separates the external ear from the middle ear. Therefore, it transmits
sound waves from the outer ear to the middle ear.
THE MIDDLE EAR

This is a small air-filled chamber in the skull, which is made up of three tiny soft bones (ear ossicles)
and Eustachian tube.

1. Ear Ossicles: - These include malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). The
ossicles form a bridge linking the outer and inner ear through a membrane covered opening
called round window.
2. Eustachian Tube: - This is a narrow tube in the middle ear connecting it to the pharynx. This
usually opens when yawning, it allows air to enter or leave the middle ear so that the air
pressure on both side of the eardrum is equal.

THE INNER EAR

This is made up of two auditory structures which include the cochlea and the semicircular canals.
These two structures are connected to the utriculus and sacculus respectively.

1. The Cochlea: - a snail shell-like structure concerned with hearing. It contains sensory hair
cells (mechanoreceptors) which synapse with sensory neurones that form the cochlear
nerves; they both form the organ of corti.
Semi-circular canal: - the three canals lie at right angle to one another, they have swollen ends
 called ampullae which contain sensory hair cells and otoliths (ear stones). These structures are
concerned with balance and maintaining the posture of the body.

MECHANISM OF HEARING
The pinna detects and collects sound waves in the air and concentrates them and passes them on
through the external auditory meatus. The wave causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate and the
vibrations are passed on to the ear ossicles which amplify them. The oval windows magnify the
vibrations, passing them into the inner ear (cochlea) where the perilymph and endolymph vibrate.
The vibrations of the endolymph stimulate the organ of corti in the cochlea to convert the sound
vibration to electrical impulse. The impulses then stimulate the auditory nerves of the acoustic
branch to the brain for interpretation.

Mechanism of balancing

Head movement in any direction causes the fluid in the semicircular canals and the otoliths in the
ampullae to move. Impulses are set up and transmitted through the vestibular branch of the auditory
nerves to the brain for interpretation. The brain relays impulses to the body muscles for balancing
the position of the body.

DISEASES OF THE EAR

The major disease of the ear is deafness. It can be temporary or permanent. It can be caused by
damage to the tympanic membrane, eustachian tube or sensory cells in the cochlea. Also, wax
blocking the ear canal, infection of the ear or sudden very loud or constant noise causes deafness.

Care of the ear

ORGAN OF SMELL (NOSE)

The human olfactory organ is the nose. The epithelia lining of the nasal cavity is rich in sensory
nerve ending. Compared to lower class animals like dog, man has a poor sense of smell. We detect
smell quickly but for a short time.

MECHANISM OF SMELLING

Nose functions well when wet. The smell receptors are stimulated by chemicals. Particles of
volatile chemical substances in the air dissolve in the mucus layer over the cell receptors in the
nostrils. The stimulation of the receptors gives rise to nerve impulses which travel through the
olfactory nerve to the olfactory lobe of the brain. The brain then interprets the kind of smell.

ORGAN OF TASTE (TONGUE)

The sensory cells for taste are called taste buds located on the tiny swellings on the exposed
surface on the tongue. They are connected by four sensory nerves to the brain which interprets
what is tasted. The tongue therefore is sensitive to four primary tastes:

1. Sweet taste: detected by chemoreceptors at the tip of the tongue.

 2. Salty taste: detected by chemoreceptors by the side (frontal).
3. Sour taste: detected by chemoreceptors at the side of the tongue (towards the back).
4. Bitter taste – detected by chemoreceptors at the back.

MECHANISM OF TASTING

Chemicals from any substance put in the mouth dissolves in the saliva on the tongue, this
stimulates the sensory nerve endings in taste buds which then pass the impulses to the brain for
interpretation as sweet, bitter, sour or salty

NOTE: - Both smell and tastes are closely related sensations, hence we smell what we taste. When
we eat and drink, the taste receptors are stimulated, at the same time flavour producing chemical
from the food dissolves in the moist air in the mouth and flow into the nasal cavity to stimulate the
smell receptors. The smell sensation is more severe than taste sensation.

WEEK FOUR

TOPIC: ECOLOGY OF POPULATION

CONTENT:
1. Succession
i. Meaning of succession
ii. Structural changes in species composition, variety and increase in number.
iii. Primary succession (a) Aquatic and (b) Terrestrial habitat
iv. Secondary succession-Meaning and examples
v. Characteristics of a stable community.
2. Overcrowding (i) Population density (ii) Important factors affecting population

SUB-TOPIC I: MEANING AND DEFINATION OF SUCCESSION

Succession can be defined as the series of progressive changes at different times in
plants and animals communities in a given habitat until a stable community is
established.
A stable or climax community takes a long time to form as it is usually gradual. A
climax habitat is also an equilibrium environment.
TYPES OF SUCCESSION
Two main types of succession are recognized by ecologists.
1. Primary Succession

2. Secondary Succession

i. Primary Succession: This takes place in an area where biotic communities are absent,
i.e. bare rocks or ground and involves the formation of soil in a terrestrial habitat. In
aquatic habitat, it occurs in lakes and ponds filled with sediments and vegetation that
will become swamps and at last, forests.
Primary succession takes a long time to reach climax. Certain natural phenomenon like
land slide, extreme drought, sand dunes, earthquake, thunder storm and hurricanes
also give rise to primary succession.

ii. Secondary Succession

Secondary Succession occurs in an area that was previously existing on a terrestrial
habitat that had disturbances leaving soil and certain organisms behind. Disturbances
like fire disasters, droughts or floods.

Secondary Succession is much faster than primary Succession. This is as a result of the
existing soil and suppressed plants that can easily start the process.

Process of ecological succession on a bare piece of land- Terrestrial habitat

1. The first living organism on a bare plot of land are the pioneers which are algae
and mosses.

2. As the pioneers live and die, they add nutrients to the soil.

3. This creates conditions that are more favourable to other plants like ferns, herbs,
lower animals like insects, worms which could not live there before.

4. As they live and die, their remains further improve the soil conditions.

5. Thus perennial herbs, grasses and other animals such as lizards, snakes, toads,
and rats are able to live there.

6. Subsequently, a point is reached at which the soil can support the growth of taller
 species such as shrubs, trees and higher animals.

7. Higher animals, birds, various mammals may be found in the habitat at this stage.

8. Thus a climax community is established which is in equilibrium with the

environment.

SUB-TOPIC 3: CHARACTERFISTICS OF A STABLE COMMUNITY

A climax or stable community has peculiar characteristics such as:
1. A stable community is not totally homogenous. It changes with age

2. It depends on the climate of the region and it is a state of dynamic equilibrium

with the climate and it is self sustaining.

3. Its numerous micro-habitats are inhabited by the different organisms.

4. A climax community has the biggest, tallest and most highly developed
vegetation the habitat can support.

WEEK FIVE
OVERCROWDING
Overcrowding occurs when the number of organisms in a habitat are more than the
resources such food, nutrients in case of plants, light, space available to the organisms.
The phenomenon implies that the population has increased beyond the carrying
capacity of the habitat.

FOOD SHORTAGE AND ITS EFFECT

One of the very essential resources in a habitat for which organisms compete is food.
Food is essential for growth, repairs and reproduction. As earlier said, abundance of
food in a habitat can lead to increased population which may result in overcrowding.
However, scarcity of food in any habitat or among any population of organisms has
adverse effect such as reducing growth and reproduction.

CAUSES OF FOOD SHORTAGE

Overpopulation: Overpopulation occurs when increase in population is not
matched with corresponding increase in food production.
Drought: Severe drought which is absence of rainfall for a prolonged period of
time will adversely affect agricultural activities that will lead to poor harvest
 eventually food shortage.
Natural disasters such as war, floods and earthquakes can destroy farmlands,
result in poor or no harvest and automatically food shortage.
Poor storage facilities: In developing countries like ours, a lot of harvests of
agricultural products are wasted due to inadequate processing and storage of
farm products which results in food shortage.
Diseases of plants and animals: Certain diseases such as mealy bug diseases of
cassava, mosaic virus of tomato, pepper, and avian flu in birds cause sicknesses
in these organisms giving rise to poor production.

EFFECT OF FOOD SHORTAGE

Competition for available food occurs. This result in aggression, cannibalism,
predation and survival of the ‘‘fittest’’ results. There are two types of competition:

Intraspecific competition

Interspecific competition

Food shortage results in poor feeding which can result in poor growth, delayed
maturity and reduction in the rate of reproduction. Increase mortality and
increase maternity rates are possible consequences.

It can result in under functioning of body organs and systems, lower resistance
to diseases with resultant death from sicknesses and diseases.

Food shortage results in emigration that is movement of individuals i.e.,

organisms out of the habitat to other habitat or community in search of food
thereby reducing the population.

POPULATION AND POPULATION DENSITY.

Population is the total number of organisms of the same species living in a particular
area at a particular time e.g, population of students in a school, population of snakes in
a farm land.

Population density is the average number of organisms of a species per unit area of a
habitat.
Population density = Population size/ Area of Habitat
For example;
(a) If the area of a classroom is 40m2 and the number of students in the class is 80.
What is the population density?
Population density = Population size = 80/40m2 = 2 students per square meter
(b) If 80 students are in a class room whose area is 40m2. What is the space available
to each student?
Space per organism can be determined by using the formula:
2
Space = Area of the classroom = 40 = ½m

No of students 80

Population size = Population density X Area of the habitat

Increase in population density reduces available resources per organism. This
automatically results in competition and struggle between the organism for the
available space and resources. In this struggle, organisms that compete better will
survive while the weak ones will die off.

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION

1. Abiotic factors such as temperature, water, light, oxygen, food, soil and
availability of space affects population either positively or negatively.
2. Biotic factors such as predation, competition, parasitism, diseases, natality,
mortality, terrestrial behaviour and dispersal of seeds also affects population.

WEEK SIX
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
The biotic community in each ecosystem is composed of population of many species.
An ecosystem with a stable climax community, the population sizes of the various
species are constant. For each species the population size fluctuates around the
carrying capacity of the habitat for that particular species. The various populations in a
climax community are said to be in balance or in dynamic equilibrium. The equilibrium is
said to be dynamic because though the population remain constant, new individuals are
being added while the existing ones are removed all the time. Rate of addition is equal
to the rate of removal.
Dynamic equilibrium is maintained by two major factors that relate to density

I. Density –independent factors: some factors affecting growth of a population

irrespective of its population density.

Examples of such factors are:

1. Sudden changes in weather conditions.

2. Natural disaster like flood, fire, drought, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis,
storm, presence of pollutants, etc.

These events may wipe out large number of individuals in a population and are
independent of the number of individuals in a population

II. Density dependent factors: these are factors that affect the growth of a population
and are dependent on the number of individual in a population.

Examples Of density dependent factors are

1. Diseases

2. Predation

3. Competition

4. Parasitism

These factors have a greater effect on densely populated areas than sparsely populated
area

For instance, as population increases food availability decreases and disease outbreak
occur more frequently. These may lead to low birth rate and high mortality rate thereby
reducing the population.

Therefore as population size increases, density dependent factors cause population

growth to slow down and help check definite population growth

Response of population to factors affecting them There can be fluctuations in

population size. This can be due to seasonal changes in the environment such as
rainfall and temperature.

FAMILY PLANNING
Family planning is the use of birth control methods to determine the number and timing
of children born in the family.
Birth control methods are in four main groups.

1. Natural method

2. Mechanical Method

3. Chemical Method

4. Surgical Method

1. NATURAL METHOD:

i. Rhythm methods/safe-period method: It based on the fact that in every

menstrual cycle, there is a fertile period when ovulation is most likely to occur.
For pregnancy to be prevented, sexual intercourse is to be avoided during the
period.

ii. Withdrawal method/coitus interruptus: It involves the withdrawal of the penis

from the vaginal just before ejaculation. This method is unreliable as some
viable semen may enter the vagina before ejaculation.

2. MECHANICAL METHODS:

i. Condom/sheath: It is a thin rubber tube that is used to cover the erect penis
before intercourse.

ii. Diaphragm: this is dome –shaped rubber cap with an elastic rim. It is inserted
into the top of the vaginal and placed over the cervix, thus preventing sperms
from getting into the uterus. A spermicidal cream may be used together with
the cap to kill the sperms.

iii. Intra-uterine device (IUD): this is a coil or loop of plastic inserted into the
uterus to prevent the implantation of the fertilised egg into the uterine wall.
3. CHEMICAL METHODS:

i. Spermicides: these are chemical agents which are used to kill sperms. They
may be in the form of a cream, jelly, foam or tablet.

ii. Contraceptive pills: these pills contain female sex hormones (oestrogen and
progesterone like hormone) that prevent ovulation. One pill must be taken
every 24 hours from the 5th to the 25th day from onset of menstruation.

iii. Depo-provera: this contraceptive is injected into the body of the female to
prevent ovulation. The injection is effective in preventing pregnancy for three
months.

4. SURGICAL METHODS:

i. Vasectomy: this sterilization procedure is carried out on males through a

minor surgical operation. The sperm duct is tied and cut thus preventing
sperms from reaching the penis so that no sperms are discharged during
sexual intercourse. His sexual characteristics are not affected by this
procedure.

ii. Tubal ligation: in the female, both oviducts (fallopian tubes are cut and tied
back. This prevents the sperms in the uterus from reaching the egg. The
above sterilization procedure is the most reliable contraceptive methods but
it is irreversible.
 WEEK SEVEN

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ORGANISMS

CONTENT

Courtship behavior in animals

Stages in development of toad

Metamorphosis in insects

Life histories of housefly and cockroach

COURTSHIP BEHAVIOURS IN ANIMALS

Courtship is a reproductive communication between males and females of a species that ends in
sexual union. Courtship behaviours in animals include

1. PAIRING: - A form of courtship in which a compatible male and female separate themselves
from other in a group to form a mating pair. Pairing occurs in human, toad, fish, winged
termites etc.
2. DISPLAY: - A process involving fixed pattern movements or attractive exhibitions and
responses between a male and a female which ends in mating. Examples of display include
croaking in toads, dancing, singing in human, production of odour by females, stunning tail
feathers of a peacock etc.
3. TERRITORIALITY: - A form of behavior in which a member of a specie marks out a fixed area
and defend it against intruders of the same species. Usually males establish territories prior
to mating. Territories are established by most vertebrates except amphibians.
4. SEASONAL MIGRATION: - Seasonal movement of animals from one place to another in
connection with breeding, feeding and escaping unfavourable climatic conditions. Termites,
birds, fish etc exhibit seasonal migration.

STAGES IN DEVELOPMENT OF TOAD

In toad, an amphibian and a vertebrate, Courtship takes place during rainy season when male toads
make loud croaking noise to attract females which are swollen with eggs. The male later climbs the
female back, holding her firmly with the thick parts on its thumbs. As the female lays her eggs, the
male release its sperms on them (external fertilization). The developmental stages after fertilization
include

The egg stage: - the eggs laid are enclosed in strings of jelly which perform the following roles: (i)
Protecting the egg from mechanical damage (ii) Ensuring easy access to oxygen for survival (iii)
Preventing microbial attack (iv) Preventing the egg from drying up

The zygote (fertilized egg) stage: After fertilization the zygote formed undergo mitotic cell
division for the embryo to emerge. The embryo gets its food from egg yolk and dissolved
 oxygen through the jelly.

The young tadpole stage: – The young tadpole emerges from the jelly after 1-2 days. The tadpole
attaches itself to a water weed by a sticky substance secreted by its v-shaped cement gland
(from under its head) The tadpole feeds on egg yolk (no mouth yet) and gets its dissolved
oxygen through the skin .Developing eyes, ears and nostrils are seen with marked portion for
mouth.

The external gill stage: – The young tad pole has a head, body and tail. Three external gills are
found on either side of the head. It develops horny jaws which are used to feed on water weeds.
The intestine is long and coiled with the cement gland still present.

Internal gill stage: - 6-10 days after hatching, the external gills disintegrate while the internal gills
develop .A gill cover called operculum grows over the gills. The tadpole now breathes like a fish.
Its tail elongates and muscles develop.

The limb stage: – The hind limbs grow first and develop. The fore limbs then start to grow out.
The left fore limb appears first through the opercular opening followed by the right forelimb.
The internal gills gradually disintegrate while the lungs start developing. The mouth develops
and replaces the horny jaws. Intestine shortens and the tad pole starts eating small animals in
the water. The eyes become big and prominent.

Young toad stage: - The tadpole reabsorbs the tail and then changes into small toad. It comes out
of the water to the land where it grows into a full adult toad.

Metamorphosis in toad (from egg to the adult toad) takes about 40-45 days under the control of the
hormone thyroxine produced by the thyroid gland (found between the head and the trunk).

METAMORPHOSIS IN INSECTS
Metamorphosis is the gradual changes that occur during the development of an animal from the
zygote (fertilized egg) to the adult stage. There are two types of metamorphosis in insects which
include

1. complete metamorphosis
2. incomplete metamorphosis

COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
This is the series of gradual changes which takes place in insects from fertilized eggs to larva then
to pupa and finally to the adult stage:

Egg -------- larva ------- pupa ------- adult

No resemblance between pupa and adult stage .Insect undergoing complete metamorphosis include
houseflys, mosquitoes, butterflies, bees, wasps and beetles.

INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
In this type of metamorphosis, the egg hatches into a nymph which generally resembles the adult
except that it is smaller, wingless and sexually immature.

Egg ------- nymph ------- adult

LIFE HISTORY OF HOUSEFLY

Housefly undergoes complete metamorphosis. Its life history involves: -

Egg stage: - 2 – 7 batches of eggs (100 – 150 eggs in a batch) are laid by the female housefly in a
moist dirty environment. The eggs hatch into white larvae in about 8 – 24 hours.

Larva stage: - The larva called maggot has a segmented body. The head bears a pair of hook for
tearing food and drawing the larva along. On the ventral surface of the segmented body lie
spiny pads for movement. It has two pairs of spiracles for breathing. The larva moults several
times and lasts for about 5 – 14 days after which it moves to a dry place to begin the pupal
stage.

Pupal stage: - The maggot shortens; its skin becomes hard and brown forming the pupal case
(puparium). It does not feed or move. Internal re-organisation takes place at this stage. In about
3 – 10 days, the young adult hatches out of the puparium.

Adult stage: - The adult housefly called imago emerges from the puparium using a sac-like organ
(ptilinum) to break it open. It moves to the surface of the dirt and flies away when the wings are
dry.

LIFE HISTORY OF COCKROACH

Cockroach undergoes incomplete metamorphosis. Its life history involves: -

 Egg stage: - A female cockroach lays about 10 – 16 eggs in a horny egg case (ootheca) which she
carries in her abdominal pouch for some time and later deposit it in a safe dark. After 30 – 100
days, the eggs hatch into nymphs which are wingless, small and whitish in colour.

Nymph stage: - The nymphs feed, grow, become brown, moult about 13 times to become adults.

Adult stage: - In the process of moulting, the wings first appear as wing pad and later into full
grown wings. A cockroach requires 11 – 20 months to develop from eggs to imago.

WEEK EIGHT

DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE IN FLOWERING PLANTS,

GERMINATION OF SEEDS, ADAPTIVE FEATURES IN A
DEVELOPING ANIMAL
CONTENT

Fertilization and development of zygote in plants

Formation of seeds and fruits

Germination of seeds and condition necessary for germination

Adaptive features in a developing animal

Definition of oviparity, viviparity and ovoviviparity

 ADAPTIVE FEATURES IN DEVELOPING ANIMALS
(EGGS OF FISH, AMPHIBIANS, REPTILES AND BIRDS)
All vertebrates except mammals are egg laying animals. The egg has the following features that help
the embryo to develop inside it.

SHELL: - Hard, porous and rich in calcium carbonate. It protects the egg and aid respiration.

SHELL MEMBRANES: - Also aid protection of the egg.

ALBUMEN: - It is called the egg white and accounts for over 50% of the egg. It nourishes the
embryo.with especially proteins.

YOLK: - Located at the centre of the egg. It is rich in vitamins, protein, carbohydrates , fats
and minerals to nourish the embryos.

CHALAZA: - A piece of thick protoplasm that extends to both side of the yolk to hold the
embryo in position.

DEVELOPING EMBRYO/FOETUS IN MAMMALS

The embryo or foetus has the following adaptive features.

PLACENTA: - the connection between the embryo and the mother in mammals.

It carries oxygen, water and food from the mother blood to the embryo blood.

It also removes excretory waste like urea, salt and carbon dioxide from the embryos blood
and transfers it to the mother’s blood stream for elimination.

It produces hormones which helps the mother to adapt to the pregnancy.

UMBLICAL CORD: - It helps to attach the embryo to the placenta .The arteries and vein of the
cord carry the blood of the foetus to and from the placenta .The blood of the mother and of
the foetus are separated and so do not mix

EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES: - These membranes envelop the foetus to provide it adequate

protection .The membranes include

Amnion which is the innermost membrane filled with the amnoiotic fluid which serves as a
cushion or shock absorber for the embryo. The fluid also neutralizes the effect of changes of
external temperature.

Chorion is the outermost membrane which absorbs oxygen for the embryo.

Allantois is a membrane which aids respiration and excretion in developing

DEFINITION OF OVIPARITY, VIVIPARITY AND OVOVIVIPARITY

OVIPARITY is a process of reproduction in which eggs are laid into the external environment where
the embryos complete their development and hatch out of the eggs as young. Most fishes,
amphibians, reptile and birds undergo this type of reproduction.
VIVIPARITY is a process of reproduction in which the young develops and nourished inside the
female’s body through the placenta and are born alive when fully developed. A few fishes, reptiles
and most mammals are viviparous animals.

OVOVIVIPARITY takes place in few fishes and reptiles where the eggs are retained in the body of the
female without placenta and when fully develop the young hatch from the eggs and are released
from the female’s body.

DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE IN PLANTS

Pollination is followed by fertilization and the development of zygote in flowering plants during
which the flower changes into a fruit enclosing the seeds. The male and female sex cells that form
zygote at fertilization are the pollen grain and the ovule. The following are the processes involved

After pollination - the pollen grain absorbs a sugary liquid on the stigma swells, and germinates.

The outer coat of the pollen grain splits and the pollen tube grows out and down inside the style.

The nucleus of the pollen grain divides into two – a large tube nucleus and a smaller generative
nucleus .The generative nucleus further divides into two. Upon entry into the micropyle, the tube
nucleus disintegrates. One of the male nuclei – after their release into the embryo sac, fuses
with the ovule to form a zygote which develops into the embryo this is called first fertilization.

Second fertilization takes place when the second male nucleus fuses with the polar nuclei to
form endosperm nucleus which produces the endosperm (food store house of the embryo).

FORMATION OF SEEDS AND FRUIT (DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO)

The zygote divides by mitosis to form many cells which differentiate and become organized into an
embryo. The embryo is made up of the following parts:

i. the plumule (embryonic shoot)

ii. the radicle (embryonic root)
 c. one or two cotyledon (seed leaves)
d. endosperm (they could be absent )
As the embryo develops, the ovary and the ovules undergo changes and develop into fruit and seed
or seeds respectively.

WEEK NINE

SEED
A seed is defined as the ripen fertilized and developed ovule .The structure of the seed have the
following parts

1. seed coat –This is the outer membrane of the seed

2. hilum – is the point of attachment of the seed to the seed stock
3. Micropyle - The tiny hole through which air and water get into the embryo of the seed.
4. Embryo is the inner most part of the seed.
A seed with one cotyledon is called monocotyledon e.g. cereals such as maize, millet, rice, sorghum,
wheat etc. Those with two seed leaves are called dicotyledonous plant e.g. mango, beans.

GERMINATION OF SEEDS
Germination is the process of gradual development of the embryo seed into the seedling or the
young plant. The embryo of the developed seeds usually undergoes a rest period called dormancy
and the seed remains in this condition as long as the conditions for germination are unfavourable.
There are two types of germination

1. Epigeal germination: - This is when the seedling emerging from the soil carries the
cotyledon above the soil surface e.g. dicotyledonous plant
 2. Hypogeal germination: - This is when the seedling emerges from the soil with the cotyledon
left below the soil e.g. monocotyledonous plant.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR SEEDS GERMINATION

1. Adequate supply of water or moisture which helps to activate the soil and make the seed
coat soft for further development.
2. Oxygen is needed for respiration for the generation of energy needed for the growth of the
seed.
3. Optimum temperature
4. Enzymes are needed to speed up the rate at which the food is broken down to release energy.
5. Food or energy (in dicot seed, the food is stored in the cotyledon while in monocot plant the
food is stored in the endosperm).
6. The seeds must be viable.

WEEK TEN

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

TOPIC: FRUIT

CONTENT: 1. Structure of fruits

2. Types of fruits
3. Dispersal of fruits
4. Agents of dispersal

SUB-TOPIC I: MEANING OF FRUIT

Fruit is the structure that developed from the matured ovary after fertilization which
contains the seed. Some fruits do not develop from fertilized ovary and are called
parthenocarpic fruit.

Fruit contains the pericarp (epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp).

Structure of a fruit

Fruits

Simple Aggregate Multiple

Dry Dehiscent Dry Indehiscent Fleshy

Legume or pod Achene Drupe
Follicle Cypsela Berry
Capsule Caryopsis Pome
Schizocarp Nut Hesperidium
Siliqua Samara

TYPES OF FRUITS
Fruits can be classified based on their origin or structure. These include:
1. True and false fruit
2. Simple, aggregate and composite (multiple) fruit
3. Fleshy and dry fruit
4. Dehiscent and indehiscent fruits

Simple fruits: Formed from one flower having either a monocarpous or syncarpous
pistil.
Aggregate fruits: Formed from one flower having an apocarpous pistil
Multiple fruits: these are fruits formed from many flowers whose ovaries unite together
with other parts of the flower after fertilization or one that develops from several
flowers inflorescence e.g. pineapple, bread fruit etc.

SIMPLE FRUITS
The simple fruits can be divided into dry and fleshy fruits. A dry fruit is the type of fruit in
which the pericarp becomes dry, hard and woody or fibrous when the fruit ripens. Dry
fruit may be dehiscent or indehiscent.

DRY DEHISCENT FRUIT: These are fruit with hard and dry pericarp which can split to
release their seeds. The dry dehiscent fruit can be divided into five namely: the follicle,
legumes, schizocarps, capsule and Siliqua
1. Follicle: The follicle are fruits that are formed from one carpel and which can split
along one side only e.g. kola
2. Legume: These are fruits that are formed from one carpel that splits along two
sides e.g. cowpea, crotolaria and all bean species
3. Capsule: These are fruits formed from fused carpels and split longitudinally
 along two or more lines e.g. okra, castor oil and cotton
4. Schizocarps: These are many seeded fruits which break up into one seeded parts
called mericarp e.g. Mimosa pudica (sensitive plant) and Desmodium
5. Siliqua: A long narrow capsule formed from bicapellary ovary. It has two
chambers separated by a false septum or reptum. It dehisces by the sutures e.g.
Teconia

DRY INDEHISCENT FRUITS: These are the fruits that do not split to release their seeds.
Dry indehiscent fruits are divided into five.
1. Achene: The fruit has dry pericarp and contain one seed e.g. cashew, nut,
sunflower fruit, four O’clock plant, rose and clematis
2. Caryopsis: the caryopsis is a one-seeded dry indehiscent fruit in which the
pericarp becomes fused with testa. Examples are rice, maize and millet
3. Cypsela: the cypsela is one-seeded dry fruit with hairy pappus and hairy pericarp.
Examples are Tridax, Emilia and goat weed.
4. Nut: A nut is a dry fruit with a very hard or woody or tough pericarp e.g. the hard
part of cashew fruit, ground nut, palm nut and cola nut, walnut, and almond.
5. Samara: A samara has the pericarp extended to form one or more wings e.g.
Combretum, Obeche tree and pterocarpous (African rose wood)

FLESHY FRUITS: Fleshy fruits are juicy, succulent and indehiscent. They store large
quantities of water and carbohydrate in their tissue. There are six main types of fleshy
fruits namely:
1. Drupe: This is a true simple fruit with a well-developed pericarp. The epicarp is
thin, the mesocarp is fleshy or fibrous and the endocarp is hard and stony. The
latter encloses one or more seeds. The hard endocarp with its seed is known as
the stone of the fruit e.g. mango, coconut and oil palm fruit.
2. Berry: A berry is a true simple fruit with a well-developed pericarp. The endocarp
is not stony as in drupe. The endocarp is usually a thin membrane covering which
is closely attached to fleshy mass made up of the mesocarp and endocarp.
Sometimes the whole fruit is eaten. Examples are guava, tomatoes, banana,
lemon grape, cucumber date.
3. Pome: A Pome is a simple false fruit. Examples are apples and pears. In a Pome,
the outer covering and the fleshy edible part are formed by the swelling of the
receptacle. Only the core is formed from the ovary.
4. Hesperidium: A Hesperidium is a true simple fruit made up of chambers
separated by a sheet of endocarp. The epicarp and mesocarp are fused together
in form of a skin (or rind) e.g. orange, lemon, etc.

Differences between fruit and seed

 Fruit Seed

1. Formed from ovary Formed from ovule

2. has two scars or points: Has one scar or point

-the remains of style or stigma -where it was attached to the placenta
-where it was attached to the
floral receptacle

3. Consist of a seed or seeds Consist of an embryo

4. Has pericarp Has testa

Differences between drupe and berry

Drupe Berry

1. Pericarp consists of epicarp, fleshy Pericarp also consist of three layers

mesocarp and hard endocarp but the endocarp is fleshy

2. Entire fruit is not eaten Entire fruit is eaten

3. Developed from flower with superior Developed from flowers with either
ovaries superior or inferior ovaries

4. One-seeded Several seeds

5. examples are mango, coconut, oil Examples are tomato, guava, banana,
palm fruit cucumber

SUB-TOPIC 2: DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS

ADVANTAGES OF DISPERSAL
1. Prevent overcrowding.
2. Reduce degree of unhealthy competition between plants.
3. Introduction of plant species into new environment where they may be better
adapted.
4. The dispersal of fruits and seeds also helps to cover barren pieces of land with
vegetation.
SUB-TOPIC 3: AGENTS OF DISPERSAL
The common agents that bring about dispersal are;
1. Wind
2. Animal
3. Water
4. Man
5. Explosive mechanisms or explosion

i. By Wind: Fruits/seeds carried by the wind or air current must be light, small and have
light membranous wings and also having long hairy or thread-like structures which act
as parachutes in the air.
Wind dispersal is a wasteful process because a great number of seeds may be dropped
on sterile or unstable ground or may be carried out into the sea e.g. cotton, poppy,
clematics, shorea and augsana, tridax fruit and also Bouganvillea.

ii. By Animal: Animals like birds, fruit bats and monkeys may be agents of dispersal of
fruits and seeds. Many animals feed on the soft succulent fruits but they either discard
the strong protected seed of berries, the stony endocarp of drupes and achene or they
may swallow them. In the latter case, many of the hardened parts are resistant to
enzymes that they pass through the gut without harm and when later dropped can
germinate successfully e.g. guava, tomato.
Fruits and seeds may be carried externally on an animal’s body by reason of the fact
that special hooks or spines which catch in the fur or wool (hairy coats of animals e.g.
Desmodium)

iii. Dispersal by Water: The seed of certain water lilies have air spaces in the pericarp
which give the buoyancy required in water. Coconut fruit achieves dispersal of its single
seed by floating to new location.

iv. Dispersal by Man: Dispersal of many fruits and seeds have been aided by the
agricultural practices of man e.g. guava, sweet potato and cassava which are native to
tropical America now found in all tropical areas in the world.
Seeds of weeds are accidentally transported from one part of the world to another by
man’s activities.
v. Dispersal by Explosive Mechanism (Self Dispersal): when the fruit wall dries as in the
African oil bean, it splits and twists throwing the seed out. The legumes of many bean
plants e.g. (Acacia and Ceasalpinia) burst open when ripe. This is by the drying up of the
pericarp which causes contraction and splitting e.g. fruit of legumes, pride of Barbados
and capsules (fruit of okra-Hibiscus esculentus)