CHAPTER 12 ELECTRO STATIC

ELECTROSTATICS
The branch of physics which deals with the study of CHARGE AT REST under the influence of electric
force s is called Electrostatics
CHARGE
Charge is the intrinsic property of fundamental particles. These are two kinds of charges, namely positive
and negative charges. The charge on electron is assumed to be negative and the charge on proton is positive.
ELECTRIC FORCE
The force which holds the negative and positive charges that make up atoms or molecules is called electric
force
BASIC LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
COULOMBS’ LAW
Each charge exerts a force of attraction or repulsion on another charge. Charles coulomb observed the
quantitative nature of these forces. He stated his experimental observation in mathematical form called
coulomb’s law in 1784 A.D
STATEMENT
The magnitude of force b/w two point charges is directly proportional to the product of magnitude of these
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance b/w them
MATHEMATICAL FORM
If two point charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance r .Then the magnitude of the electric force b/w the
charges is
F α q1 q2 ------------- (i)
1
F α 𝑟2 ------------ (ii)
Combining (i) and (ii) we got
𝑞1 𝑞2
F α 𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
F = (constant) 𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
F = K 𝑟2
Where k is constant of proportionality called electrostatic constant.

DEPENDENCE OF K
Its value depends upon the nature of medium b/w the charge and the systems of units for free space.
1
K = 4𝜋ℇ𝑜

Where ℇo is the permittivity of free space and its value is 8.85x10 -12 C2/Nm2
1
K = 4 𝑥 3.142𝑥 8.85𝑥10−12

K = 9x 109Nm2/C2
So the electric force b/w the

So, the electric force b/w the charges

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
F = 4𝜋ℇ𝑜 𝑟2
VECTOR FORM OF COULOMB’S LAW
⃗F = 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑟̂
4𝜋ℇ𝑜 𝑟2

COULOUMB’S FORCE IS A MUTUAL FORCE

Coulomb’s force is a MUTUAL FORCE and it means that if q1 exert a force on q2, then q2 also exert an
equal and opposite force on q1
⃗F12 = - ⃗F21
Coulomb’s force is in accordance with Newton’s third law of motion

EFFECT OF MEDIUM ON ELECTRIC FORCE B/W TWO CHARGES

if an insulating medium is placed b/w the charges then it will reduce the electrostatic force as compared to
free space by a factor ℇr called relative permittivity whose value varies with nature of dielectric. Thus, in the
presence of dielectric the coulomb’s force becomes
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
F‘ = 4𝜋ℇ𝑜ℇr 𝑟2

1 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
F‘ = ℇr (4𝜋ℇ𝑜 )
𝑟2

F
F‘ = ℇ𝑟

F’ = ℇr F
F’ > F

For vacuum the value of ℇr is 1 for air the ℇr is 1.0006

ELECTRIC FIELD
The space or region around the charge in which it exerts force on other charges is called electric field

How charges interact with another charge?

The interaction b/w a point charge (q1) and a test charge (q0) is completed in two steps;
i) The point charge (q) produces a field
ii) The field interacts with charges q0 to produce a force on q

Note; They test charge has to be very small so that it may not distort the field which has to me measured.

ELECTRIC INTENSITY
Electric field strength or electric field intensity at a point is defined as
“The force experienced per unit charge q0 placed at that point”
⃗ is the force experienced by positive test charge q0 at a point P, then electric intensity at a point P is given
If F
by
⃗E = ⃗F/qo

DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC INTENSITY

Electric intensity is a vector quantity. The direction of electric intensity is same as that of electric force
UNIT
Its S.I unit is N/C

ELECTRIC INTENSITY DUE TO A POINT CHARGE (q) AT A DISTANCE “r”

A/c to coulomb’s law the force experienced by test charge (qo) placed in the field of a point charge q is
1 𝑞 𝑞𝑜
F = 4𝜋ℇ𝑜 𝑟2

E = F/q0
1 𝑞 𝑞𝑜
E = 4𝜋ℇ𝑜 / q0
𝑟2
1 𝑞
E = 4𝜋ℇ𝑜 𝑟2

𝑞
E = k 𝑟2

In vector form
⃗ = k 𝑞 r̂
E 𝑟2

ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

Electric field lines is an imaginary lines on which a free small test charge moves in an electric field

Michael faraday proposed the idea of representation of electric field by electric field lines. Electric lines of
forces can be through a map that represents the direction as well as strength of electric field. These lines are
commonly called as lines of force

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC FILED LINES

i) Electric field lines start from positive charge and end to the negative charge
ii) The lines are closer where field is stronger and are farther apart where field is weaker.
iii) Electric field lines are parallel and equally spaced where the electric field is uniform and non-parallel
where the electric field is non uniform.
iv) The tangent to the field lines at any point gives direction of electric field at that point
v) No two electric field lines intersect each other.
This is because E ⃗ has only one direction at any given point. If the lines cross, E
⃗ could have more than
one direction, which is physically not possible.

ELECTRIC FLUX
Flux is a Latin word, which means to flow, in electrostatic, it can be defined as
DEFINITION (QUALITATIVE)
“The total number of electric field lines of force passing through the unit area of a surface held
perpendicularly"
DEFINITION (QUANTITATIVE)
⃗ ) and the vector area (A
"The dot product of electric field intensity (E ⃗ ) is called electric flux."
MATHEMATICALLY
Ø = ⃗E . ⃗A
Ø = E A CosΘ
DEPENDENCE OF ELECTRIC FLUX
Electric flux depends upon
i) Number of electric line of forces per unit area
ii) area of surface
iii) orientation of the surface
SPECIAL CASES
Case # 01 (Maximum Flux)

When area is held perpendicular to electric intensity the electric flux will be maximum in this case the angle
⃗ and A
between E ⃗ is Θ = 0o
Ø = E A Cos0o
 Ø=EA
Which is the maximum value of Flux.

Case # 02 (Minimum Flux)

When area is held parallel to electric intensity the electric flux will be minimum in this case the angle
between E⃗ and A⃗ is Θ = 90o
Ø = E A Cos90o
Ø = E A (0)
Ø=0

VECTOR AREA
The physical quantity whose magnitude is equal to the area of surface and whose direction is along the
direction of outward normal is called vector area
Thus ⃗⃗⃗⃗
A = A 𝑛̂

Where ⃗Acalled vector area is whose magnitude A and its direction is along the direction of outward normal
to the surface area

ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A SURFACE ENCLOSING A CHARGE

Consider a closed surface in form of a sphere of radius r having a point charge +q at its centre.

In order to apply the formula Ø = ⃗E . ⃗A The surface should be flat. Thus the surface area is divided into n number of
small patches ∆A ⃗ 1 , ∆A
⃗ 2 ,∆ ⃗A3 ,∆A⃗ 4 . . . . . . . . . . . ∆A ⃗ n so that each patch is a flat area element. Let the electric intensity
at the centre of vector areas ∆A ⃗ 1 , ∆A
⃗ 2 ,∆ A ⃗ 3 ,∆A ⃗ 4 . . . . . . . . . . . ∆A
⃗ n are
⃗E1, ⃗E2 , ⃗E3 , …………..E ⃗ n respectively is the total flux to the closed surface is

Øtotal = ∑ E∆A𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 {∴cos0˚=1}

Øtotal = ∑ E∆A𝑐𝑜𝑠0˚

Øtotal = ∑ E∆A

Electro intensity “E” is similar at everywhere therefore.

Øtotal = E ∑ ∆A

Øtotal = E (4πr2)
𝑞
Øtotal = k x 4π r2
𝑟2

1 𝑞
Øtotal = x x 4π r2
4𝜋ℇ𝑜 𝑟2

𝑞
Øtotal =
ℇ𝑜

The above equation shows that, flux depends upon the magnitude of charge & Medium.

GAUSS’S LAW

INTRODUCTION
Gauss’s law is a quantitative relation which applies to any closed hypothetical surface called Gaussian
surface to determine the total flux (Ø) through the surface and the net charge (q) enclosed by the surface.

STATEMENT
"The total outward electric flux through a closed hypothetical surface called Gaussian surface is equal to
1 / Ɛo times the total charge enclosed by the surface."

PROOF
Consider a Gaussian surface as shown below which encloses a number of point charges q1, q2, q3……..….q n

Draw imaginary spheres around each charge. Now we make use of the fact that the electric flux through a
sphere is q /
Flux due to q1 will be Ø1 = q1/Ɛo
Flux due to q2 will be Ø2 = q2/Ɛo
Flux due to q3 will be Ø3 = q3/Ɛo

Flux due to qn will be Øn = qn/Ɛo

Hence the total flux Øe will be the sum of all flux i.e.

Ø = Ø1 + Ø2+ Ø3 +Ø4 …………….+ Øn

Ø = q1/Ɛo+ q2/Ɛo+ q3/Ɛo+………… +qn/Ɛo
Ø = 1/Ɛo (q1+ q2+ q3+……………. +qn )
Ø = 1/Ɛo x (q)

Ø = 1 /Ɛo x ( Total Charge)

CONCLUSION
This shows that the total electric flux through a closed surface regardless of its shape or size is numerically
equal to 1 /Ɛo times the total charge(q) enclosed by the surface.

GAUSSIAN SURFACE
Gaussian surface is an imaginary closed surface of arbitrary shape which passes through the point where we
want to calculate electric intensity
In order to calculate the electric intensity at a point we take the following steps

i) Consider and imaginary closed surface called Gaussian surface which pass through the point.
ii) Find the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
iii) Calculate the flux passing through the surface.
iv) Apply causes law to calculate the value of electric field intensity.

(b)ELECTRIC INTENSITY DUE TO A INFINITE SHEET OF CHARGE

Consider an infinite plane sheet on which the positive charges are uniformly distributed.
GAUSSIAN SURFACE
In order to calculate electric intensity at any point p close to the sheet imagines a closed cylinder passing
through the sheet.
CHARGE ENCLOSED
Let,
q = The total charges on sheet
A = Total area of sheet =A
σ = uniform Charge density = q/A (charge per unit area)
Then, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is
q = σ A ------------------------- (i)

FLUX THROUGH THE SURFACE

Now we calculate the electric flux through each of the three surface of the Gaussian cylinder for symmetry
we can we conclude that Electric intensity is directed at right angle to the end faces and is away from the
plane

i) FLUX THROUGH RIGHT END FLAT SURFACE

The angle between E and normal n at the end of the surface P is 0o hence the flux through one end surface P:
Ø1 = E A cos0o
Ø1 = E A cos0o
Ø1 = E A (1)
Ø1 = E A
ii) FLUX THROUGH RIGHT END FLAT SURFACE
The angle between E and normal n at the end of the surface P’ is 0o hence the flux through other end
surface P’
Ø2 = E A cos0o
Ø2 = E A cos0o
Ø2 = E A (1)
Ø2 = E A
iii) FLUX THROUGH CURVED SURFACE
As no field lines pass through the curved surface OR the angle between E and normal n to the cylindrical
surface is 90o.So the flux through the cylindrical surface
Ø3 = E A cos 90o
Ø3 = E A cos90o
Ø3 = E A (0)
Ø3 = 0
Therefore, total flux through both surfaces is:
Ø = Ø1 + Ø2 + Ø3
Ø = E A + EA + 0
Ø = 2EA --------------------------- (ii)

CALCULATION OF ELECTRIC INTENSITY

A/c to Gauss’s law

Ø = 1/ Ɛo x (total charge enclosed by Gaussian surface)
Ø = 1/ Ɛo x (q)
Comparing equation (i) and equation (ii) we have
2EA = 1/ Ɛo x (q)
2EA = 1/ Ɛo x (σ A)

E = σ/ 2 Ɛo
VECTOR FORM

⃗ = 𝝈 𝒓̂
𝐄
𝟐Ɛ𝒐

Where 𝐫̂ is the unit vector normal to the sheet directed away from it.

( c )ELECTRIC INTENSITY BETWEEN TWO OPPOSITELY CHARGED PARALLEL PLATES

Consider two parallel metal plates separated by very small distance d as compared to their size as shown in
figure. The plate carrying equal amount of opposite charges each have a charge density σ lines of forces are
parallel except near the edges, each plate may be regarded to produce same field as that produced by the
infinite charge sheet the magnitude of electric field intensity at point between the plates due to each plate is
𝝈
is and along the same direction towards negative plate and the net electric field at a point is
𝟐Ɛ𝒐

𝝈 𝝈
E = +
𝟐Ɛ𝒐 𝟐Ɛ𝒐

𝝈
E = Ɛ𝒐
VECTOR FORM

⃗ = 𝝈 𝒓̂
𝐄
Ɛ𝒐

Where 𝐫̂ is a unit vector from +ve plate to the –ve plate.

CAPACITOR An electrical device which is used to store electric charge is called capacitor.

PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

It is a simple capacitor with two parallel metal plates on which we store the electric charge.
CONSTRUCTION
A simple parallel plate capacitor consists of two metallic plates with their stands separated by air, or some
insulating medium called dielectric.

WORKING:
If the plates are connected to a battery of voltage V.
The charge (q) transfer on the plate of the capacitor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V)
Between the plates.
qαV
q = (constant) V
q = CV
Where C constant of proportionality is called capacity for capacitance of the capacitor.

DEPENDENCE OF CAPACITANCE
Capacitance depends upon the following factors
i) The Area Of The Plates
C∝𝐀

ii) The Distance Between The Plates

𝟏
C∝
𝐝
iii) Medium Between The Plates

C ∝ Ɛo Ɛr
CAPACITY OR CAPACITANCE It is the ability of capacitor to store the charge OR
Charge stored per unit voltage is called capacitance.
UNIT:
The S.I unit of capacitance is farad = coulomb/volt
FARAD
If 1 coulomb charge produces a potential difference of 1 volt then capacitance is equal to 1 Farad.
1 couloumb
1farad =
1 volt
CAPACITY OF CAPACITOR WHEN AIR IS USED B/W TWO PLATES
Capacitor or parallel plate capacitor consist of two parallel metal plates, the area of each plate is “A” and “d”
is the distance b/w two plates. Some air or di-electric medium is used b/w two plates as shown in figure.

Experimentally it has been observed that amount of charges (q) is directly proportion to the potential
difference V i.e.
q ∝V
q = CV
q
C = V ------------------(i)
The product of electric intensity (E) and distance (d) is called potential difference (V) i.e.
V = E d ----------------(ii)
𝜎
Where E is the electric intensity b/w two charges plates and its value is𝐸 = ∈ where 𝜎 is charge density
𝑜
𝑞
and can be written as: 𝜎=
𝐴

𝑞
Now 𝐸=
𝐴∈𝑜

𝑞𝑑
Equation no ii=> V=
𝐴∈𝑜

q
Now Equation no ii=> C = 𝑞𝑑
𝐴∈𝑜

𝐴 ∈𝑜
C =
OR d

CAPACITY OF CAPACITOR WHEN SOME OTHER MEDIUM IS USED B/W THE PLATES
 If an insulating material called dielectric, of relative permittivity ∈𝒓 is placed between the two plates, then
capacitance of capacitor is increased by the factor ∈𝒓 called dielectric constant, So In this case the
capacity of the capacitor can be written as
𝑨∈𝒐 ∈𝒓
C′ =
𝐝

Where,∈r is the permittivity of the medium which is used b/w two plates.

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT ∈𝒓
The ratio b/w capacity of the capacitor with the dielectric to the capacity of capacitor with air is called
dielectric constant.
∈𝒓 = C’/C

HOW CAPACITANCE INCREASE WITH DIELECTRIC

When a dielectric is placed between the plates of capacitor, then capacitance of a capacitor INCREASE due
to polarization of dielectric.

Reason
Dielectric material effective decrease surface charge density(σ) on plate these decrease the electric intensity
𝜎
(E = ) between the plates. When we decrease of electric intensity E between the plates, the potential
Ɛ𝑜
q
difference (V = E d) between the plate decreases. With the decrease of voltage V the capacitance (C = ) of
v
the capacitor increases.

Electric Polarization of Dielectric

When a dielectric material is placed in an electric field the negative and positive charges of atoms Or
molecules of dielectric are slightly displaced this phenomenon is called polarization and the dielectric is said
to be polarized.

DIPOLE
Two equal and opposite charges separated by a very small distance make a dipole.

COMBINATION OF CAPACITOR
There are two basic combinations of capacitors in any circuit.
i. Series combination
ii. Parallel combination
SERIES COMBINATION
When two or more capacitors are connected in such a way that positive plate of 1st capacitor is connected
with the negative plate of 2nd capacitor then this combination is known as series combination.

PROPERTIES
i) The amount of charges on each capacitor is same.
ii) The amount of potential difference on each of the capacitor are different and net potential is given
by: Ve = V1+V2+V3
Derivation
Consider the capacitors of capacity C1, C2 and C3 are
connected in series therefore the amount of charges on each
capacitor is same but potential difference is different and
Net potential can be written as:

Ve = V1+V2+V3 (i)
The capacity of the capacitor can be written as:
𝐪
𝐂 =𝐕
𝐪
OR 𝐕 =𝐂
Potential Difference Across C1
q
V1 =
C1
Potential Difference Across C2
q
V2 =
C2
Potential Difference Across C3
q
V3 =
C3

q q q q
Equation no (i) => = + +
C𝑒 C1 C2 C3
q 1 1 1
OR = q( + + )
C𝑒 C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1
OR = + +
C𝑒 C1 C2 C3
 Conclusion
In series combination we get minimum capacitance than the individual capacitance.

PARALLEL COMBINATION
When two or more capacitors are connected across to each other then this combination is known as parallel
combination.
PROPERTIES
i) In parallel combination the amount of charges on each capacitor are different and net charges can be
written as: qe = q1+q2+q3
ii) The amount of potential difference on each of capacitor is
same.

DERIVATION
Consider three capacitors of capacity C1, C2 and C3 are connected in
parallel. The amount of capacitor is same. But amount of charges are
different and net charges can be written as:
qe = q1+q2+q3-------------- (i)

The capacity of the capacitor can be written as:

𝐪
C = OR q = CV
𝐕
Charge on Capacitor C1
q 1 = C1V
Charge on Capacitor C2
q 2 = C2V
Charge on Capacitor C3
q 3 = C3V

Equation no (i) => Ce V = C1V + C2V + C3V

Ce V = V (C1+ C2 + C3 )

Ce = C1 + C2 + C3
Conclusion
In this combination the equivalent capacitance we get maximum capacitance then the individual capacitance.

ELECTRIC POLARIZATION
The Charges of dielectric are now “Induced charges”.
DIELECTRIC

POLAR NON POLAR

* Permanent dipole *No dipole
* NaCl *Oil
“The System in which two charges of equal magnitude but of opposite sign separated by small distance,
“d” is termed as a dipole”
It is represented by P
P=IqdI
P is a vector quantity.