• Structural geology is the study of factors such as origin, • Attitude - The orientation of geometric element in space of

occurrence, classification, type and effects of various secondary a line or a plane. By convention, the attitude of a plane is
structures like folds, faults and joints, rock cleavage and are expressed as its strike and dip.
different from those primary structures such as bedding and • Strike - It is the direction of the line formed by the
vesicular structure, which develop in rocks at the time of their intersection of a rock surface with a horizontal plane.
formation.
• Structural geology is a branch of geology that studies how rocks • Apparent dip - The inclination of geologic beds as seen
deform in response to the stresses that act within the Earth. Rocks from any vertical cross section not perpendicular to the
and their forming minerals accommodate the stresses acting upon strike.
them and keep a record thereof by developing at times truly • True dip - The inclination of geologic beds as seen from
spectacular geological structures, such as fractures, faults or folds. any cross-section perpendicular to the strike.
• It is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units
with respect to their deformational histories. • Dip - It is the angle at which a planar feature is inclined to
the horizontal plane; it is measured in a vertical plane
The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of perpendicular to the strike of the feature. The direction of
present-day rock geometries to uncover information about the history dip can be thought of as the direction water would run
of deformation (strain) in the rocks. down the plane.
Economic Importance of Structural Geology INSTRUMENT USE TO MEASURE STRIKE AND DIP
• Structural geology is a critical part of engineering geology, BRUNTON COMPASS -It is used to get directional degree
which is concerned with the physical and mechanical measurements (azimuth) though use magnetic field.
properties of natural rocks.
• Deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and other PARTS OF BRUNTON COMPASS
metals, are commonly located in structurally complex
areas. 1. rounded level - for accurate measurements. center the
• Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly bubble.
occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. 2. needle - attached to a rare earth magnet.
3. graduated circle - in combination of needle.
Important Terms: 4. long level - use for accurate inclination measurements.
center the bubble using the vernier.
• Beds - The layers of sedimentary overlying and underlying 5. rare earth magnet - attached to brunton compass which
subsequent beds of different sedimentary rocks that are seek magnetic north.
distinctly different from rocks. 6. zero pin - used for magnetic declination adjustment.
• Strata - The layer of sedimentary rock or soil, or igneous 7. needle release mechanism
rock that were formed at the Earth's surface. Simply the 8. vernier - used for inclination measurements.
layers of beds.
OUTCROPS map usually represents the average of several
measurements.
• Any geological formation exposed on the surface.
• An outcrop is simply a rock column exposed at the surface, • Strike and dip are a way of representing the three-
whether naturally (because of erosion or mountain dimensional orientation of a planar surface on a two-
building) or artificially (because for instance of a road cut, dimensional map.
a tunnel, or an excavation). • The strike is the compass direction of a horizontal line on
the plane. All the horizontal lines on a plane are parallel, so
Stratigraphy they all have the same characteristic compass direction.
• The dip is the angle at which the plane slopes downhill
• The study of rock layers (strata) deposited in the earth and from the horizontal, at its maximum slope, which is at right
is preserved in the geological record. angles (90) from strike.
• Sediments (mineral grains and fragments of rock) are
produced by weathering at the Earth's surface. Geological symbols
• They are removed by erosion and deposited elsewhere as
layers, which thicken over time and, as the weight and
pressure increases, they are eventually compressed and
lithified to form sedimentary rock.

What are Geological Maps?

Geological map shows:

• distribution of the rocks at the earth’s surface.

• rock types
• age of rocks
• structures

Geological Symbols

• Strike and dip symbols provide information about the

three-dimensional orientation of geological surfaces such
as bedding, joints, faults or foliations.
• Using a compass or clinometer, geologists measure the
orientation of these structures wherever they can find
suitable solid rock exposures (as opposed to loose
boulders).
• The orientation and angle are recorded as a strike and a dip
respectively. Each dip and strike symbol on a geological
GEOLOGIC FAULT SYMBOLS (lithology), their structure, degree of weathering, and any
other features that might be useful.
• All observations are marked upon a topographical base
map, and measurements are taken using a magnetic
compass and clinometer. Aerial photographs may help the
geologist to identify target features in the field.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
These are taken from aircraft flying at fixed heights above the ground.
Adjacent pairs of aerial photographs with about 60% overlap can be
used under a stereoscope to provide a three-dimensional image of the
landscape, which is useful for reconnaissance surveys.
MAGNETIC COMPASSES
Are instruments used to determine the direction of the magnetic north
pole.
CLINOMETER
Are used to measure the angle of inclination of a surface, such as the
angle of dip of rock strata.

Geological Maps

• It is uniquely suited to solving problems, involving Earth

resources, hazards, and environments.
• Represents the distribution of different types of rock and
surficial deposits, as well as locations of geologic
structures such as faults and folds.
• Helps us to understand not only where materials and
GEOLOGICAL MAPPING TOOLS structures are located, but also how and when these features
formed.
• Traditionally, geological maps are made by geologists who
walk over as much of the map area as possible, noting
where rocks can be seen (outcrops), the rock types
Three Types of Geological Map
1.Topographical Map Structurally, faults may be described as fractures along which
relative displacement of adjacent blocks has taken place.
It is a map that gives information
about the form of the earth’s surface If such relative displacement does not take place on either side of
which is shaded, or colored to show fracture plan, it is called joint. Thus, both joint and faults are fracture
(contour lines of equal height), where in rocks but with difference in the kind of displacement. Joints may be
different rock units occur at or just described as a set of aligned parallel cracks or openings in geological
below the ground surface. formations.
Faults
A fault is a fracture across which two blocks have slipped; the
displacement of adjacent blocks is parallel to the fault plane. Faulting
corresponds to the brittle failure of an undeformed rock formation or,
alternatively, involves frictional sliding on a pre-existing fault plane.
2.Cross-section Map
Fault is a fracture / crack / joint along which there has been relative
• A section line is a straight displacement of beds.
line drawn on a
topographic map. Types of faults
Altitudes along this line 1. Dip – Slip Faults
are turned into a cross- 2. Normal Faults
section. 3. Reverse Faults
• A cross-sectional map 4. Thrust Faults
shows the cross-section 5. Strike – Slip Faults
from the side. 6. Oblique - Slip Faults
CAUSE OF FAULTING

3.Structural Map Faults form as the Earth’s crust deforms due to stress. Most commonly
this stress is caused by plate tectonics. The tectonic plates are moving
• A structural map shows the due to convection inside the Earth’s mantle. This can cause plates to
geologic features of an area. collide, causing compressive stresses. Or plates can move apart,
leading to extension. Lastly plates can move past each other. Stresses
can be transmitted over long distances (hundreds of kilometers) away
from the actual plate boundaries. Therefore, we find can find faults far
away from active plate boundaries.
Engineering considerations of faults • I. STRIKE JOINTS – Strike joints are those in which the
strike of the joints is parallel to the strike of the beds.
• Strictly speaking on site should be selected on a fault for • II. DIP JOINTS– Dip joints are those in which the strike of
any major project because movements along the existing the joints is perpendicular to the strike of the beds.
fault plane is much easier than any other planes. • III. OBLIQUE JOINTS – Oblique joints are those in which
• For major projects like a dam, tunnel, etc., a site that is the strike of the joints is neither parallel or perpendicular to
highly faulted should be avoided because the engineer may the strike of the joints.
have to face much troubles sooner or later. The structure
constructed on fault may collapse at any moment even due 2. Genetic Classification- Depending upon the causes of their origin,
to slight disturbance. joints may be divided into three:
• If the project is of a scattered nature like electric or
telegraphic poles the work can be carried out without much • I. TENSION JOINTS – Tension joints are those which are
of a risk. formed due to tension forces or stress produce in the rock
• Safety factor building modification should bear the initial • II.COMPRESSION JOINTS – Rock may be compressed to
shocks of an earthquake of low intensity. crushed and numerous joints may result due to compressive
• Faults are responsible for lakes, swamps and marshy forces in this case.
places. • III.SHEAR JOINTS – They are formed by shearing
• Fault traces often provide potential spring heads. stresses, which tend to slide one part of the rocks against
• Fault zones often form oil traps. other.

JOINTS Importance of Structural Geology in the field of civil engineering

• Any fracture, without any movement • To understand a field and construct an accurate geologic
• Crack or fractures present in the body of a rock map.
• A joint is a break (fracture) of natural origin in the • Measure and orientation of small structures
continuity of either a layer or body of rock that lacks any • Study the sequence of development and superposition
visible or measurable movement parallel to the surface • Try to apply rock-mechanics data
(plane) of the fracture. • Try to compare structures in one area with those elsewhere
that may have formed by similar-mechanism.
• Utilize geophysical data and other geology disciplines.
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
1. GEOMETRICAL CLASSIFICATION- Joints can be classified into
three groups depending on their geometrical relationship with the
country rock.
Folds are one of the most common geological structures found in This is the lower portion of a down-fold
rocks. When a set of horizontal layers are subjected to compressive
forces, they bend either upward or downward. The bend noticed in 5. Wave length of a fold
rocks are called folds. This is the distance between successive crests or troughs of the fold.
• In terms of their nature too, folds may occur as single local
bends or may occur repeatedly and intricately folded to the
tectonic history of the region. Classification of fold
Folds are one of the most common geological structures found in
rocks. When a set horizontal layers are subjected to compressive force, Symmetrical fold
they bend either upward or downward. The bend noticed in rocks are A symmetrical fold whose axial plane is vertical and the limbs dip
called folds. equally
Part of folds
1. Axis of fold Asymmetrical fold

This is the median line about which the strata have folded. The axis of Asymmetrical folds in profile have no mirror plane in symmetry and
a fold may be horizontal, inclined, or vertical. If the axis of the fold is the limbs are unequal in length. In asymmetrical fold the axial plane is
horizontal then it is parallel to the strike of the fold. inclined.

2. Axial plane Overturned fold

This is a plane dividing the fold into two somewhat symmetrical parts. It is an asymmetrical fold with inclined axial plane in which both the
The axial plane may be vertical, incline or horizontal. The line of limbs are dipping essentially in the same general direction usually at
intersection of the axial plane with any bedding plane is called the fold different angles
axis or the axial line
3. Limbs of a fold Recumbent fold
Two sides of a fold (either side of the axial plane) are called the limbs This is a fold whose limbs are bent back on themselves almost
of the fold. horizontally
4. Crest and trough
Zigzag fold or chevron fold
• CREST OF A FOLD This is a fold having a sharp angular crest or trough

This the upper portion of an up-fold

• TROUGH OF A FOLD
TYPES OF FOLDS Structural basins are often important sources of coal, petroleum, and
groundwater.
• Anticline
• Synclines Monocline
• Dome
• Basin A monocline (or, rarely, a monoform) is a step-like fold in rock strata
• Monocline consisting of a zone of steeper dip within an otherwise horizontal or
gently-dipping sequence
Anticline
In structural geology, an anticline is a type of fold that is an arch-like CAUSE AND EFFECT OF FOLDING
shape and has its oldest beds at its core. A typical anticline is convex
up in which the hinge or crest is the location where the curvature is • Mostly of the important folds, as already pointed out, are
greatest, and the limbs are the sides of the fold that dip away from the due to tectonics causes. But a few folds of minor type are
hinge. due to non-tectonic causes,
Syncline • Mainly, the compressive and shear type of tectonic force
are responsible for the folding phenomenon.
In structural geology, a syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to • Non-tectonic causes like landslides, creeping, differential
the center of the structure. A synclinorium is a large syncline with compaction, isostatic setting, and glaciations to are
superimposed smaller folds. Synclines are typically a downward fold, responsible for some folds.
termed a synformal syncline but synclines that point upwards, or
perched, can be found when strata have been overturned and folded Rock Mechanics is defined as the theoretical and applied science of
(an antiformal syncline). the mechanical behavior of rock and rock masses; it is the branch of
mechanics concerned with the response of rocks to the force field of its
Dome physical environment.
A dome is a feature in structural geology consisting of symmetrical The study of mechanical behavior of subsurface sedimentary strata and
anticlines that intersect each other at their respective apices. Intact, rock that are formed. The basic principle is that rock simply responds
domes are distinct, rounded, spherical-to-ellipsoidal-shaped to stress by changing in volume or form.
protrusions on the Earth’s surface. However, a transect parallel to
Earth’s surface of a dome features concentric rings of strata.
Basin Compressive strength is measured on materials, components and
structures resistance for being pushed together.
A structural basin is a large-scale structural formation of rock strata
formed by tectonic warping of previously flat lying strata. Structural Uniaxial compressive strength is the maximum axial compressive
basins are geological depressions, and are the inverse of domes. Some stress that a right-cylindrical sample of material can withstand before
elongated structural basins are also known as synclines. failing.
Tensile strength is the ability of a material to support a maximum load 3. Brittle deformation
without fracture when being stretched or pulled before breaking.
The permanent change that occurs in a solid material due to the growth
Three types of Tensile Strength of fractures and/or due to sliding on fractures. Brittle deformation only
occurs when stresses exceed a critical value, and thus only after a rock
1. Yield Strength has already undergone some elastic and/or plastic behavior.
2. Ultimate Strength
3. Breaking Strength
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
Two manners of Tensile Failure
Elastic properties
1. Ductile Failure
Elastic refers to the property of reversibility of deformation when
2. Brittle Failure
subjected to a load. For small definition, the resulting strain is
proportional to the applied stress.
Shear strength is the materials ability to resist forces that can cause
the internal structure of the material to slide against itself. Stress is the force applied per unit area.
Hardness is the resistance of a material to deformation, indentation, Strain is the fractional distortion that results because of the acting
penetration by means such as abrasion, drilling, impact, and force.
scratching.
Inelastic properties
Elasticity refers to the property of reversibility of deformation when
subjected to a load. Deformation of rocks that does not disappear on the removal of force
that produced it.
Porosity
3 STAGES OF STRAIN DEFORMATION
It refers to the amount of empty space within a given material.
1. Elastic deformation
In soil or rock, the porosity exists between the grains of minerals.
The rock deforms as stress is applied and return to its original shape as
stress is relieved. Porosity (n) is the percentage of void space in a rock.

In elastic deformation, the strain is proportional to the stress. n = Vpore space /Vtotal

2. Plastic deformation CRITICAL ASPECTS THAT AFFECT THE PORE SPACES

It begins to exhibit when applied stress in a rock reaches the elastic • Movement of water, air and other fluid
limit. • Transport and other reaction of chemicals
• Residence of roots and other biota
In plastic deformation, the rock partially return to its original shape as
stress is relieved.
Permeability Compaction Grouting involves injection of low mobility grout via drill
casings that are drilled/driven to pre-set depths. The grout, usually
• It refers to how connected pore spaces are to one another.
• It refers to the degree to which pore spaces in a medium comprise , sand, dry ash and water, is placed from the bottom-up
connect to each other, promoting the movement of fluid with pressure based criteria.
through the material.
Fracture Grouting

• Fracture grouting is the injection of the cement slurry

Difference between low and high permeability grout, hydrofracturing soil, creating lenses. The lenses
compact surrounding soil and then lift the overlying soil
Density is defined as the mass per volume.” and structures.
• Fracture grouting uses a low viscosity grout that splits
GROUTING
through the ground by hydraulic fracturing and penetrates
Grouting in civil engineering refers to the injection of pumpable into the fractures.
materials into a soil or rock formation to change its physical
characteristics. Jet Grouting
Injection Methods Jet grouting uses a high-pressure ‘jet’ of either grout, water, air or a
combination to erode soil whilst simultaneously injecting grout into
• Grout injection techniques were developed to simply fill a the soil through a ‘jet monitor’. The specially designed drill stem and
void in the soil. monitor are raised and rotated at the same time to combine the grout
• Typically, grouting is carried out is by driving pipes or with the original soil to form ‘soilcrete’.
boring holes into the ground, and then pumping the grout
solution at high pressure through inserted tubes. SUMMARY
Structural Geology

Types of Grout Injection System • Structural geology is a branch of geology that studies how
rocks deform in response to the stresses that act within the
1. Permeation Grouting
Earth. Rocks and their forming minerals accommodate the
stresses acting upon them and keep a record thereof by
• Permeation grouting involves drilling any cracks, joints or
developing at times truly spectacular geological structures,
void in rock, concrete, soil and other porous materials.
such as fractures, faults or folds.
• This is typically done to strengthen the existing formation,
creating an impermeable water barrier or both.
Important terms:

• Beds - The layers of sedimentary overlying and underlying

subsequent beds of different sedimentary rocks that are
Compaction Grouting distinctly different from rocks.
 • STRATA - The layer of sedimentary rock or soil, or Faults
igneous rock that were formed at the Earth's surface.
Simply the layers of beds. A fault is a fracture across which two blocks have slipped; the
• Attitude - The orientation of geometric element in space of displacement of adjacent blocks is parallel to the fault plane. Faulting
a line or a plane. By convention, the attitude of a plane is corresponds to the brittle failure of an undeformed rock formation or,
expressed as its strike and dip. alternatively, involves frictional sliding on a pre-existing fault plane.
• STRIKE - It is the direction of the line formed by the The types of faults are dip – slip faults, normal faults, reverse faults,
intersection of a rock surface with a horizontal plane. thrust faults, strike – slip faults and oblique – slip faults.
• DIP - It is the angle at which a planar feature is inclined to
the horizontal plane; it is measured in a vertical plane Joints
perpendicular to the strike of the feature. The direction of
dip can be thought of as the direction water would run • Any fracture, without any movement
down the plane. • Crack or fractures present in the body of a rock
• APPARENT DIP - The inclination of geologic beds as seen • A joint is a break (fracture) of natural origin in the
from any vertical cross section not perpendicular to the continuity of either a layer or body of rock that lacks any
strike. visible or measurable movement parallel to the surface
• TRUE DIP - The inclination of geologic beds as seen from (plane) of the fracture.
any cross-section perpendicular to the strike.
Folds
The three types of geological map are:
Folds are one of the most common geological structures found in
1. Topographical map rocks. When a set horizontal layers are subjected to compressive force,
they bend either upward or downward. The bend noticed in rocks are
• It is a map that gives information about the form of the called folds.
earth’s surface which is shaded, or colored to show
(contour lines of equal height), where different rock units Parts of Fold
occur at or just below the ground surface. 1. Axis of fold

2. Cross-section Map This is the median line about which the strata have folded. The axis of
a fold may be horizontal, inclined or vertical. If the axis of the fold is
• A cross-sectional map shows the cross-section from the horizontal then it is parallel to the strike of the fold.
side.
2. Axial plane
3. Structural Map This is a plane dividing the fold into two somewhat symmetrical parts.
The axial plane may be vertical, incline or horizontal. The line of
• A structural map shows the geologic features of an area. intersection of the axial plane with any bedding plane is called the fold
axis or the axial line.
3. Limbs of a fold
Two sides of a fold (either side of the axial plane) are called the limbs
of the fold.
4. Crest and trough
Crest of a fold - this is the upper portion of an up-fold.
Trough of a fold- this is the lower portion of a down-fold.
5. Wave length of a fold- this is the distance between successive crests
or troughs of the fold.
Rock Mechanics
The study of mechanical behavior of subsurface sedimentary strata and
rock that are formed. The basic principle is that rock simply responds
to stress by changing in volume or form.
The 3 stages of strain deformation are elastic deformation, plastic
deformation and brittle deformation.
Porosity - is the percentage of void space in a rock.
Permeability - refers to the degree to which pore spaces in a medium
connect to each other, promoting the movement of fluid through the
material.