NEW SENIOR

MATHEMATICS
EXTENSION 2
FOR YEAR 12
THIRD EDITION

J.B. FITZPATRICK
BOB AUS

NSW
STAGE 6
NEW SENIOR
MATHEMATICS
EXTENSION 2
FOR YEAR 12
THIRD EDITION

J.B. FITZPATRICK
BOB AUS

NSW
STAGE 6
Pearson Australia
(a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd)
707 Collins Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3008
PO Box 23360, Melbourne, Victoria 8012
www.pearson.com.au
Copyright © Bernard Fitzpatrick, Bob Aus 2019
First published 2014 by Pearson Australia
2023 2022 2021 2020 2019
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Reproduction and communication for educational purposes
The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to
be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution
(or the body that administers it) has given remuneration notice to Copyright Agency under the Act. For details of the copyright licence for
educational institutions contact Copyright Agency (www.copyright.com.au).
Reproduction and communication for other purposes
Except as permitted under the Act (for example a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review), no part of this book
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission.
All inquiries should be made to the publisher at the address above.
This book is not to be treated as a blackline master; that is, any photocopying beyond fair dealing requires prior
written permission.
Publishers: Julian Lumb, Tim Carruthers
Project Manager: Anubhuti Harsh
Production Editor: Casey McGrath
Editor: Marcia Bascombe
Proofreader: Laura Rentsch
Designers: Jay Urbanic, Anne Donald, iEnergizer Aptara Limited
Rights and Permissions Editors: Amirah Fatin, Sian Human
Printed in Malaysia by Vivar
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry:

ISBN: 978 1 4886 1831 4

Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd ABN 40 004 245 943
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following teachers for their reviews:
John Hamilton, Rajakrishnar Sekaran, Gareth Thompson, Roger Walter
Attributions
Cover: Marina Sun/Shutterstock.com
NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA): Mathematics Extension 2 Stage 6 Syllabus 2017 © NSW Education Standards Authority for
and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017, pp. 266–8.
INTRODUCTION AND DEDICATION
J.B. Fitzpatrick
It is interesting to wonder whether J. B. Fitzpatrick (‘Bernie’) realised in 1983 just how popular
his book New Senior Mathematics would be. That first edition of New Senior Mathematics was
to remain in print for almost 30 years. It has stood the test of time thanks to the quality, rigour
and variety of its questions, its accuracy and its high mathematical standards.

As Fitzpatrick wrote in 1983: ‘Mathematics, like many other things, is best learnt by doing.
A student begins to appreciate the power of mathematics when he or she has achieved
a mastery of basic techniques, not after reading lengthy explanations … The emphasis
throughout the book is on the understanding of mathematical concepts’ (Introduction,
New Senior Mathematics 1984).

J. B. Fitzpatrick passed away in 2008. Fitzpatrick was a respected author, teacher and figurehead
of mathematics education.

Bob Aus
Bob Aus taught in New South Wales high schools for 40 years, retiring in 2007. During that
time Bob taught all courses from Years 7 to 12 up to Level 1 / 4-unit / Extension 2. He has
marked HSC examination papers and has been involved in the standards setting process
as judge and chief judge for the three Calculus-based courses over four years. He has also
completed review work for the NSW Board of Studies and represented NSW at a week-long
review and standards setting of the upper-level course from each state prior to the development
of the Australian National Curriculum for senior students.

Bob spent time as Regional Vocational Education Consultant in the North Coast region and
was a Mathematics consultant in the Hunter region. When he retired he was Head Teacher
Mathematics at Merewether High School and enjoyed teaching an Extension 2 class with
24 students.

Bob’s first publication was in 1983 and he has been involved with writing a range of textbooks
and study guides since then, including revising and updating the New Senior Mathematics
series 2nd edition in 2013.

Bob has presented talks on the three Calculus-based courses throughout the state. He has
co-written the Years 6–9 Mathematics syllabus for the Abu Dhabi Education Authority, as
well as managing the writing project for support material for this course. He also wrote the
Years 10–12 syllabus for their Calculus-based course.

This updated third edition of New Senior Mathematics applies to the new Stage 6 HSC courses
in NSW to be implemented in Year 11, 2019.

Introduction and dedication iii

NEWSENIOR
MATHEMATICS
THIRD EDITION
New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12 is part of Student Worked Solutions
a new edition of the well-known Mathematics series for The New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12 Student
New South Wales. The series has been updated to address Worked Solutions contains the full worked solutions for
all requirements of the new Stage 6 syllabus. We have every second question in New Senior Mathematics Extension 2
maintained our focus on mathematical rigour and challenging for Year 12.
student questions, while providing new opportunities for
students to consolidate their understanding of concepts and NEW SENIOR
STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS
NEW SENIOR
STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS

ideas with the aid of digital resources and activities. MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS

NEW SENIOR MATHEMATICS

NEW SENIOR MATHEMATICS

NEW SENIOR MATHEMATICS

EXTENSION 1 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 EXTENSION 2 FOR YEAR 12
STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS

The New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Year 11 & 12 The New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12
Student Worked Solutions contains fully worked solutions for Student Worked Solutions contains fully worked solutions for
every second question in the student book. every second question in the student book.

Student Book
New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 is part of a new edition New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 is part of a new edition
of the well-known mathematics series for New South Wales. of the well-known mathematics series for New South Wales.
The series has been updated to address all requirements of the The series has been updated to address all requirements of the
new Stage 6 syllabus, maintaining our focus on mathematical new Stage 6 syllabus, maintaining our focus on mathematical
rigour and challenging student questions. rigour and challenging student questions.

Available in the New Senior Mathematics series: Available in the New Senior Mathematics series:

The first three chapters of the first student book contain NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR
ADVANCED FOR YEARS 11 & 12 • THIRD EDITION
STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS

EXTENSION 1 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 • THIRD EDITION

STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS

EXTENSION 2 FOR YEAR 12 • THIRD EDITION

STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS
NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR
MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS
ADVANCED EXTENSION 1 EXTENSION 2 ADVANCED EXTENSION 1 EXTENSION 2
FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEAR 12 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEAR 12
THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION

J.B. FITZPATRICK J.B. FITZPATRICK J.B. FITZPATRICK J.B. FITZPATRICK J.B. FITZPATRICK J.B. FITZPATRICK
BOB AUS BOB AUS BOB AUS BOB AUS BOB AUS BOB AUS

MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS

NSW NSW NSW NSW NSW NSW
STAGE 6 STAGE 6 STAGE 6 STAGE 6 STAGE 6 STAGE 6

revision material that provides the necessary foundation for

STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS
NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR
MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS
NEW SENIOR MATHEMATICS

NEW SENIOR MATHEMATICS

NEW SENIOR MATHEMATICS

NEW SENIOR MATHEMATICS

NEW SENIOR MATHEMATICS

NEW SENIOR MATHEMATICS

ADVANCED FOR YEARS 11 & 12 EXTENSION 1 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 EXTENSION 2 FOR YEAR 12 ADVANCED FOR YEARS 11 & 12 EXTENSION 1 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 EXTENSION 2 FOR YEAR 12
STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS STUDENT WORKED SOLUTIONS

The New Senior Mathematics Advanced for Year 11 & 12 The New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Year 11 & 12 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 is part of a new edition The New Senior Mathematics Advanced for Year 11 & 12 The New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Year 11 & 12 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 is part of a new edition
Student Worked Solutions contains fully worked solutions for Student Worked Solutions contains fully worked solutions for of the well-known mathematics series for New South Wales. Student Worked Solutions contains fully worked solutions for Student Worked Solutions contains fully worked solutions for of the well-known mathematics series for New South Wales.
every second question in the student book. every second question in the student book. The series has been updated to address all requirements of

ADVANCED
every second question in the student book. every second question in the student book. The series has been updated to address all requirements of

EXTENSION 1 EXTENSION 2
New Senior Mathematics Advanced is part of a new edition the new Stage 6 syllabus. We have maintained our focus on New Senior Mathematics Advanced is part of a new edition the new Stage 6 syllabus. We have maintained our focus on
New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 is part of a new edition New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 is part of a new edition
of the well-known mathematics series for New South Wales. mathematical rigour and challenging student questions, while of the well-known mathematics series for New South Wales. mathematical rigour and challenging student questions, while
of the well-known mathematics series for New South Wales. of the well-known mathematics series for New South Wales.
The series has been updated to address all requirements of the providing new opportunities for students to consolidate their The series has been updated to address all requirements of the providing new opportunities for students to consolidate their
The series has been updated to address all requirements of the The series has been updated to address all requirements of the
new Stage 6 syllabus, maintaining our focus on mathematical understanding of concepts and ideas with the aid of digital new Stage 6 syllabus, maintaining our focus on mathematical understanding of concepts and ideas with the aid of digital
new Stage 6 syllabus, maintaining our focus on mathematical new Stage 6 syllabus, maintaining our focus on mathematical
rigour and challenging student questions. resources and activities. rigour and challenging student questions. resources and activities.
rigour and challenging student questions. rigour and challenging student questions.

Available in the New Senior Mathematics series: Available in the New Senior Mathematics series: Available in the New Senior Mathematics series: Available in the New Senior Mathematics series:
Available in the New Senior Mathematics series: Available in the New Senior Mathematics series:

NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR
ADVANCED FOR YEARS 11 & 12 • THIRD EDITION

EXTENSION 1 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 • THIRD EDITION

EXTENSION 2 FOR YEAR 12 • THIRD EDITION

ADVANCED FOR YEARS 11 & 12 • THIRD EDITION

EXTENSION 1 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 • THIRD EDITION

EXTENSION 2 FOR YEAR 12 • THIRD EDITION

978 1 4425 6491 6 978 1 4425 6618 7 978 1 4425 6620 0

MATHEMATICS 978 1 4425 6491 6 978 1 4425 6618 7 978 1 4425 6620 0

MATHEMATICS 978 1 4425 6491 6 978 1 4425 6618 7 978 1 4425 6620 0

MATHEMATICS 978 1 4425 6491 6 978 1 4425 6618 7 978 1 4425 6620 0

MATHEMATICS 978 1 4425 6491 6 978 1 4425 6618 7 978 1 4425 6620 0

MATHEMATICS 978 1 4425 6491 6 978 1 4425 6618 7 978 1 4425 6620 0

MATHEMATICS

FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEAR 12

ADVANCED EXTENSION 1 EXTENSION 2 ADVANCED EXTENSION 1 EXTENSION 2
FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEAR 12 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEAR 12

the development of senior mathematics concepts. In the new

THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION
978 1 4425 6617 0 978 1 4425 6619 4 978 1 4425 6621 7
DAVID COFFEY 978 1 4425 6617 0 978 1 4425 6619 4 978 1 4425 6621 7
DAVID COFFEY 978 1 4425 6617 0 978 1 4425 6619 4 978 1 4425 6621 7
DAVID COFFEY 978 1 4425 6617 0 978 1 4425 6619 4 978 1 4425 6621 7
DAVID COFFEY 978 1 4425 6617 0 978 1 4425 6619 4 978 1 4425 6621 7
DAVID COFFEY 978 1 4425 6617 0 978 1 4425 6619 4 978 1 4425 6621 7
DAVID COFFEY
KATE QUANE HEATHER BROWN HEATHER BROWN KATE QUANE HEATHER BROWN HEATHER BROWN
HEATHER BROWN MICHELLE HILL MICHELLE HILL HEATHER BROWN MICHELLE HILL MICHELLE HILL
KATE PHILLIPS PETER MUDDLE PETER MUDDLE KATE PHILLIPS PETER MUDDLE PETER MUDDLE
PETER MUDDLE PETER MUDDLE

Access digital resources Access digital resources

NSW Access digital resources
NSW NSW Access digital resources Access digital resources
NSW Access digital resources
NSW NSW

THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION

at pearsonplaces.com.au at pearsonplaces.com.au at pearsonplaces.com.au at pearsonplaces.com.au at pearsonplaces.com.au at pearsonplaces.com.au
Browse and buy at pearson.com.au Browse and buy at pearson.com.au STAGE 6 Browse and buy at pearson.com.au STAGE 6 STAGE 6 Browse and buy at pearson.com.au Browse and buy at pearson.com.au STAGE 6 Browse and buy at pearson.com.au STAGE 6 STAGE 6

DAVID COFFEY DAVID COFFEY DAVID COFFEY

edition you’ll also find:

KATE QUANE HEATHER BROWN HEATHER BROWN
HEATHER BROWN MICHELLE HILL MICHELLE HILL
KATE PHILLIPS PETER MUDDLE PETER MUDDLE
PETER MUDDLE

Access digital resources

NSW Access digital resources
NSW NSW

• content built on a rigorous, academic approach that

at pearsonplaces.com.au at pearsonplaces.com.au
Browse and buy at pearson.com.au STAGE 6 Browse and buy at pearson.com.au STAGE 6 STAGE 6

promotes excellence and prepares students for higher

education Reader+
• a simple, convenient approach with Year 11 and 12 content Reader+, our next generation eBook, features content and
in one book for Advanced and Extension 1, and Year 12 digital activities, with technology such as graphing software and
content for Extension 2, with colour coding to distinguish spreadsheets, to help students engage on their devices.
year levels
There are also teacher support materials, such as practice
• digital technology activities that promote a deeper exams, question banks, investigation assignments, and fully
understanding, allowing students to make connections, and worked solutions to cover all internal and external assessment
visualise and manipulate data in real time. items and save you time.

NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR NEW SENIOR

MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS
ADVANCED EXTENSION 1 EXTENSION 2
FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEARS 11 & 12 FOR YEAR 12
THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION THIRD EDITION

J.B. FITZPATRICK J.B. FITZPATRICK J.B. FITZPATRICK

BOB AUS BOB AUS BOB AUS

NSW NSW NSW

STAGE 6 STAGE 6 STAGE 6
FEATURES OF THE 3RD EDITION
+
STUDENT BOOK/READER
YEAR LEVELS
Year levels are indicated on each page for easy
identification of Year 11 and 12 content.

MAKING CONNECTIONS
This eBook feature provides teachers and students with
a visual interactive of specific mathematics concepts or
ideas to aid students in their conceptual understanding.

EXPLORING FURTHER
This eBook feature provides an opportunity for students
to consolidate their understanding of concepts and
ideas with the aid of technology, and answer a small
number of questions to deepen their understanding and
broaden their skill base. These activities should take
approximately 5–15 minutes to complete.

CHAPTER REVIEW
Each chapter contains a comprehensive review of chapter
content.

SUMMARY PAGES
A comprehensive course summary is provided at the end
of the book.

Features of the third edition Student book/Reader+ v

 CONTENTS
Introduction and dedication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

YEAR 12
syllabus
reference

chapter 1 Complex numbers 01 MEX-N1,N2

1.1 Arithmetic of complex numbers and the solution of
quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01
1.2 Geometrical representation of a complex number as a point . . . . 05
1.3 Other representations of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 De Moivre’s theorem and its applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5 Complex numbers and polynomial equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6 Zeros of a polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.7 Solving quadratic equations with complex coefficients . . . . . . . . 27
1.8 Geometrical representation of a complex number as a vector . . . . 31
1.9 Roots of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.10 Curves and regions on the Argand diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Chapter review 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

chapter 2 The nature of proof 48 MEX-P1,P2

2.1 The language and logic of proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2 Methods of proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.4 Mathematical induction, harder questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.5 Other induction questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.6 Using induction to prove first-order recursive formulae . . . . . . . 73
Chapter review 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

vi New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

chapter 3 Further work with vectors 77 MEX-V1
Overview of vectors in two-dimensional space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1 Vectors in three dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2 Scalar product of vectors in three dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3 Using vectors in geometric proofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4 Cartesian coordinates in three-dimensional space. . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5 Parametric and Cartesian equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.6 Vector equation of a line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.7 Parallel and perpendicular lines in three dimensions. . . . . . . . . 104
Chapter review 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

chapter 4 Integration by substitution 111 MEX-C1

4.1 Integration of trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2 Integrals involving inverse trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . 116
4.3 Integrals involving logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.4 The substitution t = tan A 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Chapter review 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

chapter 5 Further integration 129 MEX-C1

5.1 Partial fractions, linear factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.2 Partial fractions, quadratic factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.3 Using partial fractions to find integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.4 Integration by parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.5 Recurrence relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.6 Other useful techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.7 Uses of integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Chapter review 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Contents vii
 chapter 6 Mechanics 166 MEX-M1
6.1 Velocity and acceleration as functions of x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.2 Simple harmonic motion (SHM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.3 Other examples of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.4 Mathematical representation of motion in physical terms . . . . 189
6.5 Resisted motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.6 Projectiles and resisted motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.7 Resistance proportional to the square of the velocity . . . . . . . . . 219
Chapter review 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Course outcomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Answers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

viii New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

CHAPTER 1
Complex numbers
1.1 ARITHMETIC OF COMPLEX NUMBERS AND THE SOLUTION OF
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
The need for complex numbers
As society has developed over time, so has our need for a more comprehensive number system. Initially, the only
numbers needed were the counting numbers (1, 2, 3, …). Later, people found a need for zero and for negative
numbers, giving us the set of integers. Fractions and decimals gave us the set of rational numbers. With numbers
such as 2 and π, the set of irrational numbers was developed. The rationals and the irrationals together form the
set of real numbers.
These number systems have been developed by mathematicians to address new and different problems that have
emerged.
For example, to solve different kinds of equations requires different kinds of numbers. Using only integers, you can
solve equations such as x + 5 = 2 but you can’t solve 5x = 2. You need rational numbers for that. To solve x2 = 5 you
need irrational numbers.
There are other equations which can’t be solved using any real numbers. The simplest example is x2 = −1 or x2 + 1 = 0.
However, this equation can be solved by defining a number i such that i2 = −1:
x2 + 1 = 0
i.e. x2 − i2 = 0  where i2 = −1
(x − i) (x + i) = 0   (difference of two squares)
∴ x = i or x = −i

Example 1
Solve the quadratic equation x2 − 4x + 13 = 0.
Solution
Note that the discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac = 16 − 52 = −36. Hence the quadratic equation has no real roots and the
parabola y = x2 − 4x + 13 is entirely above the x-axis.
However, you can find solutions using complex numbers, which are of the form a + bi where a and b are
real numbers.
Method 1   Using the quadratic formula Method 2   Completing the square
2
x − 4x + 13 = 0 x2 − 4x + 13 = 0
2 x2 − 4x + 4 + 9 = 0
x = −b ± b − 4ac
2a (x − 2)2 = −9
x = 4 ± −36 x − 2 = ±3i
2
x = 2 ± 3 −1 x = 2 ± 3i

x = 2 ± 3i

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 1

YEAR 12

The complex number system

Any number z of the form x + iy, where x and y are real numbers, is called a complex number.
x is the real part of z, denoted by Re(z) = x, and y is called the imaginary part of z (although it is not literally
‘imaginary’ in the usual sense of that word), denoted by Im(z) = y.
(Note that you use a single letter z to denote the complex number x + iy, to emphasise that x + iy is a single number
despite being written as a sum of two parts.)
If the imaginary part of z is zero, i.e. y = 0, then z is purely real. This means that the set of real numbers is a subset of
the set of complex numbers.
If the real part of z is zero, i.e. x = 0, then z is purely imaginary, e.g. 3i or −i.
The following definitions apply to complex numbers.
Equality
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal:
a + bi = c + di   if and only if   a = c and b = d
The ‘if and only if ’ in the above statement means that the statement applies forwards and backwards, in other words
it is two statements in one.
If a + bi = c + di, then a = c and b = d.
If a = c and b = d, then a + bi = c + di.
Addition and subtraction
If z = z1 ± z2, where z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2, then z = (x1 + x2) ± i(y1 + y2).
Multiplication
If z = z1 × z2, where z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2, then:
z = (x1 + iy1)(x2 + iy2)
= x1x2 + i2y1y2 + ix1y2 + ix2y1
= (x1x2 − y1y2) +i(x1y2 + x2y1)
The conjugate of a complex number
If z = x + iy, then the conjugate of z is z = x − iy. (This is similar to the conjugate of a surd.)
Note that the product of a complex number and its conjugate is a real number:
z z = (x + iy)(x − iy)
= x2 − i2y2
= x2 + y2
Division
z
To calculate the division z = 1 , multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of z2. This realises
z2
the denominator, i.e. makes the denominator real. This is similar to how you rationalise a denominator when
dividing surds.

Example 2
If z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = −1 + 4i, find:
(a) z1 + z2 (b) z1 − z2 (c) z1 × z2 (d) z 2 z 2 (e) z12 (f) z1 ÷ z2

Solution
(a) z1 + z2 = 2 + 3i + (−1 + 4i) = 1 + 7i
(b) z1 − z2 = 2 + 3i − (−1 + 4i) = 3 − i
(c) z1 × z2 = (2 + 3i)(−1 + 4i) = −2 + 8i − 3i + 12i2 = −2 + 5i − 12 = −14 + 5i

2 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

(d) z 2 z 2 = (−1 + 4i)(−1 − 4i) = (−1)2 − 16i2 = 1 + 16 = 17

(e) z12 = (2 + 3i)2 = 4 + 12i + 9i2 = 4 + 12i − 9 = −5 + 12i
z1 (2 + 3i) (−1 − 4i) −2 − 8i − 3i − 12i 2 −2 − 11i + 12 10 − 11i 10 11
(f) = 2 + 3i = × = = = = − i
z 2 −1 + 4i (−1 + 4i) (−1 − 4i) 1 − 16i 2 1 + 16 17 17 17

Example 3
If z1 = 2 − 3i and z2 = −4 − 5i, find:
z2
(a) z1 + z2 (b) z2 − z1 (c) z1 + z1 (d) z 2 − z 2 (e) z1 × z 2 (f)
z1
Solution
(a) z1 + z2 = 2 − 3i + (−4 − 5i) = −2 − 8i
(b) z2 − z1 = (−4 − 5i) − (2 − 3i) = −6 − 2i
(c) z1 = 2 + 3i. z1 + z1 = 2 − 3i + (2 + 3i) = 4
(d) z 2 = −4 + 5i. z 2 − z 2 = −4 − 5i − (−4 + 5i) = −10i
(e) z1 × z 2 = (2 + 3i)(−4 + 5i) = −8 + 10i − 12i + 15i 2 = −8 − 15 − 2i = −23 − 2i
z 2 −4 + 5i −4 + 5i 2 − 3i −8 + 12i + 10i − 15i 2 7 + 22i 7 22
(f) = = × = = = + i
z1 2 + 3i 2 + 3i 2 − 3i 4+9 13 13 13

Example 4
Express z3 + 64 as the product of three linear factors. Hence find the three cube roots of −64.
Solution
z3 + 64 = (z + 4)(z2 − 4z + 16) (sum of two cubes)
2
= (z + 4)(z − 4z + 4 + 12) (complete the square)
2 2
= (z + 4)((z − 2) − 12i ) (construct the difference of two squares)
2 2
= (z + 4)((z − 2) − (2 3i) )
= (z + 4)(z − 2 − 2 3i)(z − 2 + 2 3i)
The cube roots of −64 are obtained from z + 4 = 0, z − 2 − 2 3i = 0, z − 2 + 2 3i = 0.
∴ The cube roots are −4, 2 − 2 3i and 2 + 2 3i.

Square roots of a complex number

The general method for finding the square roots of a complex number is illustrated in the following example.

Example 5
Find the square roots of 3 + 4i.
Solution
Let z = x + iy, where x, y are real, such that z2 = 3 + 4i:
(x + iy)2 = 3 + 4i
(x2 − y2) + 2xyi = 3 + 4i
Equating the real and imaginary parts of LHS and RHS:
x2 − y2 = 3  [1]        2xy = 4  [2]

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 3

YEAR 12

From [2], y = 2 , then substitute into [1]: x 2 − 42 = 3

x x
4 2
x − 3x − 4 = 0
(x2 − 4)( x2 + 1) = 0
x2 = 4 or x2 = −1
But x is real ∴ x = ±2 are the only solutions.
Substituting this into [2]: y = ±1
So the square roots of 3 + 4i are 2 + i and −2 − i, which can be written as ±(2 + i).

EXPLORING FURTHER

Arithmetic of complex numbers

Use technology to explore the arithmetic of complex numbers.

EXERCISE 1.1 ARITHMETIC OF COMPLEX NUMBERS AND THE SOLUTION OF 

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

1 i5 = …
A 1 B −1 C i D −i
2 Solve the following equations.
(a) z2 + 9 = 0 (b) z2 + 25 = 0 (c) z2 + 2z + 17 = 0
2
(d) −z + 2z − 5 = 0 (e) z2 = 4z − 20 (f) −2z2 + 2z − 13 = 0
2
(g) z − z + 8 = 0 (h) z − 4 − z2 = 0
3 Simplify:
(a) i3 (b) i4 (c) i6 (d) i7 (e) i8
4 If z = 5 − 2i, find:
(a) z−1 (b) z (c) z z (d) z2 (e) (z − z )
2
(f)
z −1
z −i
5 Simplify:
(a) (3 + 5i) + (7 − 2i) (b) (4 + 7i) − (−2 + 9i) (c) (5 + 2i)(3 − 4i) (d) (7 + 3i)(7 − 3i)

(e) (2 − 5i)2 (f) i17 (g) ( 3 + 2i)( 3 − 2i) (h) 1

2 + 3i

( )
2
(i)
8 + 5i (j) 3i + 2 (k) −8 + 3i − 2 + 3i (l) 5 + 9i
4 − 3i 2 + 5i 2 − 5i −2 − 4i 1 + 2i 2 − 4i
6 Find real numbers x and y such that:
(a) (x + iy)(2 − 3i) = −13i (b) (1 + i)x + (2 − 3i)y = 10
7 If z1 = 3 + i and z2 = 2 − 3i, find:
z1 − z 2
(a) (z1 − z2)2 (b) z1 × z 2 (c) z1z 2 (d)
z1 + z 2
8 Find the linear factors of the following expressions.
(a) z2 + 9 (b) z2 + 36 (c) (z − 3)2 + 16 (d) (2z + 3)2 + 8
(e) z2 + 2z + 26 (f) z2 − 6z + 20 (g) 2z2 + 2z + 4 (h) z3 + 1000

9 Solve the equation: (a) 2z − 1 = (4 − i)2

(b)
z−2 =1+i
z

4 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

10 (a) Find the square roots of −8 + 6i.

(b) Hence solve 2z2 + (1 − i)z + (1 − i) = 0.
Use your answer to part (b) to verify that the results for the sum of roots and for the product of roots of a
(c) 
quadratic equation are true when the coefficients and roots are complex numbers.
11 Find the square roots of the following: (a) −8 − 6i     (b) −16i     (c) 12 + 5i
12 (a) Show that 3 − i is a root of the equation z3 − ( 3 − i)z2 + 9z − 9 3 + 9i = 0.
(b) Find the other two solutions of the equation.
Use your answer to part (b) to verify that the results for the sum of roots, for the sum of products of pairs
(c) 
of roots and for the product of roots of a cubic equation are true when the coefficients and roots are
complex numbers.
13 Solve the following quadratic equations.
(a) z2 − (3 − 2i)z + (1 − 3i) = 0 (b) z2 − z + (4 + 2i) = 0
2
(c) z − (2 + 2i)z + (−1 + 2i) = 0 (d) z2 − (3 + i)z + (2 − 3i) = 0
14 Let z = a + ib where a, b are real. Prove that there are always two square roots of z except when a = b = 0.
15 If z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2, show that the following equations are true.
(a) z1 + z1 = 2 × Re(z1) (b) z1 − z1 = 2 × Im(z1) × i (c) z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2
(d) z1 − z 2 = z1 − z 2 (e) z1 × z 2 = z1 × z 2
16 (a) Express z3 + 125 as the product of three linear factors.
 Let w be one of the non-real complex roots of the equation z3 + 125 = 0.
(b) Show that w2 = 5w − 25. (c) Hence simplify (5w − 25)3.

1.2 GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

AS A POINT
As the complex number z = x + iy is composed of two parts, it can Imaginary
be considered as an ordered pair (x, y), and so complex numbers axis
y P(x + yi)
can be represented as points in a plane. Any complex number
z = x + iy can be represented by the point P with coordinates (x, y) in a y
number plane in which the x-axis is the ‘real’ axis and the y-axis is the
x
‘imaginary’ axis. This Cartesian representation of complex numbers O x
is called the Argand diagram, after the French mathematician Jean- Real axis
Robert Argand (1768–1822). The number plane on which Argand
diagrams are mapped is called the complex number plane.

Geometrical addition and subtraction of complex numbers

Im
Example 6 6
If z1 = 5 + 2i and z2 = 1 + 3i, show z1 + z2 and z1 − z2 on an Argand diagram. R
5 z1 + z2
4
Solution 3
Q
z2
Algebraically, z1 + z2 = 6 + 5i and z1 − z2 = 4 − i. 2 Pz
1

On an Argand diagram, points P, Q and R represent z1, z2 and z1 + z2 1

respectively. Note the location of R to complete the parallelogram OPRQ. –2 –1–1O 1 2 3 S 5 6 7 8 Re

z1 – z2
The diagram also shows points Q′ and S, representing −z2 and z1 − z2 –2
respectively. Note that z1 − z2 has been calculated as z1 + (−z2). S completes the –z2–3
Q'
parallelogram OPSQ′. –4

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 5

YEAR 12

Geometrical representation of multiplication by i

Im
Example 7 6
If z = 4 + 3i, show iz, i2z and i3z on an Argand diagram. iz
5
4
Q z
Solution 3
P
Algebraically: iz = −3 + 4i, i2z = −4 − 3i and i3z = 3 − 4i. 2
1
The Argand diagram shows that each multiplication by i causes the
point z to be rotated anticlockwise about the origin by π (90°). –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1O 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re
2
–2
R
–3
i2z S
–4
i3z
–5
–6

Geometrical representation of conjugates

Im
The points that represent a pair of complex conjugates are reflections in the real axis. (This is z
because a number and its complex conjugate are the same except that the imaginary part has
changed from negative to positive, or vice versa.)
O Re
If z = x + iy, then z = x − iy. The sign of the imaginary part has changed, while the sign of the
real part has remained the same. On the Argand diagram this means a reflection in the x-axis
(real axis). z

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Geometric representation of conjugates

Use technology to explore the geometric representation of complex numbers and conjugates.

Modulus–argument form or polar form of a complex number

A point P on an Argand diagram may be located by Cartesian coordinates (i.e. an x-coordinate and y-coordinate,
indicating horizontal displacement and vertical displacement respectively from the origin O), or alternatively by its
modulus (plural ‘moduli’) and its argument:
• The modulus is the distance from the origin O to P.
• The argument is the angle at which the ray OP is inclined to the positive direction of the real axis.
Im
Specifically, you define the modulus of z as mod z = z = x + iy = x 2 + y 2 = r
P
z = x + iy
From this definition and the diagram, note that x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. r = |z|
y
Therefore, for any complex number: z = x + iy = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ )
θ
When a complex number is expressed in the form r(cos θ + i sin θ ), it is said to O x Re
be in mod–arg form or polar form. The abbreviation r cis θ may be used, where
r cis θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ).
The argument of z = x + iy is then defined as arg z = θ such that x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
Clearly, an infinite number of values of θ are possible for any complex number z, obtained by adding or subtracting
multiples of 2π (or 360°). Therefore:

Define the principal argument to be θ such that −π < θ ≤ π.

6 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Results should always be given using the principal argument.

Note: arg 0 is undefined.

Example 8
Write each of the following in mod–arg form.
(a) 1 + 3i (b) −1 + 3i (c) −1 − 3i (d) 1 − 3i

Solution
It is always helpful to show the complex numbers on an Argand diagram.

–1 + √3i Im
(a) z = 12 + ( 3 ) = 2
1 + √3i 2

θ2 2 cos θ = 1 and 2 sin θ = 3, so θ is a first-quadrant angle.

∴ arg z = θ = π
θ1 3
Re ∴ 1 + 3i = 2 cis π
θ4
3
θ3
(−1)2 + ( 3 ) = 2
2
(b) z =
2 cos θ = −1 and 2 sin θ = 3, so θ is a second-quadrant angle.
–1 – √3i 1 – √3i
∴ arg z = θ = 2π
3
∴ −1 + 3i = 2 cis 2π
3
(−1)2 + (− 3 ) = 2
2
(c) z =
2 cos θ = −1 and 2 sin θ = − 3, so θ is a third-quadrant angle.
∴ arg z = θ = − 2π    (Note the use of the principal argument.)
3
∴ −1 − 3i = 2 cis − 3
2π
( )
(d) z = 1 + ( − 3 ) = 2
2 2

2 cos θ = 1 and 2 sin θ = − 3, so θ is a fourth-quadrant angle.

∴ arg z = θ = − π    (Again, note the use of the principal argument.)
3
∴ 1 − 3i = 2 cis − 3 ( )
π

2
The result z × z = z
This useful result can be proved as follows. Let z = x + iy so that z = x − iy.
∴ LHS = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 + y2 = RHS
Products in mod–arg form
Let z1 = r1(cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and z2 = r2(cos θ2 + i sin θ2).
Then z1 × z2 = r1r2(cos θ1 + i sin θ1)(cos θ2 + i sin θ2)
= r1r2(cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 + i sin θ1 cos θ2 + i cos θ1 sin θ2)
= r1r2(cos (θ1 + θ2) + i sin (θ1 + θ2))
= r1r2 cis (θ1 + θ2)

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 7

YEAR 12

This is a complex number in mod–arg form with modulus r1r2 and argument (θ1 + θ2).

∴ z1 z 2 = z1 × z 2

Also, note that arg z1 + arg z2 is one value of arg (z1z2), but not necessarily the principal value. (You may have to add
or subtract a multiple of 2π to obtain the principal argument.)

arg(z1z2) = arg z1 + arg z2 expressed in terms of the principal values

The modulus of a product is the product of the moduli.
The argument of a product is the sum of the arguments.

Example 9

( ) ( )
If z1 = 2 cos 2π + i sin 2π and z2 = 2 cos 3π + i sin 3π , find z1 × z2 in mod–arg form and in Cartesian form.
3 3 4 4
Hence find the exact value of cos 5π .
12
Solution
( ( ) (
z1 × z2 = 2 2 cos 2π + 3π + i sin 2π + 3π
3 4 3 4 ))
(
= 2 2 cos 17π + i sin 17π
12 12 ) (which is in mod–arg form, but not using the principal argument)

(
= 2 2 cos −7π + i sin −7π
12 12 )(subtracting 2π to find the principal arg)
To find z1 × z2 in Cartesian form:

( 3 ) (
3 2 2 )
z1 = 2 cos 2π + i sin 2π = 2 − 1 + i 3 = −1 + 3i

z2 = 2 cos( 3π
4
+ i sin )
3π
4
= 2 ⎛−
⎝ 2
1 + 1 i⎞ = −1 + i
2 ⎠
∴ z1 × z2 = (−1 + 3i)( −1 + i) = (1 − 3) + (−1 − 3)i

( )
So 2 2 cos −7π + i sin −7π = (1 − 3) + (−1 − 3)i in Cartesian form.
12 12
Equating the real parts (because you are trying to prove a result involving cos 5π ):
12
2 2 cos −7 π = 1 − 3 ∴ cos −7 π = 1 − 3
12 12 2 2
But cos −7 π = cos 7 π = − cos 5π (as cos x is an even function and cos (π − θ ) = −cos θ )
12 12 12
∴ − cos 5π = 1 − 3 and so cos 5π = 3 − 1 = 6 − 2
12 2 2 12 2 2 4

EXPLORING FURTHER

Polar form of a complex number

Use technology to explore the polar form of a complex number.

8 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Quotients in mod–arg form

Let z1 = r1(cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and z2 = r2(cos θ2 + i sin θ2).
z r (cos θ1 + i sin θ1)
Then 1 = 1
z 2 r2 (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 )
r (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) (cos θ 2 − i sin θ 2 )
= 1 ×
r2 (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 ) (cos θ 2 − i sin θ 2 )

=
( )
r1 (cos θ1 cos θ 2 + sin θ1 sin θ 2 ) + i (sin θ1 cos θ 2 − cos θ1 sin θ 2 )
2 2
r2 (cos θ 2 + sin θ 2 )
r1
(
= cos (θ1 − θ 2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ 2 )
r2 )
r1
r2 ( 1
= cis θ − θ 2 )
r1
This is a complex number in mod–arg form with modulus and argument (θ1 − θ2).
r2
z1 z
∴ = 1
z2 z2
z1
Also, note that arg z1 − arg z2 is one value of arg , but not necessarily the principal value. (You may have to add
z2
or subtract a multiple of 2π to find the principal argument.)

z
arg ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ = arg z1 − arg z 2 , z 2 ≠ 0,expressed in terms of the principal values.
⎝ z2 ⎠

z
1
z z z ()
It follows from these results that 1 = = 1 and arg 1 = arg1 − arg z = − arg z.

The modulus of a quotient is the quotient of the moduli.

The argument of a quotient is the difference of the arguments.

Example 10
z1
If z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 3 − i, find in mod–arg form.
z2
Solution
( ) (
z1 = 2 cos π + i sin π and z2 = 2 cos −π + i sin −π
4 4 6 6 )
∴
z1
z2
=
2
2 π
cis −
4 (−
6
π =
2
2 cos )
5π
12 (
+ i sin 5π
12 )
Two special results
1 If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) then the conjugate z = r cis (−θ )

2 If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) then

1 = 1 cis(−θ )
z r
This second result can be proved as follows:
Method 1 Method 2
1 = 1cis0 = 1 cis (0 − θ ) = 1 cis (−θ ) 1 = 1 × z = z = r cis (−θ ) = 1 cis (−θ )
z r cisθ r r z z z z2 r2 r

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 9

YEAR 12

Powers using mod–arg form

De Moivre’s theorem (named for the French mathematician Abraham de Moivre (1667–1754)) states:

If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) and n is an integer,

then zn = rn(cos nθ + i sin nθ )
n
zn = z and arg z n = narg z

1 = 1 = 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ = arg1 − arg z n = −narg z.

It follows from these results that n and arg
zn zn z ⎝ zn ⎠

You will prove this theorem in question 13 of Exercise 1.2 below.

Example 11
If z = 1 + i, express z−10 in Cartesian form (x + iy).
Solution
(
z = 2 cos π + i sin π
4 4 )
∴ z −10 = ( 2) ( ( π ) ( π ))
−10
cos −10
4
+ i sin −10
4

32 2( ( π ) ( π ))
= 1 cos − + i sin −
2
=− i
32

Example 12
( ) (
Let z1 = 2 cos π + i sin π , z2 = 2 cos −π + i sin −π .
3 3 4 4 )
n
⎛z ⎞
(a) Find the smallest positive integer n for which ⎜ 1 ⎟ is a real number.
⎝ z2 ⎠
z13
(b) If z = 5 , find z in Cartesian form.
z2
Solution
π and arg z = − π z13
(a) arg z1 = (b) z = 5
3 2 4 z2
⎛z ⎞
∴ arg ⎜ 1 ⎟ = π − −π = 7π 23 (cos π + i sin π )
⎝ z2 ⎠ 3 4 12 =

⎛z ⎞
n
( 5
(
2 ) cos −5π + i sin −5π
4 4 )
∴ arg ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 7nπ
⎝ z2 ⎠ 12
n n
=
(
2 cos 9π + i sin 9π
4 4 )
⎛z ⎞
z
⎝ 2⎠
⎛z ⎞
Now ⎜ 1 ⎟ is a real number when arg ⎜ 1 ⎟ is
⎝ z2 ⎠ = (
2 cos π + i sin π
4 )
4
an integer multiple of π, because that makes the
= 2⎛ 1 +i 1 ⎞
argument zero (so the imaginary part is zero). ⎝ 2 2⎠
n = 12 is the smallest positive value of n that =1+i
makes this happen.

10 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Basic identities
• z1z 2 = z1 z 2 and arg ( z1z 2 ) = arg z1 + arg z 2
z1 z1 z
• = and arg ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ = arg z1 − arg z 2 , z 2 ≠ 0
z2 z2 ⎝ z2 ⎠
• zn = z
n
( )
and arg z n = narg z

• 1 = 1 and arg ⎛ 1 ⎞ = −narg z , z ≠ 0

zn zn ⎝ zn ⎠

• z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2
• z1z 2 = z1z 2
2
• zz = z
• z + z = 2Re(z )
• z − z = 2i Im(z )

EXERCISE 1.2 GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER AS A POINT

1 If z = 2 + i and w = −3 − 4i, represent each of the following on the complex plane.

(a) z (b) z (c) z z (d) 3z (e) −2z (f)
1 (g) z + w
2 z
(h) −w (i) z − w (j) z (k) Re(z) (l) Im(z)

( )
2 If z = 2 cos −2π + i sin −2π , then z4 = …
3 3
A 16 cos( 3 3) (
−2π + i sin −2π B 16 cos 2π + i sin 2π
3 3)
C 16 (cos π + i sin π ) D 16 (cos 4π + i sin 4π )
3 3 3 3
3 If z = z , then arg z = …
A π B
π C 0 D 0 or π
2
4 Express each of the following in mod–arg form. (Give the argument in radians and in exact form.)
(a) 2 − 2i (b) − 3 + i (c) −6 − 6i (d) 4i (e) −4
(f) −3 − 3i (g) 2 3 − 2i (h) 2 + 2i
5 Convert each of the following into Cartesian form.

( π π
)
(a) 4 cos + i sin (b) 8 cos
3 3 (
−π + i sin −π
4 4 )
(
(c) 6 cos
4 4 ) 3(
3π + i sin 3π (d) 2 cos −2π + i sin −2π
3 )
z
6 For each of the following, find both zw and in mod–arg form.
w
( π π
3 ) (π
6
π
6 ) π
2 ( π
)
(a) z = 4 cos + i sin , w = 4 cos + i sin (b) z = 5 cos + i sin , w = 3 cos + i sin
3 2
π
4 ( π
4 )
(c) z = 2 cos (4 4 ) (
−3π + i sin −3π , w = 2 cos π + i sin π
4 4 )
7 If z = x + iy, prove the following.
2
(a) z = z (b) z z = z (c) z +
2 z = 2Re(z )
z
8 On an Argand diagram, mark points A, B and C to represent complex numbers z, w and z + w. Give a
geometrical explanation to show that z + w ≤ z + w .

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 11

YEAR 12

9 Find the following in Cartesian form.

( ) ( )
5 8
(a) ⎡2 cos
3π + i sin 3π ⎤      (b)    ⎡ 2 cos −3π + i sin −3π ⎤      (c)    ( 3 + i)6
⎣⎢ 10 10 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ 4 4 ⎦⎥
5 4
(d) (1 − i)      (e)    ( 3 − i)      (f)   
1      (g)    (−4 − 4 3i)−3
(2 3 + 2i)5
(1 + i)3 ( 3 + i)6
(h) (1 − i)3(2 + 2i)4        (i)                 (j)   
(1 − i)4 (1 − i)8
10 If z = 3 − 4i = 5(cos θ + i sin θ ), find the following in x + iy form.
(a) 25(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ )
1
(b) 5(sin θ − i cos θ ) (c) (cos θ − i sin θ )
5
11 If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ), show that 2 z 2 is real.
z +r
12 Let z = 3 + i and w = z × (cos θ + i sin θ ) where −π < θ ≤ π.
(a) Find the value of θ if w is purely imaginary and Im(w) > 0.
(b) Find the value of arg (z + w).
13 (a) If z = cos θ + i sin θ, prove by induction that zn = cos nθ + i sin nθ for all positive integers n.
 (This is the proof of de Moivre’s theorem for positive integers.)
1
(b) By writing z −n = n , complete the proof of de Moivre’s theorem for negative integers.
z
14 Use de Moivre’s theorem to prove that the conjugate of a power is equal to the power of the conjugate, i.e.
n
let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) and prove that z n = (z ) .
15 We have already proved (earlier and in question 14) that:
• z + z = 2Re(z ) and z − z = 2Im(z ) × i
• the conjugate of a sum is equal to the sum of the conjugates
• the conjugate of a difference is equal to the difference of the conjugates
• the conjugate of a product is equal to the product of the conjugates
• the conjugate of a quotient is equal to the quotient of the conjugates
• the conjugate of a power is equal to the power of the conjugate.
• It is also obvious that the conjugate of a real number is itself, i.e. if z = x + 0i then z = x − 0i = z.
 Use these properties of conjugates to answer the following.
(a) Show that z n + (z )n = 2Re(z n ) .
(b) Simplify (1 + 3i)10 + (1 − 3i)10.
16 Consider the cubic polynomial P(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d for which all the coefficients a, b, c and d are real.
Let the complex number z be a root of the equation P(x) = 0. Show that z is also a root of P(x) = 0.

1.3 OTHER REPRESENTATIONS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Euler’s formula
A very useful result is Euler’s formula, which states that eix = cos x + isin x, for real x.
It may seem strange to have an exponential function as the sum of two trigonometric functions, so the result needs
to be proved.
Proof
Let f (x) = cos x + isin x [1]
Differentiate with respect to x:
f′ (x) = −sin x + icos x
= i(cos x + isin x)
= i f(x)

12 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

f ′(x)
Hence = i.
f (x)
Integrate both sides with respect to x:
f ′(x)
∫ f (x)
dx = i dx ∫
Hence loge | f (x)| = ix + C [2]

Using [1] you have: f (0) = cos 0 + isin 0 = 1

Substitute into [2]: loge1 = C so C = 0
[2] becomes: log e f (x) = ix
So f (x) = eix
Hence eix = cos x + isin x
Thus e–ix = cos(−x) + isin(−x)
= cos x − isin x

In general, when z ≠ 1, z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) = reiθ .

Example 13
Write each complex number in both polar and Cartesian form.
iπ −i π 3π i −5 π i iπ
1+
(a) e 6 (b) e 3 (c) e 4 (d) e 6 (e) e −i π (f) e 6

Solution
iπ
(a) e 6 = cos
π + i sin π = 3 + 1 i
6 6 2 2

( )
−i π
⎛ −π ⎞
(b) e 3 = cos ⎜ + i sin −π = cos π − i sin π = 1 − 3 i
⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 3 3 3 2 2
3π i
(c) e 4 = cos 3π + i sin 3π = − cos π + i sin π = − 1 + 1 i = 1 (−1 + i)
4 4 4 4 2 2 2

( ) ( )
−5 π i
(d) e 6 = cos −5π + i sin −5π = − cos π − i sin π = − 3 − 1 i
6 6 6 6 2 2
−i π
(e) e = cos(−π ) + i sin(−π ) = − cos0 + i sin 0 = −1

( )
iπ iπ
⎛ ⎞ e 3 e
= e × e 6 = e cos π + i sin π = e ⎜ 3 + 1 i ⎟ =
1+
(f) e 6 + i
6 6 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 2 2

Example 14
Write each complex number in the form reiθ, giving any decimal answers correct to two decimal places.
(a) 3(cos 2 + isin 2) (b) −1 + i 3 (c) 2 + 3i (d) 2(cos 1.5 − isin 1.5) (e) −3 − 3i

Solution
(a) 3(cos 2 + isin 2) = 3e2i

( )
2π i
⎛ ⎞
(b) −1 + i 3 = 2 ⎜ − 1 + 3 i ⎟ = 2 cos 2π + i sin 2π = 2e 3
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 3 3

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 13

YEAR 12

⎛ 2
(c) 2 + 3i = 13 ⎜
⎝ 13 13 ⎠
⎞
+ 3 i ⎟ = 13(cos θ + i sin θ ) where θ = tan−1 3 ≈ 0.98
2 ()
= 13e 0.98i
(d) 2(cos 1.5 − isin 1.5) = 2(cos (−1.5) + isin (−1.5)) = 2e−1.5i

( ( ) ( ))
−3π i
⎛ 1 ⎞
(e) −3 − 3i = 3(−1 − i) = 3 2 ⎜ − − 1 i ⎟ = 3 2 cos −3π + i sin −3π = 3 2e 4
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 4 4

Powers of complex numbers

Since any complex number can be written in the exponential form, eiθ, it is easy to find powers of this number as
(eiθ)n = einθ.

Example 15
(a) Write z = 1 + i in the form reiθ .
(b) Hence find the following in both polar form and Cartesian form.
(i) z2 (ii) z3 (iii) z4 (iv) z (v) z−1

Solution
( )
iπ
⎛ 1 ⎞
(a) z = 1 + i = 2 ⎜ + 1 i ⎟ = 2 cos π + i sin π = 2e 4
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 4 4
iπ 2
⎛ ⎞ iπ
π π
(b)  (i) z 2 = ⎜ 2e 4 ⎟ = 2e 2 = 2(cos + i sin ) = 2i
⎝ ⎠ 2 2

( )
iπ 3
3 ⎛ ⎞ 3π i
3π + i sin 3π = 2 2 ⎛ − 1 + 1 i ⎞ = −2 + 2i
(ii) z = ⎜ 2e 4 ⎟ = 2 2e 4 = 2 2 cos ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 4 4 2 2 ⎠
This answer could also have been obtained using z3 = z2 × z = 2i(1 + i) = −2 + 2i.
iπ 4
⎛ ⎞
(iii) z = ⎜ 2e 4 ⎟ = 4ei π = 4 ( cos π + i sin π ) = −4
4
⎝ ⎠
1

( )
iπ 2
⎛ ⎞ iπ
(iv) z = ⎜ 2e 4 ⎟ = 4 2e 8 = 4 2 cos π + i sin π = 4 2 (0.9239 + 0.3827i) = 1.099 + 0.4204i
⎝ ⎠ 8 8

( ( ) ( ))
iπ −1
⎛ ⎞ −iπ
⎛ ⎞
(v) z −1
= ⎜ 2e 4 ⎟ = 1 e 4 = 1 cos −π + i sin −π = 1 ⎜ 1 − 1 i⎟ = 1 − 1 i
⎝ ⎠ 2 2 4 4 2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 2 2

Example 16
iπ −iπ 3iπ
Given z1 = 2e 6 , z 2 = 3e 3 and z 3 = e 4 , find the polar form for each of the following.
z1
(a) z1 × z2 (b) z2 × z3 (c) z12 × z2 (d)
z2
z2 z12 × z 2
(e) (f) (g) On the Argand diagram, plot z1, z2 and z1 × z2.

z3 z3
z
(h) On the Argand diagram, plot z2, z3 and 2 .
z3

14 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Solution
iπ −iπ i π −iπ −iπ −iπ 3iπ −iπ + 3iπ 5iπ
+
(a) z1 × z 2 = 2e 6 × 3e 3 = 6e 6 3 = 6e 6
(b) z 2 × z 3 = 3e 3 ×e 4 = 3e 3 4 = 3e 12
iπ

( )
2iπ −iπ i π −iπ iπ iπ
+ z − −iπ
(d) 1 = 2e−iπ = 2 e 6 3 = 2 e 2 = 2 i
6
2
(c) z1 × z 2 = 2 2
e 6 × 3e 3 = 12e 3 3 = 12e ( = 12 )
0
z2 3 3 3
3e 3
−iπ 2iπ −iπ
−iπ − 3iπ −13iπ 11iπ −3iπ
z 3e 3 z12 × z 2 22 e × 3e 0
= 12e
6 3
(e) 2 = 3iπ = 3e 3 4 = 3e 12 = 3e 12 (f) = 3iπ 3iπ = 12e
4
z3 z3
e4 e 4 e4

(g) Im (h) Im
3 3
2
z1
1 2

O
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re z2
–1 z3 1
z3
–2
–3 z2
z1 × z2 O
–4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 Re

–1

–2

–3 z2

Geometrical representation of products involving complex numbers—

consolidation and summary
Multiplication of a complex number z by a real number k:
• arg (kz) = arg k + arg z
If k is a positive real number, then arg k = 0, so arg (kz) = arg z.
If k is a negative real number, then arg k = π, so arg (kz) = π + arg z = π + arg z − 2π = −(π − arg z).
(Note that 2π is subtracted to find the principal argument.)
• kz = k × z , i.e. there is a scaling by a factor of k
If k is a negative real number, then the direction from the origin O to the point representing kz is opposite
to the direction from O to the point representing z.
Multiplication of a complex number z by i:
• arg (iz) = arg i + arg z = π + arg z
2
• iz = i × z = z as i = 1
• Hence multiplication by i causes an anticlockwise rotation by π about the origin O, with no change to the
2
modulus.
Multiplication of a complex number z by ki, where k is a real number:
• This combines the two cases above.
• Rotate by π anticlockwise about O and then scale by a factor of k , remembering also to reverse the
2
direction if k is negative.

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 15

YEAR 12

Multiplication of a complex number z by another complex number r(cos θ + i sin θ ):

• arg (z × r cis θ ) = arg z + arg (r cis θ ) = arg z + θ
• z × r cis θ = z × r cis θ = z × r
• To multiply by r cis θ, rotate by θ anticlockwise about O and then scale by a factor of r.

Im
Example 17
The Argand diagram at right shows the unit circle as well
as points representing the complex numbers z1 and z2.
For (a) z = z1 and (b) z = z2, mark points A, B, C, D, E, 1

F, G to represent z , 2z, −z, iz, − 1 iz , z2 and (1 + 3i)z.

2 z1
z2
Solution
A: z is the reflection of z in the real axis O Re
–1 1
B: 2z is z scaled by a factor of 2
C: −z is z scaled by a factor of −1
(i.e. reflected back through O)
D: iz is z rotated by π anticlockwise about O –1
2
E: − 1 iz is iz scaled by a factor of − 1
2 2
F: z2 has a modulus that is (mod z)2 and an argument that is 2 × arg z
G: 1 + 3i = 2 cis π , so (1 + 3i)z is found by rotating anticlockwise
3
π
by and then doubling the modulus.
3
(a) Im (b) Im
G

1
D 1 F B
B
z2
z1
G E
–1 D O 1 Re
–1 O 1 Re F
E A C
A
C
–1 –1

Example 18
Let OABC be a square on an Argand diagram where O is the origin. The points A and C represent the
complex numbers z and iz respectively.
(a) Find the complex number represented by B.
The square is now rotated anticlockwise 45° about O to form OA′B′C′. Find the complex numbers
(b) 
represented by A′, B′ and C′.
E is the point of intersection of the diagonals of the square OA′B′C′. What complex number does
(c) 
E represent?

16 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Solution
Im B
(a) B represents z + iz  (completion of the parallelogram Bʹ
represents the sum)
C Aʹ
E
A
Cʹ

O Re

(b) Method 1 Method 2

A′ is formed by rotating A anticlockwise by In a square, the length of the diagonal is 2 times the
45° about O. length of a side. Also, the diagonals are inclined at 45°
Hence A′ represents z × 1(cos 45° + i sin 45°) to the sides. Hence, when A is rotated by 45° to A′, A′
= z (1 + i) is the point on the diagonal OB which is 1 from O.
2 2
B′ represents (z + iz) × 1(cos 45° + i sin 45°) Thus A′ represents the number 1 × (z + iz)
2
= z (1 + i) = z × 2i = 2 iz
2 = z (1 + i)
2 2 2
B′ is the point along the extension of OC such that OB′
= 2 × OC.
Hence B′ represents 2 × iz = 2 iz
By either method, similarly C′ is:
iz × 1(cos 45° + i sin 45°) = z (−1 + i)
2

(c) The diagonals of a square bisect each other, so E is the midpoint of OB′.
Hence E represents: 1 × 2 iz
2

EXERCISE 1.3 OTHER REPRESENTATIONS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

1 Write each complex number in both polar and Cartesian form.

iπ iπ 5π i iπ −i π −2 π i iπ iπ
1− 2+
(a) e 3     (b) e 2     (c) e 6
    (d) e 4     (e) e 2
    (f) e 3
    (g) e 2
    (h) e 3

2 Write each complex number in the form reiθ , giving any decimal answers correct to two decimal places, where
necessary.
(a) 3(cos 1.5 + isin 1.5) (b) − 3 + i (c) 3 + 2i (d) 4(cos 2 − isin 2)

(e) 2 − 2i (f) ( 5 )
4 − cos π + i sin π (g) −2 − 2 3i
5
(h) (1 + 2 ) + (1 − 2 ) i
3 If cos π = 2cos2 π − 1, then the complex number 1
4 8 2 ( )
2 + 2 + i 2 − 2 is equal to:
5π i −5 π i iπ −iπ
A e 8 B e 8 C e 8 D e 8

4 (a) Given that eiθ = cos θ + isin θ, write an expression for e−iθ.
(b) Using part (a), obtain expressions for sin θ and cos θ in terms of eiθ and e−iθ.

5 (a) Write z = 3 + i in the form reiθ.

(b) Hence find the following in both polar form and Cartesian form.
(i) z2 (ii) z3 (iii) z4 (iv) z (v) z−1

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 17

YEAR 12

6 (a) Write z = 1 − 3i in the form reiθ.

(b) Hence find the following in both polar form and Cartesian form.
1 1
(i) z2 (ii) z3 (iii) z5 (iv) z (v) (vi)
z z3
7 (a) Write z = −1 − i in the form reiθ.
(b) Hence find the following in both polar form and Cartesian form.
1 1
(i) z2 (ii) z3 (iii) z4 (iv) z (v) (vi)
z z2

( )
2
8 (a) Given eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ , write expressions for e 2iθ and eiθ .
(b) Hence write expressions for cos 2θ and sin 2θ.

( )
3
9 (a) Given eiθ = cos θ + isin θ, write expressions for e 3iθ and eiθ .
(b) Hence write expressions for cos 3θ in terms of cos θ and cos3 θ.
(c) Hence write expressions for sin 3θ in terms sin θ and sin3 θ.

1 − 3i = reiθ
10 Given that , r > 0 and for −π < θ ≤ π, find the values of r and θ.
1 + 2i
11 Given that ( )( )
3 − i − 3 + i = reiθ , r > 0 and for −π < θ ≤ π, find the values of r and θ.
−i π 2iπ iπ
12 Given z1 = 2e 6 , z 2 = 3e
and z 3 = e 4 , find the polar form for each of the following.
3

z z2
(a) z1 × z2 (b) z2 × z3 (c) z12 × z2 (d) 1 (e) z
z2 3
z12 × z 2
(f) (g) On the Argand diagram, plot z1, z2 and z1 × z2.
z3
z2
(h) On the Argand diagram, plot z2, z3 and z .
3
iπ 5iπ −iπ
1 −iπ
13 Given z1 = 2e 4 , z 2 = 3e 6 , z 3 = e 3
and z 4 = e 2 , find the polar form for each of the following, plotting
2
each one on the Argand plane:
z2
(a) z1 × z4 (b) z2 × z3 (c) z22 × z4 (d)
z3
z1 (f) z12 × z 2 z1 × z 2
(e) (g) z 4 × z1 (h) z × z
z4 z3 3 4
iπ −5iπ
5iπ
1 1 −3iπ
14 Given z1 = 2e 8 , z 2 = 3e 12 , z 3 = e 6
and z 4 = e 4 , find the polar form for each of the following, plotting
3 2
each one on the Argand plane.
z12 z3
(a) z12 × z4 (b) z2 × z3 (c) z1 × z2 × z3 × z4 (d) (e)
z4 z2
15 Given z = r(cos θ + isin θ) = reiθ, use this result to prove de Moivre’s theorem, i.e. that zn = rn(cos nθ + isin nθ).
16 OABC is a square on an Argand diagram. O represents 0, A represents −4 + 2i, B represents z, C represents w
and D is the point where the diagonals of the square meet. Note that there are two squares that satisfy these
requirements. For each square, find:
(a) the complex numbers represented by C and D in Cartesian form
(b) the value of arg
w .
z ()
17 On an Argand diagram, OABC is a rectangle. The length of OC is twice the length of OA. The vertex A
corresponds to the complex number z. Find the complex number represented by D, the point of intersection
of the diagonals OB and AC.

18 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

1.4 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS 

De Moivre’s theorem
De Moivre’s theorem has been stated previously for positive integers, n.

If z = r(cos θ + isin θ), then zn = rn(cos nθ + isin nθ)

This theorem is proved using induction.

Proof
If n = 1, LHS = z
RHS = r1(cos 1θ + isin 1θ) = r(cos θ + isin θ) = z = LHS
Hence the result is true when n = 1.
Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that zk = rk(cos kθ + isin kθ).
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that zk + 1 = rk + 1 (cos (k + 1)θ + isin (k + 1)θ).
LHS = rk + 1(cos θ + isin θ)k + 1
= rk + 1(cos θ + isin θ)k(cos θ + isin θ)
= rk + 1(cos kθ + isin kθ)(cos θ + isin θ)
= rk + 1(cos kθ cos θ + icos kθsin θ + isin kθ cos θ + i2 sin kθ sin θ)
= rk + 1(cos kθ cos θ − sin kθ sin θ + i(sin kθ cos θ + cos kθ sin θ)
= rk + 1(cos (k + 1)θ + isin (k + 1)θ)
= RHS
Hence the result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. Since the result is true for n = 1, by the principle of
mathematical induction it is true for all integers n ≥ 1.

If n is a negative integer, de Moivre’s theorem states that z−n = r−n(cos (−nθ) + isin (−nθ)).

Proof
If z = r(cos θ + isin θ), then z −n = 1n = n 1 where n is a positive integer.
z r (cosnθ + i sinnθ )
z −n = n 1
r (cosnθ + i sinnθ )
r −n (cosnθ − i sinnθ )
=
(cosnθ + i sinnθ )(cosnθ − i sinnθ )
r −n (cosnθ − i sinnθ )
=
cos2 nθ + i sinnθ cosnθ − i sinnθ cosnθ − i 2 sin2 nθ
r −n (cosnθ − i sinnθ )
=
cos2 nθ − i 2 sin2 nθ
r −n (cosnθ − i sinnθ )
=
cos2 nθ + sin2 nθ
r −n ( cos(−nθ ) − i sin(−nθ ) )
=
1
= r ( cos(−nθ ) − i sin(−nθ ) )
−n

Hence the result is true when n is a negative integer.

In the Mathematics Extension 1 course, you learnt how to expand (a + b)n using the binomial theorem and Pascal’s
triangle (see Chapter 6 of New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12). You will now use Pascal’s triangle
to expand expressions such as (cos θ + i sin θ )4.

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 19

YEAR 12

In the following table, you should note how the coefficients in the binomial expansions are equivalent to the terms of
Pascal’s triangle.
Expansion Pascal’s triangle
(a + b)0 = 1 1
(a + b)1 = 1a + 1b 1   1
(a + b)2 = 1a2 + 2ab + 1b2 1   2   1
(a + b)3 = 1a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + 1b3 1   3   3   1

To write any binomial expansion, the coefficients can be found by continuing the pattern of Pascal’s triangle. Each
number in the triangle is the sum of the two numbers immediately above left and above right, except for the first
term and last term of each row (which are always 1).
For example: (a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5

Example 19
(a) Expand (cos θ + i sin θ )3 using:
(i) de Moivre’s theorem (ii) the binomial theorem (Pascal’s triangle).
(b) Hence show that:
3
(i) cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ (ii) sin 3θ = 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ   (iii) tan 3θ = 3 tan θ − tan
2
θ
1 − 3 tan θ
(c) Solve x3 + 3x2 − 3x − 1 = 0 using the substitution x = tan θ.
π
(d) Show that tan tan
5π = 1.
12 12
Solution
(a) (i) (cos θ + i sin θ )3 = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ
(ii) (cos θ + i sin θ )3 = cos3 θ + 3 cos2 θ × i sin θ + 3 cos θ × i2 sin2 θ + i3 sin3 θ
= cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ + i(3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ )
= cos3 θ − 3 cos θ (1 − cos2 θ ) + i(3(1 − sin2 θ )sin θ − sin3 θ )
= 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ + i(3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ )
(b) (i) Equating the real parts of (a): cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ
(ii) Equating the imaginary parts of (a): sin 3θ = 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ

(iii) tan 3θ =
sin 3θ
cos3θ
3
= 3sin θ3 − 4 sin θ
4 cos θ − 3cosθ
2 3
= 3 tan θ sec θ −2 4 tan θ    (dividing numerator and denominator by cos3 θ )
4 − 3sec θ
( 2
) 3
= 3 tan θ 1 + tan θ −2 4 tan θ
4 − 3 (1 + tan θ )

3
= 3 tan θ − tan2
θ
1 − 3 tan θ
(c) Let x = tan θ. The equation x3 + 3x2 − 3x − 1 = 0 becomes:
tan3 θ + 3 tan2 θ − 3 tan θ − 1 = 0
              tan3 θ − 3 tan θ = 1 − 3 tan2 θ
tan3 θ − 3 tan θ = 1   (dividing by 1 − 3 tan2 θ, noting tan θ ≠ ± 1 )
1 − 3 tan 2 θ 3
3
3 tan θ − tan θ = −1, which from part (b)(iii) above is: tan 3θ = −1
1 − 3 tan 2 θ

20 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Now solve tan 3θ = −1 as follows:

( )
tan 3θ = tan − π
4
π
∴ 3θ = − + nπ    for any integer n
4
3θ = …− 5π , − π , 3π , 7π , 11π ,…
4 4 4 4 4
            
θ = …− 5π , − π , 3π , 7π , 11π ,…
12 12 12 12 12
So the three solutions to the cubic equation x3 + 3x2 − 3x − 1 = 0 are given by:
( )
x = tan − π , tan π , tan 7π
12 4 12
= − tan π , 1, − tan 5π
12 12
The other possible values of θ repeat these three values, e.g. θ = − 5π produces
12
the solution x = tan −( )
5π
12
5
= − tan . π
12
d
a ( 12 ) (
(d) Product of the roots of a cubic is equal to − , so: − tan π × 1 × − tan 5π = − −1
12 )1
tan π tan 5π = 1
12 12

EXERCISE 1.4 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS

1 (a) Expand (cos θ + i sin θ )4 by de Moivre’s theorem and by the binomial theorem (Pascal’s triangle) to show:
(i) cos 4θ = 8 cos4 θ − 8 cos2 θ + 1 (ii) sin 4θ = 4 cos3 θ sin θ − 4 sin3 θ cos θ
(b) Obtain an expression for tan 4θ in terms of tan θ.
(c) By making suitable substitutions, solve the following. (i) 8x4 − 8x2 + 1 = 0
(ii) 16x4 − 16x2 + 1 = 0 (iii) 16x4 − 16x2 + 3 = 0 (iv) x4 + 4x3 − 6x2 − 4x + 1 = 0
2 (a) Given that cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ (see Example 19, page 20), solve 8x3 − 6x − 1 = 0.
(b) Show that cos cos
π 2π cos 4π = 1 .
9 9 9 8
3 Let z = cos θ + i sin θ.
(a) Show that: (i) zn + z−n = 2 cos nθ (ii) zn − z−n = 2i sin nθ
1
(b) Show that (z − z −1 )3 = (z 3 − z −3 ) − 3(z − z −1 ) (c) Hence show that sin3 θ = (3sin θ − sin 3θ ).
4
1 n −n
4 (a) Let z = cos θ + i sin θ and let w = z + . Given z + z = 2 cos nθ, prove that
z
( ) ( ) ( )
w 3 − 2w 2 − w + 2 = z 3 + 13 − 2 z 2 + 12 + 2 z + 1 − 2.
z z z
(b) Hence solve cos 3θ − 2 cos 2θ + 2 cos θ − 1 = 0 for −π ≤ θ ≤ π.
5 Express cos 3θ and cos 2θ in terms of cos θ. Show that the equation cos 3θ = cos 2θ can be expressed as
4x3− 2x2 − 3x + 1 = 0, where x = cos θ. By solving this equation for x, find the exact value of cos 2π .
5
6 (a) Use de Moivre’s theorem to express cos 4θ in terms of cos θ.
(b) Use your result from part (a) to solve the equation 8x4 − 8x2 + 1 = 0.
π
(c) Show that: cos + cos
3π + cos 5π + cos 7π = 0.
8 8 8 8
π
(d) Show that: cos cos
3π cos 5π cos 7 π = .1
8 8 8 8 8
7 (a) Use de Moivre’s theorem to express cos 5θ and sin 5θ as powers of cos θ and sin θ.
(b) Hence express tan 5θ as a rational function of t where t = tan θ.
(c) By considering the roots of tan 5θ = 0, deduce that tan π tan 2π tan 3π tan 4π = 5.
5 5 5 5
Chapter 1 Complex numbers 21
YEAR 12

1.5 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS

Quadratic equations
It is time to revisit the roots of quadratic equations and then consider polynomials.
The quadratic equation x2 + x + 1 = 0 has real coefficients but no real roots. The roots are complex numbers and
occur as conjugate pairs.

Example 20
(a) Solve x2 + x + 1 = 0.
(b) Discuss the nature of the roots.

Solution
−1 ± 1 − 4 = −1 ± −3
(a) Using the quadratic formula: x = .
2 2
Write the answer in the form a + bi: x = − 1 ± 3 i .
2 2
1
(b) The roots are x = − +
3 i and x = − − 3 i.
1
2 2 2 2
These complex numbers are of the form a + bi and a − bi, that is they are conjugates.

The complex roots of a quadratic equation with real coefficients occur as conjugate pairs.

Polynomial equations
The introduction of the ‘imaginary’ number i, with the special property that i2 = −1, allows the solution of all
quadratic equations ax2 + bx + c = 0 over the field of complex numbers. The two solutions to this equation can be
real or complex numbers, depending on whether the discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac is non-negative or negative. If the
discriminant is zero, then these two solutions are the same number.
In general, all polynomial equations P(z) = 0 of degree n have n solutions over the field of complex numbers. The
proof of this statement is beyond the scope of this course.
A polynomial P(z) of degree n in one variable is an expression of the form anzn + an − 1zn − 1 + … + a1z + a0.
If any of the coefficients an, an − 1, … are complex numbers then the polynomial is a polynomial over the set of
complex numbers. If all of the coefficients are real numbers, then the polynomial is also a polynomial over the set of
real numbers.
• z2 − 5z + 1 is a 2nd-degree polynomial over the set of real numbers, the set of complex numbers and the set
of integers.
• z3+ iz2 + (2 − 3i)z + 2 is a 3rd-degree polynomial over the set of complex numbers, but not over the set of
real numbers.
Remember that the set of complex numbers contains the sets of real numbers, rational numbers and integers, so that
any polynomial over the reals, rationals or integers is also a polynomial over the complex numbers.
Note: Even if the coefficients are all real numbers, the solutions of the polynomial equation may involve complex
numbers. For example, z2 − 4z + 5 = 0 is a quadratic equation with integer coefficients; but the solutions for z are
complex numbers (as Δ < 0).

22 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Fundamental theorem of algebra

Every polynomial equation with complex coefficients, P(z) = 0, of degree n
(where n is a positive integer), has a root that is a complex number.

This important theorem was first proved convincingly by the German scientist Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855),
and then more completely and rigorously a few years later by the French mathematician Jean-Robert Argand. You
can use it to show, with the aid of the factor theorem, that a polynomial of degree n is reducible to n linear factors
and that a polynomial equation has no more than n roots:
• Let P(z) = anzn + an − 1zn − 1 + … + a1z + a0 = 0.
• By the fundamental theorem of algebra, the equation P(z) = 0 has a root z1 such that P(z1) = 0.
• Hence, by the factor theorem, (z − z1) is a factor of P(z).

Thus P(z) = (z − z1)Qn − 1(z) = 0, where Qn − 1(z) is a polynomial of degree n − 1.

• Applying the fundamental theorem of algebra again, the equation Qn − 1(z) = 0 similarly has a root z2.

Thus P(z) = (z − z1)(z − z2)Qn − 2(z) = 0 where Qn − 2(z) is a polynomial of degree n − 2.

By continuing this application of the fundamental theorem of algebra, after n applications you have:
P(z) = an(z − z1)(z − z2)…(z − zn) where an ≠ 0, as each factor is monic and the leading term of P(z) is anzn.
If z is any number different from z1, z2, … zn, then P(z) ≠ 0. Thus P(z) does not have any more than n zeros. (Note
also that the complex numbers z1, z2, … zn may not all be different from each other.)

Example 21
Reduce z4 + z2 − 12 to its linear factors over the complex numbers. Hence find the values of z for
which z4 + z2 − 12 = 0.
Solution
z 4 + z 2 − 12 = (z 2 − 3)(z 2 + 4)
= (z − 3)(z + 3)(z − 2i)(z + 2i)
Hence the roots of z4 + z2 − 12 = 0 are z = 3, − 3, 2i, −2i.
Notice that z4 + z2 − 12 is reduced to (z2 − 3)(z2 + 4) over the rational numbers, and to
(z − 3)(z + 3)(z 2 + 4) over the real numbers.

Example 22
Reduce 2z3 − 3z2 + 8z + 5 to its linear factors over the set of complex numbers. Hence find the values
of z for which 2z3 − 3z2 + 8z + 5 = 0.
Solution
P(z) = 2z3 − 3z2 + 8z + 5

()
If (az − b) is a factor of P(z), then you know from the factor theorem that P b = 0.
a
The coefficients of P(z) are integers, so if there is to be a rational zero then b must be a factor of 5 and
a must be a factor of 2. Thus the only possible values for b are ±1, ±5, ± 1 , ± 5 .
a 2 2
Substitution of these values shows that the integer values do not work. However:

( )
P −1 = −1 − 3 −4+5 = 0
2 4 4

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 23

YEAR 12

Hence (2z + 1) is a factor of P(z). Thus P(z) = (2z + 1)(z2 − 2z + 5).

Completing the square:
z 2 − 2z + 5
2z + 1 2z 3 − 3z 2 + 8z + 5 P(z ) = (2z + 1) ⎡⎣(z 2 − 2z + 1) + 4⎤⎦
2z 3 + z 2 = (2z + 1) ⎡⎣(z − 1)2 + 4⎤⎦
−4z 2 + 8z = (2z + 1) ⎡⎣(z − 1)2 − 4i 2 ⎤⎦
2
−4z − 2z = (2z + 1)[(z − 1 − 2i)(z − 1 + 2i)]
10z + 5
10z + 5
0

Hence 2z3 − 3z2 + 8z + 5 = 0 when z = - 1 , 1 + 2i, 1 - 2i.

2
1
Notice that z = - is a real root and that z = 1 + 2i, z = 1 − 2i are a conjugate pair (i.e. their sum and product
2
are real).

You will only consider simple cases involving the following factorisation techniques that you have used before:
• quadratic trinomials
• sum and difference of two squares, z2 ± a2
• sum and difference of two cubes, z3 ± a3
• factor theorem (with at least one rational zero that can be found by trial and error)
• grouping.

EXERCISE 1.5 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS

1 Use the factor theorem to show that:

(a) z − i is a factor of z3 + 2iz2 + 3i (b) z − 3 is a factor of z2 − (5 − i)z + 6 − 3i
(c) z + 2 − i is a factor of 2z3 + 3z2 − (5 + 2i)z − 17 − 9i
(d) z − 3 + 2i is a factor of 2z4 − 12z3 + 23z2 − 6z + 11.
⎛ ⎞
2 Given P(z) = z3 − z2 − z + a, what is the value of a if P ⎜ − 1 + 3 i⎟ = 0?
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
A 2 B 1 C −2 D −1

( )
3 Given P(z) = z4 − 2z3 + az − 9, find the value of a if P 1 + 2i = 0.

4 Given P(z) = z4 + az3 + bz − 1, find the value of a and b if i and 1 + 2 are zeros of P(z).
5 Given P(z) = z3 − az2 + 6z + b, find the value of a and b if P(2) = 0 and P(1 − i) = 0.
6 Factorise each polynomial over the set of complex numbers:
(a) z2 + 2z + 3 (b) 2z2 − 2z + 1 (c) 2z3 − 3z2 + 2z − 3 (d) z3 + 3z2 + z + 3
7 Factorise 2z3 − 4z2 + 3z − 1 over:
(a) the set of integers (b) the set of complex numbers.
8 Factorise z4 − 16 over:
(a) the set of integers (b) the set of complex numbers.
9 Factorise z4 + z2 − 6 over:
(a) the set of rational numbers (b) the set of real numbers (c) the set of complex numbers.

24 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

10 Factorise z3 − 4z2 + 9z − 10 over:

(a) the set of real numbers (b) the set of complex numbers.
11 Factorise z3 + 8 over:
(a) the set of real numbers (b) the set of complex numbers.
12 When factorised over the set of complex numbers, z4 + 2z2 + 1 becomes:
A (z2 − 1)2 B (z − i)2(z + 1)2 C (z2 + 1)2 D (z − i)2(z + i)2
13 Factorise z6 − 1 over:
(a) the set of real numbers (b) the set of complex numbers.
14 Factorise z5 + 3z4 − z − 3 over:
(a) the set of real numbers (b) the set of complex numbers.
15 Factorise 4z3 − iz2 − 4z + i over the set of complex numbers.
16 Factorise z3 + 2z2 − 2z + 3 over:
(a) the set of real numbers (b) the set of complex numbers.
17 Factorise 2z3 − 7z2 + 10z − 8 over the set of complex numbers.

1.6 ZEROS OF A POLYNOMIAL

Conjugate root theorem
If a polynomial P(x) has real coefficients and P(a + bi) = 0, b ≠ 0, then P(a − bi) = 0,
i.e. complex zeros of real polynomials occur in conjugate pairs.

This theorem has been well illustrated in Examples 21 and 22. You will now consider it in more general terms.
Consider a typical polynomial equation, e.g. the cubic equation (of which z is a root):
2z3 + 3z2 − 6z + 2 = 0 [1]
The coefficients of the terms in this equation are real numbers. Taking the complex conjugate of both sides, noting
that the conjugate of a sum is the sum of the conjugates:
2z 3 + 3z 2 − 6z + 2 = 0 [2]
Now 2 = 2 + 0i so that 2 = 2 − 0i = 2. The other coefficients will similarly be real numbers, as a = a when a is real. It
has also been established (see Exercise 1.2 question 14, on page 12) that z 3 = (z ) and z 2 = (z ) .
3 2

Thus equation [2] becomes 2 (z ) + 3(z ) − 6 (z ) + 2 = 0.

3 2

This is the same equation as [1], because it has the same coefficients. Thus you see that z and z both satisfy the
equation, as required by the theorem.
This result can be extended to the general polynomial equation anzn + an − 1zn − 1 + … + a1z + a0 = 0 where the
coefficients a0, a1, … an are all real numbers.
The expansion of (z + 1)(z + i) = z2 +(1 + i)z + i. The coefficients on the right-hand side are not all real.
The roots of z2 + (1 + i)z + i are z = −1 and z = −i. They are not a conjugate pair as the coefficients of the polynomial
are not all real.

If any of a polynomial’s coefficients are not real, then the roots will not all occur in conjugate pairs.

Example 23
The polynomial z3 − 7z2 + 25z − 39 has one zero equal to 2 + 3i. Write its three linear factors.

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 25

YEAR 12

Solution
The coefficients are real numbers and 2 + 3i is a zero, so from the conjugate root theorem 2 − 3i must be
another zero.
z3 − 7z2 + 25z − 39 = (z − (2 + 3i)) (z − (2 − 3i)) Q(z)
        = (z2 − 4z + 13)Q(z)     where Q(z) is a 1st-degree polynomial.
Therefore you have z3 − 7z2 + 25z − 39 = (z2 − 4z + 13)(z − k).
Equating the constant terms: −39 = 13 × (−k)
But −39 = 13 × (−3), so Q(z) = (z − 3).
Hence z 3 − 7z 2 + 25z − 39 = (z − (2 + 3i)) (z − (2 − 3i)) (z − 3).

Multiple zeros of a polynomial

A polynomial of degree n has n zeros, but they are not necessarily all different. You say that c is a zero of multiplicity
r when the factor (z − c) occurs r times.
For example, if P(z) = (z − 1)3(z − 5)2(z − 6) then 1 is a zero of multiplicity three, 5 is a zero of multiplicity two and
6 is a zero of multiplicity one.
Furthermore, if x = c is a zero of multiplicity r of the real polynomial P(x), then x = c is also a zero of multiplicity
(r − 1) of the derived polynomial P ′(x), a zero of multiplicity (r − 2) of the second derived polynomial P ′′(x), and so on:
If P(x) = (x − c)rS(x) where r > 0, S(c) ≠ 0
then P ′(x) = r(x − c)r −1 S(x) + (x − c)r S ′(x)
= (x − c)r −1 [rS(x) + (x − c)S ′(x)]
= (x − c)r − 1Q(x) [1]
i.e. the polynomial P ′(x) has a zero x = c of multiplicity (r − 1).
Applying the product rule to P ′(x) in [1] produces the polynomial P ′′(x) with a zero x = c of multiplicity (r − 2).
If P(x) is a polynomial of degree n, then P ′(x) must be a polynomial of degree (n − 1), P ′′(x) a polynomial of degree
(n − 2) and so on. This property allows you to use calculus techniques to solve equations that are known to have
multiple roots.

Example 24
Solve z4 − 6z3 + 14z2 − 30z + 45 = 0 given that it has a real root of multiplicity 2.
Solution
Consider the polynomial P(z) = z4 − 6z3 + 14z2 − 30z + 45
Differentiate: P′(z) = 4z3 − 18z2 + 28z − 30
The real root must be a factor of both 45 and 30, consider ±1, ±3, ±5 and substitute first into P′(z).
P′(1) = −16, P′(−1) = −80, P′(3) = 0, P′(−3) = −60, P′(5) = 160, P′(−5) = −1120
Now find P(3): P(3) = 0
Hence z = 3 is the double real root.
P(z) = (z − 3)2(z2 + bz + c)
Hence 9c = 45 so c = 5 and P(z) = (z − 3)2(z2 + bz + 5)
(z2 − 6z + 9)(z2 + bz + 5) = z4 − 6z3 + 14z2 − 30z + 45
Equate coefficients of z: −30 + 9b = −30 so b = 0
Hence P(z) = (z − 3)2(z2 + 5)
P(z) = 0: z = 3 or z = ±i 5

26 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

EXERCISE 1.6 ZEROS OF A POLYNOMIAL

1 Given that (z + 2 − i) is a factor, factorise z4 + 4z3 + 3z2 − 8z − 10 over:

(a) the set of real numbers (b) the set of complex numbers.
2 Solve the following for z as a complex number.
(a) z2 − 4z + 8 = 0 (b) z3 + 2z2 − 2z + 3 = 0 (c) z6 + 7z3 − 8 = 0 (d) z4 + 2z2 + 1 = 0
3 Solve z3 + z2 + 3z − 5 = 0 for z as (a)   a real number   (b)   a complex number.
4 Solve z5 + 3z4 − z − 3 = 0 for z as a real number.
5 What are the roots of z4 − 2z3 − z + 2 = 0 for z as a complex number?

A 1, 2 B 1, 2, − 1 ± 3 i C −1, −2 D −1, −2, 1 ± 3 i

2 2 2 2
3
6 Find the values of the real numbers a and b such that 1 + i is a root of the equation z + az + b = 0.
7 Solve z4 + 2z3 + z2 − 4 = 0 for z if z is a complex number.
8 Solve 3z3 − 4z2 − 13z − 6 = 0 for z if z is a real number.
9 Solve z4 − z3 + 6z2 − z + 15 = 0 for z given that z = 1 − 2i is a root of the equation.
10 Solve z3 − 3z2 + 7z − 5 = 0 for z if z is a real number.
11 If z is a complex number, solve the following.
(a) z4 + 4z3 − z − 4 = 0 (b) z6 − 16z3 + 64 = 0
12 Write an equation of the lowest possible degree with (i)   complex coefficients (ii)   rational coefficients that
includes the following among its roots.
(a) 2, 1 + i (b) 3 + 1, 2 − i (c) 3 + 2i (d) 2 − i (of multiplicity 2)
(e) 3 + 2i (f) 1 + 3i (of multiplicity 2)
13 Find the real values of a for which ai is a root of the polynomial equation z4 − 2z3 + 7z2 − 4z + 10 = 0.
14 Find the values that the real numbers a and b must take for z = 1 to be a root of the complex equation
iz2 + (ia − 1)z + (i − b) = 0.
15 (a) Find the three roots of the equation z3 − z2 + 2 = 0.
(b) Find the remainder when z3 − z2 + 2 is divided by (z − i).
16 Find the real numbers k such that z = ki is a root of the equation z3 + (2 + i)z2 + (2 + 2i)z + 4 = 0. Hence, or
otherwise, find the three roots of the equation.
17 Solve the following equations using a calculus method.
(a) z4 + 4z3 + 5z2 + 4z + 4 = 0, given that it has a root of multiplicity 2.
(b) z4 + 2z3 − 2z2 − 6z + 5 = 0, given that it has a root of multiplicity 2.
18 If z is a complex number, solve z4 − 2z2 + 9 = 0, given that 1 + 2 2i = ( 2 + i)2.

1.7 SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS WITH COMPLEX COEFFICIENTS

The roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are real, may be found using the formula
2
x = −b ± b − 4ac . When a, b and c are all real, the roots will be either real or complex. If they are complex, they
2a
will occur as a conjugate pair, z and z .
If any of a, b or c are complex, this formula does not generate a simple solution.

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 27

YEAR 12

Solve the equation by completing the square.

ax2 + bx + c = 0 [1]

( )
2 2
a x+ b = b −c
2a 4a

a ( x + b ) = b − 4ac
2 2

2a 4a

⎣⎢ ( 2a ) ⎦⎥
2
⎡ 2a x + b ⎤ = b − 4ac 2
[2]
If the original equation, [1], has complex roots, then equation [2] says that you have a complex number whose
square is equal to b2 − 4ac.
Let this complex number be α + iβ.
Thus equation [2] becomes (α + iβ)2 = A + iB [3] and you have to obtain α and β as real numbers.
(α + iβ)2 = A + iB
α 2 + 2iαβ − β 2 = A + iB
(α 2 − β 2) + 2αβi = A + Bi
If two complex numbers are equal, then their real parts and their imaginary parts are equal.
∴ α2 − β2 = A [i]
2αβ = B [ii]
Solve [i] and [ii] for α and β.
( )
2
Now α 2 + β 2 = α 4 + 2α 2 β 2 + β 4
= α 4 − 2α 2 β 2 + β 4 + 4α 2 β 2

( )
2
+ ( 2αβ )
2
= α2 − β2
= A2 + B2

Since α 2 + β 2 > 0 then α 2 + β 2 = A2 + B2 [iii]

[i] + [iii] 2α 2 = A + A2 + B2
2 2
α2 = A + A + B
2
2 2
∴ α = ± A+ A +B
2

[ii] gives: β = B
2α

If α = A + A2 + B2 , then β = B 2
2 2 A + A2 + B2
2 2
and if: α = − A + A + B , then β = − B 2
2 2 A + A2 + B2
Thus a quadratic equation with complex coefficients may be solved.

28 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 25
Solve these equations.
(a) x 2 + 2x + i = 0 (b) x 2 + 2(2 − i)x + 6 = 0 (c) ix 2 + 3x − 4 = 0

Solution
(a) x 2 + 2x + i = 0
Complete the square: x 2 + 2x + 1 = 1 − i
(x + 1)2 = 1 − i
Let x + 1 = α + βi
∴ (α + βi)2 = 1 − i
α 2 − β 2 + 2αβi = 1 − i
∴ α2 − β2 = 1
2αβ = −1
( ) = (α )
2 2
+ ( 2αβ )
2
Now α 2 + β 2 2
− β2
= 12 + (−1)2
=2
2 2
∴α +β = 2
and α 2 − β 2 = 1
∴ 2α 2 = 2 + 1

α2 = 2 +1
2

α=± 2 +1
2
β = −1
2α

When α = 2 + 1 then β = −1 × 2 = −1 = − 2 − 2 = − 2 − 2 = − 2 −1
2 2 2 +1 2+ 2 4−2 2

and when α = − 2 + 1 then β = 2 −1

2

Hence x + 1 = 2 +1 − i 2 −1 and x + 1 = − 2 +1 + i 2 −1
2 2
⎛ 2 + 1 − 1⎞ − i ⎛ 2 + 1 + 1⎞ + i
x=⎜ ⎟ 2 −1 x = −⎜ ⎟ 2 −1
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(b) x 2 + 2(2 − i)x + 6 = 0
Complete the square: x 2 + 2(2 − i)x + (2 − i)2 = (2 − i)2 − 6
(x + 2 − i)2 = 4 − 4i − 1 − 6
(x + 2 − i)2 = −3 − 4i
Let x + 2 − i = α + βi
∴ (α + βi)2 = −3 − 4i
α 2 − β 2 + 2αβi = −3 − 4i
∴ α 2 − β 2 = −3
2αβ = −4
( ) = (α )
2 2
+ ( 2αβ )
2 2 2 2
Now α + β − β2
= (−3)2 + (−4)2
= 25
∴ α2 + β2 = 5

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 29

YEAR 12

and α 2 − β 2 = −3
2α 2 = 2
α2 = 1
α = 1, β = −2
α = −1, β = 2
The roots of the equation are x + 2 − i = 1 − 2i and x + 2 − i = −1 + 2i
i.e. x = −1 + i and x = −3 + 3i

(c) ix 2 + 3x − 4 = 0
Multiply by −i: x 2 − 3ix + 4i = 0

( ) = ( 3i2 ) − 4i
2 2
Complete the square: x 2 − 3ix + 3i
2
( )
2
x− 3i 9
= − − 4i
2 4
Let x − 3i = α + β i
2
∴ (α + β i ) = − 9 − 4i
2
4
α − β + 2αβi = − 9 − 4i
2 2
4
∴ α2 − β2 = − 9
4
2αβ = −4

(α ) = (α )
2 2
+ ( 2αβ )
2 2
+ β2 2
− β2

( )
2
= − 9 + (−4)2
4
= 337
16
Now  ∴ α 2 + β 2 = 337
4
α2 − β2 =−9
4
2α 2 = 337 − 9
4
α2 = 337 − 9
8
337 − 9 −4 2 = −4 2 × 337 + 9 −4 2 × 337 + 9 − 2 × 337 + 9
α= and β = −2 = = =
2 2 α 337 − 9 337 − 81 256 4

Rationalise so that when α =

2 ( 337 − 9 ), β=
− 2 ( 337 − 9 )
4 4

and when α =
− 2 ( 337 − 9 ), β=
2 ( 337 − 9 )
4 4

Thus x − 3i =
2 ( 337 − 9 ) + − 2( 337 − 9 ) i and x − 3i = − 2 ( 337 − 9 ) + 2( 337 − 9 )i
2 4 4 2 4 4

x=
2 ( 337 − 9 ) + 6 − 2( 337 − 9 )i x=
− 2 ( 337 − 9 ) + 6 + 2( 337 − 9 )i
4 4 4 4

30 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Square root of a complex number

The example below demonstrates the method for finding the square root of a complex number.

Example 26
Find 4 + 3i .
Solution
Let z = x + iy, where x, y are real, such that z2 = 4 + 3i
Hence (x + iy)2 = 4 + 3i
Expand: x2 − y2 + 2xyi = 4 + 3i
Equating the real and imaginary parts of the LHS and RHS gives:
x2 − y2 = 4 [1] and
2xy = 3 [2]
Now (x + y ) = (x − y2)2 + 4x2y2: (x2 + y2)2 = 42 + 32 = 25
2 2 2 2

x2 + y2 = 5 [3]
2 2
x −y =4 [1]
2
[3] + [1]: 2x = 9

x = ± 3 = ±3 2
2 2

From [2]: y = 3
2x
⎛ ⎞
y = 3 ×⎜± 2⎟ = ± 2
2 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 2

3 2 + 2 i or − 3 2 − 2 i
Hence 4 + 3i =
2 2 2 2

EXERCISE 1.7 SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS WITH COMPLEX COEFFICIENTS

1 Find:
(a) 2i (b) 3 + 4i (c) 5 − 12i (d) −8 + 15i (e) −3 − 4i (f) 1+i
2 Solve the following statements.
(a) x2 + 2x + 2i = 0 (b) x2 − 4x + 2 − i = 0 (c) x2 + 2(2 + i)x + 3 = 0
2
(d) x + (3 + 4i)x − 4 = 0 (e) x2 + 2(1 − 3i)x + 2 + i = 0 (f) ix2 − 4x + 3 = 0
(g) ix2 + 2ix + 3 = 0 (h) (2 − i)x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
3 (a) Expand and simplify the expression (x − 3)(x − 1 − i)(x − 1 + i).
(b) Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation x3 − 5x2 + 8x = 6.

1.8 GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

AS A VECTOR
A vector is a mathematical object that has both magnitude and direction. For example, a 5° increase in temperature
is a vector quantity, because it has both magnitude (5°) and direction (‘increase’).
Complex numbers can be represented as vectors for which the modulus gives the magnitude and the argument gives
the direction.

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 31

YEAR 12

On an Argand diagram, let point P represent the complexnumber z=

x + iy (see
Im
P(z = x + iy)
y
diagram at right). This z is also represented by the vector OP , where OP has length z
and direction given by a rotation from the positive direction of the real axis by arg z.
|z|
In the diagram below right, point P represents the complex number −1 + 3i and
( )
point Q represents the complex number 2 cos −π + i sin −π . Here the vector OP
4 4

arg z

represents −1 + 3i and the vector OQ represents 2 cos ( −
4
π
4)
+ i sin −π .
O x Re

Im
The vector to represent a complex number does not have to ‘start’ at the origin O. P
For example, the number 1 + 2i could be represented by any vector with length 5
that is inclined at an angle tan−1 2.
Im  
P(1, 2)
Both OP and AB represent 1 + 2i.
Point P represents 1 + 2i, but point B does not.
B(4, 1)  O Re
OP is called the position vector.

AB is called a free vector. Q
O Re  
A(3, –1)
Note: BA does not represent 1 + 2i. In fact, BA represents
−1 − 2i.

Operations on complex numbers represented as vectors

q translated
Addition (to form the vector sum p + q ): ~
Method 1 (complete the triangle)! !
p p+q
1 Translate q so that its tail is located at the head of p. ~ ~ ~
!
2 The vector! for the sum p + q now goes from the tail of p to the
head of the translated q !. ! !
! q
~

Method 2 (construct the diagonal of the parallelogram)

p+q
1 Translate q so that its tail is located at the tail of p. ~ ~
p
!
2 Locate the! fourth vertex of the parallelogram of vectors. ~
q translated
3 The vector for the sum p + q now goes from the common tail of ~
p and q translated to the! fourth
! vertex of the parallelogram. q
! ! ~

Subtraction (to form the vector difference p − q ): –q translated

~
! ! p
Method 1 (add the opposite vector) p–q
~ ~
~
–q
1 Form the vector − q. ~
2 Form the vector sum ! p + (− q).
! ! q
~

Method 2 (construct the other diagonal of the parallelogram)

p–q
1 Translate q so that its tail is located at the tail of p. ~ ~
! p
2 Locate the! fourth vertex of the parallelogram of vectors. ~
q translated
3 The vector for the sum p − q is the diagonal of the ~
parallelogram that goes!from ! the head of q to the head of p.
! ! q
~

32 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Let A represent z1 and B represent z2. When the parallelogram OACB is formed:

• vector OC represents z1 + z2 Im
 
• vector AB represents z2 − z1 and vector BA C

represents z1 − z2 B(z2)
• z1 + z 2 and z1 − z 2 are the lengths of the diagonals of
the parallelogram A(z1)
• arg (z1 + z2) and arg (z1 − z2) are the angles at which
arg(z1 + z2)
the diagonals are inclined to the positive direction of O arg(z1 – z2) Re
the real axis.

Example 27
On an Argand diagram, let A represent z1 = 3 + 2i and B represent z2 = −2 + 4i. Show the following:
(a) a point C that represents z1 + z2
(b) a vector that represents z1 + z2
(c) a vector that represents z1 − z2
(d) a point D that represents z1 − z2
1
(e) a point E that represents (z1 + z 2 ).
2 
(f) What complex number is represented by the vector EB ?
(g) What geometrical relationships are there between the intervals EB and DO?

Solution
(a) Locate C by completing the parallelogram. Im
C(z1 + z2)

(b) OC

(c) BA B(z2)
 
(d) D is at the head of OD , which is equal to BA . E

(e) E is the midpoint of the diagonal OC. A(z1)

1 1
(f) z 2 − (z1 + z 2 ) = (z 2 − z1 )
2 2
1
(g) EB = DO, EB  DO O Re
2
D(z1 – z2)

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Operations on complex numbers represented as vectors

Use technology to explore operations on complex numbers represented as vectors.

Multiplication by i:
When working with vector representations of complex numbers, multiplication by i rotates the vector
anticlockwise by π (90°).
2
Multiplication by ki (where k is real):
To multiply by ki, rotate the vector anticlockwise by π (90°) and scale by a factor (dilation) of k.
2
Chapter 1 Complex numbers 33
YEAR 12

Multiplication of a complex number z by another complex number r(cos θ + i sin θ ):

To multiply z by r cis θ, rotate the vector that represents z through an angle θ and scale by a factor of r.

Example 28
z1 − z 2
If k is real and = ki, show that z1 = z 2 .
z1 + z 2

Solution
Show the problem on an Argand diagram. Let A represent z1 and B represent z2. Complete the parallelogram
OACB such that C represents z1 + z2.

As a result of this, the vectors Im

 along the diagonals
of
 the parallelogram B(z2)
C(z1 + z2)
represent z1 + z2 (vector OC) and z1 − z2 (vector BA ).
z1 – z2
z − z2 ⎛ z − z2 ⎞ z1 + z2
As 1 = ki, thus arg ⎜ 1 = arg (ki) 90°
z1 + z 2 ⎝ z1 + z 2 ⎟⎠
arg (z1 − z2) − arg (z1 + z2) = ± π
A(z1)
2 O Re
i.e. the diagonals meet at right angles.

Hence OACB is a rhombus (parallelogram with perpendicular diagonals).

∴ z1 = z 2    (sides of a rhombus are equal)

Hint: Whenever you see z1 + z2 and z1 − z2 in a problem, the problem can most likely be solved using the geometrical
properties of parallelograms.
The triangle inequalities
In a triangle OAC, OC ≤ OA + AC, with OC = OA + AC when O, A and C Im C(z1 + z2)
are collinear. B(z2)
z1 – z2
∴ z1 + z 2 ≤ z1 + z 2 , with z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2 when z2 = kz1 (where k is real). z1 + z2

In ΔOAB: OA ≤ OB + BA, with equality when O, B and A are collinear.

A(z1)
∴ z1 ≤ z 2 + z1 − z 2
O Re
∴ z1 − z 2 ≥ z1 − z 2 , with equality when z2 = kz1 (where k is real).

EXERCISE 1.8 GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER AS A VECTOR


1 On an Argand diagram, point A represents the complex number α. Point B is located so that the vector OB is

the result of rotating OA anticlockwise by 2π and then halving its length. Which complex number represents
3
point B?

A
π α
3
B ( 3 3 )
α cos π + i sin π C ( 3 )
α cos 2π + i sin 2π D
3 2 (
α cos 2π + i sin 2π
3 3 )
2 On a complex plane, P represents z = −3 + 4i and Q represents the complex number w. Find w so that triangle
OPQ is:
(a) an isosceles right-angled triangle with the right angle at O
(b) an isosceles right-angled triangle with the right angle at P
(c) right-angled at O, with OQ twice the length of OP.

34 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

3 Point E is the centre of a square ABCD (labelled anticlockwise) on an Argand diagram. E and A are the points
corresponding to −2 + i and 1 + 5i respectively. Find the complex numbers represented by the points B, C and D.

4 (a) If z1 = 6 + 8i and z 2 = 15, show that the greatest possible value of z1 + z 2 is 25.
(b) If z1 + z 2 takes this greatest value, find z2 in Cartesian form.
5 On an Argand diagram, P represents z = 1 + i and Q represents q. Find the two possible values of q (in mod–
arg form) such that ΔOPQ is equilateral.

z3 = z1 + z2 and let ∠OAC = θ.

(6 6 )
6 On an Argand diagram, let A represent z1 = 3 + i, let B represent z2 = 2 cos 5π + i sin 5π , let C represent

(a) Prove that OACB is a rhombus. (b) Find z3. (c) Find the value of θ.

(
7 On an Argand diagram, P represents the complex number z while w is the complex number cos 3π + i sin 3π .
4 4 )
Points A and B represent wz and wz respectively. C is the midpoint of AB and represents the complex number α.
(a) Find α in terms of z.
(b) A point D is located so that OADB is a parallelogram. Find, in terms of z, the complex number that
D represents.
8 z1 and z2 are two complex numbers of equal moduli, with arg z1 = θ1 and arg z2 = θ2. Use an Argand diagram to
find the values of arg (z1 + z2) and arg (z1 − z2) in terms of θ1 and θ2.
9 The points P and Q in the complex plane correspond to the complex numbers z and w respectively. Triangle
OPQ is right-angled and isosceles with OP = OQ.
(a) Show that w2 + z2 = 0.
(b) If OPRQ is a square, find (in terms of z) the complex number represented
by E, the point of intersection of the diagonals of the square.
Im C
10 On an Argand diagram, ABCD is a square. OE and OF are parallel to and
equal in length to AB and AD respectively. The vertices A and B correspond D
to the complex numbers w1 and w2 respectively.
(a) Explain why the point E corresponds to w2 − w1. B
(b) What complex number corresponds to the point F ? F
A
(c) What complex number corresponds to the vertex D? E

O Re
z + z2
11 z1 and z2 are two complex numbers such that 1 = 2i.
z1 − z 2
(a) Show that z1 = z 2 .
α 1
(b) If α is the angle between the vectors representing z1 and z2, show that tan = .
2 2
1 ( )
(c) Show that z2 = 3 + 4i z1.
5
12 The points P and Q in the complex plane correspond to the complex numbers z and w respectively, where
z = 1 + i and w = 2 . The point R represents the complex number z + w.
1−i 1−i
(a) Find the modulus and argument of z and w.
(b) What type of quadrilateral is OPRQ?
(c) Deduce that tan
3π = 2 + 1.
8
13 z and w are two complex numbers.
(a) On an Argand diagram, show z, w, z + w and z − w.
(b) (i) If z = w , show that
z + w is purely imaginary.
z −w
(ii) If z + w = z − w , show that z is purely imaginary.
w

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 35

YEAR 12

14 On an Argand diagram, the points P, Q and R represent the complex numbers w1, w2 and w3 respectively such
that w2 − w1 = i(w3 − w1). Let S be the point that completes the parallelogram PQSR.
(a) What type of triangle is ΔPQR? Justify your answer.   
(b) What complex numbers are represented by the vectors PR , PQ and PS?
(c) Find, in terms of w1, w2 and w3, the complex number that corresponds to the point S.
15 Points P and Q correspond to the complex numbers z1 and z2 respectively, where z1 = − 2 + 2i
and z2 = 3 + i. Point R corresponds to z1 + z2.
(a) Express z1 and z2 in mod–arg form.
(b) What type of quadrilateral is OPRQ? Justify your answer.
(c) Show that arg (z1 + z2) =
11π .
24
(d) Hence show that tan
11π = 6 + 3 + 2 + 2.
24
2 2
(
16 (a) Show that z1 + z 2 + z1 − z 2 = 2 z1 + z 2
2 2
) for any complex numbers z and z .
1 2
Complete the following sentence to give the geometrical interpretation of this result.
(b) 
‘In a parallelogram, the ………… is equal to …………’
17 On an Argand diagram, the points A, B, C and D represent the complex numbers α, β, γ and δ respectively.
1
(a) Describe geometrically the point representing (α + γ ).
2
(b) If α + γ = β + δ then what type of quadrilateral is ABCD? Justify your answer.
18 The four complex numbers z1, z2, z3 and z4 are represented on an Argand diagram by the points A, B, C and D
respectively. If z1 − z2 + z3 − z4 = 0 and z1 − iz2 − z3 + iz4 = 0, determine the nature of quadrilateral ABCD.
19 z1, z2 and z3 are three complex numbers represented on an Argand diagram by the points Z1, Z2 and Z3
respectively. If z1z2 = (z3)2, show that the moduli r1, r3 and r2 are successive terms of a geometric series (in that
order) and that OZ3 bisects the angle Z1OZ2.

1.9 ROOTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

De Moivre’s theorem provides an easy means of finding zn given z:
If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) then zn = rn(cos nθ + i sin nθ ).
You are now faced with the reverse problem: given zn, find z (i.e. the n-th root of zn). The examples below show that
there are n such roots.

Example 29
Find the cube roots of 1 (i.e. solve the equation z3 = 1).
Solution
Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) be a root, where r is a positive real number.
Note that 1 = 1(cos 0 + i sin 0).

Then: r3(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ ) = 1(cos 0 + i sin 0)

∴ r 3 = 1 (i.e. r = 1)
and cos 3θ + i sin 3θ = cos 0 + i sin 0
∴ cos 3θ = cos 0 and sin 3θ = sin 0

36 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

If you considered only sin 3θ = sin 0, you would conclude that 3θ = 0 + kπ (where k = 0, ±1, ±2, …).
But cos 3θ = cos 0 must also be true:
∴ 3θ = 0 + 2kπ  (where k = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
∴ θ = 2kπ
3
Hence: (
z = 1 cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ
3 )
3
(where k = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
For k = 0: z1 = 1
For k = 1: z2 = cos 2π + i sin 2π = − 1 + 3 i
3 3 2 2
For k = −1: ( )
z3 = cos − 2
3
π
( )
+ i sin − 2π
3
= −1 − 3i
2 2
It might appear that there are many more values of z obtained from k = ±2, ±3, … However, if you check them
you will find that they simply repeat the values of z that have already been found (because their cosines are

3 3 ( )3 ( )
equivalent): e.g. for k = 2, z = cos 4π + i sin 4π = cos − 2π + i sin − 2π = z3.
3

There are therefore only three cube roots of unity, and their Im
representation on the complex plane reveals an interesting z2
pattern. Each has a modulus of 1, so they are all on the
circumference of a unit circle.
Furthermore, the non-real roots are a pair of conjugates (as they
are the roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients), 2p
z1
3
z 2 = z 3 . The three roots are equally spaced around the circle, each O 1 Re
separated by an angle of 2π at the centre. They form the vertices
2p
3 3
of an equilateral triangle.
Alternatively:
z3
The equation can be solved algebraically. z3 − 1 = 0
(z − 1)(z2 + z + 1) = 0 (difference of two cubes)

Hence z = 1 or z = −1 ± 1 − 4 = − 1 ± 3 i as above.
2 2 2

Example 30
Find the six 6th roots of −64 (i.e. solve z6 = −64).
Solution
Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) be a root.
Then: r6(cos 6θ + i sin 6θ ) = 64(cos π + i sin π)
∴ r6 = 64
r = 2  (r > 0 because it is the modulus of z)
and 6θ = π + 2kπ  (where k = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
θ = π + 2kπ
6 6

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 37

YEAR 12

Hence: ( (6 6 ) 6 6 ( ))
z = 2 cos π + 2kπ + i sin π + 2kπ   (where k = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
Im

For k = 0: ( 6 6 )
z1 = 2 cos π + i sin π = 3 + i 2
z3

For k = −1: ( ( ) 6 6 ( ))
z2 = 2 cos − π + i sin − π = 3 − i z5
p p
z1

( )
3 3
z3 = 2 cos π + i sin π = 2i
p p
For k = 1: 3 3
2 2 –2 O 2 Re

For k = −2: ( ( ) 2 ( ))
z4 = 2 cos − π + i sin − π = −2i
2 z6
p
3
p
3
z2

For k = 2: ( 6 6 )
z5 = 2 cos 5π + i sin 5π = − 3 + i
–2

z = 2 (cos (− 5π ) + i sin (− 5π )) = −
z4
For k = −3: 3 −i
6 6 6
As each root has a modulus of 2, they are all on the circumference of a circle of radius 2. They are also
equally spaced around the circumference, each separated by an angle of 2π (i.e. π ) at the centre. The roots occur
6 3
in conjugate pairs (as they are the roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients). They form the vertices of
a regular hexagon.

Example 31
Find the four 4th roots of 1 + 3i (i.e. solve z4 = 1 + 3i). Answer in mod–arg form.
Solution
Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) be a root.
Then:
3 (
r4(cos 4θ + i sin 4θ ) = 2 cos π + i sin π
3 )
∴ r4 = 2
r = 4 2   (r > 0 because it is the modulus of z)
and 4θ = π + 2kπ   (where k = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
3
θ = + kπ
π Im
12 2
( ( ) ( ))
z2 4
2
Hence: z = 4 2 cos π + kπ + i sin π + kπ   (where k = 0, ±1, ±2, …)
12 2 12 2

For k = 0: ( π
z1 = 2 cos 12 + i sin 12
4 π
) z1

For k = −1: ( ( ) ( ))
7π 7π
z2 = 2 cos − 12 + i sin − 12
4
–4 2
z4
O 4
2 Re

For k = 1: ( ( π ) ( π ))
5 5
z3 = 2 cos − 12 + i sin − 12
4

For k = −2: ( ( π ) ( π ))
11 11
z4 = 2 cos − 12 + i sin − 12
4
–4 2
z3

The roots are equally spaced around the circumference of a circle of radius 4 2 . Because the polynomial equation
z4 = 1 + 3i has non-real coefficients, the roots do not occur as conjugate pairs.

38 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

To summarise:

• The n-th roots of 1 (i.e. the n roots of zn = 1) are equally spaced around the circumference of the circle
with centre O and radius 1, separated by an angle of 2π at the centre.
n
• One root is 1. If n is even, another root is −1. The other roots occur as non-real conjugate pairs.

( )
• The roots are 1 cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ where k = 0, ±1, ±2, … until the n unique roots are identified.
n n

• The n-th roots of any complex number R cis α are equally spaced around the circumference of the circle with
centre O and radius n R , separated by an angle of 2π at the centre.
n
( )
• The roots are n R cos α + 2kπ + i sin α + 2kπ where k = 0, ±1, ±2, … until the n unique roots are identified.
n n

Complex roots of unity

To investigate some properties of the n-th roots of 1, you can work with symbolic representations rather than the
actual values of the roots.
An important result that is frequently used is this factorisation:

wn − 1 = (w − 1)(wn − 1 + wn − 2 + … + w2 + w + 1)

For example, w3 − 1 = (w − 1)(w2 + w + 1), which you already know, and w5 − 1 = (w − 1)(w4 + w3 + w2 + w + 1).
You can prove this general factorisation by expanding the RHS or by regarding 1 + w + w2 + … + wn − 1 as the sum of
a geometric series.

Example 32
If w is a non-real cube root of unity, show that:
(a) w is also a root (b) 1 + w + w = 0 (c) 1 + w + w2 = 0 (d) (1 + w 2 )3 (2 + 3w + 3w 2 ) = 1

Solution
(a) w is a root of z3 = 1, so w3 = 1.
Take conjugates of both sides (if two complex numbers are equal then their conjugates are equal):
w 3 = 1 + 0i
(w)3 = 1   (the conjugate of a power equals the power of the conjugate)
i.e. w also satisfies z3 = 1, so w is also a root.
(b) From part (a), you know the three roots of z3 − 1 = 0 are 1, w and w.
Sum of roots = − b ∴ 1 + w + w = 0
a
(c) w3 = 1 ∴ w3 − 1 = 0
Factorise: (w − 1)(w2 + w + 1) = 0
∴ w − 1 = 0 or w2 + w + 1 = 0
But w is non-real ∴ w2 + w + 1 = 0
(d) Use the results w3 = 1 and w2 + w + 1 = 0 to obtain 1 + w2 = −w and w + w2 = −1:
(1 + w 2 )3 (2 + 3w + 3w 2 ) = (−w)3 (2(1 + w + w 2 ) + w + w 2 )
= −w 3 (2 × 0 + (−1))
= −1 × −1
=1

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 39

YEAR 12

EXERCISE 1.9 ROOTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

1 Which Argand diagram best shows the fourth roots of 16i?

A Im B Im
2 2

–2 O 2 Re –2 O 2 Re

–2 –2

C Im D Im
2 2

–2 O 2 Re –2 O 2 Re

–2 –2

2 For each of the following, find the values of z (in mod–arg form) and plot them on the complex plane.
(a) z5 = 1 (b) z4 + 1 = 0 (c) z2 = i (d) z3 + 8i = 0 (e) z4 = 8( 3 + i) (f) z6 = i
3 Find (in mod–arg form):
(a) the 5th roots of 32 (b) the 4th roots of −16
(c) the 5th roots of −1 (d) the 6th roots of 27 cos (
π + i sin π .
3 3 )
4 The point 1 + 3i and two other points are on the circumference of a circle with centre O and radius 2.
The three points are the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
(a) Find the complex numbers represented by the two other points.
(b) Find the cubic equation that has these three complex numbers as its roots.
5 If 1, w1 and w2 are the cube roots of unity, prove the following:
(a) w1 = w 2 = w 22 (b) w1 + w2 = −1 (c) w1 w2 = 1
6 If w is a non-real cube root of unity (i.e. w is a non-real root of z3 = 1), show the following:
(a) 1 + w + w2 = 0 (b) (1 − w)(1 − w2) = 3
Now evaluate the following:

(c) (1 + w)3 (d) (1 + 2w + 3w2)(1 + 2w2 + 3w) (e) (w2 + 2w + w3)(2w2 + w + w3)
(f) (1 − w)(1 − w2)(1 − w4)(1 − w5)(1 − w7)(1 − w8)
7 (a) If w is a non-real root of z5 = 1, show that the other non-real roots can be expressed as w2, w−1 and w−2.
(b) Hence show that w2 + w + 1 + w−1 + w−2 = 0.
2π − cos π = − 1
(c) Show that cos
5 5 2.
(d) Deduce that cos =
π 1+ 5 .
5 4
8 (a) Find the roots of z7 = 1 in mod–arg form and show them on an Argand diagram.
(b) If w is a non-real root, show that w + w2 + w3 + w4 + w5 + w6 = −1.
(c) Show that the quadratic equation z2 + z + 2 = 0 has roots w + w2 + w4 and w3+ w5 + w6.
π
(d) Show that cos = cos
2π + cos 4π + 1 .
7 7 7 2
40 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12
 YEAR 12

9 w is a non-real root of z6 = 1.
(a) Show that 1 + w2 + w4 = 0.
(b) Show that w−2 = 1 + 2w4 + w8.
10 (a) Show that the roots of z6 + z3 + 1 = 0 are also roots of z9 − 1 = 0.
(b) Show the nine 9th roots of unity on an Argand diagram. Identify which of them are the
roots of z6 + z3 + 1 = 0.
(
(c) Show that the sum of the six roots of z6 + z3 + 1 = 0 is 2 cos
2π + cos 4π + cos 8π .
9 9 9 )
(d) Hence show that cos
2π + cos 4π = cos π .
9 9 9
(e) Show that z6 + z3 + 1 = z 2 − 2z cos( )( )( )
2π + 1 z 2 − 2z cos 4π + 1 z 2 − 2z cos 8π + 1 .
9 9 9
(f) Hence evaluate cos
2π cos 4 π − cos 4 π π π
cos − cos cos . 2π
9 9 9 9 9 9

11 (a) Show that z1 = cos 2π + i sin 2π is a root of z4 + z3 + z2 + z + 1 = 0.

5 5
(b) Find all four roots of z4 + z3 + z2 + z + 1 = 0.
(c) Show that cos
2π + cos 4π = − 1 .
5 5 2
(d) Deduce that cos
2π = −1 + 5 .
5 4
12 w1, w2, … w10 are the ten 10th roots of unity and are represented by points W1, W2 , … W10 on an Argand
diagram. Point P represents the variable complex number z such that z = 1.
(a) Show this information on an Argand diagram.
10 10
(b) Show that ∑w = ∑w
i =1
i
i =1
i
= 0.

(c) Show that the distance from P to any of the points Wi is such that [PWi ] = 2 − zwi − z wi .
2

10
(d) Show that ∑[PW ]
i =1
i
2
= 20 .

1.10 CURVES AND REGIONS ON THE ARGAND DIAGRAM

You have seen that the modulus and argument, while defined algebraically, can also be thought of geometrically.
If z = x + iy, then:
• z = x 2 + y 2 is the algebraic definition, while geometrically z is the distance from the origin O to the
point (x, y)
• algebraically z − (a + ib) = ( x − a) + ( y − b) , while geometrically z − (a + ib) is the magnitude of the
2 2

vector from (a, b) to the point representing z

• geometrically arg z is the angle made with the positive direction of the real axis by the vector from the origin
O to the point representing z
• geometrically arg (z − z1) is the angle made with the positive direction of the real axis by the vector from the
point representing z1 to the point representing z
• arg 0 is undefined.
When you need to sketch a subset on an Argand diagram, you should try to interpret the information geometrically
rather than algebraically, unless the question contains an obvious algebraic substitution. For example, the presence
of z + z (which is 2x) or z − z (which is 2yi ) would indicate an algebraic approach.

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 41

YEAR 12

Example 33
On an Argand diagram, sketch the subsets of z for each of the following.
(a) z + z > 4 (b) Im(z) = 3 (c) 2 z = z + z + 4

Solution
These need to be done algebraically. Let z = x + iy.
(a) z + z > 4 Im (b) Im(z) = 3 Im

2x > 4 y=3
3
x>2

O 2 Re
O Re

(c) 2z = z +z +4 Im

2 x 2 + y 2 = 2x + 4
2
   4x2 + 4y2 = 4x2 + 16x + 16
           y2 = 4x + 4 –1 O Re
–2

The region is the set of points

on the parabola.

Example 34
On an Argand diagram, sketch the subsets of z for each of the following.
(a) z = 2 (b) z + 2 − 2i = 2 (c) z − 2i = z + 1 − i
For part (b), find the possible values of arg z and the maximum and minimum values of z on the locus.
(d) 

Solution
These are best done geometrically, regarding each modulus as a distance. Parts (a) and (c) are also solved
algebraically below (with z = x + iy).
(a) Geometrically: Im

The distance from the origin to the point representing z is equal to 2. 2

(You can just say ‘the distance from O to z is 2’.)

The subset is the circle with centre O and radius 2.
O 2 Re
Algebraically: –2

x2 + y2 = 2 –2
x2 + y2 = 4
Im
(b) z + 2 − 2i = 2
z − (−2 + 2i) = 2   (written in the form z − z1 )
The distance from −2 + 2i to z is 2.
2
The subset is the circle with centre (−2, 2) and radius 2. (–2, 2)

–2 O Re

42 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

(c) Geometrically: Im
z
The distance from 2i to z is equal to the distance from −1 + i to z,
i.e. z is equidistant from 2i and −1 + i.
This is the perpendicular bisector of the interval joining (0, 2) and (−1, 1). 2
Algebraically:
(–1, 1)
x + ( y − 2)i = (x + 1) + ( y − 1)i
O Re
x 2 + ( y − 2)2 = (x + 1)2 + ( y − 1)2
x2 + y2 − 4y + 4 = x2 + 2x + 1 + y2 − 2y + 1
x+y−1=0
(d) As z moves around the circle, the smallest value of arg z occurs when z Im
is at point B (where arg z = π ). The largest value of arg z occurs when z z
2 E
is at C (where arg z = π).
∴ π ≤ arg z ≤ π
2 A(–2, 2)
B
The smallest value of z occurs when z is at D and the largest value
when z is at E.
Now OA = 2 2 (Pythagoras), AD = 2 (radius) D
C O Re
∴ minimum z = OD = OA − AD = 2 2 − 2
maximum z = OE = OA + AE = 2 2 + 2

Example 35
On an Argand diagram, sketch the region of the complex plane for each of the following.
π π π
(a) arg z = (b) − < arg z ≤ (c) arg (z − 2 + 2i) =
3π
3 4 3 4
Solution Im
z
These can be done geometrically.
(a) The vector from O to the point representing z is inclined to the positive direction
of the real axis at an angle of π .
p
3
3 O Re
Note the open circle at O: z ≠ 0 as arg 0 is undefined.
Im
(b) This is the region between the vectors from O that have
inclinations of − π and π . z can be anywhere in the shaded
4 3
region.
p
Note the dashed line on the vector inclined at − π (due to the 3
4 p Re
< symbol) and the open circle at O (for the undefined arg 0). 4

Im
(c) arg (z − 2 + 2i) =
3π
4 z

∴ arg (z − (2 − 2i)) = 3π
4
The vector from (2, −2) to the point representing z is inclined at
3π to the positive direction of the real axis. 3p
4 4
O Re
Note that the vector passes through O. (You should try to notice
details like this without being prompted.) Also note the open
circle at (2, −2), again for the undefined arg 0. (2, –2)

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 43

YEAR 12

Example 36
On an Argand diagram, sketch the subsets of z for each of the following.

(a) arg (zz −+2i3 ) = 0 (b) arg (zz −+2i3 ) = π

Solution
⎛z ⎞ Im
Use the result arg ⎜ 1 ⎟ = arg z1 − arg z 2 . z
⎝ z2 ⎠
(a) arg (z − 2i) − arg (z + 3) = 0
2
∴ arg (z − 2i) = arg (z + 3)
The angle of inclination of the vector from 2i to z is equal to the
angle of inclination of the vector from −3 to z. This means that z O Re
–3
is along the straight line that joins 2i and −3, but z must be on the
‘outer’ parts of the line (‘going away’). The direction from 2i to z
is exactly the same direction as from −3 to z.
Note the open circles at 2i and −3.
(b) arg (z − 2i) − arg (z + 3) = π Im
The direction from 2i to z is exactly opposite to the direction 2
from −3 to z. This means that z is anywhere along the z
‘inner’ part of the straight line that joins 2i and −3.
Note the open circles at 2i and −3. –3 O Re

EXPLORING FURTHER

Regions on the complex plane

Use technology to explore regions on the complex plane.

EXERCISE 1.10 CURVES AND REGIONS ON THE ARGAND DIAGRAM

1 If z = x + iy, the Cartesian equation x − y = 0 represents:

π
A arg z = B z + 2i = z + 2 C arg z = −
3π D z + 2i = z − 2
4 4
2 Which diagram represents z such that arg (z + i) − arg (z − i) = 2π ?
3
A Im B Im C Im D Im
1 1 1
z 1 z
z z
O Re O Re O Re O Re

–1
–1 –1 –1

3 On Argand diagrams, show the curves or regions described by the following.

(a) z = 4 (b) z ≤ 2 (c) 1 ≤ z ≤ 3 (d) z − (1 + 3i) = 2 (e) z − 2 + 2i = 3

(f) z + 2 = z (g) z + 2 − i = z − 2 + i (h) z + 2 ≥ z − 4 (i)

z − 3 + 3i = 1
z +1−i

44 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

4 On Argand diagrams, show the curves or regions described by the following.

π
(a) arg z = (b) arg z =
2π (c) − π ≤ arg z ≤ 2π
3 3 3 3
3π 2π
(d) arg (z + 2) = (e) arg (z − i) = 0 (f) arg (z + 1 + i) = −
4 3
5 Show the following on the complex plane.
(a) Re(z) = 2 (b) Im(z) = −1 (c) Re(z) + Im(z) = 1 (d) Re(z) < Im(z) (e) z + z = 6
2 2
(f) z − z = 4i (g) 2 z = z + z + 4 (h) z − (z ) ≥ 16 (i) z + 2 − 4i = 2 z − 4 − i
2 2
(j) z − z1 − z − z 2 = 16, where z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = −2 − i
6 On Argand diagrams, show:
(a) the region where z − 1 ≤ 1 and Im(z) ≥ 0 are both true
π
(b) the intersection of 2 ≤ z ≤ 3 and − ≤ arg z ≤
π
2 4
π π
(c) the intersection of − ≤ arg z ≤ and Re(z) < 2
3 3
(d) the intersection of z ≤ 3 and Re(z) + Im(z) ≤ 3
(e) the region common to z z ≤ 4 and z + z ≤ 2.

CHAPTER REVIEW 1
1 If z = 1 + 2i and w = −3 − 4i, find the following in x + iy form:
(a) 3z + w (b) z2 (c) ww (d)
z (e) the square roots of w.
w
2 Solve the following equations.
(a) z2 + 25 = 0 (b) z2 + 2z + 2 = 0 (c) 8z2 − 20z + 17 = 0 (d)
iz = 3 + 2i
z −1
3 Find the real numbers p and q for each of the following.
p + 3qi
(a) = 1 − i (b) (2 − ip)(3 + iq) = 4 + 7i
2+i
4 Convert the following complex numbers into mod–arg form.

(a) −3 + 3i (b)
3 − 1i
2 2
5 Express the following in Cartesian form:

(
(a) 4 cos
6 6 ) ( ( )
5π + i sin 5π (b) 6 2 cos − 2π + i sin − 2π
3 ( )) 3
6 (a) Evaluate the following, giving answers in both mod–arg form and x + iy form.
(1 − 3i)2
(i) ( 3 − i)3 (ii)
(1 + i)3
(b) Use your answer to part (a)(ii) to show that cos
7π = 2 − 6 .
12 4

( ) ( )
2
7 If z = cos 2π + i sin 2π and w = cos − 3π + i sin − 3π , find z 5 in mod–arg form.
5 5 10 10 w
8 Describe each of the following regions of the Argand diagram algebraically.
(a) Im (b) Im (c) Im
z

4 π
3 3
(–3, 3) π 2 3 Re
4
(–2, 2)

–3 O Re O Re

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 45

YEAR 12

(d) Im (e) Im
z

(–2, 2)
z
3p
4
O Re O Re
(1, –1) (1, –1)

9 Solve the following, giving answers in mod–arg form.

(a) z4 = −1 (b) z6 = 1 (c) 1 + z + z2 + z3 + z4 = −z5

10 Find the product of the five 5th roots of (1 + 2i) .

3

11 If z = cos θ + i sin θ :
(a) Show that arg (z2 + z4) = 3θ . (b) Show that z2 + z4 = 2 cos θ (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ ).
π
(c) Find the value(s) of θ for which z2 + z4 is purely imaginary, − < θ < .
π
2 2
12 Find the range of values of arg (z) if z − 2i = 1.
13 (a) If w is a root of z12 = i, show that −w is also a root.
(b) Let z1 and z2 be two distinct roots of z12 = i. Show that z1 + z 2 < 2.
14 (a) If arg z = α, show that arg iz = π + α .
2
(b) On an Argand diagram, show a non-zero complex number z and the corresponding position of iz.
2 2 2
(c) Use a geometrical argument to show that z + iz = z − iz .
(d) Show that the area of the triangle formed on an Argand diagram by z, iz and the origin O is z z .
1
2
(e) If z = 1 + 2i, find the area between the triangle of part (d) (formed by z, iz and O) and the circle in which
that triangle is inscribed.
15 On an Argand diagram, point Z is shown to represent the complex number z. Which diagram below shows the
vector that represents (1 − i)z?
Im Im Im Im
A B C D
z z z z

O Re O 1 Re O Re O Re
1

16 On an Argand diagram, the points A, B, C and D represent the complex numbers α, β, γ and δ respectively.
1
(a) Describe the point that represents (α + γ ).
2
(b) If α + γ = β + δ, deduce that ABCD is a parallelogram.
17 Let z = x + iy be any non-zero complex number such that z + 1 = k, where k is a real number.
z
(a) Prove that either y = 0 or x2 + y2 = 1. (b) If y = 0, show that k ≥ 2.
(c) If x2 + y2 = 1, show that k ≤ 2.
18 On an Argand diagram, the points A and C represent the complex numbers 3i and 4 − 5i respectively. ABCD is
a rhombus.
(a) Find the Cartesian equation of the diagonal BD.
(b) Show that the diagonal BD is also represented by the equation (1 + 2i)z + (1 − 2i)z − 8 = 0.

46 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

19 If w is a non-real root of the equation z5 = 1, show that:

(a) 1 + w + w2 + w3 + w4 = 0 (b) (1 − w)(1 − w2)(1 − w3)(1 − w4) = 5
(c) z1 = w + w and z2 = w + w are the roots of the quadratic equation z2 + z − 1 = 0.
4 2 3

20 (a) Find the cube roots of −8 in mod–arg form.

(b) If w1 and w2 are the non-real roots of −8, show that w16n + w26n = 26n + 1 for all integers n.
21 On an Argand diagram, A represents the complex number z = cos θ + i sin θ. B represents wz, where
( 4 4
 1
)
w = 2 cos π + i sin π . M is the midpoint of OB.
1
(a) Show that AM = wz − z . (b) Show that wz − z = 2 − 2 .
2 2
1
(
(c) Show that arg wz − z =
2 )
5π
8
+θ .

22 (a) Show that (1 + cos θ + i sin θ )(1 − (cos θ + i sin θ )) = 1 − (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ ).
1 − cis(n + 1)θ
(b) Prove by induction that 1 + cis θ + cis 2θ + … + cis nθ = provided cos θ + i sin θ ≠ 1.
1 − cis θ
(c) Hence evaluate 1 + cis
π + cis 2π + … + cis 71π .
36 36 36
(d) Interpret part (c) as a statement about the roots of z72 = 1.

2+ 3
23 (a) Show that cos π = . (Recall that cos π = 3 .)
12 2 6 2
4
π 2− 3 ⎛ 2+ 3 2 − 3 ⎞⎟
(b) Show that sin = . (c) Evaluate ⎜⎝ + i⎠ .
12 2 2 2
3
24 (a) Given that tan 3θ = 3 tan θ − tan
2
θ (see Example 17, page 16), solve x3 − 3 3x2 − 3x + 3 = 0.
1 − 3 tan θ
π
(b) Show that tan − tan
2π + tan 4π = 3 3.
9 9 9

(z z− i )
4
25 Solve = −4. (Hint: Let w = z .)
z −i
26 One root of 8x3 + 8x2 − 1 = 0 is − 1 . Find the other roots.
2
27 (a) Find the square root of 5 + 12i.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation z2 + 3z + 1 − 3i = 0.
28 Let P(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 2 where a and b are real numbers. Find the values of a and b given that (x − 1)2 is a
factor of P(x).
29 Two of the zeros of P(x) = x4 − 4x3 + 26x2 − 44x + 85 are a + ib and a + 2ib, where a and b are real and b > 0.
(a) Find the values of a and b.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, express P(x) as the product of quadratic factors with real coefficients.
30 The polynomial P(x) = ax3 + bx + c has a multiple zero at x = 2 and has a remainder of 20 when divided by
x + 2. Find a, b and c.

Chapter 1 Complex numbers 47

 CHAPTER 2
The nature of proof
2.1 THE LANGUAGE AND LOGIC OF PROOF
Mathematical knowledge is unlike the knowledge of other scientific disciplines. As opposed to consisting of theories
based on observation and evidence that can possibly be falsified, it consists of theorems: significant mathematical
statements that have been proved to be true: (think of Pythagoras’ theorem, for instance). Scientific theories are
analogous to mathematical conjectures. A conjecture is a statement that mathematicians have reason to believe
may be true, but which has not been proved definitively. One of the most famous mathematical conjectures is the
Goldbach conjecture, named after the eighteenth-century mathematician Christian Goldbach:
Every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two prime numbers.
The Goldbach conjecture seems likely to be true; in fact, it has been shown to be true for every integer up to 4 × 1018.
However, it is, at present, unproven—there may, in fact, be a very large even integer that cannot be expressed as the
sum of two prime numbers.
The idea of mathematical proof is extremely powerful. It enables mathematics to be a rich and robust system of
knowledge that will never be falsified; further, any result that has been proved can safely be used to help establish
further useful results, adding to this system of knowledge.
To prove mathematical statements, it is important to use clear, unambiguous language and valid logic. The focus
of this section is on the language and logic used to construct, combine, and evaluate the truth or falsehood of
mathematical statements about numbers.
Note that the word ‘statement’ will be used to not only refer to an assertion that is true or false (such as ‘the
number 7 is prime’ or ‘all multiples of 10 are also multiples of 5’), but also for an assertion involving one or more
variables that becomes true or false whenever values are substituted for the variable (such as ‘n is a multiple of 5’
or ‘x2 < 20’).
Negating statements
The negation of a mathematical statement is the statement that is true precisely when the original statement is
false, and vice versa. As an example, the negation of the statement x > 0 is x ≤ 0. Notice that for any number that
is substituted in place of x, if the statement x > 0 is true, then the negation x ≤ 0 will be false, and vice versa. As a
general rule, the negation of a statement can be obtained by preceding the statement with the phrase ‘it is not the
case that …’ For example, if n represents an integer, then the negation of the statement ‘n is an even number’ is ‘it
is not the case that n is an even number’, which is equivalent to saying that n is an odd number. If P represents any
statement, then the negation of P can be written as ¬P, ~P, or simply ‘not P’.
The negation of statements involving the words ‘and’ or ‘or’ can sometimes cause confusion. Consider negating the
statement ‘either x = 5 or x = 7’. If it is not the case that x is equal to 5 or 7, then it must be the case that x ≠ 5 and
x ≠ 7.
As another example, consider the negation of the statement: x > 0 and x < 10. If it is not the case that x is between 0
and 10, then either x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 10.

• The negation of ‘P and Q’ is ‘not P or not Q’.

• The negation of ‘P or Q’ is ‘not P and not Q’.

The preceding rules about negating AND and OR statements are known as de Morgan’s laws.

48 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 1
Negate the following statements.
(a) n is divisible by 2 or n is divisible by 3
(b) x > 0 and x < 5.

Solution
(a) The opposite (negative of) ‘divisible’ is ‘not divisible’.
n is not divisible by 2 and n is not divisible by 3.
Or, n is divisible by neither 2 or 3.
(b) The opposite of ‘greater than’ is ‘not greater than’ or ‘less than or equal to’.
The opposite of ‘less than’ is ‘not less than’ or ‘greater than or equal to’.
Hence x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 5.

Statements involving quantifiers

Often, mathematical statements involving variables are true for certain values of the variable, and false for others.
For example, the statement (x − 2)(x − 5) = 0 is true if x is equal to either 2 or 5, but false otherwise.
But consider the following statement, where x represents a real number: x2 ≥ 0. This is true for every possible real
number that can be substituted in place of x. Therefore, you could say:
‘For all real numbers x, x2 ≥ 0’.
Statements that assert that some property is true for all possible values of a variable are so common that a special
symbol is often used to enable such statements to be written in a more compact way. The symbol ∀ is known as the
universal quantifier and is used as shorthand for the phrase ‘for all’. Thus, the previous statement could be written as
follows:
‘∀ real numbers x, x2 ≥ 0’.
This can be condensed further by making use of the notation x ∈ R to signify that the variable x is an element of the
set of real numbers. Specifically, you could write the statement as follows:
‘∀ x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0’.
In some situations, you are not interested in whether some property is true for all possible values of a variable,
but rather, whether there is at least one possible value of the variable that makes it true. For example, consider the
statement: n2 + 2n is a prime number. This is certainly not true for all integer values of n, but there is at least one
value of n that makes it true, (for example, n = 1). Therefore, you could say:
‘There exists an integer n, such that n2 + 2n is a prime number’.
Notice that this doesn’t preclude the possibility that there is more than one value of n that satisfies the statement; it
simply guarantees the existence of at least one value of n for which the statement is true.
Statements that assert that some property is true for at least one possible value of a variable are also common in
mathematics. For such statements, the symbol ∃ (known as the existential quantifier), can be used as shorthand for
the phrase ‘there exists’. Thus, the previous statement could be written as follows:
‘∃ an integer, n such that n2 + 2n is a prime number’.

The symbol ∀ (known as the universal quantifier) is used to mean ‘for all’.
The symbol ∃ (known as the existential quantifier) is used to mean ‘there exists’.

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 49

YEAR 12

Example 2
Translate the following statements into everyday language. Also determine whether the statement is true or
false, justifying your answer.
(a) ∃ x ∈ R such that x 2 = x.
(b) ∀ integers n, the number 5n is even.

Solution
(a) There is at least one real number whose square is equal to its square root.
This is true as the number 1 satisfies this property.
(b) Multiplying any integer by 5 results in an even number.
This is false as, for example, 5 × 3 = 15, which is not even.

Example 3
Rewrite the following statements using the symbols ∀ and ∃. Also, state whether the statement is true or false,
justifying your answer.
(a) The square root of any positive integer is less than or equal to the integer.
(b) There is at least one real number which, when squared, results in a smaller number.

Solution
(a) ∀ positive integers n, n ≤ n.
This is a true statement as the square root of any number greater than or equal to 1 is less than or equal
to the number itself.
2
(b) ∃ a real number x, such that x < x.
This is true for 0 < x < 1; for example, 0.52 = 0.25 < 0.5.

Note that the symbols ∀ and ∃ may be used together in a single statement; however, the order in which they appear
is important. As an example, consider the following two statements:
∀ integers n, ∃ an integer m such that n + m is a multiple of 5.
∃ an integer n, such that ∀ integers m, n + m is a multiple of 5.
The first statement is true as it says that ‘for every integer, you can find another integer to add to it to give a sum that
is a multiple of 5’.
The second statement is false as it says that ‘there is a special integer that has the property that when you add any
other integer to it, you always obtain a multiple of 5’.

When the symbols ∀ and ∃ appear together in the same statement,

the order in which they appear is important.

Examples and counterexamples

In part (a) of Example 2, it was claimed that the statement, ‘∃x ∈R such that x 2 = x’ is true, and to justify this
claim, a single example was provided of a real number whose square was equal to its square root (namely, x = 1).
Providing a single example is always sufficient to prove that a ‘there exists’ statement is true.
In part (b) of Example 2, it was claimed that the statement, ‘∀ integers n, the number 5n is even’ is false, and to
justify this claim, a single example was provided of an integer which, when multiplied by 5, gives a number that is
not even (namely, n = 3). An example, such as this, that demonstrates the falsehood of a statement is known as a
counterexample. Providing a single counterexample is always sufficient to prove that a ‘for all’ statement is false.

50 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

• Providing a single example is always sufficient to prove that a ‘there exists’ statement is true.
• Providing a single counter example is always sufficient to prove that a ‘for all’ statement is false.
In part (a) of Example 3, it was claimed that the statement ‘∀ positive integers n, n ≤ n’ is true. It is easy to check
that this result holds when n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, and you would expect it to hold for larger values of n as it appears as
though the larger the value of n is, the smaller n is in comparison to n. However, simply providing several example
values of n for which the inequality holds does not actually prove that it must hold for all positive integers. Proving
a statement is true for infinitely many values of a variable requires a general proof. Later, several strategies for
constructing general proofs of results such as this are discussed.

Negating statements involving quantifiers

Consider the negation of the statement ‘∀ real numbers x, x2 ≥ 0’. If it is not the case that the square of every real
number is greater than or equal to zero, then it must mean that there is at least one real number whose square is less
than zero. Thus, the negation is ‘∃ a real number x such that x2 < 0’. Notice how the negation of a ‘for all’ statement
is a ‘there exists’ statement. The reverse is also true. For example, the negation of the statement: ‘∃ a real number x
such that 3x = x’ is ‘∀ real numbers x, 3x ≠ x’.

The negation of a ‘for all’ statement is a ‘there exists’ statement. Similarly, the negation of a
‘there exists’ statement is a ‘for all’ statement.

Example 4
Determine the negation of each of the following statements. Also state whether the original statement or the
negation is true or false, justifying your answer.
(a) ∀ integers n, 2n is even.
2
(b) ∃ a real number x, such that x = −1.
(c) ∃ an integer n, such that n is even and n is prime.

Solution
(a) ∃ an integer n such that 2n is odd.
Original statement is true as 2 multiplied by an integer is, by definition, even.
2
(b) ∀ real numbers x, x ≠ −1.
Negation is true, as the square of any real number is greater than or equal to zero.
(c) ∀ integers n, n is odd or n is not prime.
Original statement is true, as the number 2 is even and prime.

Conditional statements
Consider the following statement: if n is a multiple of 10, then n is an even number. This is an example of a
conditional statement. A conditional statement (also known as an ‘if-then’ statement, or an ‘implication’) is one that
asserts that if some condition holds, then it must be the case that some property is true. Conditional statements are
so common in mathematics that there is a variety of ways to express them. The previous example, for instance, could
be represented in any of the following ways:
If n is a multiple of 10, then n is an even number.
n is an even number if n is a multiple of 10.
n being a multiple of 10 is a sufficient condition to conclude that n is even.
n being even is necessary if n is a multiple of 10.
n is a multiple of 10 implies that n is an even number.

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 51

YEAR 12

Finally, the implication symbol, ⇒, is used to mean ‘implies that’. Thus, the statement could be also written as
follows:
n is a multiple of 10 ⇒ n is an even number.

Each of the following means the same as P ⇒ Q:

If P, then Q
Q if P
P is a sufficient condition to conclude that Q
Q is necessary if P
P implies that Q

Example 5
Rewrite the following conditional statements using the implication symbol, ⇒.
(a) If n ends in a zero, then n is even.
(b) ∀ integers n, n > 3 is a sufficient condition to conclude that n is positive.
(c) n > 3 is necessary if n is greater than 4.

Solution
(a) ‘If p, then q’ can be written as p ⇒ q.
If n ends in a zero ⇒ n is even.
(b) ‘p is a sufficient condition to conclude q’ means the same as ‘if p then q’.
n > 3 ⇒ n positive.
(c) ‘p is a necessary condition if q’ means the same as ‘if q, then p’.
n > 4 ⇒ n > 3

The converse of a conditional statement is the statement obtained by swapping the statements on either side of the
implication symbol. For example, consider the conditional statement previously introduced:
original: n is a multiple of 10 ⇒ n is an even number
converse: n is an even number ⇒ n is a multiple of 10
Notice that the converse is not saying the same thing as the original. The original statement is claiming that if a
number is a multiple of 10, then it must be even (which is true). But the converse is claiming that if a number is
even, then it must be a multiple of 10 (which is definitely not true).
The contrapositive of a conditional statement is the statement obtained by swapping the statements on either side
of the implication symbol, and also negating both statements. Again, consider the conditional statement previously
introduced:
original: n is a multiple of 10 ⇒ n is an even number
contrapositive: n is not an even number ⇒ n is not multiple of 10
Notice that the contrapositive is actually true, just like the original. In a sense, it is saying the exact same thing as the
original statement.
As a classic illustrative real-life example, the contrapositive of the statement ‘if an animal is a poodle, then it is a dog’
is ‘if an animal is not a dog, then it is not a poodle’. Notice, again, how the original and the contrapositive statements
are essentially saying the same thing.
Now consider the negation of the statement ‘n is a multiple of 10 ⇒ n is an even number’. Remember that that
this statement is essentially saying that for every integer that is a multiple of 10, this integer must also be even.

52 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

If this were not the case, it would mean that there must exist some integer that is a multiple of 10 but is not even. In
general, the negation of a conditional statement of the form P ⇒ Q that involves some variable is ‘there exists some
value of the variable for which P is true, but Q is false’.
Using the real-life example from earlier, the negation of ‘if an animal is a poodle, then it is a dog’ would be ‘there
exists some animal that is a poodle, but not a dog’.
Notice that the negation of a conditional statement is different from both the converse, and the contrapositive.

For a statement of the form P ⇒ Q that involves some variable:

The converse is the statement Q ⇒ P;
The contrapositive is the statement not Q ⇒ not P;
The negation is the statement ‘there exists some value of the
variable for which P is true, but Q is false’.
The contrapositive of a conditional statement essentially says
the same thing as the original statement, and thus, will be true
whenever the original statement is true.

Example 6
Write the converse, the contrapositive, and the negation of the following conditional statement.
If n is a perfect square, then n is divisible by 3.
Determine whether each of the original, converse, contrapositive, and negation are true or false, justifying your
answer.

Solution
Is the original statement true or false? The original statement is false as, for example, 16 is a perfect square but
it is not divisible by 3.
The converse of P ⇒ Q is Q ⇒ P: Converse is ‘if n is divisible by 3 then n is a perfect square’. For example, 12 is
divisible by 3 but it is not a perfect square.
The contrapositive of a statement of the form P ⇒ Q is not Q ⇒ not P: Contrapositive is ‘if n is not divisible by 3
then n is not a perfect square’. Like the original statement, this statement is false.
The negation of a statement of the form P ⇒ Q is ‘there exists some value of the variable for which P is true, but
Q is false’: Negation is ‘there exists an integer n with the property that n is a perfect square, but n is not divisible
by 3’. This statement must be true as the original statement was false. n = 16 has this property.

Notice that in the previous worked example, a counterexample was provided to justify the claim that the statement
‘If n is a perfect square, then n is divisible by 3’ is false. This should make sense, as conditional statements such as
these are making a claim about all possible values of a variable that satisfy some condition, and are therefore similar
to ‘for all’ statements (which are proved false by providing a counterexample). Incidentally, this statement could be
rephrased as ‘For all perfect square integers n, n is divisible by 3’.

Logical equivalent statements

Recall that the conditional statement ‘n is a multiple of 10 ⇒ n is an even number’ is true, however, its converse
‘n is an even number ⇒ n is a multiple of 10’ is not. Sometimes, however, a conditional statement and its converse
are both true. As an example, notice that if x = 5, then 2x = 10, and conversely, if 2x = 10, then x = 5. This means
that for the two statements, x = 5 and 2x = 10, whenever one is of these is true, the other must be. Such statements
are said to be logically equivalent.

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 53

YEAR 12

Two statements are logically equivalent if whenever one is true, the other must be true.
There are a variety of ways to represent the fact that x = 5 and 2x = 10 are logically equivalent:
x = 5 is necessary and sufficient for 2x = 10
x = 5 if and only if 2x = 10
x = 5 ⇒ 2x = 10 and 2x = 10 ⇒ x = 5
Finally, the symbol ⇔ is often used to denote logical equivalence. Thus, we could write x = 5 ⇔ 2x = 10 (or
equivalently, 2x = 10 ⇔ x = 5).

Each of the following can be used to express

the fact that P and Q are logically equivalent:
P is necessary and sufficient for Q
P if and only if Q
P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P
P⇔Q

Example 7
Rewrite the following statement using the logical equivalence symbol, ⇔:
For n to be divisible by 5, it is both necessary and sufficient that n end in either 0 or 5.

Solution
‘P is a necessary and sufficient condition for Q’ means that P and Q are logically equivalent: n is divisible
by 5 ⇔ n ends in 0 or 5.

EXERCISE 2.1 THE LANGUAGE AND LOGIC OF PROOF

1 Determine the negation of each of the following statements.

(a) p and q are both even. (b) x > 5 or x < −5.
(c) x is divisible by either 7 or 8. (d) x = 0 or y = 0.
2 Translate the following statements into everyday language. Also, determine whether the statement is true or
false, justifying your answer where appropriate.
1
(a) ∀ integers n, the number 2n + 3 is odd. (b) ∃ a real number x such that = x.
2 2 x
(c) ∀ real numbers x, x > 0. (d) ∃ x ∈R such that x = −1.
(e) ∀ n ∈ integers, the number n(n + 1) is divisible by 3. (f) ∀ real numbers x and y, x − y > 0.
(g) ∀ real numbers x, ∃ a real number y such that x + y = 0.
(h) ∃ a real number x such that ∀ real numbers y, xy = y.
3 Rewrite the following statements using the symbols ∀ and ∃. Also, determine whether the statement is true or
false, justifying your answer where appropriate.
(a) The square of any integer is greater than the integer.
(b) There is a real number which, when multiplied by 5 gives an answer of 0.
(c) The sum of any two consecutive integers is odd.
(d) There is a real number equal to its square.
(e) The sum of the squares of any two real numbers is less than the product of the numbers.
(f)  There is a special real number with the property that whenever another real number is divided by this
special number, this other real number is obtained as a result.
(g) Every integer is divisible by at least one integer.

54 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

4 Determine the negation of each of the following statements. Also state whether the original statement or the
negation is true, justifying your answer where appropriate.
2 2
(a) ∀ real numbers x, x > 0. (b) ∃ a real number x such that x = x.
(c) ∀ positive integers n, 10n > n. (d) ∀ real numbers x, x is either positive or negative.
2 n n
(e) ∃ an integer n such that n ≠ 0 and n < 1. (f) ∀ integers n, either (−1) = 1 or (−1) = −1.
5 Rewrite the following statements using the implication symbol ⇒.
2
(a) If x > 3, then x > 9. (b) If n is divisible by 9, then n is divisible by 3.
(c) n > 5 implies that n > 4. (d) 7p is positive if p > 3.
(e) q is even if 2q is a perfect square.
(f) m is a multiple of 6 is a sufficient condition to conclude that m is divisible by 3.
2
(g) It is necessary that x > 2 if x < −2.
(h) n is even and greater than 2 is a sufficient condition to conclude that n is not prime.
6 Write the converse, the contrapositive, and the negation of each of the following conditional statements.
Determine whether each of the original, converse, contrapositive, and negation are true or false, justifying
your answer where appropriate.
(a) If n is divisible by 20, then n is divisible by 5.
2
(b) If n is divisible by 3, then n is divisible by 3.
(c) If x > 7, then 10x > 70.
(d) If xy = 0, then either x = 0 or y = 0.
(e) If n is divisible by 5, then the final digit of n is 5.
(f) If x = 4 and y = 4, then xy = 16.
(g) If n is divisible by 24, then n is even and n is divisible by 3.
7 Rewrite the following statements using the logical equivalence symbol, ⇔.
2
(a) n is even if and only if n is even.
(b) x + y = 0 if and only if x = −y.
(c) n being even and divisible by 3 is necessary and sufficient for n to be divisible by 6.
8 For each of the following statements, provide three examples that are consistent with the statement, and then a
single counter example to prove that the statement is actually false.
(a) If a positive integer is divisible by 7, then it is not divisible by 3.
2
(b) ∀ x ∈ R, x ≥ x.
(c) If p is a prime number, then 2p − 1 is prime.
(d) If a positive integer is divisible by both 10 and 6, then it is also divisible by 60.
2
(e) Suppose that x and y are real numbers. If x ≥ 3, then x − 2y > 5.
(f) Suppose that x and y are positive real numbers. Then xy > x + y.
9 Which statement is true?
A ∀ x ∈ R, ∃ y ∈ R such that xy = 6. B ∃ x ∈ R such that ∀ y ∈ R, xy = 6.
C ∃ x ∈ R such that ∀ y ∈ R, x + y = 6. D ∀ x ∈ R, ∃ y ∈ R such that x + y = 6.
10 The negation of the statement ∀ x ∈ R, ∃ y ∈ R such that x + y = 6, is:
A ∀ x ∈ R, ∃ y ∈ R such that x + y ≠ 6. B ∃ x ∈ R such that ∀ y ∈ R, x + y ≠ 6.
C ∀ x ∈ R, ∀ y ∈ R, x + y ≠ 6. D ∃ x ∈ R, ∃ y ∈ R such that x + y ≠ 6.
11 Write the negation of the following statement, where x represents a real number: x > 0 and x < 10 ⇒ x ≥ 0 and
x ≤ 10. Also, determine whether the original or the negation is true.
12 Consider the following conjecture:
Start with any positive integer. If the integer is even, halve it. If the integer is odd, triple it and add one. Repeat
this process. Eventually, the integer 1 will be obtained.
This is known as the ‘3x + 1’ conjecture. It is yet to be proved but has been shown to be true for all integers up
to roughly 1014. Verify this conjecture for the following positive integers:
(a) 6 (b) 13 (c) 7

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 55

YEAR 12

2.2 METHODS OF PROOF

Aside from examples and counterexamples (which can be used to prove the truth of a ‘there exists’ statement or
the falsehood of a ‘for all’ statement), a mathematical proof typically consists of a sequence of statements with each
statement following directly from either definitions, previous steps, or other established results. In this section,
several common strategies of constructing proofs are illustrated.
As many of the statements proved are concerned with even and odd numbers, and divisibility more generally, it is
necessary to be familiar with the following definitions:
An integer n is said to be even if n = 2k for some integer k. (For example: 10 is even since 10 can be written as 2
multiplied by some integer, namely 5.)
Similarly, an integer n is said to be odd if n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. (For example: 11 is odd since 11 can be
written as one more than 2 multiplied by some integer, namely, 5.)
Finally, an integer n is said to be divisible by the integer m if n = mk for some integer k. (For example: the number 15
is divisible by 5 since 15 can be expressed as 5 multiplied by some integer, namely 3.)
Direct proof
The most straightforward way to prove a statement is to use a direct proof. A direct proof typically starts by
introducing any relevant variables, clearly states any assumptions, and then establishes the desired result via a logical
sequence of valid statements. Note that if the statement to be proved has the form ‘if P, then Q’, then you assume that
P is true, and then proceed to show that Q must be true.

Example 8
Use a direct proof to prove that if a number is odd, then its square is also odd.

Solution
Let p be an odd integer.
Hence p = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
Consider p2, which is to be proved odd:
p2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
As 2k2 + 2k is an integer then 2(2k2 + 2k) is even and 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1 is odd.
Hence p2 is odd.

Proof by contraposition
Recall that the contrapositive of the statement P ⇒ Q is ¬ Q ⇒ ¬ P. As the contrapositive is logically equivalent to
the original statement, the original statement, P ⇒ Q, can be proved indirectly by proving ¬ Q ⇒ ¬ P; that is, by
assuming that Q is false, and then proceeding to show that P must be false.

Example 9
Use a contrapositive proof to prove that if 5n + 3 is odd, then n is even.

Solution
The contrapositive statement is: if n is not even, then 5n + 3 is not odd. In other words, if n is odd, then 5n + 3
is even.
Let n be an odd integer.

56 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Hence n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.

5n + 3 = 5(2k + 1) +3
= 10k + 5 + 3
= 10k + 8
= 2(5k + 4)
Since 5k + 4 is an integer then 2(5k + 4) must be an even integer.
Hence 5n + 3 is even.

Proof by contradiction
Another form of indirect proof, but one that is not restricted to proving conditional statements, is ‘proof by
contradiction’. The basic idea of such a proof is to assume that the statement needing to be proved is false, and then
show that this assumption leads to an absurd and impossible result; this then must mean that the initial assumption
that the result was false cannot be true, meaning that it must be true!
Two proofs by contradiction are illustrated in the following example. The first is a famous proof that 2 is irrational.
The second is a proof of the same statement from the previous worked example, only using contradiction instead of
contraposition.

Example 10
Use a proof by contradiction to prove each of the following statements.
(a) 2 is irrational. (b) If 5n + 3 is odd, then n is even.

Solution
(a) Assume, for a contradiction, that 2 is rational. (b) Assume, for a contradiction that 5n + 3 is
p odd and n is odd.
Let 2 = for integers p and q, with p and
q Since n is odd: n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
q having no common factors other than 1. 5n + 3 = 5(2k + 1) + 3
(p and q are relatively prime.) = 10k + 5 + 3
p2 = 10k + 8
Square both sides: 2 = 2 = 2(5k + 4)
q
Since 5k + 4 is an integer then 2(5k + 4) is even.
Rearrange: p2 = 2q2 and hence p2 is divisible Hence 5n + 3 is even and it can’t be both odd and
by 2. even.
If p2 is divisible by 2 then p is divisible by 2. Hence the assumption for n must be wrong, n
Therefore, you can write p = 2m for some cannot be odd so it must be even.
integer m.
Substitute in p2 = 2q2: 4m2 = 2q2
2m2 = q2
Hence q2 is divisible by 2, so q is divisible by 2.
Since p and q are divisible by 2, this gives a
contradiction to the original assumption that p
and q had no common factors other than 1.
Hence the original assumption that 2 is
rational is false.
Hence 2 is irrational.

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 57

YEAR 12

Note that the proof in part (a) of the previous example used the fact that if the square of an integer is divisible by 2,
then the original integer must also be divisible by 2. This fact is true not just for the number 2 but for any integers
with no perfect square factors other than 1. You may use this fact when modifying the previous proof to prove the
irrationality of other surds in the subsequent exercise.
You may have noticed that the contradiction proof in part (b) looks very similar to the contraposition proof from
Example 9. The actual logic used is almost identical—the difference is that there is no actual contradiction obtained
in the contrapositive proof since it was never assumed that 5n + 3 was odd. Note also that a contradiction proof
does not aim for a particular contradiction—any contradiction is sufficient. In a situation such as this, when a
contradiction proof is very similar to a contrapositive proof, the contrapositive one is considered more efficient
and elegant.
Proving logical equivalences
The simplest method to prove a statement of the form P ⇔ Q is to separately prove both P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P, as
demonstrated in the following example.

Example 11
Let n be a positive integer. Prove that n + 9 is odd if and only if n − 8 is even.

Solution
(i) Assume that n + 9 is odd. (ii) Conversely, assume that n − 8 is even.
Thus n + 9 = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Thus n − 8 = 2k for some integer k.
n − 8 = n + 9 − 17 n + 9 = n − 8 + 17
= 2k + 1 − 17 = 2k + 17
= 2k − 16 = 2(k + 8) + 1
= 2(k − 8) Hence n + 9 is odd since as (2(k + 8) + 1)
Hence n − 8 is even as 2(k − 8) is even. is odd.

The final example presented is a more complex proof of a well-known divisibility result.

Example 12
Prove that a three-digit number is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.

Solution
(i) Let a, b and c be the digits, in order, of a three-digit number, N.
The number is: N = 100a + 10b + c
If N is divisible by 3, then 100a + 10b + c = 3k for some integer k.
Rearrange to create factors of 3:
99a + 9b + a + b + c = 3k
a + b + c = 3k − 99a − 9b
a + b + c = 3(k − 33a − 3b)
Hence the sum of the digits is divisible by 3.
(ii) Conversely, assume that the sum of the digits is divisible by 3:
a + b + c = 3k for some integer k.
N = 100a + 10b + c
= 99a + 9b + a + b + c
= 99a + 9b + 3k
= 3(33a + 3b + k)
Hence N is divisible by 3.

58 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

EXERCISE 2.2 METHODS OF PROOF

1 Use a direct proof to prove each of the following statements.

(a) The sum of any two odd integers is even.
(b) The sum of an odd integer and an even integer is always odd.
(c) The product of two odd integers is odd.
(d) The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is divisible by 4.
(e) The sum of the squares of five consecutive integers is divisible by 5.
(f) The product of two rational numbers is rational.
(g) The sum of two rational numbers is rational.
2
(h) If n is odd, then n is odd.
2
(i) If n is divisible by 7, then n is divisible by 7.
(j) If m + n and n + p are even, where m, n, p are integers, then m + p is even.
2 Use a contrapositive proof to prove each of the following statements.
(a) Let n be an integer. If 3n + 2 is even, then n is even.
(b) If a and b are integers and ab is even, then at least one of a and b is even.
3
(c) Let n be an integer. If n + 5 is odd, then n is even.
(d) If x is irrational, then x is irrational.
(e) If x is irrational, then 1 is irrational.
x
3 Use a proof by contradiction to prove each of the following statements.
(a) 3 is irrational.
(b) 5 is irrational.
(c) The sum of a rational and an irrational number is irrational.
(d) The product of a rational and an irrational number is irrational.
(e) There are no integers a and b such that 18a + 6b = 1.
4 Prove each of the following logical equivalences.
(a) Let n be a positive integer. n + 9 is even if and only if n + 6 is odd.
(b) Let n be a positive integer. n − 3 is odd if and only if n + 2 is even.
(c) Let n be a positive integer. n is even if and only if 13n + 4 is even.
(d) Let n be a positive integer. n is odd if and only if 7n + 6 is odd.
2
(e) Let n be a positive integer. n is even if and only if n is even.
5 Consider the following statement:
‘If two integers have an even product, then at least one of the two integers must be even.’
To prove this statement by contraposition, it would be necessary to:
A suppose that at least one of the two integers is even, and then show that the product must be even.
B suppose that at least one of the integers is odd, and then show that the product must be odd.
C suppose that both integers are odd, and then show that the product must be odd.
D  suppose that the two integers have an even product and that both integers are odd, and then show that a
contradiction arises.
6 Prove that the number 1 − 5 2 is irrational.
7 Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that ab = c. Prove that a ≤ c or b ≤ c .
8 Prove that if a2 − 2a + 7 is even, then a is odd.
9 Prove that a four-digit number is divisible by 9 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 59

YEAR 12

10 (a) Prove that for all real numbers a and b, a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab.

Using the result from part (a) or otherwise, prove that for all positive real numbers a and b, that
(b) 

( )
(a + b) 1 + 1 ≥ 4.
a b
Using the result from part (a) or otherwise, prove that for all positive real numbers a and b, that a + b ≥ ab .
(c) 
2
11 Prove that every odd integer can be expressed as the difference between two perfect squares.
12 Prove that if a, b are integers, then a2 − 4b − 3 ≠ 0.
13 Let k be a positive integer. Prove that if 2k + 2 + 33k is divisible by 5, then 2k + 3 + 33k + 3 is also divisible by 5.
14 It is known that n is irrational whenever n is a positive integer that is not a perfect square. Use this result to
help prove that 6 + 10 is irrational.
15 Use a proof by contradiction to show that there is no rational solution to the equation x3 + x + 1 = 0. As a hint,
p
start by supposing, for a contradiction that r = is a rational solution to the equation, where p, q are integers
q
with no common factor other than 1 and with q ≠ 0. Then consider what would happen if both p and q were
odd, or if one of them was even and the other odd.

2.3 INEQUALITIES
The relation a > b is equivalent to the statement that a − b is positive, i.e. a − b > 0. Similarly, you can interpret
a < b to mean either that b > a or that a − b is negative. The following properties are stated for inequalities with
a ‘>’ relation; similar properties exist for ‘<’.
Properties of inequalities
1 If a > b then a + x > b + x for all x.
You can add or subtract the same amount to both sides of an inequality.
2 If a > b then ax > bx for x > 0.
You can multiply (or divide) both sides of an inequality by a positive number.
3 If a > b then ax < bx for x < 0.
The inequality relation changes when you multiply (or divide) both sides of an inequality by a
negative number.
1 1
4 If a > b > 0 then < .
a b
When you take reciprocals of both sides of an inequality and both sides are positive, the inequality is reversed.
2 2
5 If a > b > 0 then a > b .
Inequalities in which both sides are positive can be squared.
6 If a > b and b > c then a > c.
Inequalities of the same type can be linked together.
7 If a > b > 0 and c > d > 0 then ac > bd.
Inequalities of the same type involving positive numbers can be multiplied together.
Proof: a > b and c > 0 ∴ ac > bc
c > d and b > 0 ∴ bc > bd
∴ ac > bc > bd ∴ ac > bd
8 If a > b and c > d then a + c > b + d.
Inequalities of the same type can be added together.
Proof: a − b > 0 and c − d > 0 ∴a−b+c−d>0
∴ a + c − (b + d) > 0
∴a+c>b+d

60 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

9 As a general rule, inequalities cannot be subtracted from one another, nor divided into each other.
For example:
Consider the pair of inequalities 12 > 6 [1]
and 4>3 [2]
[1] − [2] gives a true result: 8>3
[1] ÷ [2] gives a true result: 3>2
But now consider the inequalities 12 > 10 [3]
and 100 > 3 [4]
[3] − [4] gives a false result: −88 > 7
[3] ÷ [4] gives a false result: 3 > 31
25 3

Techniques for proving inequalities

1 Use the properties of inequalities listed above.
2 Use proof by contradiction.
3 Use a known fact.
For example: (a − b)2 ≥ 0 for real a, b; or a variation of this, such as ( a − b )2 ≥ 0.
Another useful identity is (a + b)2 = (a − b)2 + 4ab, which enables the statement (a + b)2 ≥ 4ab
(as (a − b)2 ≥ 0 for real a, b).
4 Substitute different expressions into known inequalities.
5 If the inequality to be proved involves trigonometric, logarithmic or exponential terms, then a calculus-
based approach is probably needed.

Example 13
If a > −1, show that a3 + 1 > a2 + a.

Solution
Technique: To prove X > Y, prove that X − Y > 0.
a3 − a2 − a + 1 = a2(a − 1) − (a − 1)
= (a − 1)(a2 − 1)
= (a − 1)2(a + 1)
> 0 as a > −1, so (a + 1) is positive; also, (a − 1)2 is positive
∴ a3 + 1 > a2 + a.

Example 14
a, b, c and d are positive real numbers. Prove that:
2 2
(a) a + b ≥ 2ab
2 2 2
(b) a + b + c ≥ ab + bc + ca
2 2 2 2
(c) a + b + c + d ≥ 2(ab + cd)
1
(d) if a + b + c = 1, then ab + bc + ca ≤ , and state the condition for which equality is true
3
2
1
(e) (a + b) ≥ 4ab, and hence that ⎛ 3 x + 3 ⎞ ≥ 4 for all real x except 0.
2
⎝ x⎠

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 61

YEAR 12

Solution
(a) Method 1 Method 2—Proof by contradiction
(a − b)2 ≥ 0 for real a, b Assume that a2 + b2 < 2ab for all real a, b.
∴ a − 2ab + b2 ≥ 0
2
∴ a2 − 2ab + b2 < 0
a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab ∴ (a − b)2 < 0 for real a, b
This contradicts the fact that the square of a real number
is non-negative.
∴ Assumption is false, so: a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab
2 2
(b) a + b ≥ 2ab [1]
Similarly: a2 + c2 ≥ 2ac [2]
2 2
Similarly: b + c ≥ 2bc [3]
[1] + [2] + [3]: 2(a2 + b2 + c2) ≥ 2(ab + bc + ca)
a2 + b2 + c2 ≥ ab + bc + ca
This shows how to extend from a known result involving two variables to a similar result involving
three variables: use the known result to generate each of the three paired results, then add.
2 2
(c) a + b ≥ 2ab [1]
Similarly: c2 + d2 ≥ 2cd [4]
2 2 2 2
  [1] + [4]: a + b + c + d ≥ 2(ab + cd)
This shows a method to extend from a known result involving two variables to a similar result
involving four variables: use the known result to generate two suitable paired results, then add.
2
(d) The question now involves a + b + c, which suggests you examine (a + b + c) .
(a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
≥ 3(ab + bc + ca)   using the result of part (b)
But a + b + c = 1: 12 ≥ 3(ab + bc + ca)
ab + bc + ca ≤ 1
∴
3
2 2
 Note that in the inequality a + b ≥ 2ab [1], equality occurs when a = b. Similarly, equality occurs in [2]
when a = c. Hence the equality of this result in part (d) occurs when a = b = c. As a + b + c = 1, equality
occurs when a = b = c = 1 .
3
2 2 2 2
(e) Using (a + b) = (a − b) + 4ab: you have (a − b) ≥ 0, so (a + b) ≥ 4ab.
2
Letting a = 3
x and b = 31 , you obtain: ⎛ 3 x + 31 ⎞ ≥ 4 × 3 x × 31
x ⎝ x⎠ x
2
1
∴ ⎛3x + 3 ⎞ ≥4
⎝ x⎠

Example 15
a, b, c are positive real numbers. Prove that:

(a) a +
1 ≥ 2
a
1 1
( )
(b) (a + b) + ≥ 4 (c) (a + b + c) + + ≥ 9
a b (
1 1 1
a b c )
(d) Extend this to the general case. If x1, x2, x3, … xn are positive real numbers, prove that:

( x1 + x 2 + x3 + …+ xn ) ( x1 x 2 x3 xn)
1 + 1 + 1 + …+ 1 ≥ n2

62 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Solution
( )
2
(a) ⎛ a −
1 ⎞ ≥0 1 1 a b
(b) (a + b) + = 1 + + + 1
⎝ a ⎠ a b b a
∴a−2+ 1 ≥0
a
=2+ A+ 1
A ( ) with A = a
b
1
a + ≥ 2 This could also have been ≥4 from part (a)
a
done very well by contradiction.

(c) (a + b + c) ( 1a + b1 + 1c ) = 1 + ba + ac + ba + 1 + bc + ac + bc + 1
= 3+ (a + b )+ (a + c )+ (b + c )
b a c a c b
≥3+2+2+2 using part (a)
≥9

(d) ( x1 + x 2 + x3 + …+ xn ) (
1 + 1 + 1 + …+ 1
x1 x 2 x3 xn )
x x x x x x x
= 1 + 1 + 1 + …+ 1 + 2 + 1 + 2 + …+ 2 + …+ n + 1
x 2 x3 xn x1 x3 xn xn −1
xi x j
= n × 1 + (every possible pairing of the form + where i ≠ j)
x j xi
≥ n + nC2 × 2 (from the n different x terms, there are nC2 pairs)

≥ n + 1 × n(n − 1) × 2
2
≥ n2
(
∴ ( x1 + x 2 + x3 + …+ xn ) 1 + 1 + 1 + …+ 1 ≥ n2
x1 x 2 x3 xn )
Arithmetic and geometric means
The arithmetic mean of a and b is a + b , the average of a and b.
2
The geometric mean of a and b is ab. The numbers a, ab, b form a geometric sequence.

Example 16
Prove that the arithmetic mean of two positive real numbers, a and b, is equal to or greater than the geometric
a + b ≥ ab
mean, i.e. prove that .
2

Solution
( ) − ab:
2
a+b
Consider the expression
2
2 2
= a + 2ab + b − ab
4
2 2
= a + 2ab + b − 4ab
4
2 2
= a − 2ab + b
4
(a − b)2
=
4
≥0

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 63

YEAR 12

( )
2
Hence a + b ≥ ab
2
a + b ≥ ab.
Taking the positive square root of both sides gives
2

The triangle inequality

The triangle inequality states that x + y ≥ x + y .
This result was proved geometrically in Chapter 1, section 1.8 on page 31.
Proof
Remember that if x ≤ a then −a ≤ x ≤ a.
If x and y are either both positive or both negative, then x + y = x + y .
Now − x ≤ x ≤ x since x equals either x or − x .
Similarly, − y ≤ y ≤ y since y equals either y or − y .
Adding these two results gives: − x − y ≤ x + y ≤ x + y
( )
− x + y ≤x+y≤ x + y
Let a = x + y and b = x + y : −b ≤ a ≤ b
Hence a ≤ b
So x + y ≤ x + y
Or x + y ≥ x + y as required.

EXERCISE 2.3 INEQUALITIES

1 Show that if a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0 then ab(a2 + b2) ≥ 2a2b2.

2 If 0 < x < y, prove that x2 < xy < y2.
y
3 (a) For positive x and y, prove that xy + x ≥ 2. (b) Hence prove that x2 − xy + y2 ≥ xy.
3 3
(c) Factorise x + y and show that x 3 + y 3 ≥ xyz
z z (
x + y for x, y, z > 0.
)
3 3 3 3
(d) Write similar expressions for y + z and z + x .
3 3 3
(e) Using results from parts (c) and (d), prove that x + y + z ≥ 3xyz.
(f) If a, b, c, d are positive, deduce that:
(i) a + b + c ≥ 3 3 abc (ii) (a + b + c)(a + b + d)(a + c + d)(b + c + d) ≥ 81abcd
4 (a) Show that a2 + b2 + c2 ≥ ab + bc + ca for real a, b, c.
2
(b) Hence show that (a + b + c) ≥ 3(ab + bc + ca).
5 Given that a2 + b2 + c2 ≥ ab + bc + ca for real a, b, c, show that x2y2 + y2z2 + z2x2 ≥ xyz(x + y + z).

6 (a) Prove that a + b ≥ ab . Hence prove that a + b + c + d ≥ 4 abcd for positive a, b, c, d.

2 4

( )
3
(b) Let d =
a + b + c . Show that abc ≤ a + b + c .
3 3

64 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

7 For each of the following, write an inequality that describes the statement and then identify the question above
(from questions 1−6) that involves the proof of the statement.
(a) The area of a rectangle cannot be greater than the square of the average length of its two sides.
(b) The volume of a rectangular prism cannot be greater than the cube of the average length of its three sides.

8 If x > 0 and y > 0, prove that: (a)

1+1≥ 4 (b)
1 + 1 ≥ 8
x y x+y x 2
y 2
(x + y)2
9 (a) If a and b are real numbers, prove that 4a2 − 6ab + 4b2 ≥ a2 + b2.
4 4 4 3 3
(b) Write the binomial expansion of (a − b) and prove that a + b ≥ a b + ab if a > 0 and b > 0.
10 Prove that the average of the squares of two unequal positive numbers is greater than the square of the average
of those two numbers.

11 Use the results a + b ≥ ab and a + b + c ≥ 3 abc to prove that:

2 3
(a) (b + c)(c + a)(a + b) ≥ 8abc   (b) bc(b + c) + ca(c + a) + ab(a + b) ≥ 6abc
2 2 2 2 2 2
(c) b c + c a + a b ≥ abc(a + b + c)  (d) (ab + xy)(ax + by) ≥ 4abxy
2 2 2 2
(e) ax + by ≤ 1 if a + b = 1 and x + y = 1.

12 (a) Use a + b + c ≥ 3 abc to show that: (i) x2y + y2z + z2x ≥ 3xyz (ii) xy2 + yz2 + zx2 ≥ 3xyz
3
3 3
(b) Write the expansion of (x + y + z) and hence show that (x + y + z) ≥ 27xyz.
13 For positive a, b, c, d, prove that:
2 2 2 2
(a) ab + cd ≤ (a + c )(b + d ) (b) (a + 5b)(a + 2b) ≥ 9b(a + b)

(c)
a2 + b2 + 6 ≥ 4a + 4b (d) (a + b) 1 + 1 ≥ 4
b2 a2 b a ( )
a b
14 The area of a triangle is given by Heron’s formula as A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) where a, b and c are
the lengths of the sides and s = 12 (a + b + c). Given that ab ≤ a + b and ab + bc + ca ≤ a2 + b2 + c2,
2 2 2
2
show that: A ≤ a + b + c .
6
15 Let p be an integer greater than 1. Show that x p + (p − 1) ≥ px for all x > 0. For what values of x does the
equality hold?
16 If a is any constant, prove that ex − ea ≥ ea(x − a).
17 Let g (x) = sin x − x.
(a) Show that g (0) = 0 and g ′(0) = 0. (b) Show that −2 ≤ g ′(x) ≤ 0 for all x.
(c) Hence explain why g(x) ≤ 0 for x ≥ 0. (d) Explain why sin x < x for x > 0.
18 On the curve y = ex, P and Q are two points with x-coordinates a and b y
respectively, a > b. Let R be the midpoint of chord PQ.
x
(a) Prove that y = e is concave up for all x. P
a +b
(b) Explain why
e a + eb > e 2 . R
2 a +b + c + d
a b c d
(c) Hence show that e + e + e + e > 4e 4 if a > b > c > d. Q
x
19 By letting a = 1 and b = 1 in a + b ≥ ab , prove that:
x y 2
1 1 2
(a) 1 + 1 ≥ 2 (b) 2 + 2 ≥
x y xy x y xy

20 If 1 ≤ x ≤ 4, show that: 1 ≤ 1 ≤ 1
3 1+ x 2

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 65

YEAR 12

21 In this exercise you have proved each of the following:

a + b ≥ ab a + b + c ≥ 3 abc a + b + c + d ≥ 4 abcd

2 3 4
 These are the first three instances of a general result, which says that the arithmetic mean of a
set of n non-negative numbers is greater than or equal to the geometric mean of the numbers:
x1 + x 2 + …+ xn n
≥ x1 x 2 …xn Note that equality occurs when all of the xi are equal.
n
 There are many ways of proving this general result. This question will develop two proofs.
x−1
(a) (i) Show that f (x) = x − e has only one stationary point, which is a maximum turning point at (1, 0).
x−1
(ii) Noting that f (x) is continuous for all x, explain why x ≤ e for all real x.
x + x 2 + …+ xn
(iii) Let x1, x2, … xn be non-negative numbers with arithmetic mean X, i.e. X = 1 .
n
x x1
−1 x x …x
Using the fact 1 ≤ e X from (ii), show that 1 2 n n ≤ 1 and hence complete the proof of
X X
the general AM–GM (‘arithmetic mean–geometric mean’) inequality.
(b) For a second proof, you take Jensen’s theorem as the starting point. (You will not prove Jensen’s
theorem; if you are interested, you can find its proof from an internet search.) Reworded for simplicity,
Jensen’s theorem states that in a function that is concave down for some domain, the average of n
function values in that domain is less than or equal to the function value at the average of the n values:
f (x1 ) + f (x 2 ) + …+ f (xn )
n (
≤ f 1
x + x 2 + …+ xn
n )
 For a concave-up function, this inequality is reversed.
(i) Prove that y = loge x is concave down for all x > 0.
x + x 2 + …+ xn
(ii) Let x1, x2, … xn be non-negative numbers with arithmetic mean X, i.e. X = 1 .
n
Write Jensen’s theorem as it applies to the function y = loge x.
(iii) Hence complete this proof of the AM–GM inequality.

( )
n
By substitution into the result x1 + x 2 + …+ xn ≥ n x1 x 2 …xn , prove that n! ≤ n + 1 for all positive integers n.
(c) 
n 2

2.4 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, HARDER QUESTIONS

In this section, you will construct harder mathematical induction proofs in a variety of situations. You will also study
a slightly different form of induction in which you need to assume S(1), S(2), …, S(k) are true in order to prove that
S(k + 1) is true.

Induction questions for n > 1

Example 17
Use mathematical induction to prove that n3 − n is a multiple of 6 for n ≥ 2.

Solution
n = 2: Exp = 23 − 2 = 8 − 2 = 6, which is a multiple of 6.
Step 1 
Hence the result is true for n = 2.
Step 2 Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that k3 − k = 6M, where M is a positive integer.
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that (k + 1)3 − (k + 1) is a multiple of 6.
Exp = (k + 1)3 − (k + 1)
= k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 − k − 1
= k3 − k + 3k2 + 3k
= 6M + 3k(k + 1)

66 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Now since k is a positive integer then k(k + 1) is even so that k(k + 1) = 2N, where N is an integer.
Hence Exp = 6M + 3 × 2N
= 6(M + N) which is a multiple of 6.
Step 3 The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the result is true for n = 2, hence it is true
for n = 2 + 1 and by the principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 2.

Sigma notation
Series questions to be proved by induction are often written using sigma notation, ∑, to save space.
n
For example: 1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 3 × 4 + … + n × (n + 1) =
k
∑ r(r + 1).
r=1
Hence 1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 3 × 4 + … + k × (k + 1) = ∑ r(r + 1)
r=1 k k+1
and 1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 3 × 4 + … + k × (k + 1) + (k + 1)(k + 2) = ∑ r(r + 1) + (k + 1)(k + 2) = ∑ r(r + 1).
r=1 r=1

Example 18
n
Prove that ∑ r(r + 1) = n(n + 1)(n
r=1
3
+ 2)
.

Solution
1
Step 1 n = 1: LHS = ∑ r(r + 1) = 1 × 2 = 2;
r=1

RHS = 1 × 2 × 3 = 2 = LHS
3
Result is true when n = 1.
k
Step 2 Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that ∑ r(r + 1) = k(k + 1)(k
r=1
3
+ 2)
.

k+1
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that ∑ r(r + 1) = (k + 1)(k +3 2)(k + 3) .
r=1
k+1
LHS = ∑
r=1
r(r + 1)

k
= ∑ r(r + 1) + (k + 1)(k + 2)
r=1
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
= + (k + 1)(k + 2)
3
= (k + 1)(k + 2) k + 1
3 ( )
= (k + 1)(k + 2) + 3
k
3 ( )
(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
=
3
= RHS
Step 3 The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the result is true for n = 1, hence it is true
for n = 1 + 1 and by the principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 67

YEAR 12

Example 19
( n! )2 (n + 1)
Prove by induction that (22 − 1)(32 − 1)…(n2 − 1) = 2n for all integers n ≥ 2.

Solution
Note that this involves a product of terms rather than a sum of terms.
( n! )2 (n + 1)
Let S(n) be the statement that (22 − 1)(32 − 1)…(n2 − 1) = for integers n ≥ 2.
2n
Step 1 Prove that S(2) is true.
( 2! )2 (2 + 1)
LHS = (22 − 1) = 3 RHS = =3
2×2
LHS = RHS ∴ S(2) is true
Step 2 Assume S(k) is true for a positive integer k ≥ 2.
( k! )2 (k + 1)
i.e. assume that (22 − 1)(32 − 1)…(k2 − 1) = [a]
2k
Now prove that S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true.
( (k + 1)! )2 ( (k + 1) + 1)
i.e. prove that (22 − 1)(32 − 1)…([k + 1]2 − 1) =
2(k + 1)
( (k + 1)! )2 ( k + 2 )
=
2(k + 1)
LHS = (22 − 1)(32 − 1)…(k2 − 1) ([k + 1]2 − 1)
( )2
using [a]: = k! (k + 1) × (k2 + 2k)
2k
( k! )2 (k + 1)
= × k(k + 2)
2k
( )2
= k! (k + 1)(k + 2)
2
( ) 2
= k! (k + 1)(k + 2) × (k + 1)
2 (k + 1)
( (k + 1)! )2 ( k + 2 )
= = RHS
2(k + 1)
Step 3 Conclusion
S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true (Step 2)
S(2) is true (Step 1)
∴ by induction, S(n) is true for all integers n ≥ 2.

2
If the question in Example 19 had been to prove by induction that (22 − 1)(32 − 1) … (n2 − 1) = (n!) (n + 1) for all
integers n ≥ 1, then the proof would not have worked. 2n
Step 1: n = 1, LHS = (12 − 1) = 0
(1!)2 × 2
RHS = = 1, which is not equal to the LHS.
2
Since the result cannot be proved for n = 1 then the process of proof by mathematical induction will not work.

68 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

EXERCISE 2.4 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, HARDER QUESTIONS

Use mathematical induction to prove the following results.
n
1 Prove that ∑ r(r1+ 1) = n n+ 1 for n a positive integer.
r=1
3
2 Prove that n − n is a multiple of 6 for n > 1, n a positive integer.
3 Prove that n2 + 2n is divisible by 8 if n is an even integer.
4 Prove that 34n − 1 is divisible by 80 for n a positive integer.
n
5 Prove that ∑ (2r − 1) = n .
r=1
2

n
6 Prove that ∑ r(r + 1)(r
r=1
4
+ 2)
= 1− 2
(n + 1)(n + 2)
.

(
7 Prove that 1 − 12
2 ) (1 − 31 )…(1 − n1 ) = n2n+ 1 for n ≥ 2.
2 2

n
n(n + 1) ⎤
8 Prove that ∑ (−1)
k =1
k = (−1)n −1 ⎡⎢
k−1 2
⎣ 2 ⎦⎥
.

∑ log ( k k+ 1 ) = log(n + 1).

n
9 Prove that
k =1

10 Prove that x − yn is divisible by (x − y) for n a positive integer.

n

n n−1
11 Prove that xn − 1 is divisible by (x − 1) for n a positive integer. Use the result that x − 1 = x n−1 + x − 1 .
x −1 x −1

∑ r log ( r +r 1 ) = log (n +n!1) .

n n
12 Prove that
r=1

2.5 OTHER INDUCTION QUESTIONS

There is quite a range of situations in which you will use mathematical induction to prove results.

Example 20
Prove by induction that 3n > 1 + 2n for all integers n > 1 (i.e. prove that 3n − 1 − 2n > 0).

Solution
Let S(n) be the statement that 3n − 1 − 2n > 0 for integer n.
Step 1 Prove that S(2) is true. (Note that n = 2 is the first case.)
LHS = 32 − 1 − 4
=4
>0 ∴ S(2) is true.
Step 2 Assume S(k) is true for an integer k ≥ 2.
i.e. assume that 3k − 1 − 2k > 0 [a]

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 69

YEAR 12

Now prove that S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true.

i.e. prove that 3k + 1 − 1 − 2(k + 1) > 0
LHS = 3 × 3k − 1 − 2k − 2
= 3 × 3k − 2k − 3
We need to link [a] to this, so we need to group 3k − 1 − 2k together. However, the term in 3k is multiplied by 3,
so we need 3(3k − 2k − 1). Form this group and ‘pay back’ the extra terms as required:
LHS = 3 × 3k − 6k − 3 + 4k
= 3(3k − 2k − 1) + 4k
> 0        as 3k − 1 − 2k > 0 from [a] and k > 0

Step 3 Conclusion
S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true (Step 2)
S(2) is true (Step 1)
∴ by induction, S(n) is true for all integers n ≥ 2.

Example 21
Prove that n2 ≥ 2n + 1 for positive integers n ≥ 3.

Solution
Let S(n) be the statement that n2 − (2n + 1) > 0.
Step 1 Prove that S(3) is true.
LHS = 32 − 6 − 1
=9−7

=2>0

Hence S(3) is true.
Step 2 Assume that S(k) is true, i.e. assume that k2 − 2k − 1 > 0.
Prove that S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true, i.e. (k + 1)2 − 2(k + 1) − 1 > 0.
LHS = (k + 1)2 − 2(k + 1) − 1
= k2 + 2k + 1 − 2k − 2 − 1

= k2 − 2k − 1 + 2k − 1

> 0 + 2k − 1

> 0 as 2k − 1 > 5 when k ≥ 3.

Hence S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true.
Step 3 But S(3) is true so by the principle of mathematical induction S(n) is true for all n ≥ 3.

Example 22
Prove that 32n + 4 − 22n is divisible by 5 for any positive integer n.

Solution
Step 1 n = 1: LHS = 36 − 22 = 729 − 4 = 725, which is divisible by 5.
Hence the result is true when n = 1.

70 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Step 2 Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that 32k + 4 − 22k = 5M, where M is a positive integer.
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that 32k + 6 − 22k + 2 is divisible by 5.
Exp = 32k + 6 − 22k + 2
= 9 × 32k + 4 − 4 × 22k
= 9 × 32k + 4 − 9 × 22k + 5 × 22k
= 9 × 5M + 5 × 22k
= 5(9M + 22k), which is divisible by 5.
Step 3 The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for
n = 1 + 1 and by the principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.

Example 23
Prove that every integer greater than 1 is either prime or a product of primes.

Solution
Let S(n) be the proposition that n is either prime or a product of primes, n ≥ 2.
Step 1 2 is a prime ∴ S(2) is true.

Step 2 Assume S(2), S(3), S(4), … S(k) are true. Thus prove that S(k + 1) is true.
i.e. assume 3 is either prime or a product of primes
assume 4 is either prime or a product of primes
assume 5 is either prime or a product of primes
…
assume k is either prime or a product of primes.
Now k + 1 is either prime, in which case S(k + 1) is true, or k + 1 is composite, in which case
k + 1 = p × q where p and q are integers less than k (so that both p and q are either prime or a
product of primes, because both p and q are in the set of assumed primes or products of primes.)
∴ k + 1 = p × q is a product of primes and S(k + 1) is true.
Step 3 Conclusion
S(k + 1) is true if S(2), S(3), S(4), … S(k) are true.
S(2) is true.
∴ by induction, S(n) is true for all integers n ≥ 2.

Example 24
Construct a proof by induction of the geometrical property that ‘the angle sum of an n-sided polygon is
(n − 2) × 180° for all integers n ≥ 3’.

Solution
Let S(n) be the statement that the angle sum of an n-sided polygon is (n − 2) × 180° for integer n.
Step 1 Prove that S(3) is true.
  When n = 3, angle sum = (3 − 2) × 180° = 180°, which is the angle sum of a triangle.
∴ S(3) is true.
Step 2 Assume S(k) is true for an integer k > 3.
i.e. assume that the angle sum of a k-sided polygon is (k − 2) × 180°   [a]

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 71

YEAR 12

Now prove that S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true.

i.e. prove that the angle sum of a (k + 1)-sided polygon is ([k + 1] − 2) × 180°
= (k − 1) × 180°
In the (k + 1)-sided polygon, construct a diagonal that divides the polygon into a k-sided polygon and
a triangle. (This can always be done.)
Angle sum of (k + 1)-sided polygon = (angle sum of k-sided polygon) + (angle sum of triangle)
using [a]: = (k − 2) × 180° + 180°
= (k − 1) × 180° (as required)
Step 3 Conclusion
S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true (Step 2)
S(3) is true (Step 1)
∴ by induction, S(n) is true for all integers n ≥ 3.

EXERCISE 2.5 OTHER INDUCTION QUESTIONS

Use mathematical induction to prove the following results.
1 n2 − 11n + 30 ≥ 0 for all integers n ≥ 6. 2 n2 > −5n + 14 for all integers n > 2.
3 12n > 7n + 5n for all integers n ≥ 2. 4 10n ≥ 2n + 3n + 5n for all positive integers n.
5 If x > 0, prove that (1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx for all positive integers n.
6 Prove that 2n ≥ n2 for positive integers n ≥ 4. (Hint: Use the result from Example 21 page 70.)
7 (a) If F(n) = n3 + 20n, find F(n + 2) − F(n).
3
(b) Hence prove that n + 20n is divisible by 48 if n is even.

( )
8 (a) Prove that d x n = nx n −1 for any positive integer n by:
dx
(i) first proving S(1) that d ( x ) = 1
dx
n+1
(ii) then writing x = x × xn and using the product rule to prove that S(k + 1) is true.
(b) Summarise your results to give the proof of the result by induction.
9 Prove that the nth odd number is 2n − 1.
10 If n and r are positive integers, prove that
n(n + 1) n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + r − 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + r)
1+n + + …+ = .
2! r! r!
11 Prove that the sum of the exterior angles of a convex polygon with n sides is 360° for n ≥ 3.
n(2n + 1)(7n + 1)
12 Prove that (n + 1)2 + (n + 2)2 + (n + 3)2 + …+ (2n)2 = for positive integers n.
6
d ⎛ 1 ⎞ = −n
13 Prove that for positive integers n.
dx ⎝ x n ⎠ x n+1
dn
( )
14 Prove that n x n = n! for integral n, n ≥ 0.
dx
n
15 The binomial theorem states that if n is an integer, n ≥ 1, then (x + a)n = ∑ n
Cr x r an − r . Use mathematical
induction to prove this result. r=0

72 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

16 At a mathematics conference, each of the n mathematicians attending wishes to shake hands with all the
others.
(a) Work out how many handshakes there are.
(b) Use mathematical induction to prove your hypothesis in part (a).

17 Prove that the number of diagonals of a convex polygon with n vertices is n(n − 3) for n ≥ 4.
2
18 It is given that A > 0, B > 0 and n is a positive integer.
n+1 n n+1 n n+1 n+1 n n
(a) Factorise A − A B + B − B A. (b) Hence show that A + B ≥ A B + B A.

( A 2+ B ) ≤ A +2 B
n n n
(c) Prove by induction that for all positive integers n.
19 Prove by induction that the greatest number of regions that a circle can be divided into by n straight lines is
1 (n2 + n + 2) for all positive integers n.
2
20 Prove by induction that: sin (x + nπ ) = (−1)n sin x for all integers n ≥ 1.
21 Suppose there is a country in which the only currency is $3 coins and $5 coins.
Construct a table to show how the amounts of money from $1 to $15 (in whole dollars) can be made
(a) 
using only $3 and $5 coins. Note that some amounts are impossible to achieve.
Complete the following statement, then prove it by induction:
(b) 
‘Using only $3 and $5 coins, it is possible to make $n for all integers n ≥ …’
22 By induction, prove that for each positive integer n:
n
(a) there are unique positive integers pn and qn such that (1 + 3 ) = pn + qn 3
2 2 n
(b) there are unique positive integers pn and qn such that pn − 3qn = (−2)
23 (a) Write the binomial expansion of (k + 1)p where p is a positive integer.
(b) If p is a prime number, identify which of the terms in the expansion do not have a factor of p.
Prove by induction on n that if n is a positive integer and p is a prime number, then n p − n is a
(c) 
multiple of p.

(2 )
24 (a) Show that: tan θ + π = − cot θ .   π
(b) Prove by induction that tan ⎡⎢ (2n + 1) ⎥⎤ = (−1) for all integers n ≥ 1.
⎣ 4⎦
n

25 (a) Show that 2k + 3 > 2 (k + 1)(k + 2) for k > 0.

(b) Hence prove by induction that: 1 + 1 + 1 + …+ 1 > 2 ( n + 1 − 1).

2 3 n
N
Consider the statement that
(c)  ∑ 1 < 1010 for all positive integers N. Is this statement correct? Justify your
k
answer. k =1

2.6 USING INDUCTION TO PROVE FIRST-ORDER

  RECURSIVE FORMULAE
A recursive formula is when one term is defined in terms of one or more preceding terms.
A recursive definition of a function allows you to evaluate the function at a certain value of n using value(s) of the
function at some other value(s) of n.
A closed form definition allows a function to be evaluated directly from the required value of n.

Example 25
A sequence {un} is defined recursively as u1 = 2, u2 = 6, un = 6un − 1 − 5un − 2 for n ≥ 3.
Prove by induction the closed form definition un = 5n − 1 + 1 for all integers n ≥ 1.

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 73

YEAR 12

Solution
Step 1 Prove true for the two initial cases.
n = 1: u1 = 51 − 1 + 1 = 2, which agrees with the recursive definition.

n = 2: u2 = 52 − 1 + 1 = 6, which agrees with the recursive definition.

The proposition is true for n = 1 and n = 2.
Step 2 Assume the proposition is true for all integers from 1 to k. Thus prove that it is true for n = k + 1.
i.e. assume: u1 = 51 − 1 + 1
u2 = 52 − 1 + 1
u3 = 53 − 1 + 1
…
uk − 1 = 5(k − 1) − 1 + 1 = 5k − 2 + 1
uk = 5k − 1 + 1
For n = k + 1: uk + 1 = 6u(k + 1) − 1 − 5u(k + 1) − 2   (using the recursive definition)

= 6uk  − 5uk − 1

= 6(5k − 1 + 1) − 5(5k − 2 + 1)

= 6 × 5k − 1 + 6 − 1 × 5k − 1 − 5

= 5 × 5k − 1 + 1

= 5k + 1   which is the closed form definition.
Step 3 Conclusion
The proposition is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = 1, 2, … k.
It is true for n = 1, 2.
∴ by induction, it is true for all integers n ≥ 1.

Example 26
n−1
(a) If ur + 1 = 2ur + 1 for all positive integer values of r, prove that un + 1 = 2 (u1 + 1).
n
(b) Find the value of ∑u r=1
r if u1 = 1.

Solution
(a) r = 1: u2 = 2u1 + 1
Consider un + 1 = 2n − 1(u1 + 1).
Step 1 When n = 1: LHS = u1 + 1; RHS = 20(u1 + 1) = u1 + 1 = LHS
Hence the result is true for n = 1.
When n = 2: LHS = u2 + 1 = 2u1 + 2; RHS = 21(u1 + 1) = 2u1 + 2 = LHS
Hence the result is true for n = 2.
Step 2 Assume the result is true for n = k, given uk + 1 = 2uk + 1, i.e. assume that uk + 1 = 2k − 1(u1 + 1).
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that uk + 1 + 1 = 2k(u1 + 1).
LHS = uk+1 + 1
= 2uk + 1 + 1
= 2 ( uk + 1)
(
= 2 2k−1 ( u1 + 1) )
= 2k ( u1 + 1)
= RHS
Step 3 The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the result is true for n = 1, hence it is
true for n = 1 + 1 and by the principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.

74 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

(b) ur = 2r −1 (1 + 1) − 1
= 2r − 1
n n n

∑ u = ∑ ( 2 − 1) = ∑ 2 − n
r=1
r
r=1
r

r=1
r

2 ( 2 − 1) n
= −n
2 −1
n+1
= 2 −n−2

EXERCISE 2.6 USING INDUCTION TO PROVE FIRST-ORDER RECURSIVE FORMULAE

1 If un + 1 = 3un + 4 and u1 = 1, use mathematical induction to prove that un = 3n − 2 for all positive integers n.
2 If u1 = 6 and un + 1 = un + 2n + 4, use mathematical induction to prove that un = 2n + 4n for all positive
integers n.
3 A sequence is defined recursively as u1 = 1, u2 = 3, un + 1 = 2un − un − 1 for n ≥ 2. By induction,
prove that un = 2n − 1 for all positive integers n.
4 A sequence is defined recursively as u1 = 5, u2 = 13, un = 5un − 1 − 6un − 2 for n ≥ 3. By induction,
prove that un = 2n + 3n for all positive integers n.
5 A sequence is defined recursively as u1 = 3, u2 = 33, un = 11un − 1 − 28un − 2 for n ≥ 3. By induction,
prove that un = 7n − 4n for all positive integers n.
6 A sequence is defined recursively as u1 = 0, u2 = 25, un = 10un − 1 − 25un − 2 for n ≥ 3. By induction,
prove that un = (n − 1)5n for all positive integers n.
7 The Fibonacci sequence is defined as u1 = 1, u2 =1, un + 2 = un + 1 + un for all positive integers n ≥ 1.

()
n
Prove by induction that un < 5 for all positive integers n.
3
8 If a0 = 1, a1 = 6 and an = 6an − 1 − 9an − 2, use mathematical induction to prove that an = 3n + n3n.

9 (a) Prove by contradiction that (4k + 3) k ≤ (4k + 1) k + 1 for all k ≥ 0.

(4n + 3) n
(b) Prove by induction that 1 + 2 + 3 + …+ n ≤ for all integers n ≥ 1.
6
n +1
10 If 4 = 3 = u1 + 3 = u2 + 3 = u3 + 3 = … , prove by induction that un = 3n +1 − 3 for all positive integers n.
u1 u2 u3 u4 3 −1
(
11 If u1 = 0 and if un + 1 = (1 − x)un + nx for all positive integers n, prove that un = 1 nx − 1 + (1 − x)n .
x )

CHAPTER REVIEW 2
1 Use mathematical induction to prove the following results.
n

∑ (3r − 2)(3r
1 = n
n
(a) ∑ 3 (
(2r − 1) = n 4n2 − 1
2
) (b)
r=1
+ 1) 3n + 1
r=1
n n
(c) ∑(
r=1
)
r 2 + 1 r ! = n × (n + 1)! (d) ∑(r 3
)
+ 3r 5 =
n3 (n + 1)3
2
r=1

Chapter 2 The nature of proof 75

YEAR 12

n
2 (a) Simplify
1 − 1
r(r + 1) (r + 1)(r + 2)
. (b) Hence evaluate
n
∑ r(r + 1)(r
r=1
1
+ 2)
.

(c) Use mathematical induction to prove that ∑ r(r + 1)(r

r=1
1
+ 2) equals the result that you obtained in part (b).
3 Consider the sequence of numbers defined by T1 = 3, Tn = 2 × Tn − 1 + 3 for all n ≥ 2.
(a) List the first five terms of this sequence.
n
(b) Prove by induction that Tn = 3(2 − 1) for all integers n ≥ 1.
4 (a) If un + 1 = 2un + 1 for all positive integral values of n, use mathematical induction to prove that
un + 1 = 2n − 1(u1 + 1).
n
(b) If u1 = 1, find the value of ∑u .
r=1
r

5 If u1 = 0 and if ur + 1 = (1 + x)ur − rx for all positive integral values of r, prove by induction that
un = 1 ⎡⎣1 + nx − (1 + x)n ⎤⎦ .
x
6 If x > 0 and y > 0, prove by induction that (x + y)n > xn + yn for all integers n ≥ 2.
7 (a) By writing cos ([2k + 1]x) as cos (2kx + x), and remembering that cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x, show that:

sin 2kx + cos(2k + 1)x = sin ( 2(k + 1)x )
2 sin x 2 sin x
sin(2nx)
Use the result of part (a) to prove by induction that cos x + cos 3x + … + cos ([2n − 1]x) =
(b)  for all
2 sin x
positive integers n.
8 If x1, x2, x3, …xn are positive real numbers, prove by induction that:

( )
( x1 + x 2 + x3 + …+ xn ) x11 + x12 + x13 + …+ x1n ≥ n2 for all integers n ≥ 1.
9 (a) Prove that x + x ≥ x(x + 1) for all real x ≥ 0.
(b) A sequence is defined as u1 = 1, u2 = 2, un = un − 1 + (n − 1)un − 2 for n ≥ 3. Prove by induction that un ≥ n!.

76 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

CHAPTER 3
Further work with vectors
Vectors in two dimensions were introduced in New Senior Mathematics Extension 1, Chapter 10. In this chapter, you
will extend the use of vector notation to three dimensions.

OVERVIEW OF VECTORS IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL SPACE

Position vector
y
A position vector can be represented by a coordinate pair (a, b). This P(x, y)
represents the vector that is a units from O in the positive x direction and
b units from O in the positive y direction. This can be represented as the
OP
a a
column vector , or by the coordinates (a, b). Any vector that is
b b
equivalent to a translation of a units in the positive x direction and b units O x
in the positive y direction can be represented in this way. When the
reference point is not the origin, the term relative position vector is used.

The magnitude of a position vector

 a 
The magnitude of a position vector OA = can be calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem, OA = a2 + b2 .
b
Unit vector
 where a = a and a = 1.
The unit vector in the direction of a is denoted a, y
   a 
Vectors in component form 
xi + yj
~ ~
The form a = xi + yj is called component form or i , j form of a vector.
     x yj
The vector a may also be represented in column vector form as . ~
 y

O xi x
~

Resolving vectors into component form

y
If a vector a of magnitude a makes an angle θ with the positive x-axis,
  j
then a = a cos θ i + a sin θ j. ~
    
The horizontal component is of the vector a is a cos θ i and the vertical a
~ i
   |a|sin(θ) j ~
~ ~
component is a sin θ j .
  a vector of known magnitude and direction in
The process of specifying θ
component form is called resolving the vector. O |a|cos(θ) i x
~ ~

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 77

YEAR 12

Addition and subtraction of vectors in component form

For a = x1 i + y1 j and b = x 2 i + y2 j ,
     

 
( 
) (
a + b = x1 i + y1 j + x 2 i + y2 j
  
)
= x1 i + x 2 i + y1 j + y2 j
   
= ( x1 + x 2 ) i + ( y1 + y2 ) j
  x x x + x2 x x x − x2
In column vector notation, this can be written as 1 + 2 = 1 and 1 − 2 = 1
respectively. y1 y2 y1 + y 2 y1 y2 y1 − y 2

Scalar multiplication of vectors in component form

If a = xi + y j, then ka = kxi + ky j, where k is a real number.
     
Equality of vectors in component form
If a = x1 i + y1 j and b = x 2 i + y2 j , then a = b if and only if x1 = x 2 and y1 = y 2.
       
Relative position vectors
y
You have already looked at position vectors that represent the position of B 3
one point in relation to the origin. A relative position vector represents a 2
point’s position in relation to another point.
 1
The position vector of B relative to (as seen from) A is given by AB.
 
In the diagram shown, OA = 3i − 2 j and OB = − i + 3 j . –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x
       –1
The position vector of B relative to A is AB, where AB = AO + OB.
   –2 A
Now, AB = −OA + OB
   –3
∴ AB = OB − OA

(
 
) (
= − i + 3 j − 3i − 2 j
 
)
= −4 i + 5 j
 
Parallel vectors
If b = ka, where k is a real number, then b is parallel to a.
   
Unit vectors in component form
1 x2 + y2
If a = xi + y j, then a =
    x2 + y2 
(

)
xi + y j or a = 2
 x + y2 
(
xi + y j .

)

3.1 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

The work that follows requires you to be able to visualise objects in three-dimensional space. You need to be able to
draw cubes and rectangular prisms with some of the edges forming the axes of the Cartesian system.
To describe the position of a point in three-dimensional space, you need three coordinates. z

The Cartesian system of two coordinates, X and Y, is extended by means of a third axis,
OZ, which is perpendicular to the plane OXY. The positive direction of OZ is towards the
top of the page, the positive direction of OX is out of the page and the positive direction of
O
OY is horizontally to the right. y

This is shown in the diagram on the right. It is called a right-hand system of axes. Here,
the fingers of the right hand point in the direction from the positive x-axis to the positive x
y-axis, so that the thumb points upwards in the direction of the positive z-axis.

78 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

z
In the following diagram, the x–y plane is horizontal, the x–z and y–z planes
are vertical. In this OXYZ system, the points A(1, 2, 3) and B(2, 1, 3) are (0, 0, 3)
shown.
A(1, 2, 3)
1 B(2, 1, 3)
   
The vector OA may be written as OA = (1, 2, 3), OA = 2 or OA = a, as well as
in component form. 
3 k
~ j (0, 2, 0)
The components of a vector in three dimensions use i, j and k as the unit vectors ~
y
  O
parallel to the x, y and z axes respectively.  i
~
 
Thus OA = a = i + 2 j + 3k and OB = b = 2 i + j + 3k . (2, 0, 0)
       
Using your knowledge of two-dimensional vectors, it should seem reasonable x

to find AB.

(  
) (
AB = b − a = 2 i + j − 3k − i + 2 j + 3k
     
)
= (2 − 1)i + (1 − 2) j + (3 − 3)k
  
=i−j
  
AB has no k component, so it lies in a plane that is parallel to the x–y plane. It is the plane given by the equation z = 3.

In particular, points in the x–y plane are of the form (x, y, 0), points in the y–z plane are of the form (0, y, z) and
points in the x–z plane are of the form (x, 0, z).
In two-dimensional space, the coordinate axes divide the plane into four regions or quadrants. In three-dimensional
space, the coordinate axes divide the space into eight regions or octants. The sign of the coordinates indicates in
which octant the point is located.

Example 1
2
Given a = −1 , b = ( −1, 3, 2) and c = i + 2 j − 3k, find each of the following vectors,
     
4
expressing your answer in component form.
(a) a + b + c (b) a − b + c (c) a − b − c (d) 4 a (e) a − 2b + 3c
            
Solution
The answers are to be given in component form, so rewrite each vector in component form.
a = 2 i − j + 4 k, b = − i + 3 j + 2k , c = i + 2 j − 3k.
           


(  
)
(a) a + b + c = 2 i − j + 4 k + − i + 3 j + 2k + i + 2 j − 3k
        
= 2 i + 4 j + 3k
  


(  
)
(b) a − b + c = 2 i − j + 4 k − − i + 3 j + 2k + i + 2 j − 3k
        
= 2 i − j + 4 k + i − 3 j − 2 k + i + 2 j − 3k
        
= 4i − 2 j − k
  


(  
) (
(c) a − b − c = 2 i − j + 4 k − − i + 3 j + 2k − i + 2 j − 3k
        
) 
(
(d) 4a = 4 2 i − j + 4 k
  
)
= 2 i − j + 4 k + i − 3 j − 2 k − i − 2 j + 3k = 8 i − 4 j + 16k
           
= 2 i − 6 j + 5k
  

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 79

YEAR 12

  
(  
) (
(e) a − 2b + 3c = 2 i − j + 4 k − 2 − i + 3 j + 2 k + 3 i + 2 j − 3k
      
)
= 2 i − j + 4 k + 2 i − 6 j − 4 k + 3i + 6 j − 9k
        
= 7 i − j − 9k
  

Magnitude of vectors in three-dimensional space

To obtain the magnitude of vectors in three-dimensional space z
you use an extension of Pythagoras’ theorem. This is similar to
B(x2, y2, z2)
the method used to find the length of a diagonal of a cuboid in
solid geometry.
Suppose you wish to find the length of the line segment joining D(x2, y2, z1)
A(x1, y1, z1) to B(x2, y2, z2), as shown in the diagram.
Construct the planes ACD and CDB that are parallel to the x–y A(x1, y1, z1) C(x1, y2, z1)
and x–z planes respectively. Then C, which has the same x and O y
z coordinates as A, will be C(x1, y2, z1), while D, which has the
same x and y coordinates as B, will be D(x2, y2, z1). x
 2  2  2
Now AB = AD + DB
 2  2  2
= AC + CD + DB

And AC = y2 − y1

CD = x 2 − x1

DB = z2 − z1
 2 
2 2 2
Hence, AB = ( x 2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 ) + ( z 2 − z1 ) and thus AB = ( x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z 2 − z1 )2 .
Referring to diagram on page 79:

OA = 12 + 22 + 32 = 14

OB = 22 + 12 + 32 = 14
 2 2 2
AB = ( 2 − 1) + (1 − 2 ) + ( 3 − 3 ) = 2

Unit vectors in three-dimensional space

   
Given OA = a = i + 2 j + 3k and OB = b = 2 i + j + 3k , then since OA = 14 and OB = 14 , the corresponding unit
       
a
vectors can be found using the fact that a =  .
 a

1 2 i + j + 3k = 14 2 i + j + 3k
a = 1 i + 2 j + 3k = 14 i + 2 j + 3k and b =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( . )
 14    14     14    14   
14 i + 2 j + 3k  14 2 i + j + 3k
Thus a =

(
14  
)
is the unit vector parallel to OA and b =
 14 (   
)
is the unit vector parallel
to OB.
    
From the given vectors OA and OB you found that AB = i − j and that AB = 2 so the unit vector parallel to AB
 
is given by 2 i − j . Since this vector does not contain a k component, it lies in a plane parallel to the x–y plane.
( )
2   

80 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 2
 
(a) On a set of Cartesian axes, mark the terminal points A(1, 3, 4), B(−1, 3, 2) of vectors OA, OB.
 
(b) Write the vectors OA = a, OB = b, in terms of i , j , k . Similarly, write an expression for e = b − a.
       
(c) Find the magnitudes of vectors a , b , e .
  
(d) Find unit vectors in the direction of the vectors given in part (c).

Solution
z
(a)
A(1, 3, 4)
B(–1, 3, 2)

a
~
b
~

(0, 3, 0) y
(1, 0, 0)
(1, 3, 0)
x

Note: (i) a points out from the page upwards towards the reader.

(ii) b points into the page.
 
(b) a = i + 3 j + 4 k , b = − i + 3 j + 2k , e = AB = − i + 3 j + 2k − ( i + 3 j + 4 k ) = −2 i − 2 k.
                
(c) a = 1 + 9 + 16 = 26, b = 1 + 9 + 4 = 14 , e = 4 + 4 = 2 2.
  
26 14 2 −i − k
(d) aˆ =
 26  ( 
) ˆ
i + 3 j + 4k , b =
 14 
( 
)
− i + 3 j + 2k , eˆ =
 4
(
 
).

Position vectors in three dimensions

A vector defines the position of one point relative to another point. When the reference point is the origin, the
vector is simply called a ‘position vector’. When the reference point is not the origin, the term relative position
vector is used.
Given the position vector of A is a = i + 3 j + 4 k and the position vector of B is b = − i + 3 j + 2k , the position vector
 A)
of B relative to A (i.e. B as seen from  is      
  
AB = AO + OB
 
= OB − OA = b − a
 
= −2 i − 2k .
  
The position vector of A relative to B (i.e. A as seen from B) is BA = 2 i + 2k.
 
Note that the position vector of B relative to A = position vector of B − position vector of A.
Algebra of vectors expressed in component form
(i) Equality: Two vectors are equal if and only if the corresponding components are equal;
i.e. a1 i + b1 j + c1k = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k if and only if a1 = a2, b1 = b2, c1 = c2.
     
(This is true because the i , j , k representation of a vector is unique.)
  

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 81

YEAR 12

(ii) The components of the sum (difference) of two vectors are equal to the sum (difference) of the
corresponding components of the vectors;
e.g. If a = x1 i + y1 j + z1k and b = x 2 i + y2 j + z 2 k, then a ± b = ( x1 ± x 2 ) i + ( y1 ± y2 ) j + ( z1 ± z 2 ) k .
            
(iii) The components of a scalar multiple of a vector are equal to the scalar multiple of the corresponding
components of the vector;
e.g. If a = xi + yj + zk and λ ∈R, then λ a = ( λ x )i + ( λ y ) j + ( λ z )k .
       

Example 3 
Given A(6, 4, 8) and B(10, 6, 8) show that AB is parallel to the x–y plane.

Solution

AB = (10 − 6 ) i + ( 6 − 4 ) j + ( 8 − 8 ) k
  
= 4i + 2 j

 
Since AB has no k component, it is parallel to the x–y plane.


Example 4
Determine whether the points A(0, 2, 2), B(4, 10, 18), C(6, 14, 26) are collinear.

Solution
 
AB = ( 4 − 0 ) i + (10 − 2 ) j + (18 − 2 ) k BC = ( 6 − 4 ) i + (14 − 10 ) j + ( 26 − 18 ) k
     
= 4 i + 8 j + 16k = 2 i + 4 j + 8k
     
(
= 4 i + 2 j + 4k
 
) (
= 2 i + 2 j + 4k
 
)
   
Hence AB = 2 BC .
 
Thus AB and BC are parallel and have point B in common.
Hence ABC is a straight line and the points A, B and C are collinear.

Example 5
Find the distance of the point P(2, 3, 5):
(a) from the y–z plane (b) from the x-axis.

Solution
(a) The line segment from P normal to the y–z (b) The line segment from P perpendicular to the
plane intersects the y–z plane at Q(0, 3, 5). x-axis meets the x-axis at R(2, 0, 0).
 
Hence PQ = 0 − 2 = 2. Thus PR = 02 + 32 + 52 = 34 .

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Vectors in three dimensions

Use technology to plot vectors in three dimensions.

82 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

EXERCISE 3.1 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

1 For each of the following vectors, find:

(i) the magnitude of the vector (ii) a unit vector parallel to the given vector.
(a) 3i + 4 j (b) −5 i + 12 j (c) −7 i − 24 j (d) 9 i − 12 j
       
2 For each of the points P whose coordinates are given, find:
 
(i) an i , j , k representation for the position vector OP (ii) the magnitude of OP
  
(iii) a unit vector in the direction of OP.
(a) P(−1, 4) (b) P(6, 8) (c) P(2, 2, 1) (d) P(−3, 4, 5) (e) P(4, 0, 0) (f) P(1, 1, 1)
3 Given vectors a = 6 i + 3 j − 2k , b = −4 i + 3 j + k and c = 2 i + 3k, write:
        
(a) a + b (b) a + b − c (c) 2c + 3a − 5b (d) 3 ( c − a ) (e) 5 ( a − b ) + 6c (f) 5a + 4 ( b − 3c )
               
4 The position vectors of points P
 and Q are 2 i − 3 j + 4 k and 3 i − 7 j + 12 k respectively. Find the length of PQ
and a unit vector parallel to PQ.      

5 Given a = 12 i + 3 j − 4 k , b = 4 i − 3 j − 5k, c = −6 i + 2 j + 3k , find unit vectors aˆ , bˆ, cˆ.

              
6 The position vectors of the points P, Q, R and S are respectively 4 i + 3 j − k, 5 i + 2 j + 2k , 2 i − 2 j − 3k ,
4 i − 4 j + 3k. Show that PQ is parallel to RS.         
  
7 Given that u = 3i + 4 j + 5k , v = 2 i + 2 j + 3k , w = 6 i − 7 j − 8k , find the vectors:
           
(a) u + v (b) 3u + v − 3w (c) −u + v − w (d) v + w.
         
(e) If d = 7 i + 23 j + 29 k, find r, s and t ∈ R such that d = ru + sv + tw.
       
8 Given that a = 4 i − 5 j + 8k , b = −2 i − 3 j − 4 k , c = i + j − k , u = a + mb + nc , v = −2 i − j − 3k. Find m, n ∈ R
such that u and v are opposite   in direction.
              
   
9 P(6, 3, −4), Q(3, 1, 1) and R(2, −1, 3) are the vertices of a triangle. Show that RP = 3 RQ .
10 If a = 2 i − 3 j + k, b = 2 i − 4 j + 5k , c = − i − 4 j + 2k , find the values of p and q such that a + pb + qc is parallel
             
to the x-axis.
11 Find the distance of the point P(1, 4, 3) from:
(a) the y–z plane (b) the x–z plane (c) the x–y plane
(d) the x-axis (e) the y-axis (f) the z-axis.

3.2 SCALAR PRODUCT OF VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

The scalar product (dot product) has been defined and used for vectors in two dimensions. (Refer to New Senior
Mathematics Extension 1, Section 10.4.)

 
(  
)(  
)
In component form, it is written a • b = x1 i + y1 j • x 2 i + y 2 j = x1 x 2 + y1 y2 .

In three dimensions, if a = x1 i + y1 j + z1k and b = x 2 i + y2 j + z 2 k, then

       
(   
)(   
)
a • b = x1 i + y1 j + z1k • x 2 i + y2 j + z 2 k = x1 x 2 + y1 y2 + z1z 2 .
 
The proof of this result is similar to the proof in two dimensions.
(  
)(
a • b = x1 i + y1 j + z1k • x 2 i + y2 j + z 2 k
    
)


 
( ) (  
)
 
( )  
( )  
( )
= ( x1 x 2 ) ( i • i ) + ( x1 y2 ) i • j + x1z 2 ( i • k ) + ( y1 x 2 ) j • i + ( y1 y2 ) j • j + ( y1z 2 ) j • k
 
 
( )
+ ( z1 x 2 ) ( k • i ) + ( z1 y2 ) k • j + ( z1z 2 ) ( k • k )
   
= x1 x 2 + y1 y2 + z1z 2 as i • i = j • j = k • k = 1 and i • j = i • k = j • k = j • i = k • i = k • j = 0.
                 

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 83

YEAR 12

It is sometimes useful to be able to use sigma notation for the scalar product.
3
If u = x1 i + x 2 j + x3 k and v = y1 i + y2 j + y3 k , then u • v = x1 y1 + x 2 y2 + x3 y3 =
         
∑x y .
i =1
i i

Example 6
Given a = 2 i − j + 3k and b = i + 2 j − k , find:
       
(a) a ∞b (b) b ∞a (c) a (d) a
     
Solution
(
  
)(
(a) a • b = 2 i − j + 3k • i + 2 j − k
    
)   
(  
)(
(b) b • a = i + 2 j − k • 2 i − j + 3k
  
)
= 2 × 1 + ( −1) × 2 + 3 × ( −1) = 1 × 2 + 2 × ( −1) + ( −1) × 3
= 2−2−3 = 2−2−3
= −3 = −3
a 1 2 − +3
(c) a = 22 + ( −1)2 + 32 = 14

(d) a =  =
 a
i j k
14  
(

)


Angle between two vectors

Just as the scalar product can be used to find the angle between two-dimensional vectors, it can also be used to find
the angle between two vectors in three dimensions.
The scalar product says a • b = a b cos θ , where θ is the angle between the two vectors.
   
Hence
a•b
cos θ =  
a b
 
x1 x 2 + y1 y2 + z1z 2
cos θ =
x1 + y12 + z12 × x 22 + y22 + z 22
2

Example 7
Find the angle, in degrees, between the vectors a = −2 i − j − k and b = i + 2 j − k .
       
Solution
a = −2 i − j − k: a = 4 + 1 + 1 = 6
    
b = i + 2 j − k: b = 1 + 4 + 1 = 6
    
 
(   
)(
a • b = −2 i − j − k • i + 2 j − k
  
)
= ( −2) × 1 + ( −1) × 2 + ( −1) × ( −1)
= −3
a•b
cos θ =   = −3 = − 1
a b 6 2
 
As cos θ is negative, the angle must be obtuse, and hence in the second quadrant so θ = 120°.

84 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 8
Show that the vectors u = 2 i − 3 j + 4 k and v = 5 i + 2 j − k are perpendicular to each other.
       
Solution
Consider u • v:
(
   
)(
u • v = 2i − 3 j + 4k • 5i + 2 j − k
   
)
= 10 − 6 − 4
=0
Since the scalar product is zero, the vectors u and v are perpendicular. (Remember, cos 90° = 0.)
 

Example 9
Find a vector perpendicular to the vector 3i − 4 j.
 
Solution
Let a unit vector perpendicular to v = 3i − 4 j be u = xi + yj.
     
Since u is a unit vector, then x2 + y2 = 1 [1]

Since v • u = 0: 3x − 4y = 0 [2]
 
[2] becomes y = 3x
4
9 2
Substitute in [1]: x2 + x = 1
16
2
25 x = 16

x = ±4, y = ±3
5 5
1
( ) 1
( )
Hence 4 i + 3 j and − 4 i + 3 j are unit vectors perpendicular to 3i − 4 j.
5   5    
Since any scalar multiples of these unit vectors are also perpendicular to v, two possible answers are 4 i + 3 j
(
and − 4 i + 3 j .
 
)   

Algebraic properties of the dot product

These results have been used before in the Mathematics Extension 1 course.
• a•b = b•a
   2
• a•a = a
  
• a • (b + c ) = a • b + a • c
      
• (a + b) • (c + d ) = a • c + a • d + b • c + b • d
           
• ( ma ) i b = m ( a i b ) where m is a real number.
   
Geometric properties of the dot product
• If a • b = 0, then a and b are perpendicular, a ⊥ b
     
• If a • b = a b , then a and b are parallel vectors
     
• If a and b are parallel vectors, then a • b = a b
      a•b
• The angle between two vectors, θ, is given by cos θ =   , a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0
a b  
• By convention, 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.  

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 85

YEAR 12

Scalar and vector projections of vectors

In New Senior Mathematics Extension 1, expressions were given for the
scalar and vector projection of the two-dimensional vector, a, onto the
two-dimensional vector, b.  a

~
( )
a – a • bˆ bˆ
~ ~ ~~
 where a • b = a • b .
• The scalar projection of a onto b is a ∞b,
      b
a • b  θ

 
(
  
)
• The vector projection of a onto b is a • b b or   b.
b•b  (~a • ~bˆ)~bˆ
  a•b
   b•b 
(
• The vector projection of a perpendicular to b is a −   b, or a − a • b b.
   
 )
 
These results also apply to three-dimensional vectors.

Example 10
Given the vectors a = 4 i + 5 j − 3k and b = 2 i − 2 j + k , find:
       
(a) the scalar projection of a onto b
 
(b) the vector projection of a onto b
 
(c) the vector projection of a onto the x-axis. Hence write the vector projection on the y- and z-axes

(d) the vector projection of a perpendicular to b.
 
Solution
b = 2 i − 2 j + k : b = 22 + 22 + 12 = 9 = 3, b = 1 2 i − 2 j + k
( )
      3   
(a) Scalar projection (b) Vector projection
a•b a•b
onto b =  
 b 
(
  
)
onto b = a • b b =   b
b 
 
(=  
)(  
)
4 i + 5 j − 3k • 2 i − 2 j + k
 
= − 5 × 1 2i − 2 j + k
3 3  (
 
)
3 5
8 10 3
= − − 9 (
= −2 i + 2 j − k
  
)
3
=− 5
3

(c) i is the unit vector in the direction of the x-axis: vector projection = ( a • i ) i
   
((
= 4 i + 5 j − 3k • i i
    
) )
= 4i

The vector projection of a on the y- and z-axes is 5 j and −3k.
 
a•b
(d) Vector projection of a perpendicular to b = a −   b
   b•b 
 

) ( )( )(
4 i + 5 j − 3k • 2 i − 2 j + k

(
= 4 i + 5 j − 3k − 
 
 
9
   2i − 2 j + k
  
)
5

(
= 4 i + 5 j − 3k −
 
) (
−
9 
2i − 2 j + k
 
)
10
= 4 i + 5 j − 3k + i − 10 j+5k
   9  9  9
= 1 46 i + 35 j − 22k
( )
9   

86 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

G F
Example 11 z
OABCDEFG is a cube of side length 1 unit. With reference to O as the origin: E
 D
  y
(a) write the position vectors for CB , AB and CG
(b) find the position vectors of F and G
 
(c) find vectors OF and AG B
C
(d) calculate the acute angle at which the diagonals OF and AG intersect.
O A x
Solution
  
OA = i, OC = j and OD = k.
           
(a) CB = OA = i, AB = OC = j, CG = OD = k (d) OF • AG = OF AG cos θ
     
(b) OF = OA + AB + BF 
OF = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3 ,
= i + j+k 
  
 AG = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3
OG = OC + CG
= j+k
 
( i + j + k ) • ( − i + j + k ) = 3 3 cos θ
The position vector of F is i + j + k; −1 + 1 + 1 = 3cos θ
  
the position vector of G is j + k.
 cos θ = 1
(c) OF = i + j + k   3
    θ = 70°32
AG = AO + OC + CG The angle between the two vectors is 70°32′.
= −i + j + k
  

Example 12
Find unit vectors perpendicular to both u = 2 i − 3 j + 6k and v = −6 i + 2 j + 3k .
       
Solution
Let w = pi + q j + rk be a unit vector that is perpendicular to both u and v.
     
Use the fact that a • b = 0 when a ⊥ b.
   
u • w = 0: 2p − 3q + 6r = 0 [1]
 
v • w = 0: −6p + 2q + 3r = 0 [2]
  2 2 2
w is a unit vector: p +q +r =1 [3]

[1] − 2 × [2]: 14p − 7q = 0
q = 2p
2 × [1] + 3 × [2]: −14p + 21r = 0
2p
r=
3
4 p2
Substitute in [3]: p2 + 4 p2 + =1
9
49 p2 = 9

p= ±3, q = ±6, r =±2

7 7 7
1 3i + 6 j + 2k
Hence ± (
7   
)are unit vectors perpendicular to both u and v.
 

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 87

YEAR 12


(
 
)
Since any scalar multiple of these vectors is also perpendicular, then ± 3i + 6 j + 2k are vectors perpendicular
to both u and v.
 
Since w is perpendicular to both u and v, then it is perpendicular to the plane containing u and v.
    

EXERCISE 3.2 SCALAR PRODUCT OF VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

1 For each of the following pairs of vectors, find (i) a ∞b (ii) the angle between a and b .
   
(a) a = 3i − j , b = i + 2 j (b) a = −2 i + j + k, b = − i + 2 k
            
(c) a = 4 i − 5 j + 7 k, b = 2 i + j + 3k (d) a = 6 i − j , b = 2 j − k
             
2 A, B, C, D are four points in space with respective coordinates (0, 0, 0), (1, 2, 3), (−3, 4, 6), (2, −6, −4).
Find:
   
(a) the position vectors AB  and CD
 (b) the magnitude of the angle between AB  and CD

(c) the position vectors BC and  AD
 (d) the magnitude of the angle
 between
 BC and AD
(e) the scalar projection of AB on CD (f ) the scalar projection of CD on AB.
3 (a) If a = 2 i + j + 3k, b = 4 i − 3 j − k and c = −6 i + 2 j − 4 k , verify that a • ( b + c ) = a • b + a • c.
               
(b) Simplify ( a• b ) c + ( a • c ) b.  
     
4 If u = 2 i + 4 j − 3k and v = i − j − k, find:
      
(a) u ∞v (b) u ∞u (c) v ∞v
(d) a unit  vector in the direction   of v  

(e) the components of u (i) parallel to v, (ii) perpendicular to v .
  
5 If a = i + j + k, b = 2 i − 3 j + 4 k and c = −2 i − j + 3k, find:
         
(a) ( c − a ) • b (b) ( a + b ) • c (c) the scalar projection of a onto b.
       
6 If a = 3i + 6 j + 2k and b = −6 i + 2 j + 3k , find:
      
(a) a unit vector parallel to 2a + b
(b) a unit vector perpendicular  to both a and b.
 
7 If a = b , simplify the following expressions.
 
(a) ( a + b ) • ( a − b ) (b) ( a + 2b ) • ( 2a − b )
      
8 For the following vectors, find (i) the scalar projection of a onto b and (ii) the vector projection of b onto a.
   
(a) a = 6 i + 12 j , b = −3i − 2 j (b) a = 4 i + 2 j + k, b = −2 i + 3 j − k
 
(c) a = i − j + k,  b = 4 i + 3 j + 2k (d) a = i − j, b = 2 i − k   
             
9 If a = 2 i − 2 j + k and b = − i − j − 5k, find:
  
 a and    
(a) a ∞b, a ∞ b ∞b (b) the cosine of the angle between a and b
 vector
(c) the   projection  of a on b and b on a (d) a unit vector perpendicular to a and b.
     
10 If a = 3i + 6 j + 2k and b = −6 i + 2 j + 3k , find:
      
(a) a ∞b, a ∞a and b ∞b (b) the cosine of the angle between a and b
  projection
 vector
(c) the   of a on b and b on a.  
   
11 If u = i + 2 j − 2k and v = 2 i + 3 j − 6k , find:
       
(a) u (b) v
 
(c) a unit vector in the direction 2u − v
(d) (i) the vector projection of u parallel   to v

(ii) the vector projections of u perpendicular  to v.
 

88 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

12 Show that a and b are parallel if a • b = a b .

     
13 Find the value of p for which i − 2 pj + 3k and pi − 4 j + 3k are perpendicular.
     
14 If a = i + 3 j − 4 k and b = i + j, find:
    
(a) a unit vector parallel to b
(b)  the components of a parallel  to and perpendicular to b. (This is another way of saying ‘find the vector
projection of a parallel to and perpendicular to b’.) 

 
15 If a = ( 6, −2, 6 ) and b = ( −6, −2,1), find:
 
(a) a (b) the scalar projection of b on to a
  
(c) a − b (d) the magnitude of the projection of b on to a − b.
    
1 3 0
16 If a = 2 , b = −2 and c = 1 , find the projection of each of b, c and b + c on a. What do you observe?
       
−4 0 −5
 
17 ABCDEF is a regular hexagon with centre O. If OA = a and OB = b, express each of A B

the following in terms of a and b:  

  
(a) AB (b) BC O
  F C
(c) CD (d) BD
  
(e) FC (f) Prove that BD and FC are perpendicular.

E D

18 Given a = 2 i − j + 2k and b = i + 2 j − 2k , find two vectors c and d such that a = c + d, c is parallel to b, d is

               
perpendicular to b.

19 The points P, Q and R have position vectors 2 i + 2 j + k , − i − 2 j + 2k and i + j + k respectively. Find:
        
(a) the length of QR 
(b) the vector projection of PQ in the direction of i + j + k.
  
20 If a = 3i + 2 j + 2k and b = − i + j + k, find:
   
 projection  
(a) the scalar of a in the direction of b
(b) a unit vector perpendicular  to a and b. 
 
21 Vectors a and b are defined by a = i + 2 j + 2k and b = 2 i + 2 j + k . Find:
         
(a) 2a − b (b) a  (c) a ∞b
(d) the scalar
  of a in the direction
projection   of b.
   
22 ABCD is a rectangle with vector AB = 3i and vector AD = 2 j .
    j.
(a) Express the diagonal vectors AC and DB in terms of i and

(b) Calculate, to the nearest degree, the angle between the diagonals. 
23 If u and v are vectors defined by u = i + j + 2 k and v = i − j + 2 k , find:
         
(a) a unit vector parallel to u
(b) the angle between u andv
(c) the vector projection  of vin the direction of u.
 
24 The position vectorsof the points
 P, Q and R are 8 i + 4 j − 3k , 6 i + 3 j − 4 k and 7 i + 5 j − 5k respectively. Find
the angle between PQ and QR.         

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 89

YEAR 12

3.3 USING VECTORS IN GEOMETRIC PROOFS

The scalar product is used in geometrical proofs involving parallel and perpendicular lines, and squares on the sides
of figures.

Example 13
Prove the theorem of Pythagoras in the right-angled triangle ABC, B
given in the diagram.
c+b
~ ~ b
~

A c C
~

Solution
 2  2  2
You have to prove that AB = AC + CB .
 
Let AC = c and CB = b.
 
Hence AB = c + b
  
Since AC ⊥ CB, then c • b = 0
 
Now ( c + b ) • ( c + b ) = c • c + 2c • b + b • b
         
2 2 2
c+b = c +0+ b
  2 
2  2
AB = AC + CB
Hence the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides.

Example 14
Prove that an angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle. A

B b O c C

Solution
The diagram shows the semicircle ACB with centre O and diameter BOC.
A is a point on the circumference.
  
Let OA = a, OB = b and OC = c , where a = b = c as they are all radii.
       
Now AB = AO + OB
But c = −b
= −a + b   
 
  So AB • AC = b • ( −b ) − b • a − a • ( −b ) + a • a
=b−a        
   
And AC = AO + OC = −b • b − a • b + a • b + a • a
2  2     
= −a + c = a −b
   
= c−a = 0 since a = b
     
 
Thus AB • AC = ( b − a ) • ( c − a ) Hence AC ⊥ AB so ∠BAC = 90°
   
= b•c −b•a−a•c +a•a
       

90 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 15
The position vectors of the points P, Q, R and S are respectively 4 i + 3 j − k, 5 i + 2 j + 2k , 2 i − 2 j − 3k and
4 i − 4 j + 3k .         
    
(a) Show that PQ is parallel to RS. (b) Is PQRS a parallelogram?

Solution

 PQ = 12 + 12 + 32 = 11
  
(
(a) PQ = 5 i + 2 j + 2 k − 4 i + 3 j − k
  
) (b)

= i − j + 3k RS = 22 + 22 + 62 = 2 11
     
RS = 4 i

− 4 j

+
 
(
3k − 2 i − 2 j − 3k
 
) Since PQ ↑ RS , then PQRS is not a
parallelogram, it is a trapezium.
= 2 i − 2 j + 6k
  
(
= 2 i − j + 3k
 
)
    
Since RS = 2 PQ, then PQ is parallel to RS.

Example 16
Prove that the sum of the squares of the lengths of the diagonals of any B c
C
parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the sides.
a a

A c D

Solution
 2  2  2  2  2  2
It is required to show that: BD + AC = AB + BC + CD + DA
 2  2
(
= 2 AB + BC )
   
Denote AB and DC by a, BC and AD by c, as shown in the diagram.
    
From BCD: BD = BC + CD = c − a
    
From ACD: AC = AD + DC = c + a
 2  2    
BD + AC = BD • BD + AC • AC
= (c − a) • (c − a) + (c + a) • (c + a)
       
= c • c − 2c • a + a • a + c • c + 2c • a + a • a
           
= 2(c • c + a • a)
   
(
= 2 c 2 + a2 )
 2  2
(
= 2 AB + BC )
which is the required result.

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 91

YEAR 12

EXERCISE 3.3 USING VECTORS IN GEOMETRIC PROOFS

1 Given the points A(0, 2), B(4, 10) and C(6, 14):
   
(a) find the vectors AC and BC (b) show that AC = 3BC
(c) show that A, B and C are collinear.
 
2 In OAB, OA = 5 i and OB = 3i + 4 j .
   
(a) Find AB.
 (b) Show that OAB is isosceles.
(c) Find OC, where C is the midpoint of AB.
 
3 OABC is a parallelogram in which OA = 6 i and OC = i + 3 j . Find:
    
(a) AB and CB  
(b) the diagonal vectors
  and CA
OB
the vectors ON and
(c)  OM, where N is the midpoint of OB and N is the midpoint of CA. What conclusion
can you make?  
(d) the vectors CP and BP, where P is the midpoint of OA.
 
4 In OAB, OA = 8 i and OB = 6 i + 4 j . If C is the midpoint of AB, and D is the midpoint of OB, find:
    
 and OC
(a) AB
(b) DC, and show that DC is parallel to OA and equal to half its length.
5 The points A, B and C have position vectors i, 2 i + 2 j and 4 i + j respectively.
       
(a) Find AB, BC and AC.   
(b) By finding the magnitude of AB, BC and AC, prove that ∠ABC is a right angle.
(c) Find the position vector of the point D such that ABCD is a square.
  
6 OABC is a quadrilateral, OA = 4 i , OB = 6 i + 2 j and OC = 8 j .
   
 respectively, find OP, 
(a) If P and Q are
 the midpoints
 of AB and BC OQ and PQ.
(b) Show that PQ = kAC. What geometrical conclusion can you now make?
7 The position vectors of the vertices A, B, C and D of a quadrilateral are i + 2 j , 5 i + 2 j , 4 i − j and 2 i − j
respectively. Show that the diagonals intersect at right angles.        

8 OXAY is a square. M is the midpoint of XA, and N is the midpoint of YA.

   
(a) If OX = i and OY = j, find OM and ON .

(b) Hence find the anglebetween OM and ON.
 
9 In the rhombus OABC, shown in the diagram, OA = mi and OC = i + j + k, where m ∈ R. C B
   
(a) Find the value of m.
(b) Show that the diagonals of OABC are perpendicular.
O A
10 OPQ is an equilateral triangle that has sides of length 2m, and lies in the x–y plane so that O coincides with the
origin, P is on the positive x-axis and Q is in the first quadrant.

(a) Express PQ in terms of i and j.
 
(b) If M is the midpoint of PQ, 
express OM in terms of i and j.
  
(c) Show that OM ⊥ PQ. 
11 The respective position vectors of the points P, Q, R and S are i + j, 5 i + 4 j, 2 i + 8 j and −2 i + 5 j . Show that
PQRS is a square.        
 
 A, B and C have position vectors relative to a fixed point, O, such that OA = 2 i + j + 2k , OB = 3i − j
12 The points
and OC = i − 2 j − 2k. Prove that AC bisects OB at right angles.  
  
13 The position vectors of points P, Q and R are 4 i + j, 3i − 3 j + 4 k and i − 2 j + k respectively.
       
(a) Show that PQR is right-angled. (b) Find the area of the triangle.

92 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

14 The position vectors of points A, B and C are 2 i − 3 j , 5 i + 2 j and −3i respectively.

       
(a) Find AB, BC and AC. (b) Show that ABC is right-angled.
15 P and Q are the midpoints of the sides OA and OB of triangle OAB. Use a vector method to prove that PQ is
parallel to AB and half its length.
  
16 If AC = 2 i + 4 j represents the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle ABC, and AB is parallel to i + j, find AB.
       
17 O is any point on the diagonal BD of the parallelogram ABCD. Prove that AO + OB + OC = OD.
18 ABCD is a trapezium in which the sides AB and DC are parallel. P and Q are the midpoints of the sides AD
and BC respectively.

(a) Express PQ in two different ways as the sum of vectors along the sides of the trapezium.
1
(b) Use your answer to prove that PQ is parallel to two of the sides and that its length is equal to ( AB + DC ).
2
19 The sides of a parallelogram are represented by vectors u and v. Show that, if the diagonals are perpendicular
to one another, u • u = v • v.  
   
20 ABC is a right-angled triangle with a right angle at B. If a, b and c are the position vectors of A, B and C
respectively, show that b2 = a • b + b • c − c • a.   
      
21 ABCD is a trapezium in which AB = x, DC = 2x, DA = y. If E is a point in BC such that BE = 1 BC , prove that
  2 3
(
AC • DE = 4 x 2 − y 2 .
3 )

22 The position vectors of the points A, B, C relative to a point O are a, b and c respectively. If OC is
      
perpendicular to AB and OB is perpendicular to AC, show that OA is perpendicular to BC.
23 The diagonals of a parallelogram are given by a = 3i − 4 j − k and b = 2 i + 3 j − 6k .
       
(a) Show that the parallelogram is a rhombus.
(b) Find the length of each of its sides and the size of each of its angles.
24 Find the area of the parallelogram having diagonals a = 3i + j − 2k and b = i − 3 j + 4 k.
       
Prove each of the following results using vector methods.
25 The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
26 The midpoint of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equidistant from the three vertices.
27 If the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal in length, then the parallelogram is a rectangle.
28 The line segments joining the midpoints of consecutive sides of a rhombus form a rectangle.
29 The line segments joining the midpoints of consecutive sides of a square form a square.
30 The line segments joining the midpoints of consecutive sides of a rectangle form a rhombus.
  
31 For any triangle PQR, PQ = PR cos P + QR cos Q .
32 The sum of the squares of the distances from a point A to two opposite vertices of a rectangle is equal to the
sum of the squares of the distances from A to the remaining two vertices.

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 93

YEAR 12

3.4 CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE

You have used the Cartesian system for vectors in two dimensions. y
A(1, 3)

In the diagram, the vectors can be written in several forms,

 1  4 B(4, 2)
such as OA = (1, 3) = i + 3 j = and OB = (4, 2) = 4 i + 2 j = .
  3   2

O i x

1

A similar approach has been used in three-dimensional space. In this diagram, OA = a = (1, 3, 4) = i + 3 j + 4 j = 3
   
−1 4

and OB = b = ( −1, 3, 2) = − i + 3 j + 2k = 3 .
   
2
z

A(1, 3, 4)
B(–1, 3, 2)

a
~
b
~

O (0, 3, 0) y
(1, 0, 0)
(1, 3, 0)

Example 17
(a) Show by calculation that the points A(1, −1, 3), B(2, −4, 5) and C(5, −13, 11) are collinear.
(b) Using vectors, show that ABC is a straight line.

Solution
(a) AB = (2 − 1)2 + ( −4 + 1)2 + (5 − 3)2 = 12 + ( −3)2 + 22 = 14
2 2 2
BC = 3 + 9 + 6 = 126 = 3 14
2 2 2
AC = 4 + 12 + 8 = 224 = 4 14
AB + BC = 14 + 3 14 = 4 14 = AC
Since the length of AC is the sum of the lengths on AB and BC, and the two intervals have the point B in
common, then A, B and C are collinear.

(b) AB = ( 2 − 1, − 4 + 1, 5 − 3 ) = (1, −3, 2)

BC = (5 − 2, −13 + 4, 11 − 5) = (3, −9, 6) = 3(1, −3, 2)
 
Hence AB is parallel to BC and they have a point, B, in common therefore ABC is a straight line.

94 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Equation of a sphere
z
A circle is defined as the set of points in a plane equidistant from a fixed point in
P(x,y,z)
the plane. The equation of a circle centre (h, k) and radius r is (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2.
r
A sphere is defined as the set of points in three-dimensional space equidistant
from a fixed point in space. If the point P(x, y, z) is a point in space and C(h, k, l)
is the fixed point in space, then PC = ( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 + ( z − l )2 using the C(h,k,l)

distance formula.
Let PC = r so that ( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 + ( z − l )2 = r 0
2 2 2 2 y
( x − h) + ( y − k ) + (z − l ) = r
which is the equation of the sphere centre (h, k, l) with radius, r. x

Any plane that intersects the sphere will do so in a circle. In particular, the plane z = l intersects the sphere in the
circle (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r 2.

Example 18
Show that x2 + y2 + z2 + 6x − 4y + 2z + 6 = 0 is the equation of a sphere and find the coordinates of its centre and
its radius. Hence sketch this sphere.
Solution z
2 2 2 3
x + y + z + 6x − 4y + 2z + 6 = 0
2 –5
Rearrange the equation: x2 + 6x + y2 − 4y + z2 + 2z = −6 –3
–4
–2 1 –2
Complete the square: –1 –1
00 1
x2 + 6x + 9 + y2 − 4y + 4 + z2 + 2z + 1 = −6 + 9 + 4 + 1 2
1 2
0 3
3 4
(x + 3)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z + 1)2 = 8 5
4 –1 5
6
This is a sphere with centre (−3, 2, −1) and radius 2 2. x
–2 y
–3

Example 19
The spheres x2 + y2 + z2 = 9 and x2 + y2 + (z − 4)2 = 16 intersect. Find:
(a) the value of z when they intersect
(b) the equation of the circle in which they intersect, giving the coordinates of the centre and the radius.
z
Solution
8
(a) Solve the equations simultaneously by subtracting
7
the first equation from the second equation:
x2 + y2 + (z − 4)2 − (x2 + y2 + z2) = 16 − 9 6

z2 − 8z + 16 − z2 = 7 5

8z = 9 4
9
z = 9 , so they intersect on the horizontal plane z = . 3
8 8 2
6
5
81 4
(b) Substitute into the first equation: x 2 + y 2 + =9 1 2
3
64 –6 –5
0
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 –10
495
x2 + y2 = –3
–2 0 1
64 –5
–4 –1 2 3 4 5
–6 6x
2 –2
3 55 y
x2 + y2 =
8 –3

–4

( 9
)
The circle has centre 0, 0, , and radius 3 55 .
8 8

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 95

YEAR 12

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Equation of a sphere
Move the sliders to explore the effect of changing the values h, k and l on the sphere given by equation
2 2 2 2
(x − h) + (y − k) + (z − l ) = r .

EXERCISE 3.4 CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE

1 Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle ABC and determine whether it is isosceles, right-angled, equilateral
or none of these.
(a) A(5, 5, 1), B(3, 3, 2), C(1, 4, 4) (b) A(3, 4, −1), B(−5, 3, 0), C(6, −7, 4)
(c) A(4, −2, 3), B(6, 1, 4), C(5, 4, −3) (d) A(1, 2, 3), B(2, 5, 7), C(−2, 6, 4)
2 Determine whether the given sets of points are collinear.
(a) A(1, 2, 3), B(3, 4, 1), C(5, 6, −2) (b) D(3, 1, −4), E(−2, 3, 2), F(1, 3, 5)
(c) K(−4, 3, 5), L(2, −1, 3), M(5, −3, 2) (d) P(0, 5, −1), Q( −3, −1, −10), R(−2, 1, −7)
3 Find the equation of the sphere with centre C and radius r.
(a) C(1, 2, 3), r = 4 (b) C(−1, 0, 5), r = 3
(c) C(3, −2, 4), r = 1.5 (d) C(0, −1, 2), r = 3 2
4 Show that the given equation is the equation of a sphere and find the coordinates of its centre and the radius.
Sketch the sphere in parts (a) and (c).
(a) x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x − 2y + 6z + 4 = 0 (b) x2 + y2 + z2 − 8x + 4y + 6 = 0
(c) x + y + z + 2y − 2z = 0 (d) x2 + y2 + z2 + x − 3y + 2z + 2 = 0
2 2 2

5 Find the equation of the sphere with the end points of a diameter (2, 3, 5) and (4, −3, 9).
6 Find the equation of the sphere with centre (4, 5, −2) that passes through the point (1, 0, 0).
7 ABC has vertices A(1, −1, 0), B(2, 1, −1) and C(−1, 1, 2).
(a) Use the scalar product to determine which of the angles of ABC is a right angle.
(b) Hence determine the area of ABC.
8 Given D(4, −2, 3), E(6, 1, 7) and F(5, 4, −2), prove that DEF is right-angled in two different ways.
9 Find the equation of the sphere, centre (2, 2, 3) that:
(a) touches both the x–z and y–z planes (b) touches the x–y plane only.
10 The spheres x2 + y2 + z2 = 16 and x2 + y2 + (z − 4)2 = 25 intersect. Find:
(a) the value of z when they intersect
(b) the equation of the circle in which they intersect, giving the coordinates of the centre and the radius.
11 The spheres x2 + y2 + z2 = 16 and x2 + (y − 2)2 + z2 = 9 intersect. Find:
(a) the value of y when they intersect
(b) the equation of the circle in which they intersect, giving the coordinates of the centre and the radius.
12 The spheres (x − 1)2 + y2 + z2 = 16 and (x − 5)2 + y2 + z2 = 49 intersect. Find:
(a) the value of x when they intersect
(b) the equation of the circle in which they intersect, giving the coordinates of the centre and the radius.

96 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

3.5 PARAMETRIC AND CARTESIAN EQUATIONS


The position of any point P, relative to an origin O, is uniquely specified by the vector OP, which is termed the
position vector of P (relative to O).
Consider a body moving in the i − j plane so that its position at time, t, is given by the position vector
r (t ) = (3 − t )i + 2t j , t ≥ 0.  
   of t into r (t ), you can determine where the body is at these times.
By substituting values

For example:
t r (t ) position

0 3i (3, 0)

0.5 2.5 i + j (2.5, 1)
 
1 2i + 2 j (2, 2)
 
2 i +4j (1, 4)
  y
The figure on the right shows these four position vectors and the path that the body 6
appears to be taking.
The graph of a vector equation is the set of points determined by r (t ) as t varies. 4

For t ≥ 0, r(0) gives us the initial position of the body. r(2)
 ~
2
Given that r (0) = 3i , you conclude that the body begins its motion at (3, 0). r(1)
~
  r(0.5)
~
Substituting increasing values of t into r (t ) can help you determine the body’s
direction of motion.  x
O 1 2 ~r(0) 3
The body starts at (3, 0) and appears to be moving along the line with equation z t=0
y = 6 − 2x. t=1
r(0)
In general, when a body moves in space, its position vector varies with time. ~
r(1) P(x, y, z)
~
Having the vector equation of the paths means that you are only working with
r(t)
one variable, t, rather than three variables x, y and z. ~ t=2

This is illustrated in the diagram to the right where the position vector is r(2)
~
denoted by r (t ) to indicate its dependence on time, t. y
 x

If the coordinates of the variable point P(x, y, z) are expressed parametrically as x = f(t), y = g(t) and z = h(t), then
the vector equation of the path is given by the position vector r (t ) = f (t )i + g (t ) j + h(t )k , where i, j and k are
      
unit vectors in the positive directions of the x-, y- and z-axes respectively.
The equations x = f(t), y = g(t) and z = h(t), are called parametric equations and t is called the parameter.

In the introductory example, the parametric equations are x = 3 − t and y = 2t.

Rearranging the first equation to make the parameter t the subject gives t = 3 − x.
Substituting t = 3 − x into y = 2t gives y = 2(3 − x) = 6 − 2x.
So, confirming the earlier assertion, y = 6 − 2x is the Cartesian equation that describes the path of the body.

Example 20
State the vector equation of a curve that has parametric equations given by x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t and z = 1 for t ≥ 0.

Solution
The general form is r (t ) = x (t )i + y (t ) j + z (t )k .
   
The vector equation of the curve is r (t ) = (2 cos t )i + (2 sin t ) j + k, t ≥ 0.
   

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 97

YEAR 12

Example 21
The position vector of a body at time t is given by r (t ) = (1 − t )i + t 2 j , t ≥ 0.
  
(a) Find the Cartesian equation of the path of the body and state the domain.
(b) Sketch the path of the body.

Solution
(a) State and number the parametric equations: x=1−t [1]
2
 y = t     [2]
Express t in terms of x, from [1]: t=1−x
State the allowed values of x: If t ≥ 0, then x ≤ 1.
Substitute into [2] to eliminate t: y = (1 − x)2
State the Cartesian equation with domain: y = (1 − x)2, x ≤ 1.
y
(b) Sketch the parabola with correct domain:
8
The path is that of the parabola y = (1 − x)2
for which x ≤ 1.
6
To summarise from part (a):
1 The parametric equations are x = 1 − t and y = (x – 1)2, x ≤ 1
4
y = t2, t ≥ 0.
2 The Cartesian equation is y = (1 − x)2, x ≤ 1. 2
3 The vector equation is r (t ) = (1 − t )i + t 2 j ,
t ≥ 0.    (1, 0)
O x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3

–2

y
As shown in Example 21, elimination of the parameter t
8
gives the Cartesian equation of the body’s path shown in
the figure on the right.
P(x, y) 6
The vector equation r (t ) = (1 − t )i + t 2 j , t ≥ 0 is an
  
example of a vector function of the scalar (real) variable t y = (x – 1)2, x ≤ 1
4
because each element in the domain gives a unique value
r
of r. ~
 2
Consequently, the function defined by r is a one-to-one
function.  (1, 0)
To specify a vector function, it is sufficient to state its –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
x
rule and the domain, i.e. r (t ) = (1 − t )i + t 2 j , t ≥ 0.
   –2

Example 22
The parametric equations of a curve are x = cos 2t, y = sin t, t ≥ 0.
(a) Find the Cartesian equation of the curve. (b) Find the vector equation of the curve.
(c) Sketch the curve.

98 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Solution
(a) x = cos 2t, y = sin t, t ≥ 0 (b) r = xi + yj
  
x = cos 2t
 r = (cos 2t )i + (sin t ) j , t ≥ 0 is the vector
= 1 − 2 sin2 t   
equation of the curve.
= 1 − 2 y2
2 y2 = 1 − x

y 2 = 1 − x , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 is the Cartesian

2
equation of the curve.

y
(c) Since −1 ≤ cos 2t ≤ 1 for all t, it follows that −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 A(–1, 1)
and so the equation represents only the arc ABC of the
parabola as shown in the diagram.
P(x, y)
When t = 0, x = 1 , y = 0 and r = i .
 
π
When t = , x = −1, y = 1 and r = − i + j. r
2    B
O (1, 0) x
When t = π, x = 1, y = 0 and r = i . –1
 
When t = 3π , x = −1, y = −1 and r = − i − j.
2   
From this you can see that if you consider the curve as a path traced
out by a moving point, the point starts at B, moves to A, then back
to B, then to C and back to B as t increases from 0 to 2π. Since x and C(–1, –1)
y are periodic functions of t, the curve retraces itself as t increases
beyond 2π.

EXPLORING FURTHER

Parametric and Cartesian equations

Use technology to explore parametric and Cartesian equations.

EXERCISE 3.5 PARAMETRIC AND CARTESIAN EQUATIONS

1 For the curves whose parametric equations are given, find:

(i) the Cartesian equation (ii) the vector equation.
1
(a) x = 2t, y = t + 2, t ≥ 0 (b) x = t, y = , t > 0
t
(c) x = 2 cos θ, y = 2 sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (d) x = t + 3, y = t2 − 5, t ≥ 0
(e) x = u3, y = 1 − u2, −1 ≤ u ≤ 1 (f) x = s2 + s, y = s2 − s, s > 0
(g) x = cos 2θ, y = cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (h) x = 2 cos t, y = 3 sin t, t ≥ 0
2 For the curves whose parametric equations are given, find:
  (i) the Cartesian equation (ii) the vector equation.
2
2t 1 − t
(a) x = ,y= , t ∈R (b) x = a sin ϕ, y = b cos ϕ, ϕ ∈R
1 + t2 1 + t2
(c) x = sin t, y = sin 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π (d) x = 2 + sin θ, y = 1 − cos θ, θ ≥ 0
1 1
(e) x = u + , y = u − , u ≠ 0 (f) x = 3 cos2 t, y = 4 sin2 t, t ≥ 0
u u

(g) x =
4t
, y=
(
3 1 − t2 ) , t ∈R
1 + t2 1 + t2
Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 99
YEAR 12

3 For the curves whose vector equations are given, find:

(i) the parametric equation (ii) the Cartesian equation.
2
(a) r = 2ti + t j, t ≥ 0 (b) r = cos 2θ i + sin 2θ j, θ ∈ R
    2 
(c) r = 4 cos2 θ i + 3 sin2 θ j , θ ∈ R (d) r = ti + 4 at j , t ≥ 0
     

    ( ) ( )1
(e) r = (2 − sin θ )i + (1 + cos θ ) j, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (f) r = t + i + t − j , t ≠ 0
t 
1
t 

 
( 2
)
(g) r = (u + 3)i + u − 5 j , u ∈ R (h) r = (2 sin t )i + (4 cos t ) j , t ∈ R
 
 
( ) 1 2 1
(i) r = t − i + t + 2 j , t ≠ 0
 t  t 
4 The vector equation is given by r = (a cos t )i + (a sin t ) j , a > 0. Find the Cartesian equation of the curve and
show that it is a circle.   
5 The position of a particle at any time, t, is r (t ) = (4 cos 3t )i + (4 sin 3t ) j .
  
(a) Show that the path is circular. (b) Find the Cartesian equation of the path.
(c) Find the value of r .


3.6 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE

The position of a line in the x–y plane is located when a point on the line z
and its direction, given by either its gradient or the angle of inclination, are
known, or by the location of two points through which it passes. L
P
In three-dimensional space, the position of a line is located when you have a P0
point on the line and its direction, this direction given by a vector, or by the
location of two points through which it passes. r
~0
r
~
The diagram to the right shows the line, L, passing through the point v
~
P0(x0, y0 , z0 ) and P(x, y, z). L may also be defined by the point P0 and the O y

vector P0 P, which determines the direction of the line.
 x
Consider the position vector v = li + m j + nk that is parallel to P0 P.
    
Since v and P0 P are parallel, then P0 P = λ v , where λ is a real number.
  
Given that the location of P is specified by position vector r, then OP = r = xi + y j + z k.
     
Hence r = r 0 + P0 P
 
= r 0 + λv
 
Thus, the vector equation of the line L is r = r 0 + λ v .
  
This equation consists of the position vector r 0, a fixed point P0 on L, and a fixed vector v that determines the
direction of L.  
From this equation, you can obtain the parametric equation of the line L, namely
x = x0 + aλ, y = y0 + bλ, z = z0 + cλ.
They represent the parametric equations of the line L through the point (x0, y0, z0), and parallel to the vector v = (a , b , c ).

Also, the values a, b, c are called the direction numbers of the line as they give its direction.
The vector equation of the line L gives the coordinates of a point for each value of λ.
For example, if λ = 0, r = r 0, then the point is P0.
 
If λ = 1, r = r 0 + v , then the point is v units to the right of P0. (v is positive to the right in the diagram.)
    
If λ = −2, r = r 0 − 2v , then the point is 2 v units to the left of P0.
   
Remember, a vector equation generates the infinite set of points that make up the line, each point corresponding to a
real value of λ.

100 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 23
For the straight line with equation r = a + λ b where a = i + j + k and b = i − j, find the coordinates of the points
on the line for which:          
(a) λ = 0 (b) λ = 3 (c) λ = 100 (d) λ = −5.

Solution
  
(   
) ( )
r = xi + yj + zk = i + j + k + λ i − j
  
xi + yj + zk = (1 + λ )i + (1 − λ ) j + k
     
Equating components: x = 1 + λ, y = 1 − λ, z = 1
(a) λ = 0: x = 1, y = 1, z = 1 so the point is (1, 1, 1) (b) λ = 3: x = 4, y = −2, z = 1 so the point is (3, −2, 1)
(c) λ = 100: x = 101, y = −99, z = 1 so the point is (101, −99, 1)
(d) λ = −5: x = −4, y = 6, z = 1 so the point is (−4, 6, 1).

Example 24
Find the vector equation to the straight line joining the points A(5, 2, 6) and B(−3, 4, 1) and find the coordinates
of the point on AB where λ = 2.
c
~
Solution L
 )
OA = a = 5 i + 2 j + 6k P(x, y, z
) B(–3, 4, 1)
     A(5, 2, 6
AB = c = ( −3 − 5 ) i + ( 4 − 2 ) j + (1 − 6 ) k
    r
c = −8 i + 2 j − 5k ~
    a
~
The equation of L is given by r = a + λ c, λ is a real number.
  
  
(   
) (
Thus xi + yj + zk = 5 i + 2 j + 6k + λ −8 i + 2 j − 5k
  
) O
= (5 − 8λ )i + (2 + 2λ ) j + (6 − 5λ )k
  
This gives x = 5 − 8λ, y = 2 + 2λ, z = 6 − 5λ
λ = 2: x = −11, y = 6, z = −4 so the coordinates of the point are (−11, 6, −4).

Example 25
Find the vector and parametric equations of the line:
(a) through the point A(−2, 1, 4) parallel to the vector b = 2 i + j − 2k
  
(b) through the point A(1, 3, 2) parallel to the line through B(1,2, 3) and C(3, 4, 1).
Solution
 
(a) A(−2, 1, 4): OA = a = −2 i + j + 4 k (b) A(1, 3, 2): OA = a = i + 3 j + 2k
        
b = 2 i + j − 2 k : r = a + λb b = BC = (3 − 1)i + (4 − 2) j + (1 − 3)k
          
   
(
r = −2 i + j + 4 k + λ 2 i + j − 2k
  
) b = 2 i + 2 j − 2k
   
Hence the vector equation of the line is r = a + λb
r = ( −2 + 2λ )i + (1 + λ ) j + (4 − 2λ )k.   
 
The parametric equation is x = −2 + 2λ,

   
(
r = i + 3 j + 2k + λ 2 i + 2 j − 2k
  
)
y = 1 + λ, z = 4 − 2λ. The direction Hence the vector equation of the line is
numbers are 2, 1, −2 (the coefficients of λ). r = (1 + 2λ )i + (3 + 2λ ) j + (2 − 2λ )k.
   is x = 1 + 2λ,
The parametric equation
y = 3 + 2λ, z = 2 − 2λ.

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 101

YEAR 12

Example 26
Given P1(2, 1, 2) and P2(−1, 3, 3). With P1 as the fixed point, find:
(a) the vector equation of the line L that passes through P1 and P2
(b) the parametric equation of the line L that passes through P1 and P2.
With P2 as the fixed point, find:
(c) the vector equation of the line L that passes through P1 and P2
(d) the parametric equation of the line L that passes through P1 and P2.
(e) Discuss your answers to parts (b) and (d).

Solution 
(a) v = P1 P2 = (–1 − 2)i + (3 − 1) j + (3 − 2)k
   
= −3i + 2 j + k
  
P1(2, 1, 2): r0 = OP1 = 2 i + j + 2k
    
L is parallel to P1 P2 , so the vector equation of L is r = r 0 + λ v , where r = ( x , y , z ).
   
 
(
Hence the equation of L is r = 2 i + j + 2k + λ −3i + 2 j + k
  
)
 
r = ( 2 − 3λ ) i + (1 + 2 λ ) j + ( 2 + λ ) k
   
(b) The parametric equations
 of L are: x = 2 − 3λ, y = 1 + 2λ, z = 2 + λ.
(c) P2(−1, 3, 3): r0 = OP2 = − i + 3 j + 3k
   
v = −3i + 2 j + k :
    
r = − i

+ 3 j

+ 3 k

(+

)
λ −3i + 2 j + k
 
r = ( −1 − 3λ ) i + ( 3 + 2λ ) j + ( 3 + λ ) k
   
(d) The parametric equations of L are: x = −1 − 3λ, y = 3 + 2λ, z = 3 + λ.
(e) The equations of the line L are different when they have the different fixed points. To show that each
equation represents the same line, find values of λ that generate the points P1 and P2 for each equation. This
is most easily done from the parametric equation. Obviously, λ = 0 will generate the fixed point in each case.
For part (b): x = 2 − 3λ, y = 1 + 2λ, z = 2 + λ, for P2: 2 − 3λ = −1, λ = 1.
Substitute for y and z: y = 1 + 2 = 3. z = 2 + 1 = 3. Hence the point is (−1, 3, 3), which is P2.
For part (d): x = −1 − 3λ, y = 3 + 2λ, z = 3 + λ, for P1: −1 − 3λ = 2, λ = −1.
Substitute for y and z: y = 3 − 2 = 1. z = 3 − 1 = 2. Hence the point is (2, 1, 2), which is P1.
Thus, both sets of equations represent the line L through the points P1 and P2.

  

If A, B and R are points on a straight line through A and B such that a = OA, b = AB and r = OR, then the vector
  
equation of the line AB is given by r = a + λb, where λ is a parameter.
  
When starting with the coordinates of two points to form the vector equation of a line, the final equation
depends on which point you fix to obtain a. Both choices will lead to a correct vector equation defining the line.

Hence the vector (or parametric) equation of a line through two points is not unique.

Vector equations of a line in two dimensions

Gradient intercept form
Consider the equation of the line given by r = a + λb, where r = ( x , y ), a = ( x0 , y0 ) and b = ( x1 , y1 ).
     
The vector equation becomes r = ( x0 + x1λ ) i + ( y0 + y1λ ) j .
 
The parametric equations are x = x0 + x1λ , y = y0 + y1λ . 

102 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

x − x0
Rearranging the first equation gives λ =
x1
y1 ( x − x0 )
Substitute in the second equation for y: y = y0 +
x1
y x y
y = y0 + 1 x − 0 1
x1 x1
y1 x1 y0 − x0 y1
y= x+
x1 x1
y x y − x0 y1
Comparing this answer with the gradient–intercept form of the straight line, y = mx + c, gives m = 1 and c = 1 0 .
x1 x1
y1 x1 y0 − x0 y1
Thus, the gradient of the line is and the y-intercept is .
x1 x1
y
The vector b = x1 i + y1 j is a vector parallel to the line with gradient 1 . You would expect the gradients of the line
 to be the same. x 1
and the vector
Two-point form
In two-dimensional coordinate geometry, the equation of the line through the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is
y − y1 y2 − y1
= , provided that x2 ≠ x1.
x − x1 x 2 − x1
The vector equation
 
( 
)
of the line AB is xi + y j = x1 i + y1 j + λ ( x 2 − x1 )i + ( y2 − y1 ) j as ( x 2 − x1 )i + ( y2 − y1 ) j is a

vector parallel to AB.
Thus x = x1 + λ ( x 2 − x1 )
y = y1 + λ ( y2 − y1 )
x − x1 y − y1
Solving both of these equations for λ gives =λ= [1]
x 2 − x1 y2 − y1
y − y1 y2 − y1
This means that = , which is the two-point form of the Cartesian equation of a line.
x − x1 x 2 − x1
If λ = 0, then equation [1] gives x = x1, y = y1, or (x1, y1), the coordinates of the fixed point for the vector equation.

Example 27
Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the line through the point A(2, −1) parallel to the vector b = i + 2 j .
  
Solution
a = 2i − j
  
    
(
Vector equation: r = a + λb: r = 2 i − j + λ i + 2 j
  
)
r = (2 + λ )i + ( −1 + 2λ ) j
  
Parametric equations: x = 2 + λ, y = −1 + 2λ
λ = x − 2 so y = −1 + 2(x − 2)
y = 2x − 5 is the Cartesian equation of the line.

EXPLORING FURTHER

Vector equation of a line

Use technology to explore the vector equation of a line.

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 103

YEAR 12

EXERCISE 3.6 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE

1 (a) Find the vector equation of the line through (1, 2) parallel to the vector i + j.
 
(b) Find the points corresponding to: (i) λ = 0   (ii) λ = −1  (iii) λ = 2.
2 (a) Find the vector equation of the line through (−1, 4, 6) parallel to the vector i − j + k.
1   
(b) Find the points corresponding to: (i) λ =   (ii) λ = 6   (iii) λ = −3.
2
3 (a) Find the vector equation of the line through (4, 2) parallel to the line joining the points (−1, 3) and (3, 7).
(b) Find the points corresponding to: (i) λ = 2   (ii) λ = 4   (iii) λ = 8.
4 (a) Find the vector equation of the line through (2, 3, 4) parallel to the line joining the points (0, 2, 4) and
(−5, −3, 6).
(b) Find the points corresponding to: (i) λ = −1  (ii) λ = 0   (iii) λ = 1.
5 Find the vector equation of the line through (4, 12, −3) parallel to the vector 2 i − 3k .
 
6 Find the vector equation of the line through A(3, 5, 7) and B(6, 4, 5).

3.7 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES IN THREE DIMENSIONS

In two dimensions, two lines can either intersect, be parallel to each other, or be coincident (the same line).
A special case of intersecting is when they intersect at an angle of 90° when they are said to be perpendicular to
each other. If two or more lines lie on the same plane, they called coplanar.
In two dimensions, all lines lie in the same plane, the x–y plane. All these lines are coplanar.

Given line L1 with equation y = m1 x + c1 and line L2 with equation y = m2 x + c2, then:
L1 || L2 if m1 = m2, L1 ⊥ L2 if m1 × m2 = −1 and the lines are coincident if m1 = m2 and c1 = c2.
Given line L1 with equation a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and line L2 with equation a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0, then:
a a c a
L1 || L2 if 1 = 2 and 1 ≠ 1
b1 b2 c2 a2
L1 ⊥ L2 if a1 × a2 = −1
b1 b2
a a c a
and the lines are coincident if 1 = 2 and 1 = 1 .
b1 b2 c2 a2

In three dimensions, coplanar lines may intersect, be parallel or be coincident. If they intersect, then they could be
perpendicular to each other (orthogonal).
If two lines in three dimensions do not intersect, and are not parallel or coincident, they are called skew lines and
are not coplanar. They may still be perpendicular as there may exist a pair of intersecting perpendicular lines, each
of which is parallel to one of the given lines.

Given line L1 with parametric equations x = a1 + b1t, y = c1 + d1t, z = e1 + f1t and line L2 with
parametric equations x = a2 + b2s, y = c2 + d2s, z = e2 + f2s, then:
b d f
• L1 || L2 if 1 = 1 = 1
b2 d2 f2
• L1 and L2 intersect if a unique value of t and s satisfies the three equations
a1 + bt = a2 + b2s, c1 + d1t = c2 + d2s, e1 + f1t = e2 + f2s simultaneously,
• L1 ⊥ L2 if b1b2 + d1d2 + f1 f2 = 0 (a • b = 0)
 
• they are skew if they are not parallel, coincident or intersecting.

104 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Note: In three dimensions, coincident lines will be parallel and have a point in common. This means that for L1 and
b d f a c e
L2 above to be coincident, 1 = 1 = 1 = 1 = 1 = 1 .
b2 d2 f 2 a2 c2 e2
Use the parametric form of the equation of a straight line to determine which of the above occur in each case.
Strategy:
1 Determine if the lines are parallel. If yes, determine if they are coincident.
2 Determine if the lines intersect.
3 If they are not parallel or coincident and do not intersect, then they are skew.
4 Determine if they are perpendicular.
MAKING CONNECTIONS

Parallel and perpendicular lines

Use technology to explore parallel, perpendicular and skew lines in three dimensions.

Example 28
For the lines x = −2 + 2t, y = 1 + t, z = 4 − 2t and x = 1 + 2s, y = 3 + 2s, z = 2 − 2s, determine whether they: (a) are
parallel, (b) intersect, (c) are skew, (d) are perpendicular.
Solution
(a) Write the ratio of the direction numbers 2 , 1 , −2
2 2 −2
2 1 −2
Since ≠ ≠ , the lines are not parallel.
2 2 −2
(b) Equate the x, y and z values for each line to obtain 3 equations:
−2 + 2t = 1 + 2s [1]
1 + t = 3 + 2s [2]
4 − 2t = 2 − 2s [3]
Rewrite [1]: 2s = 2t − 3
Substitute in [2]: 1 + t = 3 + 2t − 3
t=1
1
s=−
2
Substitute in [3]: LHS = 2 − 2 = 0, RHS = 2 − 1 = 1
LHS ≠ RHS, so the two lines do not intersect as there is not a unique pair of values for t and s that
satisfies all three equations simultaneously.
(c) Hence the lines are skew.
(d) a = ( 2, 1, −2 ), b = ( 2, 2, −2 ) represent the direction vectors of the two lines.
 
a • b = ( 2, 1, −2 ) • ( 2, 2, −2 )
 
= 4 + 2 + 4 = 10 ≠ 0
a • b ≠ 0, hence the lines are not perpendicular.
 

Example 29
L1 is x = 1 + 3t, y = 2 + 6t, z = 1 − 3t. L2 is x = 2 − 2s, y = 1 − 4s, z = 2 + 2s. L3 is x = 3 − r, y = −1 + r, z = −1 + r.

(a) Show that L1 || L2. (b) Show that L1 and L3 intersect.
(c) Is L1 perpendicular to L3? (d) What can you say about L2 and L3?

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 105

YEAR 12

Solution
(a) Write the ratio of the direction numbers: (b) L1: x = 1 + 3t, y = 2 + 6t, z = 1 − 3t
3 , 6 , −3 L3: x = 3 − r, y = −1 + r, z = −1 + r
−2 −4 2 1 + 3t = 3 − r [1]
In each case, t = − 3 so the lines are parallel.
s 2 2 + 6t = −1 + r [2]
(c) L1: a = (3, 6, − 3), L3: b = ( −1, 1, 1). These are 1 − 3t = −1 + r [3]
the direction vectors for each line. [1] ⇒: r = 2 − 3t
Substitute in [2]: 2 + 6t = −1 + 2 − 3t
a • b = (3, 6, − 3) • ( −1, 1, 1) = −3 + 6 − 3 = 0
  9t = − 1
Hence L1 ⊥ L3 1
  t = −   r = 2 1
(d) Since L1 || L2 and L1 ⊥ L3, then L2 ⊥ L3. 9 3
Substitute in [3]: LHS = 1 + 3 = 1 1 ,
1 1 9 3
RHS = −1 + 2 = 1
3 3
LHS = RHS so the two lines intersect.

Vector equations of a line

Two straight lines will be parallel if their direction vectors are parallel. Similarly, two straight lines will be
perpendicular if their direction vectors are perpendicular.
Consider two straight lines, L1 and L2, with vector equations r1 = a1 + λb 1 and r2 = a2 + λb 2 respectively and with
direction vectors b 1 = x1 i + y1 j + z1k and b 2 = x 2 i + y2 j + z 2 k respectively.
    
       
• If the two lines are parallel, then b 1 = kb 2, k ≠ 0, and so x1 = kx2, y1 = ky2 and z1 = kz2
  x y z
Then, eliminating the constant k, if L1 and L2 are parallel, then 1 = 1 = 1 .
x 2 y2 z 2
• If the two lines are perpendicular, then b 1 • b 2 = 0 and so x1 x 2 + y1 y2 + z1z 2 = 0 .
 

Example 30
Line L1 passes through the points (1, −2, 4) and (5, 3, −2), while line L2 passes through the points (3, 8, −2) and
(a, −2, 10), where a ∈ R.
Find the value(s) of a if:   (a) L1 is parallel to L2. (b) L1 is perpendicular to L2.

Solution
(a) Find the direction vectors for each of the lines.
Line L1 passes through the points (1, −2, 4) and (5, 3, −2) and so the direction vector is:
b 1 = (5 − 1) i + ( 3 − −2 ) j + ( −2 − 4 ) k
   
= 4 i + 5 j − 6k
  
Line L2 passes through the points (3, 8, −2) and (a, −2, 10) and so the direction vector is:
b 2 = ( a − 3) i + ( −2 − 8 ) j + (10 − −2 ) k
   
= ( a − 3) i − 10 j + 12k
  
If the two lines are parallel, then b 1 = kb 2 , k ≠ 0, and so x1 = kx 2 , y1 = ky2 and z1 = kz 2.
 
If L1 || L2, then b 1 = kb 2, k ≠ 0.
  4 = 5 = −6
  
(  
)
4 i + 5 j − 6k = k ( a − 3 ) i − 10 j + 12k and
 a − 3 −10 12
4 =−1
a−3 2
a − 3 = −8
a = −5

106 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

(b) If the two lines are perpendicular, then b 1• b 2 = 0 and so x1 x 2 + y1 y 2 + z1z 2 = 0.

 
 
(  
)(
If L1 ⊥ L2, then b 1 • b 2 = 0: 4 i + 5 j − 6k • ( a − 3 ) i − 10 j + 12k = 0
   
)
4 × ( a − 3 ) + 5 × ( −10) + ( −6) × 12 = 0
4a − 134 = 0
4a = 134

a = 67
2

Example 31
(a) Find the parametric equations of the line through (−2, 1, 2) that is parallel to v = 2 i − j + 3k.
   
(b) Do either of the the points (1, 2, 3) or (−6, 3, −4) lie on this line?
(c) Find the coordinates of two points that lie on the line in part (a).

Solution
(a) Equation of the line is: r = a + λb
  
r = (−2 i + j + 2k ) + λ (2 i − j + 3k )
      
= (−2 + 2λ )i + (1 − λ ) j + (2 + 3λ )k
  
The parametric equations of the line are x = −2 + 2λ, y = 1 − λ, z = 2 + 3λ.
(b) Substitute coordinates (1, 2, 3) into one part of the parametric equations to find λ, then see if that value
3
works in the other two parts: 1 = −2 + 2λ so λ = .
2
3 1 9 1
This gives y = 1 − = − and z = 2 + = 6 . In the given point, y = 2 and z = 3 so the point (1, 2, 3)
2 2 2 2
does not lie on the line.
For (−6, 3, −4): −6 = −2 + 2λ so λ = −2.
This gives y = 1 + 2 = 3 and z = 2 − 6 = −4, which are the corresponding coordinates of the given point.
Hence the point (−6, 3, −4) lies on the line.
(c) Give λ two different values: λ = 1, x = −2 + 2 = 0, y = 1 − 1 = 0, z = 2 + 3 = 5. Hence the point (0, 0, 5) lies
on the line.
λ = 2: x = 2, y = −1, z = 8. Hence the point (2, −1, 8) lies on the line.

Example 32
Find the coordinates of the points where the line r = (1 + λ )i + (4 − 2λ ) j + (3 + λ )k cuts the coordinate planes.
   
Solution
In the x–y plane, z = 0: 3 + λ = 0 so λ = −3. The point is (−2, 10, 0).
In the x–z plane, y = 0: 4 − 2λ = 0 so λ = 2. The point is (3, 0, 5).
In the y–z plane, x = 0: 1 + λ = 0 so λ = −1. The point is (0, 6, 2).

Summary of formulae
Distance formula

Given A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B ( x 2 , y2 , z 2 ), then AB = ( x 2 − x1 ) i + ( y2 − y1 ) j + ( z1 − z 2 ) k and
   
2 2 2
AB = ( x 2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 ) + ( z 2 − z1 )

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 107

YEAR 12

Unit vectors
a
a = 
 a

Scalar product
(  
)(   
)
a • b = x1 i + y1 j + z1k • x 2 i + y2 j + z 2 k = x1 x 2 + y1 y2 + z1z 2
  
Algebraic properties of the dot product
• a•b = b•a
   2
• a•a = a
  
• a • (b + c ) = a • b + a • c
      
• (a + b) • (c + d ) = a • c + a • d + b • c + b • d
           
• ( ma ) i b = m ( a i b ) where m is a real number
   
Geometric properties of the dot product
• If a • b = 0, then a and b are perpendicular, a ⊥ b.
     
• If a • b = a b , then a and b are parallel vectors.
     
• If a and b are parallel vectors, then a • b = a b .
      a•b
• The angle between two vectors, θ, is given by cos θ =   , a ↑ 0, b ↑ 0.
a b  
• By convention, 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.  
Projections
The scalar projection of a onto b is a ∞b,  where a • b = a • b .
      b

a ∞b
( )  
The vector projection of a onto b is a • b b or   b.
     b ∞b 
 
a•b

( )
The vector projection of a perpendicular to b is a − a • b b or a −   b.
      b •b 
 
Equation of a sphere
( x − h )2 + ( y − j )2 + ( z − k )2 = r 2
Vector equation of a line
r = r 0 + λ v , this vector equation consists of the position vector, r 0, of a fixed point P0 on L and a fixed vector, r,
  determines
which  the direction of L.  
Parametric equations of a line: x = x0 + aλ, y = y0+ bλ, z = z0 + cλ, represent the parametric equations of the line L
through the point (x0, y0, z0) parallel to the vector v = (a , b , c ).

Properties of lines in three dimensions
Given line L1 with parametric equation x = a1 + b1t, y = c1 + d1t, z = e1 + f1t and line L2 with parametric equation
x = a2 + b2s, y = c2 + d2s, z = e2 + f2s, then:
b d f
• L1 || L2 if 1 = 1 = 1
b2 d2 f2
• L1 and L2 intersect if unique values of t and s satisfy the three equations a1 + b1t = a2 + b2s, c1 + d1t = c2 + d2s,
e1 + f1t = e2 + f2s simultaneously
• L1 ⊥ L2 if b1b2 + d1d2 + f1 f2 = 0 (direction vector dot product, a • b = 0)
 
• They are skew if none of the preceding events occur.
Note: In three dimensions, coincident lines will be parallel and have a point in common. This means that for L1
f
and L2 above to be coincident, b1 = d1 = 1 = a1 = c1 = e1 .
b2 d2 f 2 a2 c2 e2

108 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Parallel and perpendicular lines

Consider two straight lines, L1 and L2, with vector equations r1 = a1 + λb 1 and r2 = a2 + λb 2 respectively and with
     
direction vectors b 1 = x1 i + y1 j + z1k and b 2 = x 2 i + y2 j + z 2 k respectively.
     
 then
• If the two lines are parallel, b 1= kb 2 , k ≠ 0, and so x1 = kx2, y1 = ky2 and z2 = kz2.
  x y z
Then, eliminating the constant k, and if L1 and L2 are parallel, then 1 = 1 = 1 .
x 2 y2 z 2
• If the two lines are perpendicular, then b 1• b 2 = 0 and so x1 x 2 + y1 y2 + z1z 2 = 0.
 
EXERCISE 3.7 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES IN THREE DIMENSIONS

1 Given L1 has equation x = 1 + 2t, y = 2 − t, z = 3 + t and L2 has equation x = 2 + s, y = −1 + 2s, z = 1 − 3s, then L1
and L2:
A are parallel B intersect C are perpendicular D are skew
2 Given L1 has equation x = 1 + 2t, y = 2 − t, z = 3 + t and L2 has equation x = 2 + s, y = −1 + 2s, z = 1 + 3s, then L1
and L2:
A are parallel B intersect C are perpendicular D are skew
3 Given L1 has equation x = 1 + 2t, y = 2 − 4t, z = 3 − 2t and L2 has equation x = 2 + s, y = 1 − 2s, z = 1 − s, then L1
and L2:
A are parallel B intersect C are perpendicular D are skew
4 Given L1 has equation x = 2 + 2t, y = 2 + t, z = 3 − t and L2 has equation x = 2 + s, y = −1 + 2s, z = −6 + 4s, then
L1 and L2:
A are parallel B intersect C are perpendicular D are skew
5 Line L1 passes through the points (1, 2, −1) and (4, −1, 2) while line L2 passes through the points (2, 6, −2) and
(a, −1, 5), where a ∈ R.
Find the value(s) of a, if:
(a) L1 is parallel to L2 (b) L1 is perpendicular to L2.
6 (a) Find the parametric equations of the line through (−1, 2, 1) that is parallel to v = 2 i − j + 3k.
(b) Do either of the the points (1, 2, 3) or (3, 0, 7) lie on this line?    
(c) Find the coordinates of two points that lie on the line in part (a).
7 Find the coordinates of the points where the line r = (1 − λ )i + (4 + 2λ ) j + (3 − λ )k cuts the coordinate planes.
   
8 Given points A, B and C, determine whether point C lies on the line AB.
(a) A(1, 0, 1), B(1, 1, 1), C(2, 1, 2)
(b) A(3, 3, −2), B(−2, 3, −2), C(2, 3, −2)
(c) A(2, 1, −1), B(3, −2, 0), C(1, 4, −2)
9 (a) Show that the line through the points (2, 1, −1) and (3, −2, 0) is parallel to the line through the points
(−2, 3, 2) and (2, 15, 6).
(b) Show that the point (1, 4, −2) lies on the first line and the point (6, −21, 10) lies on the second line.
10 Show that the line through the points (2, 1, −1) and (3, −2, 3) is perpendicular to the line through the points
(1, 3, 2) and (−1, 5, 4).
11 (a) Find the equation of the line L1 through the point (2, 1, −2) parallel to the vector v = i − 2 j + 3k.
(b) Find the equation of the line L2 through the points (1, −2, 1) and (0, 2, −2).    
(c) Determine whether (i) L1 || L2, (ii) L1 ⊥ L2, (iii) L1 and L2 intersect.
12 If a = −2 i − j + 3k and b = −mi + j + 2k, where m ∈ R, then the vector a − b will be perpendicular to vector b
          
when m equals:
A 0 only B 2 only C 0 or 2 D 0 or −2

Chapter 3 Further work with vectors 109

YEAR 12

CHAPTER REVIEW 3
1 For each of the points, P, whose coordinates are given, find:
 
(i) an i , j , k representation for the position vector OP (ii) the magnitude of OP
  
(iii) a unit vector in the direction of OP.
(a) P(−1, 4, 2) (b) P(3, 6, 8) (c) P(−2, 2, −1)
2 Given A(3, 3, 1), B(−2, 1, −1), C(1, 1, 1) and D(2, 1, −2), find:
   
(a) the angle between AB and CD
 (b) the angle between AC and BD
(c) the angle between AD and BC.
3 Determine whether the given sets of points are collinear.
(a) A(1, 3, 2), B(3, 1, 4), C(5, −2, −6) (b) D(1, 3, −4), E(3, −2, 2), F(3, 1, 5)
4 Given a = 2 i + 3 j − 4 k, b = 3i − 5 j − 4 k, c = 2 i + 6 j + 3k , find unit vectors aˆ , bˆ, cˆ.
              
5 If a = 2 i + 3 j + 4 k, b = 4 i − j − 2k and c = −5 i + 2 j − k , simplify:
           
(a) ( a • b ) c + ( a • c ) b (b) ( c − a ) • b (c) ( a − b ) • ( b − c )
            
6 The position vectors of
 the points
 P, Q and R are 8 i − 4 j − 3 k , 6 i + 3 j − 4 k and 7 i + 5 j − 5k respectively. Find
the angle between PQ and QR.         

7 Find a vector perpendicular to both u = 4 i − 7 j + 4 k and v = −7 i + 4 j + 4 k.

       
8 Show that each given equation is the equation of a sphere and find the coordinates of its centre and the radius.
(a) x2 + y2 + z2 + 14x − 12y + 2z + 5 = 0 (b) x2 + y2 + z2 − 6x + 2z + 6 = 0
9 For the curves whose parametric equations are given, find:
(i) the Cartesian equation (ii) the vector equation.
π <θ < π
(a) x = 2t, y = t2, t ∈ R (b) x = sec θ, y = tan θ, − .
2 2
10 For the curves whose vector equations are given, find:
(i) the parametric equation (ii) the Cartesian equation.
(a) r = 4t 2 i + 2t j (b) r = cosec 2θ i + sec 2θ j, θ ∈R
     
11 Find the vector equation of the line through (2, 19, −31) parallel to the vector 2 i − 3 j .
 
12 Find the vector equation of the line through A(4, 3, 6) and B(2, 5, 3).
13 Show that the line through the points (1, −1, 1) and (5, 3, 3) is perpendicular to the line through the points
(1, −1, 2) and (4, −4, 6).
14 Given a = i − 2 j + k and b = 2 i + j − 2k , find two vectors c and d such that a = c + d, c is parallel to b and d is
               
perpendicular to b.

15 If a = i + 2 j − 3k, b = 5 i + 2 j − 4 k , c = 2 i − j − 4 k, find the values of p and q such that a + pb + qc is parallel to
            
the x-axis.  

16 (a) Show that the points O(0, 0, 0), A(1, 1, 0), B(1, 0, 1) and C(0, 1, 1) are the vertices of a regular tetrahedron
by finding the lengths of each of the six edges.
(b) Use the dot product to find the angle between any two edges.
(c) If M is the midpoint of BC, find the size of ∠ AMB.
17 Relative to a fixed origin, the points A, B and C are defined respectively by the position vectors a = i − j + 2k,
b = 2 i + j + k and c = mi , where m is a real constant.    
     
π π
(a) If ∠ABC = , find m. (b) If ∠ABC = , find m.
3 2
110 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12
CHAPTER 4
Integration by substitution
This chapter is an extension of your study of integration techniques from the Mathematics Advanced course (see
New Senior Mathematics Advanced for Years 11 & 12) and the Mathematics Extension 1 course (see New Senior
Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12).
Integration by substitution
In the Mathematics Extension 1 course, you were introduced to integration using a substitution where the
substitution was given.
In the Mathematics Extension 2 course, you are expected to be able to use integration by substitution where you
have to decide on the appropriate substitution. In the following sections, various possible substitutions will be
introduced and their use developed. In some cases, you may find that there is more than one substitution that can
be used. You will find that some substitutions are more efficient than others, and with practice you will be able to
choose the best one.

4.1 INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The simplest integrals involving the trigonometric functions are:

∫cosax dx = 1 sin ax + C sin ax dx = − 1 cosax + C

∫
1
∫ sec ax dx = a tan ax + C
2
a a

∫
The identity tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 allows tan 2 x dx to be found.
The double-angle results are: • sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
• cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x
= 2 cos2 x − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 x,
which can be rewritten as cos 2 x = 1 + cos 2x and sin 2 x = 1 − cos 2x .
2 2
These results can be used to reduce trigonometric expressions to the simpler forms given as the standard integrals,
which allows you to find integrals such as:

∫sin x cos x dx = 1 sin 2x dx    cos 2 x dx = 1 (1 + cos 2x)dx    sin 2 x dx = 1 (1 − cos 2x)dx

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
2 2 2

Integrals ∫ sinm x dx and ∫ cos

m
x dx , m an even positive integer
The cos 2x results can be generalised as cos 2ax = 2 cos2 ax − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 ax.
Consider this for the following values of a:
⎧cos 2 x = 1 (1 + cos 2x) ⎧cos 2 2x = 1 (1 + cos 4x) ⎧cos 2 x = 1 (1 + cos x)
⎪ 2 ⎪ 2 ⎪ 2 2
a =1: ⎨    a = 2 : ⎨    a = 1 : ⎨
2
⎪sin 2 x = 1 (1 − cos 2x) ⎪sin 2 2x = 1 (1 − cos 4x) ⎪sin 2 x = 1 (1 − cos x)
⎩ 2 ⎩ 2 ⎩ 2 2

( ) = 14 (1 + 2cos 2x + cos 2x)

2
Thus you can write: cos 4 x = 1 + cos 2x 2
2

= 1 (1 + 2cos 2x + 1 + cos 4x )
4 2

= 1 (3 + 4 cos 2x + cos 4x )
8
Chapter 4 Integration by substitution 111
YEAR 12

Example 1
Find:

∫ cos ∫ sin ∫ sin ∫ sin

2 4 2 2
(a) x dx (b) x dx (c) 2x dx (d) x cos 2 x dx

Solution
(a) x dx = 1 (1 + cos 2x)dx = x + 1 sin 2x + C
∫ cos
2
∫
2 2 4
4 1
(b) sin x = (1 − cos 2x) as sin x = 1 (1 − cos 2x)
2 2
4 2
1
( 2
= 1 − 2cos 2x + cos 2x
4 )
(
= 1 1 − 2cos 2x + 1 + 1 cos 4x
4 2 2 )
= 1 (3 − 4 cos 2x + cos 4x)
8
Hence: sin 4 x dx = 1 (3 − 4 cos 2x + cos 4x)dx
∫ ∫
8

8(
= 1 3x − 2 sin 2x + 1 sin 4x + C
4 )
= 3x − 1 sin 2x + 1 sin 4x + C
8 4 32
1 x
(1 − cos 4x)dx = − 1 sin 4x + C
∫ ∫
2
(c) sin 2x dx =
2 2 8
1
(d) As sin x cos x = sin 2x :
2
sin x cos x = sin 2 2x = 1 (1 − cos 4x)
2 2 1
4 8
Hence: sin 2 x cos 2 x dx = 1 (1 − cos 4x)dx = x − 1 sin 4x + C
∫ ∫
8 8 32
Alternatively: sin x cos x = sin x(1 − sin x) = sin x − sin4 x
2 2 2 2 2

Now sin 2 x dx = 1 (1 − cos 2x)dx = x − 1 sin 2x + C

∫ ∫
2 2 4
3x 1 1
∫
4
and sin x dx = − sin 2x + sin 4x + C  from part (b)
8 4 32
Hence: sin 2 x cos 2 x dx = sin 2 x dx − sin 4 x dx = x − 1 sin 4x + C
∫ ∫ ∫
8 32

Use of ∫ f(u) du, u = g(x) for trigonometric integrals

Example 2
∫ cos x sin x dx   (b) ∫ cos x sin ∫ x cos x
3 2
Find:  (a) x dx   (c) dx

Solution
(a) Let u = sin x so that du = cos x dx
2
cos x sin x dx = udu = u + C = 1 sin2 x + C
∫ ∫
2 2
This method may be used instead of writing the integrand in terms of sin 2x as mentioned earlier.

112 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

(b) Let u = sin x so that du = cos x dx :

cos x sin3 x dx = u3 du = 1 u 4 + C
∫ ∫
4
= 1 sin 4 x + C
4
Alternatively:
1
∫ cos x sin ∫ ∫ [ f (x)] f ′(x) dx = n + 1 [ f (x)]
3 n n +1
x dx = sin3 x cos x dx is of the form +C
∴ This integral is the reverse of the function-of-a-function rule, so:

∫cos x sin3 x dx = 1 sin 4 x + C

4
2
(c) Let u = x so that du = 2x dx :
x cos x 2 dx = 1 cosudu = 1 sinu + C
∫ ∫
2 2
= 1 sin x 2 + C
2

Integrals ∫ sinm x dx and ∫ cos m x dx, m an odd positive integer

This method requires the use of a substitution.

Example 3
∫ cos ∫ sin ∫ sin
3 3 2
Find:  (a) x dx   (b) x dx   (c) x cos3 x dx

Solution
∫ cos ∫
3
(a) x dx = cos 2 x cos x dx

= ∫ (1 − sin x)cos x dx
2

= ∫ (cos x − sin x cos x)dx 2

1
∫ [ f (x)] f ′(x) dx = 3 [ f (x)]
2 3
Now use + C where f (x) = sin x so that f ′(x) = cos x

∴ cos3 x dx = sin x − 1 sin3 x + C

∫ 3

∫ sin ∫
3
(b) xdx = sin 2 x sin x dx Alternatively: Let u = cos x so that du = −sin x dx :

∫ sin ∫
3
= ∫ (1 − cos x)sin x dx2 x dx = (u 2 − 1)du

= ∫ (cos x − 1)(− sin x)dx

2 = 1 u3 − u + C
3
1
= ∫ (− sin x cos x + sin x)dx
2 = cos3 x − cos x + C
3

= 1 cos3 x − cos x + C
3

∫ sin ∫
2
(c) x cos3 x dx = (1 − cos 2 x)cos3 x dx

∫
= (cos3 x − cos5 x)dx

Chapter 4 Integration by substitution 113

YEAR 12

Now ∫ cos
3
x dx = sin x − 1 sin3 x + C from (a)
3

∫ cos ∫
5
and x dx = cos 4 x cos x dx

= ∫ (1 − sin x) cos x dx
2 2

= ∫ (1 − 2 sin x + sin x)cos x dx

2 4

= ∫ (cos x − 2 sin x cos x + sin x cos x)dx
2 4

= sin x − 2 sin3 x + 1 sin5 x + C

3 5
Thus: (cos x − cos x)dx = sin x − 1 sin3 x − sin x − 2 sin3 x + 1 sin5 x + C
3 5
∫ 3 3 5 ( )
1 3 1 5
= sin x − sin x + C
3 5

∫ sin ∫
2
Alternatively: x cos3 x dx = sin 2 x cos 2 x cos x dx
Let u = sin x so that du = cos x dx and cos2 x = 1 − u2:

∫ sin ∫
2
x cos3 x dx = u 2 (1 − u 2 )du

= ∫ (u 2
− u 4 )du

= 1 u 3 − 1 u5 + C
3 5
1
= sin x − 1 sin5 x + C
3
3 5

Example 4
π π π
∫ ∫ ∫
4 2
Evaluate:  (a) cos 2 2x dx  (b) π
sin x cos3 x dx   (c) 3π
sin3 x dx
0 3 4
Solution
π π

∫ cos 2 2x dx = 1 ∫
4 4
(a) (1 + cos 4x)dx
0 2 0
π

= 1 ⎡⎢x + 1 sin 4x ⎤⎥
4

2⎣ 4 ⎦0

(
= 1 π +0−0
2 4 )
=π
8
(b) Let u = cos x, du = −sin x dx.
Calculate the new limits of the definite integral, x = π : u = cos π = 1 x = π : u = cos π = 0
π π
3 3 2 2 2
0 π
1
∫ ∫ ∫
2 3 3 2 3 4
sin x cos x dx = − 1 u du or sin x cos x dx = − ⎡⎣cos x ⎤⎦ π
2
π
3 2
π
3
4 3

⎡ 4⎤
= − ⎢u ⎥
⎣ 4 ⎦ 12
0

4 (
= −1 0− 1
16 )
= 1
64
= 1
64

114 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

π π π
(c) ∫ 3π
4
sin3 x dx = ∫ 3π
4
sin 2 x sin x dx = ∫ 3π
4
(1 − cos 2 x)sin x dx

Let u = cos x, du = −sin x dx.

x = 3π : u = cos 3π = − 1 x = π : u = cos π = −1
4 4 2
π −1 π π
∫ 3π
4
sin3 x dx = − ∫ − 1
2
(1 − u 2 )du or ∫ 3π
4
sin3 x dx = ∫ 3π
4
(sin x − sin x cos 2 x)dx

−1 π
= ∫ (u 2 − 1)du = ⎡⎢− cos x + 1 cos3 x ⎤⎥
− 1 ⎣ 3 ⎦ 3π
2 4

⎡ ⎤ 3 −1
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 3⎞
= ⎢u − u⎥ = 1− − ⎜ + × − ⎟ ⎟
3 ⎝ 2 3 ⎜⎝
⎣ 3 ⎦− 1 2⎠ ⎠
2
⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
= ⎜ − 1 + 1 − ⎜ − 1 + 1 ⎟⎟ = 2 −⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
3 3 ⎝ 2 6 2⎠
⎝ ⎝ 6 2 2 ⎠⎠
= 2− 5 = 2−5 2
= 2−5 2 3 6 2 3 12
3 12

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Integration of trigonometric functions

Use technology to explore integration by substitution of trigonometric functions.

EXERCISE 4.1 INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

x dx
∫ sin ∫ cos 2x dx ∫ sin ∫ cos 3x dx
2 2 2 2
1 Find: (a) x dx (b) (c) (d)
2
2 3x 5x
∫ sin ∫ sin 4x dx ∫ cos ∫ cos 2 dx
2 2 2
(e) 3x dx (f) (g) dx (h)
2

∫ sin x cos
2
2 x dx = …

A
sin3 x + C B
cos3 x + C C
3
− sin x + C D
3
− cos x + C
3 3 3 3

∫ sin x cos x dx (b) ∫ tan x sec x dx ∫ cos x sin x dx

2 2 3
3 Find: (a) (c)

∫ sin (x − 4 ) dx
π
∫ cos x sin x dx (e) ∫ (1 + cos 2x)sin x dx
4 2
(d) (f)

∫ sin x cos x dx (h) ∫ sec x sin x dx ∫ cosec x cos x dx

4 2 2
(g) (i)

(b) ∫ (1 + tan ) dx
x
∫ (1 + tan x)dx ∫ (1 + tan 3x)dx
2 2 2
4 Find: (a) (c)
2
1
∫ 1 + cos 2x dx (e) ∫ (sin 2x − 1)dx ∫ sin x cos x dx
2
(d) (f)

(h) ∫ sin ( − x ) dx
x π
∫ 2cos 2 dx ∫ sin x cos 2x dx
2 2
(g) (i)
2
1
(j) ∫ 1 + cos x dx (Hint: Use double-angle formulae.)

Chapter 4 Integration by substitution 115

YEAR 12

∫ sin 2x dx ∫ cos 2x dx ∫ sin 2x cos 2x dx

2 3 2 2
5 Find: (a) (b) (c)

∫ cos x dx ∫ sin x dx ∫ cos 2x cos 4x dx

4 5
(d) (e) (f)

∫ cos x dx ∫ sin x cos x dx ∫ tan x dx

5 3 2 4
(g) (h) (i)

∫ cos
4
6 Find: x sin3 x dx
π π π

∫ ∫ ∫
4 3 2 2
7 Evaluate: (a) 2
sin x dx (b) π
cos x dx (c) π
sin x cos3 x dx
0 6 4
π π 3π

∫ ∫ ∫
4 2
(d) sin3 x cos x dx (e) tan x sec 2 x dx (f) sin x cos x dx
−π 0 π

( )
π π π π

∫ ∫ cos 2 x − π dx ∫ ∫
2 3 3
(g) 2 sin θ cos 2 θ dθ (h) (i) cos θ sin 4 θ dθ (j) sec 2 θ sin θ dθ
0 − π2 4 π
4
π
6

4.2 INTEGRALS INVOLVING INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In the Mathematics Extension 1 course, you established the derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions (see
New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12, Chapter 11). These lead to the following integrals.
• ∫
1 dx = sin −1 x + C for −a < x < a • a dx = tan −1 x + C for all x
∫
2
a −x 2 a a 2
+ x2 a
−1 dx = cos −1 x + C for −a < x < a
• ∫
a − x2
2 a

The integrals in the following example were first considered in the Mathematics Extension 1 course.

Example 5
dx −1 dx 2 dx
Find: (a) ∫ 4 − x2
(b)
∫ 9 − x2
(c) ∫4+x 2 dx (d) ∫ 3 − x2
dx dx 2
(e) ∫ 1 − 9x 2
(f) ∫ 1 + 4x 2
(g) ∫ 4 − 25x 2
dx

Solution
dx = sin −1 x + C −1 dx = cos −1 x + C
(a) ∫ 4 − x2 2
(b) ∫ 9 − x2 3
2 dx = tan −1 x + C dx = sin −1 x + C
(c) ∫ 4 + x2 2
(d) ∫ 3 − x2 3

( ) ()
2
(e) Write: 1 − 9x 2 = 9 1 − x 2 = 3 1 − x 2
9 3
Thus: ∫
dx =1 1
∫ dx = 1 sin −1 x + C = 1 sin −1 3x + C
1 − 9x 2 3 2
1 − x2
3 ()
3 1
3
3
()
= 4 ( 1 + x ) = 4 ⎜(1 ) + x ⎟
2
⎛ ⎞
(f) Write: 1 + 4x 2 2 2
4 ⎝ 2 ⎠
1
dx = 1 1 dx = 1 2dx = 1 tan −1 x + C = 1 tan −1 2x + C
Thus: ∫ ∫ ∫ ()
1 + 4x 2 4
(12) + x 2
() 2 1 2
2 2
2 1 + x2
2 2

116 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

( ) (52) − x
2
(g) Write: 4 − 25x 2 = 25 4 − x 2 = 5 2
25
2 dx = 2 1 dx = 2 sin −1 x + C = 2 sin −1 5x + C
Thus: ∫ ∫ ()
()
4 − 25x 2 5 2 5 2 5 2
2 − x2
5 5

Integration by substitution
The integrals in the previous example were found by the standard trigonometric integrals. They can be
found explicitly by the method of change of variable, also called ‘integration by substitution’, i.e. the process:

∫ f (x) dx = f (u) du dx = f (u) du

∫ ∫
dx
An expression like a 2 − x 2 can be integrated with a substitution of x = a sin θ or x = a cos θ , while an expression
like a2 + x2 can be integrated with a substitution of x = a tan θ , as shown in the following examples.

Example 6
dx     (b) −dx     (c) dx
Find: (a) ∫ 4 − x2
∫ 1 − 9x 2
∫4+x 2

Solution
(a) 4 − x 2 = a 2 − x 2 with a = 2, so use the substitution x = 2 sin θ for − π < θ < π
2 2
(x ≠ ± π as these values make the denominator of the integrand zero)
2
Thus: dx = 2cos θ , dx = 2 cos θ dθ
dθ
and 4 − x 2 = 4 − 4 sin 2 θ = 4 cos 2 θ = 2cos θ as − π < θ < π (i.e. cos θ > 0)
2 2
dx = 2cos θ dθ = dθ
Hence: ∫ 4 − x2
∫ 2cos θ ∫
=θ +C

= sin −1 x + C
2

()
2
(b) 1 − 9x 2 = 3 1 − x 2 = 3 1 − x 2 = 3 a 2 − x 2 , so put a = 1 and use the substitution
9 3 3
x = 1 cos θ for 0 < θ < π (x ≠ 0, π as these values make the denominator of the integrand zero).
3
Thus: dx = − 1 sin θ , dx = − 1 sin θ dθ
dθ 3 3
and 1 − 9x 2 = 1 − cos 2 θ = sin θ

∫ sinθ × (− 3 sinθ ) dθ = 3 ∫ dθ
−dx = −1 1 1
Hence: ∫ 1 − 9x 2
= θ +C
3

1
= cos −1 3x + C
3

Chapter 4 Integration by substitution 117

YEAR 12

2 2 2
(c) 4 + x = a + x with a = 2, so use the substitution x = 2 tan θ
Thus: dx = 2 sec 2 θ , dx = 2 sec2 θ dθ
dθ
and 4 + x2 = 4 + 4 tan2 θ = 4(1 + tan2 θ ) = 4 sec2 θ
dx = 1 × 2 sec 2 θ dθ = 1 dθ
Hence: ∫
4 + x2 ∫
4 sec 2 θ 2 ∫
= θ +C
2

= tan −1 x + C
1
2 2

In Example 6(a), the restriction that θ is in the interval − π < θ < π has several implications.
2 2
It means that 4 − x 2 = 4 cos 2 θ requires you to find the positive square root of the expression, because
− π < θ < π implies cos θ > 0 and hence 4 − x 2 = 2cos θ .
2 2
If the restriction had been π < θ < 3π then cos θ < 0 and so 4 − x 2 = −2cos θ .
2 2
The domain of the substitution should be chosen to coincide with the corresponding inverse function:
• for the substitution x = a sin θ, set − π < θ < π
2 2
• for the substitution x = a cos θ, set 0 < θ < π.
The endpoints of the domain are not included as 1 is undefined there.
a − x2
2

For the substitution x = tan θ, no restriction on θ is required: 1 + x2 > 0 for all values of x, so the denominator of the
integrand will never be zero for real values of x.

Example 7
dx
Find: (a) ∫ (x + 2) 2
+9
   (b) ∫ 4 − x 2 dx for x ≤ 2   (c) ∫x 4 − x 2 dx for x ≤ 2

Solution
2 2
(a) Let (x + 2) + 9 = 9 + u where u = x + 2. Thus du = dx.
dx du = 1 3 du
Hence: ∫ 2
(x + 2) + 9
=
9+u 2 3 ∫ 9 + u2 ∫
= 1 tan −1 u + C
3 3

1 −1 x + 2
= tan +C
3 3
(b) 4 − x 2 suggests the substitution x = 2 sin θ where − π ≤ θ ≤ π .
2 2
Note that θ = ± π is allowed in this case as 4 − x 2 does not occur in the denominator.
2
Let x = 2 sin θ so that dx = 2 cos θ dθ and: 4 − x 2 = 4 − 4 sin 2 θ = 2cos θ
Hence: ∫ ∫ ∫
4 − x 2 dx = 2cos θ × 2cos θ dθ = 2 2cos 2 θ dθ

= 2 ∫ (1 + cos 2θ )dθ

( )
= 2 θ + 1 sin 2θ + C
2
= 2θ + sin 2θ + C
= 2θ + 2 sin θ cos θ + C

118 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Now x = 2 sin θ, so θ = sin −1 x and cos θ = 4 − x2

2 2 2 x
2
x 4−x
∴ ∫ 4 − x 2 dx = 2 sin −1 x + +C for x ≤ 2 θ
2 2 4 – x2
2 n 2
(c) x 4 − x is of the form f ′(x)[ f (x)] , which suggests a substitution of the form u = 4 − x rather
than a trigonometric substitution.
Let u = 4 − x2, so du = −2x dx, x dx = − du
2
1
∫ ∫
2
Hence: x 4 − x dx = − u du
2
3
= − 1 u2 + C
3
3
1
= − (4 − x 2 ) 2 + C for x ≤ 2
3
The substitution x = 2 sin θ would have found the same answer, but it would have taken more steps.

Example 8
2.5
dx 3 3 2
Evaluate: (a) ∫0 25 − x 2
  (b) ∫ − 3
−1 dx   (c)
4 − x2
∫1
dx   (d)
1 + x2 ∫
0
4 − x 2 dx

Solution
2.5 2.5
(a) ∫
dx = ⎡⎢sin −1 x ⎤⎥ = sin −1 1 − sin −1 0 = π
0 25 − x 2 ⎣ 5 ⎦0 2 6
Alternatively: Use the substitution x = 5 sin θ where − π < θ < π :
2 2
x = 5 sin θ, dx = 5 cos θ dθ : 25 − x 2 = 25 − 25 sin 2 θ = 5 cos θ

Limits of integration are x = 0: θ = 0   x = 2.5: sin θ = 1 , θ = π

2 6
2.5 π π
dx 1 × 5cos θ dθ = dθ = [θ ]06 = π
π
∫ ∫ ∫
6 6
Hence: =
0 25 − x 2 0 5cos θ 0 6
3
−1 ⎛ − 3 ⎞
3
−1 dx = ⎡cos −1 x ⎤ −1 3 π 5π 2π
(b) ∫
− 3 4−x 2 ⎢
⎣ 2 ⎥ − 3 = cos 2 − cos ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ = 6 − 6 = − 3
⎦
Alternatively: The substitution x = 2 cos θ could have been used.
3
dx = ⎡tan −1 x ⎤ 3 = tan −1 3 − tan −1 1 = π − π = π
(c) ∫
1 1+ x
2 ⎣ ⎦1 3 4 12
Alternatively: The substitution x = tan θ could have been used.

Chapter 4 Integration by substitution 119

YEAR 12

(d) Let x = 2 sin θ, where −

π ≤θ ≤ π:
2 2
x = 2 sin θ, dx = 2 cos θ dθ : 4 − x 2 = 4 − 4 sin 2 θ = 2cos θ
Limits of integration are x = 0: θ = 0   x = 2: sin θ = 1, θ = π
π
2
2

∫ ∫
2 2
Hence: 4 − x dx = 2cos θ × 2cos θ dθ
0 0
π

∫
2
=2 2cos 2 θ dθ
0
π

∫
2
=2 (1 + cos 2θ )dθ
0
π
= [2θ + sin 2θ ]02 = (π + sin π ) − (0 + sin 0) = π
y
2
The graph of y = 4 − x for the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 is the quadrant 2 y = 4 – x2

of the circle x2 + y2 = 4 that is in the first quadrant. The formula for

the area of a circle could have been used to evaluate the integral:
O x
Area = 1 × π × 22 = π (as r = 2)
2
4

Sum or difference of two squares

All quadratic expressions of the form ax2 + bx + c can be expressed as the sum or the difference of two squares,
depending on whether their discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac is positive or negative. This can be achieved by completing
the square of the quadratic.
After the quadratic expression is written as the sum or difference of squares, its associated integral can usually be
found by using an appropriate substitution.

Example 9
dx dx dx
Find: (a) ∫x 2
+ 4x + 13
    (b) ∫ 9 + 16x − 4x 2
    (c ∫ 2x − x 2

Solution
(a) Completing the square: (b) Completing the square:
x2 + 4x + 13 = x2 + 4x + 4 + 9 9 + 16x − 4x 2 = −4 ⎡⎢x 2 − 4x − 9 ⎤⎥
= (x + 2)2 + 9 ⎣ 4⎦
Let u = x + 2 so du = dx 9⎤
= −4 ⎡⎢(x 2 − 4x + 4) − 4 −
Hence (x + 2)2 + 9 = 9 + u2: ⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
dx 1 du = 25 − 4(x − 2)2
∫ 2
x + 4x + 13
= ∫ 9 + u2 Let u = x − 2 so du = dx
= 1 tan −1 u + C Hence 25 − 4(x − 2)2 = 25 − 4u2:
3 3

( )
dx du
= 1 tan −1 x + 2 + C
3 3
∫ 9 + 16x − 4x 2
= ∫ 25 − 4u 2
=1 du
2 ∫ 25 − u 2
4
= 1 sin −1 2u + C
2 5
1 −1 2(x − 2)
= sin +C
2 5

120 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

2 2
(c) Completing the square: 2x − x =
 −[(x − 2x + 1) − 1]
= 1 − (x − 1)2
Let u = x − 1 so du = dx
Hence 1 − (x − 1)2 = 1 − u2:
dx du
∫ 2x − x 2
= ∫ 1 − u2
= sin −1 u + C
= sin −1 (x − 1) + C

EXERCISE 4.2 INTEGRALS INVOLVING INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

dx dx −1 dx
1 Find: (a) ∫ 9 − x2
(b) ∫9+x 2 (c) ∫ 16 − x 2
dx −1 −1
2 Find: (a) ∫ 3 − x2
(b) ∫ 16 − 9x 2
dx (c) ∫ 25 − 4x 2
dx

x 2 + 2 dx = …
3 ∫ x2 + 1
A x + ln (x2 + 1) + C B x + tan−1 x + C C x − ln (x2 + 1) + C D x − tan−1 x + C
dx dx dx
4 Find: (a) ∫x 2
+ 4x + 5
(b) ∫x 2
− 6x + 10
(c) ∫ 3 + 2x − x 2
dx
(d) ∫ 15 + 2x − x 2
(e) ∫x 16 − x 2 dx (f) ∫ 9 − x 2 dx

x 2 dx x + 1 dx dx
(g) ∫ 1 − x2
(h) ∫ 4 − x2
(i) ∫x 2
+ 4x + 6
3 1 1
dx dx
∫ ∫ ∫
4
5 Evaluate: (a) (b) (c) x 1 − x 2 dx
0 9 + x2 0 1 − 4x 2 0
3 −1 3 5
dx dx dx
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
2 2
(d) 5 (e) 2 (f) (g) 25 − 4x 2 dx
0
(1 +x 2 )2 −2 x + 4x + 5 1
2 2x − x 2 0
1 4 1 1
dx dx dx dt
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
2
(h) (i) 2 (j) 2 (k)
2 − 2t + t 2
3
0
(1 − x ) 2 2 0 x − 2x + 4 −1 x − 2x + 5 0

0 3 a cot x
dx dx dt , 0 < x < π
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
4
(l) (m) (n) a 2 − x 2 dx (o)
2
−1 x + 2x + 4 − 74 6 − x − x2 0 tan x 1 + t2 2
3
dx
6 ∫ 1 4x − x 2
=…

π π π
A 0 B C D
6 3 2

4.3 INTEGRALS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

You have studied the derivative of the logarithmic function in the Mathematics Advanced course (see New Senior
Mathematics Advanced for Years 11 & 12, Chapter 13). For example:
d log (x 3 + 1) = 3x 2 d log (x 2 + 2x + 1) = 2x + 2 d log (sin x) = cos x , sin x > 0
dx e
x3 + 1 dx e
x 2 + 2x + 1 dx e sin x

Chapter 4 Integration by substitution 121

YEAR 12

f ′(x)
These results are all of the form d log e ( f (x)) = .
dx f (x)
Consider f (x) = loge [h(x)]. Let u = h(x) so du = h′(x) :
dx
f ′(x) = 1 × du
h(x) dx
h′(x)
=
h(x)
dx = log x + C, x > 0
Hence it follows that: ∫x e

h′(x)
∫ h(x) dx = log [h(x)] + C, h(x) > 0
e

Important consideration:
The function where f (x) = loge (−x) is a logarithmic function defined for x < 0.
dy dy du dy 1
Let u = −x so that y = loge u: = × now gives = × (−1) = −1 = −1 = 1
dx du dx dx u u −x x
This is the same result as previously obtained for the function defined for x > 0.
dx = ⎧log e x + C, x >0
This means that: ∫ ⎨
x ⎪log (−x) + C, x < 0
⎩ e
dx = log x + C
i.e. ∫
x e

Example 10
Write a primitive (antiderivative) of each function, stating any restrictions that must be placed on x.

(a)
4 (b)
6x 2 + 3 (c)
sin x (d)
x (e)
x2
2x − 3 2x 3 + 3x − 5 1 + cos x x −1 x −1

Solution
4 2 h′(x)
(a) ∫ 2x − 3 dx = 2 ∫ 2x − 3 dx = 2 ∫ h(x) dx   where h(x) = 2x − 3
= 2 loge (2x − 3) + C, x > 1.5
or 2 log e 2x − 3 + C without the restriction on x.
6x 2 + 3 dx = h′(x) dx   where h(x) = 2x3 + 3x − 5
(b) ∫
2x 3 + 3x − 5 h(x) ∫
= 2 loge (2x3 + 3x − 5) + C, x > 1
It is not obvious that 2x3 + 3x − 5 > 0 when x > 1, so it is better to write this answer as:
= 2 log e 2x 3 + 3x − 5 + C
sin x − sin x h′(x)
(c) ∫ 1 + cos x dx = − ∫ 1 + cos x dx = − ∫ h(x) dx  where h(x) = 1 + cos x
= −loge (1 + cos x) + C, cos x ≠ −1
or = −loge |1 + cos x| + C
(d) The power of the numerator equals the power of the denominator, so division gives:
x = x −1+1 = 1+ 1
x −1 x −1 x −1

∫( )
x dx = 1 + 1 dx = x + ln x − 1 + C
∴ ∫
x −1 x −1

122 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

(e) The power of the numerator is greater than the power of the denominator, so division gives:
2
x 2 = (x − x) + (x − 1) + 1 = x + 1 + 1    Long division requires x − 1 x 2 + 0x + 0.
x −1 x −1 x −1

∫( )
x 2 dx = 2
x + 1 + 1 dx = x + x + log e (x − 1) + C, x > 1
∴ ∫ x −1 x −1 2
2
or x + x + log e x − 1 + C
2

Example 11
2
x dx π
sin x dx 1
e x dx
Evaluate: (a)
∫
1 1 + x2
(b) ∫ π
2
1 − cos x
(c) ∫ 0 1+ e
x

Solution
2 π
x dx = 1 2 2x dx sin x dx = ⎡log (1 − cos x)⎤π
(a) ∫
1 1+ x
2 2 1 1 + x2 ∫ (b) ∫
1 − cos x
π
2
⎣ e ⎦ π2
= loge 2 − loge 1
= 1 ⎡⎣log e (1 + x 2 )⎤⎦
2
2 1 = loge 2
= 1 (log e 5 − log e 2) e x dx = ⎡log (1 + e x )⎤1
1

2 (c) ∫ 1+ e
0
x ⎣ e ⎦0
1
= log e 2.5 = log e (1 + e) − log e 2
2
= log e 1 + e
2

EXERCISE 4.3 INTEGRALS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

1 Find f (x) and the domain of f for the following.

(a) f ′(x) =
1 (b) f ′(x) =
2 (c) f ′(x) =
x2 (d) f ′(x) =
1
x +1 2x + 1 8 − x3 2 − 4x
(e) f ′(x) =
x +1 (f) f ′(x) =
2x + 5 (g) f ′(x) = cos x − sin x (h) f ′(x) =
x
2
x + 2x + 3 x sin x + cos x 1 + x2
(i) f ′(x) = x (j) f ′(x) =
x (k) f ′(x) = 1 (l) f ′(x) =
1
(1 + x 2 )2 1 + x2 2x + 5 (2x + 5)2
(m) f ′(x) =
2x + 1 (n) f ′(x) = tan x (o) f ′(x) = 2cosx (p) f ′(x) =
x2 + x + 1
2x − 1 1 + sin x x2 + 1
(q) f ′(x) =
x 2 − 5x + 1 (r) f ′(x) = x
3
(s) f ′(x) = 2 x + 3 (t) f ′(x) = cot x
x−2 x +1 x + 6x − 7
x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x + 2 dx = …
2 ∫ x2 + 1
A
x 2 + 2x + log (x 2 + 1) + C B
x 2 + 2x + tan −1 x + C
2 e 2
2
C x + 2x + log e x 2 + 1 + C D
x 2 + 2x + tan −1 x + C
2 2 2
3 Evaluate:
2 4 2 2
dx 3 dx 2x + 1 dx 2x + 1 dx
(a) ∫0 x +1
(b) ∫ 2 4x − 2
(c) ∫ 2
0 x + x +1
(d) ∫
1 2x − 1
3
x 2 + x + 1 dx 2
x 3 dx 4 2
x + 3x + 1 dx 3
3x dx
(e) ∫0 x2 + 1
(f) ∫0 2x + 1
(g) ∫ 3 x−2
(h) ∫
1 x2 + 1

Chapter 4 Integration by substitution 123

YEAR 12

π π
3
x 2 dx 2
x 2 − 3x dx sin θ dθ
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
3 2
(i) (j) (k) tan x dx (l)
2 x −1 0 2x + 1 π
6
π
3
1 − cos θ
π π
3
x 4
x 2 + 1 dx cos θ dθ
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
4 2
(m) dx (n) sec 2 x dx (o) (p)
2 1 + x2 0 2 x2 0 1 + sin θ
2
2
⎛ x − 1 ⎞ dx 3
2x dx 1
e x dx π
sin x dx
(q) ∫ 1
⎜⎝ ⎟
x2 ⎠
(r) ∫
0
2
x +9
(s) ∫ 0 1+ e
x (t) ∫ π
2
2 + cos x

( )
4 (a) Differentiate y = log e x + x 2 − a 2 , x > a with respect to x.
dx
(b) Hence find ∫ x − a2
2
, x > a.

(
5 (a) Differentiate y = log e x + x 2 + a 2 with respect to x. ) (b) Hence find ∫
dx
x + a2
2
.

6 Use the integrals in questions 4 and 5 to find the following.

dx dx dx
(a) ∫ 2
x −1
(b)
x2 + 1
∫ (c) ∫ 2
x − 4x + 3
dx dx dx
(d) ∫ 2
x + 6x + 13
(e)
2
x − 5x + 7
∫ (f) ∫ 2
x + x +1
7 Evaluate:
4 1 1 3
dx dx dx dx
(a) ∫
3 x2 − 4
(b) ∫ 0 x2 + 9
(c) ∫ −1 2
x + 8x + 17
(d) ∫ 2.5 2
x − 3x + 2

4.4 THE SUBSTITUTION t = tan A

2

The substitution t = tan A enables you to express sin A and cos A in terms of t, which then enables you to express
2
any rational function of sin A and cos A as a rational algebraic function of t. This then allows you to use standard
techniques of integration such as partial fractions or integration by parts, covered in Chapter 5.
If t = tan A , then it follows from the right-angled triangle that:
2
1 + t2
A
sin = t t
2 1 + t2 Α
A 1 2
cos = 1
2 1 + t2
A A
Now sin A = 2 sin A cos A   and  cos A = cos2 − sin2
2 2 2 2
= 2× t × 1
2
= 12− t 2
1+t 2
1+t 2
1+t 1+t
2
= 2t 2 = 1 − t2
1+t 1+t
2
As t = tan A : dt = 1 sec 2 A = 1 + t   ∴ dA = 2 2
2 dA 2 2 2 dt 1 + t

Summary—t formulae
2
• cos A = 1 − t 2
2t dA = 2
• t = tan A • sin A = •
2 1 + t2 1+t dt 1 + t 2

124 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 12
dx
Find: ∫ 1 + cos x
Solution
2 2 2
Let t = tan x so that: 1 + cos x = 1 + 1 − t 2 = 1 + t + 12 − t = 2 2
2 1+t 1+t 1+t
2
Use dx = 2 dt:
∫
dx = 1 + t × 2 2 dt
∫
1 + t2 1 + cos x 2 1+t
= ∫ dt
= t +C
= tan x + C
2
Alternatively:
2 cos 2 x = 1 + cos x
From the double-angle results:
2
dx =1 dx = 1 sec 2 x dx = tan x + C
∴ ∫
1 + cos x 2 cos 2 x 2 ∫ 2 2 ∫
2

Example 13
π
dx
∫
2
Evaluate:
0 2 − sin x
Solution
2(1 − t + t 2 )
Let t = tan x so that:
2 − sin x = 2 − 2t 2 =
2 1+t 1 + t2
Use dx = 2 2 dt: dx 1 + t2 2 dt
1+t 2 − sin x
= ∫
2 ×
2(1 − t + t ) 1 + t 2 ∫
= 2 dt ∫
t −t +1
dt
Complete the square: = ∫
( )
2
t− 1 +3
2 4
dt
= ∫
( )
2 2
⎛ ⎞

t − 1 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ ⎞
dx = 1 tan −1 x : 2 −1 ⎜
t−1
2 ⎟ +C
But ∫ x + a2 a
2 a =
3
tan
⎜ 3 ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎟
2 ⎠
⎛ ⎞
= 2 tan −1 ⎜ 2t − 1⎟ + C

3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 2 tan x − 1⎞
As t = tan x : ∫
dx = 2 tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ +C
2 2 − sin x 3 ⎝ ⎠
3

Chapter 4 Integration by substitution 125

YEAR 12

π
π ⎡ 2 ⎛ x − 1⎞ ⎤ 2
dx −1 2 tan
∫
2
∴ = ⎢ tan ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
0 2 − sin x ⎢ 3 ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦0
⎣ 3
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
= 2 tan −1 ⎜ 2 − 1⎟ − 2 tan −1 ⎜ − 1 ⎟
3 ⎝ 3⎠ 3 ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎞
= 2 ⎜ tan −1 ⎜ 1 ⎟ − tan −1 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ ⎟
3⎝ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎠

= 2 π − −π
3 6 6 ( ( ))
= 2π
3 3

A
EXERCISE 4.4 THE SUBSTITUTION t = tan
2
dx
1 ∫ 1 − sin x = …
A
2
1 − tan x
+C B
2
tan x − 1
+C C
1 +C
1−t
D (
2 log e tan x − 1 + C
2 )
2 2
sin x dx dx
2 Find: (a) ∫ 2 − cos x dx (b) ∫ 3 + 2cos x (c) ∫ 1 + sin x
π π π
sin θ dθ dx
∫ ∫ ∫
3 2 2
3 Evaluate: (a) sec x dx (b) (c)
0 0 2 + cos θ 0 2 + cos x
dx cos θ sin θ dx
4 Find: (a) ∫ 5 + 4 cos x (b) ∫ 2 − cosθ dθ (c) ∫ 2 + sinθ dθ (d) ∫ 3 − cos x
cos x dx tan x
(e) ∫ sin x + 1 dx (f) ∫ 1 + cos x (g) ∫ 1 + cos x dx
5 Using an appropriate substitution of the type t = tan x, find:
dx tan 2x dx
(a) ∫
1 + sin 2x
(b)
1 + cos 2x ∫
6 Use the substitution t = tan x to find the exact value of:
2π
2
3 dx π π π

3
∫
(a) π sin x (b) 2 dx
5 + 4 cos x ∫
(c)
0
3 tan x
1 + cos x
dx (d) ∫
0 ∫
0
2 dx
3 − cos x − 2 sin x
dθ
7 Use the substitution t = tan x to find ∫
.
2 1 + cos θ + sin θ
π
8 Use the substitution t = tan x to find the exact value of ∫
3 dx .
2 0 1 + cos x − sin x
π
dθ
∫
4
9 Use the substitution t = tan θ to find the exact value of .
0 2 + sin 2θ
π
10 Using the substitution t = tan x , or otherwise, evaluate 2 dx .
2 ∫ π 12 sin x − 5cos x + 13
3

126 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

CHAPTER REVIEW 4
1 1 1 3
1 dx 1 dx x x
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
2 2 2
1 Evaluate: (a) (b) (c) dx (d) dx
− 12 1 − x2 0 1 + 4x 2 − 12 1 − x2 0 1 + x2
x 3 + 1 dx x3
2 Find:   
(a) ∫ (1 − x
dx
3
2 2
(b) ∫ x2 + 1
(c) ∫ 2
x + 2x + 1
dx
)
π
2
x cos x dx 1
e x dx
∫ ∫ ∫
2
3 Evaluate: (a) dx (b) (c)
0 (x + 2)2
2
0 1 + sin x 0 1 + 2e x
π 4

∫ ∫
4
(d) π
sin 2 x cos 2 x dx (e) 3
2x + 1 dx
8 2
π
4
dx 2
a 2 − x 2 dx
∫ ∫ ∫
4
4 Evaluate: (a) 2 (b) cos 4 θ dθ (c)
0 x − 2x + 4 0 a
2 x2
3
5 Evaluate: ∫ 0
x 2 9 − x 2 dx
6 Find:
1 − 4x 2
∫ x dx ∫ (sin x + cos x) dx ∫ sin x cos x dx ∫ sin x sec x dx
2 2 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2
sin x
∫ cos x dx ∫ sin x cos x dx ∫ cos x dx ∫ cos x dx
2 2 2 4
(e) 2 (f) (g) (h)

1 2 4
x dx dx
∫ ∫ ∫
2
7 Evaluate: (a) x 1 − 4x 2 dx (b) (c)
0 1 1 + 4x 2 3
5 1 + x2
3π 1 π
dx
∫ ∫ ∫
2 2
(d) 1 − sin 2 x dx (e) (f) sin 2 2x dx
π 0 4 − x2 0

∫ sin x e ∫x ∫ (x − 3)
cos x
8 Find: (a) dx (b) x − 3 dx (c) x dx
x sin θ dθ
∫ (2x ∫ cos ∫ cot x dx ∫
2
(d) 2 dx (e) x sin x dx (f) (g)
− 4)3 1 + cos θ
cos 2θ − x2 2x dx
9 Find: (a) ∫ sin 2θ dθ
2 (b) ∫ xe dx (c) ∫x 2
+1

∫ x cos(x )dx ∫ sec

2 2
(d) (e) x tan 2 x dx
π π
sec 2 θ dx
1
x 2 dx
∫ ∫ ∫
4 2
10 Evaluate: (a) tan 2 x dx (b) (c)
0 0 2 0 x2 + 1
2 2
3 2x + 5 dx
(d) ∫ 1
2
x + 5x + 4
dx (e) ∫ 2
1 x + 5x + 4
π
11 Use the substitution t = tan x to evaluate dx .
∫
2
2 2 + cos x −π
2
x(3 − x)
12 (a) Sketch the graph of the curve with equation: y = .
x −1
(b) Calculate the area of the region enclosed by the curve and the straight lines x + 3 = 0, x = 0
and y = 2 − x.

Chapter 4 Integration by substitution 127

YEAR 12

π
13 Use the substitution t = tan x to find the exact value of 2 ∫
1 dx .
2 0 3sin x + 4 cos x + 5

14 Sketch the graph of y = cos2 x for 0 < x < π. The graph meets the x-axis at A and meets the line y = 2 at B.
sin x 3
Find the area enclosed between the arc AB and its chord.
2
15 Find the area of the region enclosed by the x-axis and the curve with equation y = 1 − x 2 .
1+ x
16 By integration, find the area of the ellipse x = 2 cos θ, y = 3 sin θ.
π
x dx .
17 (a) Use the substitution t = tan to evaluate
∫
2
2 0 1 + sin x
π
(b) Hence find the value of 2 sin x dx .
∫
0 1 + sin x

128 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

CHAPTER 5
Further integration
5.1 PARTIAL FRACTIONS, LINEAR FACTORS
You will now develop the technique of partial fractions. This will be applied for use in integrating certain rational
functions. In this section you may benefit from working through the numerical examples before looking at
the theory.
Identity of polynomial expressions
If two polynomials of the n-th degree are equal for more than n values of the variable
then they are identically equal, i.e. equal for all values of the variable.

You use this result to find the numerator of partial fractions.

Example 1
Express 5x + 1 in partial fractions.
(x − 1)(x + 2)
Solution
Method 1
5x + 1 ≡ a + b , x ≠ 1, −2.
Let
(x − 1)(x + 2) x − 1 x + 2
5x + 1 a(x + 2) + b(x − 1)
≡
Write with common denominator: (x − 1)(x + 2) (x − 1)(x + 2) , x ≠ 1, −2
Write the numerators: 5x + 1 ≡ a(x + 2) + b(x − 1)
Now use the identity property of polynomials and substitute two values for x. As we are now dealing only
with the numerators, we can use x = 1 and x = −2 as the two values for x.
Let x = 1: 6 = 3a + 0 Let x = −2: −9 = −3b
a=2   b = 3
Hence: 5x + 1 = 2 + 3
(x − 1)(x + 2) x − 1 x + 2
Method 2
Write the numerators: 5x + 1 ≡ a(x + 2) + b(x − 1)
Expand and simplify RHS: 5x + 1 ≡ (a + b)x + 2a − b
Equate coefficients: 5 = a + b [1]
1 = 2a − b [2]
[1] + [2]: 6 = 3a ∴a=2
Substitute into [1]: 5=2+b ∴b=3
Hence: 5x + 1 = 2 + 3
(x − 1)(x + 2) x − 1 x + 2

Chapter 5 Further integration 129

YEAR 12

Rational functions
A rational function f (x) is the ratio of two polynomials, f (x) = A(x), defined for all values of x except those for
B(x)
which B(x) = 0.
If the polynomial degree of A(x) ≥ degree of B(x), then you can divide B(x) into A(x):
A(x) = B(x) × Q(x) + R(x) where degree of R(x) < degree of B(x)
which leads to:
R(x)
f (x) = Q (x) +
B(x)
2
Consider f (x) = x +2 x − 1 . By division you find f (x) = 1 + 2x , so that Q(x) = 1, R(x) = x and B(x) = x2 − 1.
x −1 x −1
This means that (x2 + x − 1) = (x2 − 1) × 1 + x.
As x2 − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1), you have B(x) = (x − 1)(x + 1).
The problem of partial fraction decomposition arises when B(x) is a product of polynomials of lower degree, i.e.
B(x) = B1(x) × B2(x) with degree B1(x) > 0, degree B2(x) > 0.
R(x) m 1 (x) m 2 (x)
You wish to find polynomials m1(x), m2(x) such that: = +
B(x) B1 (x) B 2 (x)
Now m1(x) and m2(x) can be found if: R(x) ≡ m1(x) × B2(x) + m2(x) × B1(x)
Comparison of degrees shows that you can suppose degree m1(x) < degree B1(x), degree m2(x) < degree B2(x).
R(x) x m 1 (x) m 2 (x)
Considering = = + you can write m1(x) = a and m2(x) = b. These must be
B(x) (x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 1) (x + 1)
constants: the degree of the denominator is one, so the degree of the numerator must be zero.
R(x) x
Hence = = a + b and you now need to find the values of a and b.
B(x) (x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 1) (x + 1)
You have: x ≡ a(x + 1) + b(x − 1)
i.e. x ≡ (a + b)x + a − b
Equate coefficients: (a + b) = 1 and a − b = 0, ∴ a = b
∴ 2a = 1, a = 0.5 and b = 0.5
R(x) x
Hence: = = 0.5 + 0.5
B(x) (x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 1) (x + 1)
Thus you can write f (x) = 1 + 2x as: f (x) = 1 + 0.5 + 0.5
x −1 x −1 x +1
Linear factors
Consider the general case, where B(x) is a product of distinct linear factors:
B(x) = k(x − a1)(x − a2)…(x − an)
R(x) c c c
You want to discover if constants c1, c2, … cn exist so that: = 1 + 2 +…+ n
B(x) x − a1 x − a2 x − an

Linear factors—Method 1 (equating coefficients)

Consider the monic case when n = 2, so that k = 1 and B(x) is a quadratic.
R(x) dx + e c c
R(x) = dx + e and B(x) = (x − a1)(x − a2): = = 1 + 2
B(x) (x − a1 )(x − a2 ) x − a1 x − a2
dx + e c (x − a2 ) + c2 (x − a1 )
Write with common denominator: = 1
(x − a1 )(x − a2 ) (x − a1 )(x − a2 )
Write the numerators: dx + e ≡ c1(x − a2) + c2(x − a1)
Using identity property of polynomials, equate coefficients: d = c1 + c2
e = −(a2c1 + a1c2)

130 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

As a1 ≠ a2, these two equations can be solved for c1 and c2.

In the general case, a1, a2, … an are distinct, so the coefficient equations can be solved for c1, c2, … cn.
This is best demonstrated with a numerical example.

Example 2
Reduce x +1 to its partial fractions using linear factors method 1 (equating coefficients).
(x − 2)(x − 3)
Solution
x +1 c c
Let = 1 + 2
(x − 2)(x − 3) x − 2 x −3
x +1 c (x − 3) + c2 (x − 2)
Write with common denominator: = 1
(x − 2)(x − 3) (x − 2)(x − 3)
Write the numerators: x + 1 ≡ (c1 + c2)x − (3c1 + 2c2)
Using identity property, equate coefficients: c1 + c2 = 1 [1]
3c1 + 2c2 = −1 [2]
2 × [1]: 2c1 + 2c2 = 2 [3]
[2] − [3]: c1 = −3
Substitute into [1]: c2 = 4
Hence: x +1 = 4 − 3
(x − 2)(x − 3) x − 3 x − 2

Linear factors—Method 2 (substitution)

Again consider the monic case when n = 2, so that k = 1 and B(x) is a quadratic.
R(x) dx + e c c
R(x) = dx + e and B(x) = (x − a1)(x − a2): = = 1 + 2
B(x) (x − a1 )(x − a2 ) x − a1 x − a2
dx + e c (x − a2 ) + c2 (x − a1 )
Write with common denominator: = 1
(x − a1 )(x − a2 ) (x − a1 )(x − a2 )
Write the numerators: dx + e ≡ c1(x − a2) + c2(x − a1)
Let x = a1: da1 + e = c1(a1 − a2)
da + e
Solve for c1: c1 = 1
a1 − a2
Let x = a2: da2 + e = c2(a2 − a1)
da + e
Solve for c2: c2 = 2
a2 − a1
You should always check your answer by writing the partial fractions over a common denominator again.

Example 3
Reduce 2x + 1 to partial fractions using linear factors method 2 (substitution).
(x − 2)(x + 3)
Solution
2x + 1 c c
Let = 1 + 2
(x − 2)(x + 3) x − 2 x + 3
2x + 1 c (x + 3) + c2 (x − 2)
Write with common denominator:= 1
(x − 2)(x + 3) (x − 2)(x + 3)
Write the numerators: 2x + 1 ≡ c1(x + 3) + c2(x − 2)
Let x = 2: 5 = 5c1 + 0
c1 = 1

Chapter 5 Further integration 131

YEAR 12

Let x = −3: −5 = 0 − 5c2

c2 = 1
Hence: 2x + 1 = 1 + 1
(x − 2)(x + 3) x − 2 x + 3

Linear factors—Method 3 (limits)

R(x)
Multiply through the expression and note that B(a1) = 0. Hence B(x) = B(x) − B(a1).
B(x)
R(x) c c c R(x)(x − a1) c (x − a1) c (x − a1)
Thus = 1 + 2 + … + n becomes: = c1 + 2 +…+ n
B(x) x − a1 x − a2 x − an B(x) − B(a1) x − a2 x − an
x − a1
Let x → a1 and recall that lim = 1 (from the definition of differentiation from first principles).
x→a1 B(x) − B(a1 ) B′(a1)
You have: RHS → c1
R(a1)
LHS →
B′(a1)
Repeating this process for each of the other linear factors allows the other ci to be found.
Remember that B(x) = k(x − a1)(x − a2)…(x − an), i.e. each factor is monic.

Example 4
Reduce 3x − 4 to its partial fractions using linear factors method 3 (limits).
(x + 2)(x − 3)
Solution
3x − 4 c c
Let = 1 + 2
(x + 2)(x − 3) x + 2 x − 3
R(x) = 3x − 4   B(x) = x2 − x − 6   B′(x) = 2x − 1
R(−2) R(3)
c1 = = −10 = 2   c2 = = 5 =1
B′(−2) −4 − 1 B′(3) 6 − 1
Hence: 3x − 4 = 2 + 1
(x + 2)(x − 3) x + 2 x − 3

You should try using each of these methods to find partial fractions. You may find that you end up preferring
one of the methods, but it is best to be able to use whichever is the most efficient method for a question.

Example 5
Reduce 3x to its partial fractions.
(2x − 1)(x + 1)
Solution
Let 3x = a + b
(2x − 1)(x + 1) 2x − 1 x + 1
3x a(x + 1) + b(2x − 1)
Write with common denominator: =
(2x − 1)(x + 1) (2x − 1)(x + 1)
Write the numerators: 3x ≡ a(x + 1) + b(2x − 1)
To find a, let x = :1 3 = a× 3 +0
2 2 2
a=1
To find b, let x = −1: −3 = 0 + b × (−3)
b=1
Hence: 3x = 1 + 1
(2x − 1)(x + 1) 2x − 1 x + 1

132 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 6
Express 54 using partial fractions.
2
(x + x − 20)(x − 1)
Solution
Factorise the
quadratic expression: x2 + x − 20 = (x + 5)(x − 4)
54 c c c
∴ = 1 + 2 + 3
(x + 5)(x − 4)(x − 1) x + 5 x − 4 x − 1
Write with 54 c (x − 4)(x − 1) + c2 (x + 5)(x − 1) + c3 (x + 5)(x − 4)
= 1
common denominator: (x + 5)(x − 4)(x − 1) (x + 5)(x − 4)(x − 1)
Write the numerators: 54 ≡ c1(x − 4)(x − 1) + c2(x + 5)(x − 1) + c3(x + 5)(x − 4)
Let x = −5: 54 = 54c1 ∴ c1 = 1
Let x = 4: 54 = 27c2 ∴ c2 = 2
Let x = 1: 54 = −18c3 ∴ c3 = −3
Hence: 54 = 1 + 2 − 3
(x 2 + x − 20)(x − 1) x + 5 x − 4 x − 1

Example 7
Reduce x2 to its partial fractions.
2
x + 3x + 2
Solution
As degree of numerator = degree of denominator, first divide by the denominator.
As a quicker way of doing the division, consider rewriting:
x2 (x 2 + 3x + 2) − (3x + 2)
2 = 2 = 1 − 2 3x + 2
x + 3x + 2 x + 3x + 2 x + 3x + 2
c c
We now need to find c1 and c2 for 2 3x + 2 = 1 + 2 .
x + 3x + 2 x + 1 x + 2
2
R(x) = 3x + 2   B(x) = x + 3x + 2   B′(x) = 2x + 3
R(−1) −3 + 2 R(−2) −6 + 2
x = −1: c1 = = = −1 x = −2: c2 = = =4
B′(−1) −2 + 3 B′(−2) −4 + 3

Hence: 3x + 2 = −1 + 4 ∴ x2 = 1+ 1 − 4
x + 3x + 2 x + 1 x + 2
2 2
x + 3x + 2 x +1 x + 2

EXERCISE 5.1 PARTIAL FRACTIONS, LINEAR FACTORS

1 If 2x − 11 = a + b then the values of a and b are:

(x + 2)(x − 1) x + 2 x − 1
A a = −5, b = 3 B a = −5, b = −3 C a = 5, b = 3 D a = 5, b = −3
2 Reduce each rational function to its partial fractions.
(a)
4 (b)
2x − 1
(c)
3x + 1 (d)
2x 2 - 6x - 2
(x − 1)(x + 3) (x + 2)(x − 3) x(x + 1) x(x - 1)(x + 2)

Chapter 5 Further integration 133

YEAR 12

3 Reduce each rational function to its partial fractions.

(a)
3
(b) 23x − 1 (c)
x + 10 (d)
18x - 12
2
x +x−2 x +x−6 x2 − 4 x(x 2 + x - 12)

4 x2 is equal to:
2
x + 3x + 2
A 1+
4 + 1 B 1−
4 − 1 C 1− 4 + 1 D 1+ 4 − 1
x + 2 x +1 x + 2 x +1 x + 2 x +1 x + 2 x +1

5 Reduce each rational function to its partial fractions.

(a)
x2 (b) 2
x2 + 2 (c)
x2 (d)
x2
(x + 1)(x − 2) x − 6x + 8 x2 − 9 x(x 2 − x − 12)

6 Reduce each rational function to its partial fractions.

(a)
3x − 19 (b) 2
5x (c)
15x + 28 (d)
x 2 − 19x − 32
(x + 3)(2x − 1) x +x−6 3x 2 + 25x + 8 (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)

(e)
3(3x + 1)
(f)
1 − 2x (g)
2x 2 + x + 6 (h)
2x 3 + x 2 − x − 3
x2 − 9 2x 2 + 7x + 6 x2 - 4 x(x − 1)(2x + 3)
2
7 Reduce 35x + 226x + 29 to its partial fractions.
x + 6x + 11x + 6

5.2 PARTIAL FRACTIONS, QUADRATIC FACTORS

Consider the case when B(x) is a product of distinct linear factors and a simple quadratic factor, so that the
c c c
decomposition is of the form: R(x) = 1 + 2 + … + n + 2dx + e , with degree of R(x) < n + 2
B(x) x − a1 x − a2 x − an x + bx + c
(as the numerator has a degree at least one less than the denominator).
As for partial fractions with linear factors, there are many different methods that may be used.

Example 8
Reduce 13 to its partial fractions.
(x − 3)(x 2 + 4)
Solution
Let 13 = c + dx2 + e
(x − 3)(x + 4) x − 3 x + 4
2

R(x) = 13   B(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 12   B′(x) = 3x2 − 6x + 4

R(3) 13
For c, let x = 3: c= = =1
B′(3) 27 − 18 + 4
For e, let x = 0: 13 = 1 + e ∴ e = −3
(−3)(4) (−3) 4
Hence: 13 = 1 + dx2 − 3
(x − 3)(x + 4) x − 3 x + 4
2

2
For d, multiply through by x: 13x = x + dx 2 − 3x
(x − 3)(x + 4) x − 3
2
x +4
1 + d− x
3
Divide by largest power of x in each numerator: 13 =
( )
(1 − x3 ) x 2 + 4 1 − x3 1 + 42 x

134 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

13 = 1 + d
Find lim of both sides:
x→∞ ∞ 1 1
0 = 1 + d
d = −1
Thus: 13 = 1 − x+3
(x − 3)(x 2 + 4) x − 3 x 2 + 4

The process behind the method of Example 8 is as follows:

B(x) is a product of distinct linear factors and a simple quadratic factor, such that:
R(x) c c c
= 1 + 2 + … + n + 2dx + e , with degree R(x) < n + 2. As for partial fractions with linear
B(x) x − a1 x − a2 x − an x + bx + c
factors, here the numbers c1, c2, … cn, d, e can be found by comparing coefficients or by combining that method with
others.
In other words, c1, c2, … cn can be found using any of the previous methods for partial fractions with linear factors.
You then only need to find d and e as follows.
• If none of a1, a2, … an is zero, then let x = 0 to find the value of e.
• Multiply through by x and let x → ∞ (which will require dividing each fraction by the largest power
of x in the numerators) to find the value of d.
• If e.g. a1 = 0, first find d and then select a small integer value for x distinct from a1, a2, … an to give a simple
equation that can be solved for e.

Example 9
Express x 2 + 6x + 5 using partial fractions.
(x − 2)(x 2 + x + 1)
Solution
x2 + x + 1 has no real linear factors; degree of numerator < degree of denominator.
Let x 2 + 6x + 5 = c + 2dx + e
(x − 2)(x + x + 1) x − 2 x + x + 1
2

x 2 + 6x + 5 c(x 2 + x + 1) + (dx + e)(x − 2)

Write with common denominator: =
(x − 2)(x 2 + x + 1) (x − 2)(x 2 + x + 1)
Write the numerators: x2 + 6x + 5 ≡ c(x2 + x + 1) + (dx + e)(x − 2) [1]
Let x = 2 in [1]: 21 = 7c ∴c=3
Let x = 0 in [1]: 5 = 3 − 2e ∴ e = −1
Equate coefficients of x2 in [1]: 1=c+d
∴ 1=3+d ∴ d = −2

Hence: x 2 + 6x + 5 = 3 − 22x + 1
(x − 2)(x + x + 1) x − 2 x + x + 1
2

Example 10
Reduce 2x + 7 to its partial fractions.
x(x 2 + 3x + 1)
Solution
x2 + 3x + 1 has no real linear factors.
Let 2x + 7 = c + dx + e [1]
x(x 2 + 3x + 1) x x 2 + 3x + 1

Chapter 5 Further integration 135

YEAR 12

R(x) = 2x + 7   B(x) = x3 + 3x2 + x  B′(x) = 3x2 + 6x + 1

R(0) 7
For c, let x = 0: c= = =7
B′(0) 1
2x + 7 7(x 2 + 3x + 1) + x(dx + e)
Write [1] with common denominator: =
x(x 2 + 3x + 1) x(x 2 + 3x + 1)
Write the numerators: 2x + 7 ≡ 7(x2 + 3x + 1) + x(dx + e)
Let x = 1: 9 = 35 + d + e [2]
Let x = −1: 5 = −7 + d − e [3]
[2] + [3]: 14 = 28 + 2d  ∴ d = −7
Substitute into [2]: −26 = −7 + e  ∴ e = −19
Hence: 2x + 7 = 7 − 27x + 19
x(x + 3x + 1) x x + 3x + 1
2

Example 11
Reduce 7 to its real partial fractions.
(x + 9)(x 2 + 16)
2

Solution
Neither x2 + 9 nor x2 + 16 have real linear factors.
ex + f
Let 2 7 = cx + d +
(x + 9)(x 2 + 16) x 2 + 9 x 2 + 16
Equate numerators: 7 ≡ (cx + d )(x2 +16) + (ex + f  )(x2 + 9) [1]
Let x = 0 in [1]: 7 = 16d + 9f [2]
Let x = 1 in [1]: 7 = 17c + 17d + 10e + 10f [3]
Let x = −1 in [1]: 7 = −17c + 17d − 10e +10f [4]
Let x = 2 in [1]: 7 = 40c + 20d + 26e + 13f [5]
[3] + [4]: 14 = 34d + 20f
7 = 17d + 10f [6]
[6] − [2]: 0 = d + f  ∴ f = −d [7]
Substitute [7] into [2]: 7 = 16d − 9d  ∴ d = 1 ∴ f = −1
[3] − [4]: 0 = 34c + 20e  ∴ e = −1.7c [8]
Substitute [8] into [5]: 7 = 40c + 20 − 44.2c − 13   ∴ c = 0 ∴e=0
Hence: 7 = 1 − 1
(x 2 + 9)(x 2 + 16) x 2 + 9 x 2 + 16
With experience you will notice that (x2 + 16) − (x2 + 9) = 7, which is the numerator of the given fraction.
This can make finding the partial fraction numerators easier with quadratic denominators of this type and a
numerical numerator.

For fractions with quadratic denominators as in the example above, you can write:
k = a + b where a, b, k, l and m are constants.
(x 2 + l)(x 2 + m) x 2 + l x 2 + m
This can be done because the original numerator (k) has no terms in x.
Equating numerators: k = (a + b)x2 + (am + bl)
Hence a = −b and am + bl = k. This means that a and b must have the same magnitude but opposite sign,
so that:
k k
= a − a where a =
(x 2 + l)(x 2 + m) x 2 + l x 2 + m m−l

136 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 12
Reduce x2 − 6 to its real partial fractions.
(x 2 + 9)(x 2 + 4)
Solution
Neither x2 + 9 nor x2 + 4 have real linear factors.
Because the numerator does not contain an odd power of x, it seems reasonable to assume that the numerator
of each partial fraction will not contain a term with an odd power of x (as was seen in the previous example).
Try to use only c and d as the numerators of the partial fractions.

Let x2 − 6 = c + d
(x + 9)(x 2 + 4) x 2 + 9 x 2 + 4
2

x2 − 6 c(x 2 + 4) + d(x 2 + 9)
2 = ∴ 2
(x + 9)(x + 4) (x 2 + 9)(x 2 + 4)
Equate numerators: x2 − 6 ≡ (c + d)x2 + 4c + 9d
∴ 1=c+d [1]
−6 = 4c + 9d [2]
Rewrite [1]: c=1−d [3]
Substitute into [2]: −6 = 4 − 4d + 9d
5d = −10
d = −2
Substitute into [3]: c=3

Hence: x2 − 6 = 3 − 2
(x + 9)(x 2 + 4) x 2 + 9 x 2 + 4
2

When finding partial fractions for pairs of quadratic denominators like (x2 + a2) and (x2 + b2) and the
numerator does not have odd powers of x, Examples 11 and 12 show that you can write the first step as:
cx 2 + d e f
2 2 2 2 = 2 2 + 2 where either c or d could be zero.
(x + a )(x + b ) x + a x + b2
It is an interesting task to show this algebraically.
Repeated linear factors
This Mathematics Extension 2 course does not require you to find partial fractions with repeated linear factors, as
in a question such as ‘Reduce 1 to its linear factors’. However, you may be asked to show a repeated
(x − 1)(x − 2)2
factors result such as in the next example.

Example 13
1 1 1 1
Show that: 2 = x −1 − x − 2 +
(x − 1)(x − 2) (x − 2)2

Solution
RHS = 1 − 1 + 1
x − 1 x − 2 (x − 2)2
(x − 2)2 − (x − 1)(x − 2) + (x − 1)
=
(x − 1)(x − 2)2

Chapter 5 Further integration 137

YEAR 12

x 2 − 4x + 4 − (x 2 − 3x + 2) + x − 1
=
(x − 1)(x − 2)2
= 1 = LHS
(x − 1)(x − 2)2

EXERCISE 5.2 PARTIAL FRACTIONS, QUADRATIC FACTORS

2
1 If x + 2x2+ 2 = a + 2 b , then the values of a and b are:
(x − 1)(x + 4) x − 1 x + 4
A a = 1, b = −2 B a = −1, b = −2 C a = 1, b = 2 D a = −1, b = 2
2 Reduce each rational function to its partial fractions.
3 8 3x 2 2x 2 + 5
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 2
(x + 1)(x + 4) 2 2
(x + 1)(x + 9) (x + 1)(x 2 + 4)
2
(x + 1)(x 2 + 2)
2

3 Reduce each rational function to its partial fractions.

(a)
x 2 − 8x + 2 (b)
x 2 + 4x + 1 (c)
2x 3 + 7x 2 − 4x + 3 (d)
3x 2 + 5x + 4
(x − 2)(x 2 + 1) (x + 2)(x 2 + x + 1) x4 − 1 x3 + x2 + x

4 4x 2 − 2x is equal to:
(x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
A
x−3 − 3 B
3 + x−3 C
3 + 3− x D
3− x − 3
x2 + 1 x + 1 x + 1 x2 + 1 x + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x + 1
5 Reduce each rational function to its partial fractions.
(a)
x2 + 9 (b)
1 + 2x + 3x 2 − 4x 3 (c)
x 4 − x 2 − 2x + 2
2
(x + 2)(x − 2x + 5) 1 − x4 (x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
(d)
x 4 + 3x 2 − 8x (e)
x2 + 1 (f)
x+3
x3 − 8 x3 − 1 (2x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
6 Find the values of a and b if:
(a)
4x − 7 = a + b (b)
3x + 5 = a + b
(x − 2)2 x − 2 (x − 2)2 x 2 + 6x + 9 x + 3 (x + 3)2
(c)
3x 2 + 10x − 5 = a + b (d)
18x 2 − 7x + 12 = a + b
(x − 2)(x + 1) 2 x − 2 (x + 1)2 (x + 2)(3x − 1)2 x + 2 (3x − 1)2
7 Show that each result is true.
(a)
42 − 4x − 5x 2 = 3 − 4 + 2 (b)
2x 2 + 13x + 16 = 2 − 3 − 4
(2x + 3)(x − 2)2 2x + 3 x − 2 (x − 2)2 (x − 2)(2x + 1)2 x − 2 2x + 1 (2x + 1)2
8 Find the values of a, b and c if:

(a)
2x 2 + 19x − 36 = a + b + c
2
(x + 3)(x − 4x + 4) x + 3 x − 2 (x − 2)2
4x a b c
(b) 2 = 1+ x + 1− x +
(1 + x)(1 − x) (1 − x)2

138 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

5.3 USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS TO FIND INTEGRALS

You are now going to use this technique to find and evaluate integrals.

Example 14
dx 2x − 1
Find: (a) ∫ (x − 2)(x − 1) (b) ∫ (x + 2)(x − 3) dx
Solution
a(x − 1) + b(x − 2)
(a) Partial fractions: 1 = a + b =
(x − 2)(x − 1) x − 2 x − 1 (x − 2)(x − 1)
Equate numerators: 1 ≡ a(x − 1) + b(x − 2)
Let x = 1: 1 = −b ∴ b = −1
Let x = 2: a=1

∫( )
dx 1 − 1 dx
Hence: ∫ (x − 2)(x − 1)
=
x − 2 x −1
= log e (x − 2) − log e (x − 1) + C

= log e x − 2 + C
x −1
2x − 1 a(x − 3) + b(x + 2)
(b) Partial fractions: = a + b =
(x + 2)(x − 3) x + 2 x − 3 (x + 2)(x − 3)
Equate coefficients: 2=a+b [1]
−1 = −3a + 2b [2]
Rewrite [1]: b=2−a
Substitute [1] into [2]: −1 = −3a + 4 − 2a
5a = 5   ∴ a = 1
Substitute into [1]: b=1

∫( )
2x − 1 1 + 1 dx
Hence: ∫ (x + 2)(x − 3)
dx =
x+2 x−3
= log e (x + 2) + log e (x − 3) + C
= log e (x + 2)(x − 3) + C (x > 3, x < −1)
= log e (x + 2)(x − 3) + C

Example 15
1 − 2x x 2 + 4x
Find: (a) ∫ (x + 2)(x 2
+ 1)
dx (b) ∫ (x − 1)(x2
+ 4)
dx

Solution
2
(a) Partial fractions:
1 − 2x = a + bx + c = a(x + 1) + (bx + c)(x + 2)
(x + 2)(x 2 + 1) x + 2 x 2 + 1 (x + 2)(x 2 + 1)
2 2
= ax + a + bx + 2bx + cx + 2c
(x + 2)(x 2 + 1)
(a + b)x 2 + (2b + c)x + a + 2c
=
(x + 2)(x 2 + 1)

Chapter 5 Further integration 139

YEAR 12

Equate coefficients: 0=a+b [1]

−2 = 2b + c [2]
1 = a + 2c [3]
Rewrite [1] and [2]: b = −a, c = −2 − 2b
∴ c = −2 + 2a
Substitute into [3]: 1 = a − 4 + 4a
a = 1   ∴ b = −1, c = 0
Hence: ∫
1 − 2x dx = ⎛⎜ 1 − 2x ⎞⎟ dx
∫
2
(x + 2)(x + 1) ⎝ x + 2 x + 1⎠
= log e (x + 2) − 1 log e (x 2 + 1) + C
2
2 2
x + 4x a + bx + c = a(x + 4) + (bx + c)(x − 1)
(b) Partial fractions: =
2
(x − 1)(x + 4) x − 1 2
x +4 (x − 1)(x 2 + 4)
(a + b)x 2 + (c − b)x + 4a − c
=
(x − 1)(x 2 + 4)
Equate coefficients: 1=a+b [1]
4=c−b [2]
0 = 4a − c [3]
Rewrite [2] and [3]: b = c − 4, c = 4a
∴ b = 4a − 4
Substitute into [1]: 1 = a + 4a − 4
a = 1   ∴ b = 0, c = 4
x 2 + 4x dx = ⎛⎜ 1 + 2 4 ⎞⎟ dx
Hence: ∫ 2
(x − 1)(x + 4) ∫
⎝ x − 1 x + 4⎠
= log e (x − 1) + 2 tan −1 x + C
2

cx 2 + d
Recall that in Examples 11 and 12 (see pages 136–137), you found that an expression (where
(x 2 + a 2 )(x 2 + b 2 )
either of c or d can be zero, but the numerator does not contain odd powers of x) can be written in partial fractions
cx 2 + d e f
as: = + .
(x + a 2 )(x 2 + b 2 ) x 2 + a 2 x 2 + b 2
2

Example 16
5 3x 2
Find: (a) ∫ (x 2 + 4)(x 2 + 9)
dx (b) ∫ (x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 4)
dx

Solution
a(x 2 + 9) + b(x 2 + 4)
(a) Partial fractions:
5
2 2= 2 a + 2b =
(x + 4)(x + 9) x + 4 x + 9 (x 2 + 4)(x 2 + 9)
Equate coefficients: 0=a+b [1]
5 = 9a + 4b [2]
Rewrite [1]: b = −a
Substitute into [2]: 5 = 9a − 4a
a = 1   ∴ b = −1
Hence: 5
∫ dx = ⎛⎜ 2 1 − 2 1 ⎞⎟ dx
∫
(x 2 + 4)(x 2 + 9) ⎝ x + 4 x + 9⎠

= 1 tan −1 x − 1 tan −1 x + C
2 2 3 3

140 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

3x 2 a(x 2 + 4) + b(x 2 + 1)
(b) Partial fractions: 2 2 = 2a + 2 b =
(x + 1)(x + 4) x + 1 x + 4 (x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 4)
Equate coefficients: 3=a+b [1]
0 = 4a + b [2]
Rewrite [2]: b = −4a
Substitute into [1]: 3 = a − 4a
a = −1  ∴ b = 4
3x 2 dx = ⎛⎜ 2 4 − 21 ⎞⎟ dx
Hence: 2∫ 2
(x + 1)(x + 4) ∫
⎝ x + 4 x + 1⎠
= 2 tan −1 x − tan −1 x + C
2

Example 17
If
(a) 
54 = a + b + c then find the values of a, b and c and write the
(x 2 + x − 20)(x − 1) x + 5 x − 4 x − 1
expression in terms of its partial fractions.
54
(b) Hence find: ∫ 2
(x + x − 20)(x − 1)
dx

Solution
(a) 54 ≡ a(x − 4)(x − 1) + b(x + 5)(x − 1) + c(x + 5)(x − 4)
Let x = 4: 54 = 0 + b × 9 × 3 + 0
b = 2
Let x = 1: 54 = 0 + 0 + c × 6 × (−3)
c = −3
Let x = −5: 54 = a × (−9) × (−6)
a = 1
Hence: 54 = 1 + 2 − 3
(x + x − 20)(x − 1) x + 5 x − 4 x − 1
2

∫( )
54 1 + 2 − 3 dx
(b) ∫ (x 2
+ x − 20)(x − 1)
dx =
x +5 x − 4 x −1
= loge (x + 5) + 2 loge (x − 4) − 3 loge (x − 1) + C
(x + 5)(x − 4)2
= log e +C
(x − 1)3

Example 18
3x 2 − 6x + 2 = a + b c
(a) If 2 x − 1 2 + x − 2 , then find the values of a, b and c.
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 1)
4 2
3x − 6x + 2 dx
(b) Hence evaluate: ∫ 2
3 (x − 1) (x − 2)

Solution
2 2
(a) 3x − 6x + 2 ≡ a(x − 1)(x − 2) + b(x − 2) + c(x − 1)
Let x = 1:  3 − 6 + 2 = b × (−1)
b=1

Chapter 5 Further integration 141

YEAR 12

Let x = 2:  12 − 12 + 2 = c
c=2
Let x = 0:  2 = 2a − 2b + c
2a = 2 + 2 − 2
a=1
4
3x 2 − 6x + 2 dx = 4⎛
1 + 1 + 2 ⎞ dx
(b) Hence: ∫3 (x − 1)2 (x − 2) ∫ ⎜
3 ⎝ −1
x (x − 1)2 x − 2⎟⎠
4
= ⎡⎢log e (x − 1) − 1 + 2 log e (x − 2)⎤⎥
⎣ x −1 ⎦3
( )(
= log e 3 − 1 + 2 log e 2 − log e 2 − 1 + 0
3 2 )
= 1 + log e 6
6

Example 19
x 3 − 2x 2 − 3x + 9 dx
Find: ∫ x2 − 4
Solution
Instead of using long division, it can be faster to regroup the terms in the numerator to produce
factors of (x2 − 4):

x 3 − 2x 2 − 3x + 9 = x 3 − 4x − 2x 2 + 8 + x + 1 x −2
x2 − 4 x2 − 4 x − 4 x 3 − 2x 2 − 3x + 9
2

x(x 2 − 4) − 2(x 2 − 4) + x + 1 x3 −4x

=
x2 − 4 − 2x 2 + x + 9
= x −2+ x +1
(x − 2)(x + 2) − 2x 2 +8
x +1
Now let x +1 = a + b :   x + 1 ≡ a(x + 2) + b(x − 2)
(x − 2)(x + 2) x − 2 x + 2
Let x = −2: −1 = −4b so b = 1
4
Let x = 2: 3 = 4a so a = 3
4
3 2
∴ x − 2x − 3x + 9 = x −2+ 3 + 1
2
x −4 4(x − 2) 4(x + 2)

∫( )
3 2
x − 2x − 3x + 9 dx = x − 2 + 3 1
Hence: ∫ 2
x −4 4(x − 2)
+
4(x + 2)
dx
2
= x − 2x + 3 log e x − 2 + 1 log e x + 2 + C
2 4 4

Example 20
(a) If
3x 2 − 2x + 1 = ax + b + cx + d then find the values of a, b, c and d.
(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 2) x 2 + 1 x 2 + 2
1
3x 2 − 2x + 1 dx
(b) Hence evaluate: ∫ 2 2
0 (x + 1)(x + 2)

142 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Solution
2 2 2
(a) 3x − 2x + 1 ≡ (ax + b)(x + 2) + (cx + d)(x + 1)
As there are four variables, select four values of x and substitute them into the identity.
Let x = 0: 1 = 2b + d
d = 1 − 2b [1]
Let x = 1: 2 = 3(a + b) + 2(c + d) [2]
Let x = 2: 9 = 6(2a + b) + 5(2c + d) [3]
Let x = −1: 6 = 3(b − a) + 2(d − c) [4]
[2] + [4]: 8 = 6b + 4d
Substitute for d from [1]: 8 = 6b + 4(1 − 2b)
8 = 4 − 2b
b = −2
∴ d=5
[3] becomes: 9 = 12a − 12 + 10c + 25
6a + 5c = −2 [5]
[2] − [4]: −4 = 6a + 4c
3a = −2 − 2c [6]
Substitute [6] into [5]: 2(−2c − 2) + 5c = −2
−4c − 4 + 5c = −2
c = 2
[6] becomes: 3a = −4 − 2
a = −2
2
∴ 3x − 2x + 1 = −2x − 2 + 2x + 5
(x + 1)(x 2 + 2)
2
x2 + 1 x2 + 2
1
3x 2 − 2x + 1 dx = 1
⎛ 2x + 5 − 2x + 2⎞ dx
(b) Hence: ∫ 2 2
0 (x + 1)(x + 2) ∫ ⎜⎝ x
0
2
+ 2 x2 + 1⎠
⎟

1
⎛ 2x + 5 − 2x − 2 ⎞ dx
= ∫ ⎜⎝ x
0
2 ⎟
+ 2 x 2 + 2 x 2 + 1 x 2 + 1⎠
1
⎡ ⎤
= ⎢log e (x 2 + 2) + 5 tan −1 x − log e (x 2 + 1) − 2 tan −1 x ⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦0

⎛ ⎞
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
( )
= ⎜ log e 3 + 5 tan −1 1 − log e 2 − 2 tan −1 1⎟ − log e 2 + 0 − log e 1 − 0

= log e 3 + 5 tan −1 1 − π
4 2 2 2

Example 21
dθ
Find: ∫ cosθ
Solution
2
Let t = tan θ so that cos θ = 1 − t 2 and dθ = 2 2 dt .
2 1+t 1+t
2
dθ = 1 + t × 2 dt
Hence: ∫
cos θ ∫ 1 − t2 1 + t2
2 dt
=∫ 1 − t2

Chapter 5 Further integration 143

YEAR 12

∫ (1 + t + 1 − t ) dt
Partial fractions: = 1 1

= log e 1 + t − log e 1 − t + C

= log e 1 + t + C
1−t
1 + tan θ
= log e 2 +C
1 − tan θ
2

Example 22
dx
Find ∫ sin 2x + cos 2x using the substitution t = tan x.
Solution
2
sin 2x = 2t 2 , cos 2x = 1 − t 2
1+t 1+t
You must recalculate the expression for dx, as t = tan x not tan x :
2
dt = sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x = 1 + t 2
dx
dx 1 dt
1+t
∫
Hence dx = dt 2 :   sin 2x + cos 2x =
2t∫ 1 − t 2 ×
1 + t2
2 + 2
1+t 1+t
dt
= ∫
1 + 2t − t 2
dt
= ∫
2 − (t 2 − 2t + 1)
dt
= ∫
2 − (t − 1)2
dt
= ∫(
2 − (t − 1) )(
2 + (t − 1) )
⎛ ⎞
= 1 ⎜ ∫ (
1 + 1
⎟ dt
2 2 ⎜⎝ 2 +1−t ) ( )
2 − 1 + t ⎟⎠

2 2
(
= 1 − log e 2 + 1 − t + log e 2 −1+t +C )
= 1 log e 2 −1+t +C
2 2 2 +1−t

= 1 log e 2 − 1 + tan x + C
2 2 2 + 1 − tan x

Note: When using a substitution of t = tan  f (x), f (x) ≠ x , differentiate the substitution to find the link
2
between dx and dt.

144 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

EXERCISE 5.3 USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS TO FIND INTEGRALS

2dx 3dx dx
1 Find: (a) ∫ (x − 3)(x − 1) (b) ∫ (x − 2)(x + 1) (c) ∫ (x − 4)(x + 2)
2x dx 3x dx (2x − 5)dx
(d) ∫ (x − 1)(x + 1) (e) ∫ (x + 2)(x − 1) (f) ∫ (x − 3)(x − 2)
5x
2 ∫x 2
+x−6
dx = …

(x − 2)2
A log e +C B log e (x − 2)3 (x + 3)2 + C
(x + 3)3
C 6 log e (x − 2)(x + 3) + C D log e (x − 2)2 (x + 3)3 + C

1− x x 2 − 2x x2 + x
3 Find: (a) ∫ (x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
dx (b) ∫ (x + 2)(x 2 + 4)
dx (c) ∫ (x − 1)(x 2 + 1)
dx

x 2 + x + 12 dx x2 + x 5x + 3
(d) ∫ (x + 3)(x 2 + 9)
(e) ∫ (x − 2)(x 2 + 2)
dx (f) ∫ (x − 5)(x 2 + 3)
dx

8 15x 2 x2 − 2
4 Find: (a) ∫ (x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 9)
dx (b) ∫ (x 2 + 16)(x 2 + 1)
dx (c) ∫ (x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 4)
dx

dx x x 3 − x 2 + 3x − 9 dx
(d) ∫ (x + 2)(x 2 + 3)
2 (e) ∫ (x + 4)(x 2 + 5)
2 dx (f) ∫ (x 2 + 9)(x 2 + 3)

2x − 11 dx 3(3x + 1) 4x 2 − 2x dx
5 Find: (a) ∫ (x + 2)(x − 1)
(b) ∫ x2 − 9
dx (c) ∫ (x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
2
2x + x + 6 dx 2x 2 + 3x − 1 dx 4x 2 + 11x + 15 dx
(d) ∫ x2 − 4
(e) ∫ x3 − x2 + x − 1
(f) ∫ x 3 + 3x 2 − x − 3
3x − 19 9x − 2 dx ex
(g) ∫ (x + 3)(2x − 1)
dx (h) ∫ 2
2x − 7x + 3
(i) ∫ e + 3e x + 2
2x dx

3 4 2
x dx 1− x
6 Evaluate: (a) ∫ 2 (x + 5)(x − 1)
dx (b) ∫ 3 x +x2 (c) ∫
0 (x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
dx
1 1 4
dx dx 3x − 2 dx
∫ ∫ ∫
2
(d) (e) (f)
0 1 − x2 0 4 − x2 3 x2 − 4
5
x 2 − 5 dx 3
dx 3
5x
7 Evaluate: (a) ∫ 4
2
x − 2x − 3
(b) ∫1 (x + 1)(x 2 + 3)
2 (c) ∫ 2
2
x + 3x − 4
dx

1
1 1 1 1 1
8 Given that
(x + 2)(x + 1)2 = x + 2 − x +1 +
(x + 1)2
, evaluate: ∫ 0 (x + 2)(x + 1)
2 dx

9 (a) Show that: 2 = 1 + 1− x

x3 + x2 + x + 1 x + 1 x2 + 1
2
2
(b) Hence evaluate: 3 2
1 x + x + x +1
dx ∫
1 a b c
10 (a) Find real numbers a, b and c such that: 2 = x +1 + x + 2
(x + 1)x x
dx
(b) Hence find: ∫ (x + 1)x 2

11 (a) Given that 4x − 72 can be written as a + b where a and b are real numbers, find a and b.
(x − 2) x − 2 (x − 2)2
4x − 7 dx
(b) Hence find:
(x − 2)2 ∫
Chapter 5 Further integration 145
YEAR 12

12 (a) Find real numbers a, b and c such that: 2x 2 + 19x − 36 = a + b + c

(x + 3)(x − 2)2 x + 3 x − 2 (x − 2)2
2x 2 + 19x − 36 dx
(b) Hence find: ∫ (x + 3)(x − 2)2
3x 2 + 10x − 5 = a + b c
13 (a) Find real numbers a, b and c such that: 2 x + 1 2 + x −2
(x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 1)
3x 2 + 10x − 5 dx
(b) Hence find: ∫ (x + 1)2 (x − 2)
2
1 a b c dx
14 (a) Find real numbers a, b and c such that:
x(x + 1)2 = x + x +1 +
(x + 1)2
(b) Hence evaluate: ∫1 x(x + 1)2
2
15 It can be shown that −5x + 18x − 12 = 2x − 3 − 2x . Use this result to evaluate:
(4 − x 2 )(5 − 4x + x 2 ) 4 − x 2 5 − 4x + x 2
1 2
−5x + 18x − 12 dx
∫ 2 2
0 (4 − x )(5 − 4x + x )

16 (a) Show that: 1 = 1 − 1 − 1

(x − 3)x 2 9(x − 3) 9x 3x 2
(b) Calculate the area bounded by the curve y =
1 , the x-axis and the ordinates x = 4 and x = 6.
x 2 (x − 3)

17 Calculate the area bounded by the curve y = 1 − 2x , the x-axis and the ordinates x = − 1 and x = 1 .
2
2x + 7x + 6 2 2
7x − 4 a b c
18 (a) Given that 2 can be written as 2 + x − 2 + x + 3 where a, b and c are real numbers,
(x − 2) (x + 3) (x − 2)
find a, b and c.
7x − 4
(b) Hence find: ∫ (x − 2)2 (x + 3)
dx

2(4 − 7x) 4 − 2x − 2x . (Do not prove this.)

19 It can be shown that 2 =
(5 − 2x + x )(2 − x ) 5 − 2x + x 2 2 − x 2
2

1
2(4 − 7x)
Use this result to evaluate: ∫ 2
−1 (5 − 2x + x )(2 − x )
2 dx

3x + 2 = a + b + c   (b) Hence find: 3x + 2

20 (a) Find real numbers a, b and c such that:
x 2 (x + 1) x x 2 x + 1 ∫ x (x + 1) dx
2

dx
21 Using an appropriate substitution of the type t = tan x, find: ∫
sin 2x − cos 2x
22 Use the substitution t = tan x to find ∫
dx .
2 1 + 3sin x
1 + sin2 x dx
23 Use the substitution t = tan x to find ∫ 1 + cos 2
x
.

5.4 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

The product rule for differentiation is associated with the technique known as integration by parts, which comes
from rearranging the product rule. This rule is useful for solving integrals that cannot be found in easier ways.
If u(x) and v(x) are differentiable functions of x, then the product rule tells you that:

d (uv) = v du + u dv or d (uv) = v u′ + uv ′
dx dx dx dx
Rewriting this: u dv = d (uv) − v du uv ′ = d (uv) − v u′
dx dx dx dx

146 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

dv du
Hence: ∫ u dx dx = uv − ∫ v dx dx ∫ uv ′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx
∴ ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du
The integrand on the left-hand side is seen to be a product of two expressions involving x: one of these is denoted by
u and the other by dv (or just dv). The choice of which expressions to label as u and dv is made so that the integral
dx
on the right-hand side can be easily found by normal techniques, such as change of variable (substitution). The
arbitrary constant C is inserted into the solution at the appropriate point.
As a general rule, dv should be a function that is easy to integrate and u should be the other function. If they
are both easy to integrate, then you should make u the function that will be of a lesser degree (i.e. simpler) after
differentiation. This is illustrated in the following examples.
Note that for complex integrals the rule sometimes needs to be applied more than once. You may also need to
rearrange terms to solve the desired integral.

Example 23
Find: ∫ x cos x dx
Solution
Let u = x, dv = cos x as this gives du = 1, which is easy to work with in the resulting integral.
dx dx
Thus: du = 1, v = sin x
dx
Integration by parts: u dx = uv − v du dx
dv
∫ ∫
dx dx
Hence: ∫
x cos x dx = x sin x − sin x dx ∫
= x sin x + cos x + C
The constant of integration is added after the last integration is performed.
Alternatively: Another choice of variable could have been u = cos x, dv = x.
2
dx
Thus: du = − sin x, v = x
dx 2
2 2
Hence: x cos x dx = x cos x − x (− sin x)dx
∫ ∫
2 2
This integral is now more complicated than the original integral.

Example 24
∫ cos
−1
Find: x dx

Solution
∫ 1 × cos
−1
Rewrite as: x dx

Let u = cos−1 x, dv = 1. This gives du = −1 , x < 1, and v = x.

dx dx 1 − x2
Integration by parts: u dv dx = uv − v du dx
∫ ∫
dx dx
x
∫ ∫
−1 −1
Hence: cos x dx = x cos x + dx
1 − x2
1
= x cos −1 x − (1 − x 2 ) 2 + C for x < 1

Chapter 5 Further integration 147

YEAR 12

The method of integration by parts should be used mostly as a last resort, when other known techniques fail.
It can be used very effectively to integrate products of different kinds of expressions, for example:
• algebraic and trigonometric functions such as x cos x
• algebraic and logarithmic functions such as x loge x
• inverse trigonometric functions and logarithmic functions.

Example 25
∫ log ∫ xe ∫x e
x 2 x
Find (a) e
x dx (b) dx (c) dx

Solution
(a) Let u = loge x, dv = 1. This gives du = 1 , v = x.
dx dx x
dv du
Integration by parts:   ∫ u dx dx = uv − ∫ v dx dx
1
Hence: ∫ log x dx = x log x − ∫ x × x dx
e e

= x log e x − x + C, x >0

= x log e x − x + C

(b) Let u = x,
dv = e x . This gives du = 1, v = ex.
dx dx

∫ xe ∫
x
Hence: dx = xe x − e x dx
= xe − e x + C
x

= (x − 1)e x + C
2
(c) Let u = x ,
dv = e x . This gives du = 2x, v = ex.
dx dx
∫x e dx = x e − 2 xe x dx ∫
2 x 2 x
Hence:

∫
x
You now need to find xe dx by applying integration by parts again, as in part (b):

Let u = x, dv = e x . This gives du = 1, v = ex.

dx dx
∫
xe dx = xe − e x dx ∫
x x
Hence:
= xe − e x + C
x

= (x − 1)e x + C
∫x e
2 x
Thus: dx = x 2e x − 2(x − 1)e x + C
= (x 2 − 2x + 2)e x + C

Sometimes integration by parts may need to be applied more than once. When there is an integer power of x in
the integrand, as in part (c) of the example above, then each time it is differentiated the power will be reduced by
one until eventually the function becomes a constant. You let u equal this power of x and apply integration by parts
successively.

∫ cos x dx = sin x   ∫ sin x dx = − cos x   ∫ e

x
Useful results for integration by parts: dx = e x

148 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 26
∫e
x
Find: I= sin x dx

Solution
Let u = ex, dv = sin x. This gives du = e x , v = −cos x.
dx dx

∫
∴ I = e x sin x dx = −e x cos x + e x cos x dx ∫
Now you need to find e x cos x dx . ∫
x
Let u = e , dv = cos x. This gives du = e x , v = sin x.
dx dx

∫
∴   e x cos x dx = e x sin x − e x sin x dx ∫
Thus:  I = −e x cos x + e x sin x − I
2I = e x sin x − e x cos x
x
∴  I = e x sin x dx = e (sin x − cos x) + C
∫ 2
The arbitrary constant C did not need to be included until the last line.

Example 27
1 π
∫ ∫
2
Evaluate: (a) I = sin −1 x dx (b) I = x 2 sin x dx
0 0

Solution
(a) Let u = sin x,
−1 dv = 1. This gives du = 1 , v = x.
dx dx 1 − x2
1 1 1
x
∫ ∫
2 2
Hence:  I = sin −1 x dx = ⎡⎣x sin −1 x ⎤⎦ 2 − dx
0 0
1 − x2 0

()
1

= 1 sin −1 1 − 0 − ⎡−(1 − x 2 ) 12 ⎤ 2
2 2 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦0

= π + 3 −1
12 2
(b) Let u = x ,
2 dv = sin x. This gives du = 2x, v = −cos x.
dx dx
π π π
Hence:  I = ∫ 0
x 2 sin x dx = ⎡⎣−x 2 cos x ⎤⎦ + 2
0 ∫
0
x cos x dx
π
= π2 + 2 ∫0
x cos x dx

Now let u = x, dv = cos x. This gives du = 1, v = sin x.

dx dx
π π
∫ x cos x dx = [x sin x ] 0 − ∫
π
Hence:   sin x dx
0 0

= 0 + [cos x ]0
π

= −2
π
∫ x sin x dx = π 2 − 4
2
∴ I=
0

Chapter 5 Further integration 149

YEAR 12

Example 28
2 1
Evaluate: (a) I = ∫ 1
x log e x dx (b) I = ∫ 0
tan −1 x dx
Solution
2
(a) Let u = loge x,
dv = x. This gives du = 1 , v=x .
dx dx x 2
2
2
⎡ 2 ⎤ 2
∴I= ∫ x log e x dx = ⎢ x log e x ⎥ − 1 x 2 × x1 dx ∫
1 ⎣2 ⎦1 2 1
2
= 2 log e 2 − 0 − 1 x dx ∫
2 1
2
⎡ 2⎤
= 2 log e 2 − 1 ⎢ x ⎥
2 ⎣ 2 ⎦1

= 2 log e 2 − 1 + 1
4
= 2 log e 2 − 3
4
dv = 1
(b) Let u = tan x,
−1
dx . This gives du = 1 2 , v = x.
dx 1 + x
1 1
1 x
∴I= ∫
0
tan −1 x dx = ⎡⎣x tan −1 x ⎤⎦ −
0 ∫ 1+ x
0
2 dx

= π − 0 − 1 ⎡⎣log e (1 + x 2 )⎤⎦
1
4 2 0

= π − 1 log e 2
4 2

EXERCISE 5.4 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

∫ sin
−1
1 x dx = …

A sin −1 x + x 1 − x 2 + C, x <1 B sin −1 x − x 1 − x 2 + C, x <1

C x sin −1 x + 1 − x 2 + C, x <1 D x sin −1 x − 1 − x 2 + C, x <1

∫ x 4 − x dx ∫ x tan x dx ∫ x sin x dx
−1
2 Find: (a) (b) (c)

∫ x sin 2x dx ∫ x cos 2x dx ∫ sin 2x dx

−1
(d) (e) (f)

∫ x cos(2x + 1)dx ∫ cos 2x dx ∫ x sin x dx

−1 −1
(g) (h) (i)

∫x ∫ x sin x dx ∫ x cos x dx
2 −1
3 Find: (a) x + 1 dx (b) (c)

∫x ∫ xe dx ∫ x log x dx
2 −x
(d) cos x dx (e) (f) e

∫ e sin x dx ∫ e cos x dx ∫ e cos x dx

−x x −x
4 Find: (a) (b) (c)

∫ sin(log x)dx ∫ cos(log x)dx ∫ tan x dx

−1
(d) e
(e) e
(f)

150 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

π π 1

∫ ∫ ∫
2 2
5 Evaluate: (a) x cos x dx (b) x sin x dx (c) x sin −1 x dx
0 − π2 0

3 1 π

∫ ∫ ∫
4
(d) x tan −1 x dx (e) 2
sin −1 x dx (f) π
x sin 2x dx
1 − 1 8
2
1 π 2

∫ ∫ ∫
2
e x sin x dx te −t dt
2
6 Evaluate: (a) 1
cos −1 2x dx (b) (c)
0 1
4
e 2 π

∫ ∫ ∫
2
(d) log e x dx (e) x log e x dx (f) e x cos x dx
1 1 0
2 π π
∫ ∫ ∫
3
(g) x 2 log e 2x dx (h) π
x sec 2 x dx (i) π
e − x sin 2x dx
1 6 2
π
7 ∫ −π
x 2 sin x dx = …
A 2π 2 − 2 B 0 C 2 D 2π 2
8 Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = loge x (x > 0), the x-axis and the line x = a (a > 1).

5.5 RECURRENCE RELATIONS

Integration by parts can also be used to find a recurrence relation that will allow the evaluation of an integral. Given
b b

∫ [ f (x)] dx, you find a relationship of the form I ∫ [ f (x)]

n n −1
In = n
= kIn − 1, where In −1 = dx . After I1 or another of
a a
the other easy I integrals can be found, the recurrence relation is then used to evaluate the original integral.

Example 29
π

∫ ∫
2
Find the recurrence relation for cosn x dx and use it to evaluate: cos 4 x dx
0

Solution
∫
Let In = cosn x dx and write cosn x = cosn − 1 x × cos x:
In = ∫ cos n −1
x cos x dx
Let u = cosn − 1 x, dv = cos x. This gives du = (n − 1)cosn − 2 x × (− sin x), v = sin x.
dx dx
Hence: ∫
In = cosn x dx = cosn −1 x × sin x + (n − 1) sin 2 x cosn − 2 x dx ∫
∫
In = cosn −1 x sin x + (n − 1) (1 − cos 2 x)cosn − 2 x dx

In = cos n −1
x sin x + (n − 1) ∫ cos n−2
∫
x dx − (n − 1) cosn x dx

In = cosn −1 x sin x + (n − 1) ∫ cos n−2

x dx − (n − 1)In

(1 + n − 1)In = cosn −1 x sin x + (n − 1)In − 2

nIn = cosn −1 x sin x + (n − 1)In − 2
n −1
In = cos x sin x + n − 1 In − 2
n n
This relation between In and In − 2 is a recurrence relation.

Chapter 5 Further integration 151

YEAR 12

π π

∫ ∫
2 2
To find cos 4 x dx , write: I4 = cos 4 x dx
0 0
π
⎡ 3 ⎤2
From the recurrence relation for n = 4, we have:   I 4 = ⎢ cos x sin x ⎥ + 3 I 2 = 3 I 2
⎣ 4 ⎦0 4 4
π π
and  I 2 = ⎡⎢ cos x sin x ⎤⎥ + 1 I 0 = 0 + 1 ∫
2 2
dx
⎣ 2 ⎦0 2 2 0

Thus:  I 2 = 1 [x ]02 = π and so I 4 = 3 I 2 = 3 × π = 3π

π

2 4 4 4 4 16
π
Hence:   cos 4 x dx = 3π
∫
2

0 16

Example 30
x
(a) Let In = ∫ tann t dt where 0 ≤ x < π . Show that: In = 1 tann −1 x − I
0 2 n −1 n−2
π

∫
4
(b) Hence find the exact value of: tan5 t dt
0

Solution
n−2
n
(a) Write tan t = tan t × tan
2
t = (sec2 t − 1) tann − 2 t. Thus:
x x

∫ ∫ (sec t − 1)tan t dt
n−2
In = tann t dt = 2
0 0
x x
= ∫ sec t tan t dt − ∫ tan
2 n−2 n−2
t dt
0 0
x
= ∫ sec t tan t dt − I
2 n−2
n−2
0
x

∫ sec t tan t dt
2 n−2
Now consider:
0
It is tempting to try integration by parts here, but using the substitution u = tan t is much easier.
Let u = tan t so that du = sec2 t dt. Limits are t = 0: u = 0 t = x: u = tan x
x tan x
∴ ∫0
sec 2 t tann − 2 t dt = ∫ 0
un − 2 du
tan x
⎡ n −1 ⎤
= ⎢u ⎥
⎣n − 1 ⎦ 0
= 1 tann −1 x
n −1
Thus: In = 1 tann −1 x − I
n −1 n−2
π π

∫ ∴ I5 = 1 ⎡⎣tan 4 x ⎤⎦ 4 − I 3 = 1 − I 3
4
(b) I5 = tan5 t dt
0 4 0 4
π
and I 3 = 1 ⎡⎣tan 2 x ⎤⎦ 4 − I1 = 1 − I1
2 0 2
π π
⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞
tant dt = − ⎡⎣log e (cost)⎤⎦04 = − ⎜ log e ⎜ 1 ⎟ − log e 1⎟ = 1 log e 2
∫
4
Now: I1 =
0 ⎝ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎠ 2
Hence: I 3 = − log e 2 and I5 = − − log e 2 = log e 2 − 1
1
2 2
1 1
4 2 2
1 1 1
2 (
4 )
π

∫ tan5 t dt = 1 log e 2 − 1
4
This gives:
0 2 4

152 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 31
∫
Obtain a recurrence relation for e ax cos bx dx and use it to find e 3x cos 4x dx . ∫
(This example is just outside the scope of this course, but it is worth looking at as a demonstration of
just how useful this process can be.)

Solution
Write: ∫
I = e ax cos bx dx

Let u = eax, dv = cosbx . This gives du = ae ax , v = 1 sinbx .

dx dx b
∴ I = e ax cosbx dx = 1 e ax sinbx − a e ax sinbx dx
∫ ∫
b b
Now write: ∫
H = e ax sinbx dx
dv = sinbx. This gives du = ae ax , v = − 1 cosbx.
Let u = eax,
dx dx b
1 a
∫ ∫
ax ax ax
∴ H = e sinbx dx = − e cosbx + e cosbx dx
b b
Substitute this expression for H into the expression for I:

b b b b (
I = e ax cosbx dx = 1 e ax sinbx − a − 1 e ax cosbx + a e ax cosbx dx
∫ ∫ )
2
I = 1 e ax sinbx + a2 e ax cosbx − a2 I
b b b
⎛ a2 ⎞ 1 ax a ax
⎜⎝1 + 2 ⎟⎠ I = b e sinbx + 2 e cosbx
b b
2
∴ I = e ax cosbx dx = 2 b 2 ⎛⎜ 1 e ax sinbx + a2 e ax cosbx⎞⎟ + C
∫ b + a ⎝b b ⎠
ax
= 2e 2 (b sinbx + acosbx) + C
b +a
3x

∫
In e 3x cos 4x dx you have a = 3 and b = 4, thus: ∫ e 3x cos 4x dx = e (4 sin 4x + 3cos 4x) + C
25

EXERCISE 5.5 RECURRENCE RELATIONS

1 (a) Differentiate sin x cosn − 1 x with respect to x to show that if In = cosn x dx, then: ∫
In = n1 sin x cosn −1 x + n n− 1 In − 2
(b) Hence evaluate:
π π π π

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
2 2 2 4
(i) cos6 x dx (ii) sin6 x dx (iii) cos 4 x sin 2 x dx (iv) sec 4 x dx
0 0 0 0

∫ ∫ ∫x e
n x n x n −1 x 3 x
2 Show that x e dx = x e − n x e dx and hence find: dx
3 (a) Find the derivative of xn loge x.
(b) Hence find (correct to three decimal places) the value of:
2 2
(i) ∫ 1
x 2 log e x dx (ii) ∫ 1
x 3 log e x dx

Chapter 5 Further integration 153

YEAR 12

( )
π

∫ cosn x dx , prove that In = n − 1 In − 2 where n ≥ 2 is an integer.

2
4 (a) Given that In =
0 n
π

∫
2
(b) Hence evaluate: cos5 x dx
0

5 (a) Show that: ∫ sin

n
x dx = − 1 sinn −1 x cos x + n − 1 sinn − 2 x dx ∫
n n
π

∫
6
(b) Hence evaluate: sin 4 x dx
0

1 (sec n − 2 x tan x) + n − 2 I
∫
6 (a) If In = sec n x dx show that:
π
In =
n −1 n − 1 n−2

∫
3
(b) Hence evaluate: π
sec 4 x dx
6
π
1 − I for n ≥ 1.
∫
4
7 (a) If In = tan 2n x dx show that In =
0 2n − 1 n −1
(b) Hence evaluate I2.
1
In = e − (n − 1)In −1
2
8 (a) Given that In = ∫0
x 2n −1e x dx for each integer n ≥ 1, show that:
2
(b) Hence, or otherwise, calculate I2.
6
9 (a) If In = ∫ x 5 (log e x)n dx show that: In = x (log e x)n − n In −1
6 6

∫ x (log
5
(b) Hence find: e
x)2 dx
1 e ax (a sin x − cos x)
∫e
ax
10 (a) Show that: sin x dx = 2
a +1

∫e ∫e
x 3x
(b) Hence find: (i) sin x dx (ii) sin x dx
x
t n dt show that: In + In −1 = x
n
11 If In = ∫0 1+t n

5.6 OTHER USEFUL TECHNIQUES

Properties of the definite integral
b b b
1 ∫a
f (x) dx ± ∫ a
g(x) dx = ∫ ( f (x) ± g(x)) dx
a
b c b
2 ∫a
f (x) dx = ∫
a
f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx
c
b a
3 ∫a
f (x) dx = − ∫ b
f (x) dx
b b
4 ∫a
f (x) dx = ∫a
f (u) du (i.e. the value of the integral is independent of the variable of integration)
a a
5 If f (−x) = f (x) (i.e. if f (x) is an even function), then: ∫ f (x) dx = 2 ∫ f (x) dx. −a 0
a
6 If f (−x) = −f (x) (i.e. if f (x) is an odd function), then: ∫ f (x) dx = 0.
−a
a

∫ a − x dx represents the area of a semicircle of radius a, so it can be quickly evaluated using A = π r .

2 2 2
7
−a

154 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Combinations of even and odd functions

• The product of two odd functions or two even functions is an even function.
• The product of an odd function and an even function is an odd function.

Example 32
Without evaluating the definite integral, find a simpler expression for each definite integral.
π 1

∫ ∫
2
(a) π
x 3 cos x dx (b) x sin −1 x dx
−2 −1

Solution
3
(a) f (x) = x is an odd function. (b) f (x) = x is an odd function.
g(x) = cos x is an even function. g(x) = sin−1 x is an odd function.
Hence f (x) × g(x) = [odd] × [even] = [odd] Hence f (x) × g(x) = [odd] × [odd] = [even]
π 1 1
∴ ∫ −2
2
π
x 3 cos x dx = 0 ∴ ∫ −1
x sin −1 x dx = 2 ∫
0
x sin −1 x dx

Example 33
1
Use the properties of odd and even functions to evaluate: ∫ −1
(1 + x 3 )3 dx

Solution
f (x) = (1 + x3)3  f (−x) = (1 − x3)3  ∴ f is neither odd nor even.
Expand: (1 + x3)3 = 1 + 3x3 + 3x6 + x9
1 1
∴ ∫ −1
(1 + x 3 )3 dx = ∫ −1
(1 + 3x 3 + 3x 6 + x 9 )dx
1 1 1 1
=∫ dx + 3 ∫ x 3 dx + 3 ∫ x 6 dx + ∫ x 9 dx
−1 −1 −1 −1

= [even] + [odd] + [even] + [odd]

1 1
=2 ∫ dx + 0 + 2 × 3 ∫
0 0
x 6 dx + 0
1
= 2 ∫ (1 + 3x )dx 6
0

( )
7 1
⎡ ⎤
= 2 ⎢x + 3x ⎥ = 2 1 + 3 = 20
⎣ 7 ⎦0 7 7

Example 34
π
Evaluate: ∫ −π
sin5 x cos8 x dx

Solution
This looks formidable, but the properties of odd and even functions make it quite simple to evaluate.
f (x) = sin5 x is an odd function, g(x) = cos8 x is an even function:
f (x) × g(x) = [odd] × [even] = [odd]
π
Hence: ∫ −π
sin5 x cos8 x dx = 0

Chapter 5 Further integration 155

YEAR 12

Example 35
a a
(a) Show that: ∫ 0
f (x) dx = ∫0
f (a − x)dx
π
(b) Hence evaluate: ∫ 0
x sin 2 x dx

Solution
(a) Method 1
a

∫ f (x) dx = F(x) + C then ∫ f (x) dx = [F(x)] = F(a) − F(0)

a
If 0
0
a a
and ∫ f (a − x)dx = [−F(a − x)] = −F(0) + F(a) = F(a) − F(0) = ∫
a
0
f (x) dx
0 0

Method 2
Let y = a − x so that dy = −dx. Limits are x = 0: y = a  x = a: y = 0
a 0 a a

∫ 0
f (a − x)dx = ∫ ∫
∫ f (x) dx
a
f (y)(− dy) =
0
f ( y)dy =
0
π π
∫
x sin x dx = ∫ (π − x)sin (π − x)dx 2 2
(b) You can write:
0 0
π π
Now ∫ (π − x)sin (π − x)dx = ∫ (π − x)sin x dx 2 2
0 0
π π
= ∫ π sin x dx − ∫ x sin 2 2
x dx
0 0
π π π
∫ x sin 2 x dx = π ∫ sin x dx − ∫ x sin
2 2
Hence: x dx
0 0 0
π π
2∫ x sin 2 x dx = π ∫ (1 − cos 2x)dx
0 2 0
π π
∫ x sin 2 x dx = π ⎡⎢x − sin 2x ⎤⎥
0 4⎣ 2 ⎦0
2
= π (π − 0) = π
4 4

Warning
a
Be aware of the difference between evaluating the integral ∫ −a
f (x) dx and finding the area under the curve y = f (x)
between the ordinates x = −a and x = a.

Example 36
2 2
(a) Evaluate: ∫ −2
xe − x dx
2
(b) Find the area bounded by the curve y = xe − x , the x-axis and the ordinates x = −2 and x = 2.
y
Solution
2 2 2
1
(a) xe − x is an odd function, so: ∫ −2
xe − x dx = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
(b) Area = ∫ xe − x dx = 2 ∫ xe − x dx = ⎡⎢−e − x ⎤⎥ = 1 − e −4 units 2 –2 –1 O 1 2 x
−2 0 ⎣ ⎦0

156 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Formulae involving integration

The length of the arc of the curve y = f (x) between x = a and x = b is given by:
2
b dy
Arc length = ∫ 1 + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ dx y
a ⎝ dx ⎠ B(b, d)
2 y = f (x)
d
= ∫ 1 + ⎛⎜ dx ⎞⎟ dy
c ⎝ dy ⎠ A(a, c)

( )
2 2
u2
dx + ⎛ dy ⎞ du
∫
O x
= ⎜⎝ du ⎟⎠
u1 du
Here u = u1 and u = u2 are the parameters of A and B respectively.

Example 37
4
Calculate the arc length of the curve y = x + 1 2 from x = 1 to x = 2 using the formula:
8 4x
2
2
⎛ dy ⎞
Arc length =
1
1 + ⎜ ⎟ dx
⎝ dx ⎠ ∫
Solution
2
dy x 3 2 ⎛ 3 ⎞
= − 1 ∴ Arc length = ∫ 1 + ⎜ x − 1 3 ⎟ dx
dx 2 2x 3 1 ⎝ 2 2x ⎠
2 6
= ∫ 1 + x − 1 + 1 6 dx
1 4 2 4x
2
x 6 + 1 + 1 dx
= ∫
1 4 2 4x 6
2
2 ⎛ x3 1 ⎞
= ∫
1
⎜⎝ 2 + 3 ⎟⎠ dx
2x
2
2⎛
x3 1 ⎞ ⎡x4 1 ⎤ 33
= ∫
1
⎜⎝ 2 + 3 ⎟⎠ dx = ⎢ 8 − 2 ⎥ = 16
2x ⎣ 4x ⎦1

EXERCISE 5.6 OTHER USEFUL TECHNIQUES

π

∫
2
1 x cos x dx = …
− π2
π
π −1
∫
2
A 2 x cos x dx B 0 C π−2 D
0 2
1 2
1 + x dx using: 1 + x = (1 + x)
∫
2
2 Evaluate
0 1− x 1− x 1 − x2
3 (a) Write (x − 1)(3 − x) in the form b2 − (x − a)2 where a and b are real numbers.
Using the values of a and b from part (a) and making the substitution x − a = b sin θ , or otherwise,
(b) 
3
evaluate: ∫1
(x − 1)(3 − x) dx

Chapter 5 Further integration 157

YEAR 12

4 (a) Use the substitution t = tan x to find: sec x dx ∫

2
sec x(sec x + tan x)
(b) By rewriting sec x as
sec x + tan x
, find: sec x dx ∫
∫
5 (a) Find: sec x tan x dx
π − x, find: cosec x cot x dx
(b) Using the substitution u =
2 ∫
6 Find the length of the circumference of the circle x2 + y2 = r2 using the arc length formula on the circle’s first
2
r
⎛ dy ⎞
quadrant, i.e. arc length =
0
1 + ⎜ ⎟ dx .
⎝ dx ⎠ ∫
2 cos ( x )
2 π

∫
6
7 Let I = dx .
1 x(3 − x)
2 sin 2 ( π u)

∫
6
(a) Use the substitution u = 3 − x to show that: I = du
1 u(3 − u)
(b) Hence find the value of I.
8 (a) Differentiate x2 tan−1 x with respect to x. (b) Hence find: 2x tan −1 x dx ∫
1 1 1
9 Show that: (a) ∫ −1
x 3 (1 − x 2 )2 dx = 0 (b) ∫ −1
x 2 (1 − x 2 )3 dx = 2 ∫ 0
x 2 (1 − x 2 )3 dx
b b
10 (a) By using an appropriate substitution, show that:
π π
∫ a
f (x) dx = ∫
a
f (a + b − x)dx

∫ ∫
3 3
(b) Hence show that: π
sin x dx = π
cos x dx
6 6
π π
11 (a) By using an appropriate substitution, show that
π π
∫ 0
x sin x dx = ∫ 0
(π − x)sin x dx and hence show
that: x sin x dx = π
∫ sin x dx ∫
0 2 0
π
(b) Hence evaluate: ∫
0
x sin x dx
1 < 1 <1
12 (a) If x > 0 and 1 < u < 1 + x, show that:
1+ x u
By integrating each term of 1 < 1 < 1 with respect to u between 1 and (1 + x), show that:
(b) 
1+ x u
x < log (1 + x) < x
1+ x e

5.7 USES OF INTEGRATION

Example 38
Calculate the area of the region bounded by the curve y = 1 , the x-axis and the ordinates x = 2 and x = 3.
x2 + x

Solution
3
1 dx
Area = ∫ x2 + x
2

Use partial fractions: 1 = 1 =a+ b

x +x x(x
2 + 1) x x +1
By inspection you can see that a = 1 and b = −1.
Or: 1 = a(x + 1) + bx
x = −1: 1 = −b ⇒ b = −1
x = 0: 1 = a

158 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Hence

( x1 − x 1+ 1 )dx
3
Area = ∫ 2

= [ log e x − log e (x + 1) ] 2 since x > 0

3

3
= ⎡⎢ log e x ⎤⎥
⎣ x +1⎦2

= log e 3 − log e 2
4 3
9
= log e units 2
8

Example 39
The region enclosed within the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is rotated about the line x = 2a to form a solid of revolution
called a torus. (A torus is a ring-shaped object like a doughnut.)

y
a
P(x, y)

–a O a 2a x

–a

a a
The volume of this torus is given by V = 8π a
a
∫ −a
a2 − x 2 dx − 4π ∫ −a
x a2 − x 2 dx .

 valuate 8π a
(a) E ∫ −a
a2 − x 2 dx .
a
(b) E
 valuate ∫ −a
x a2 − x 2 dx .
(c) H
 ence find the volume of the torus.

Solution
a

∫ a − x dx is the area of a semicircle of radius a.

2 2
(a) The integral
−a
2
a − x dx = 8π a × π a = 4π a .
a
Hence 8π a ∫ 2 2 2 3
−a 2
a a
1
∫ x a − x dx = − 2 ∫ (−2x) a − x dx
2 2 2 2
(b)
−a −a
a
⎡ 3
⎤
3⎣ (
= − 1 ⎢ a2 − x 2 ) 2
⎥
⎦ −a
=0

Chapter 5 Further integration 159

YEAR 12

(c) V = 4π 2a3 − 4π × 0 = 4π 2a3 units3

In part (a), if you did not recognise that the integral represented the area of a semicircle you would use the
substitution x = a sin θ to evaluate the integral. This would involve much more work, as shown below.
x = a sin θ , dx = acos θ . x = −a, θ = − π . x = a, θ = π .
2 2
a π

∫ ∫
2
a2 − x 2 dx = a2 − a2 sin2 θ × acos θ dθ
−a −π
2
π

∫
2
= acos θ × acos θ dθ
−π
2
π

∫
2
= a π cos2 θ dθ
2
−
2
2 π
a 2 (1 + cos 2θ )dθ
=
2 − π2 ∫
π
= a2 ⎡θ+ sin 2θ ⎤ 2
2 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ − π
2

( ( ) )
2
= a π +0− −π +0
2 2 2
2
= πa
2
2
a2 − x 2 dx = 8π a × π a = 4π 2a3.
a
Hence 8π a
∫ −a 2

The solution of differential equations is all about integrating the given function and substituting the initial
conditions to find a particular solution. You now have new integration skills, so this extends the types of differential
equations that you can solve.

Example 40
dy
Find the particular solution of = x 2 cos x, given that y = 0 when x = 0.
dx
Solution
dy
dx ∫
= x 2 cos x : y = x 2 cos x dx
Use integration by parts: y = x 2 sin x − 2x sin x dx ∫
∫
2
Use integration by parts: y = x sin x + 2x cos x − 2cos x dx
2
= x sin x + 2x cos x − 2 sin x + C
x = 0: 0 = C
Hence the particular solution is y = x2 sin x + 2x cos x – 2 sin x.

160 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

EXERCISE 5.7 USES OF INTEGRATION

1
1 Without evaluating the integral, explain why ∫ −1
tan−1 x dx is equal to zero.

2 Calculate the area of the region bounded by the curve y = 1 , the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 2.
x(3 − x)
2
3 Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = x −2 6x + 8 , the x-axis and the ordinates x = 4 and x = 5.
x − 3x
1 − x2
4 Calculate the area of the region enclosed by the curve y = and the x-axis.
1 + x2
5 Find the volume of the solid generated when the part of the curve y = 1 between x = –1 and x = 1 is
rotated about the x-axis. 4 − x2

6 Find the volume of the solid generated when the curve with equation y = x between x = 2 and x = 3 is
rotated about the x-axis. x2 − 1

7 The diagram shows the graph of y = lnx.

t
(a) Find ∫ ln x dx.
( )
1
(b) By comparing relevant areas in the diagram, or otherwise, show that lnt > 2 t − 1 , for t > 1.
t +1
y

y = In x

O x
1 t

8 (a) Differentiate sin−1 x − 1 − x 2 .

( ) dx = sin
1
θ
1+ x
∫
2 −1
(b) Hence find θ + 1 − 1 − θ 2 for 0 < θ < 1.
0 1− x
9 Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the region between the curve y = sin x and the
x-axis for 0 ≤ x ≤ π about the x-axis.
10 The diagram shows the graph of xy2 = (x – 2)2(4 – x). Find the volume of the solid formed by rotating the loop
in the graph of xy2 = (x – 2)2(4 – x) about the x-axis.
y

xy2 = (x – 2)2 (4 – x)
1

O x
1 2 3 4

–1

–2

Chapter 5 Further integration 161
YEAR 12

y
11 (a) The region bounded by the curves y = sin x, y = cos x and the y-axis is
rotated about the x-axis. Calculate the volume of the solid of revolution y = cos x
1
formed.
y = sin x
(b) The region in part (a) is rotated about the y-axis. Write the integral that
would give the volume of the solid of revolution formed. Use technology 0.5
to find the value of this integral.
x
O 0.5 1

12 When the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is rotated about the line x = b (b > a) to generate a torus, the volume of the solid of
a
revolution formed is given by V = 4π ∫ −a
(b − x) a2 − x 2 dx . Calculate this volume.

13 Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated when the region bounded y = sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π , the x-axis
2
and the line x = π is rotated about:
2
(a) the x-axis
(b) the y-axis, using technology to evaluate your integral.
π

∫
2
The volume of the solid in part (b) is also given by V = 2π
(c)  x sin x dx . Find the exact value of this
0
volume and compare it to your answer in part (b).
dy
14 Find the particular solution of = x 2 sin x + 2x cos x − 2 sin x , given that y = 6 when x = 0.
dx
dy 1
15 Find the particular solution of = e − x sin x, given that y = − when x = 0.
dx 2
dy
16 Find the particular solution of = − 22x , given that y = 2 when x = 0.
dx x +1
dy −x
17 Find the particular solution of = − e (cos x + sin x), given that y(0) = 1 .
dx 2 2
−x
18 When the region bounded by y = e and the lines x = 1, y = 1 is rotated about the line x = 1, the volume of the

∫ (1 − e )(1 − x)dx . Calculate the exact value of this integral.

1
−x
solid generated is given by V = 2π
0
2 y2
19 (a) The ellipse x 2 + 2 = 1 is rotated about the x-axis. Show that the volume of the solid generated is 1 4π ab3
a b 3
cubic units.
2
x2 y
(b) When the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 is rotated about the line x = a, the volume of the solid of revolution is given
a a b
by V = 2π ∫ 2 y(a − x)dx . Calculate the volume of this solid of revolution.
−a

20 Find the particular solution of

dy
dx ( )
= 2 − log e x 2 + 1 , given that y = 1 when x = 0.
dy
21 Find the particular solution of = − 2x 2 , given that y(0) = 2.
2
dx
(
x2 + 1 )
22 (a) Let In = ( log e x ) dx where n is a positive integer. Show that In = 2 ( log e 2 ) − nIn−1 .
∫
n n

Let f (x) = ( log e x ) where integer n ≥ 2. By considering the first and second derivatives, show that f (x)
n
(b) 
is increasing and concave up over the domain 1 < x ≤ 2. Sketch the curve y = ( log e x ) (where n ≥ 2) over
n

the domain 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
(c) By considering the area of a triangle that acts as an upper bound, show that: nIn−1 > 3 ( log e 2 ) .
n
2
(d) Hence show that 2 < log e 2 < 2.
3

162 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

23 It is given that x4 – 8x2 + 14 = (x2 + 4x + 43)(x2 – 4x + 4).

(a) Find a and b so that 4
64 = 2x + a − 2x − b .
x − 8x 2 + 16 x 2 + 4x + 4 x 2 − 4x + 4
(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that for any real number 0 ≤ m < 2,
dx = 2 log e m + 2 − 8m ( )
m
64
∫ 4 2
0 x − 8x + 16 m − 2 m2 − 4
.

24 It is given that x4 – 3x2 + 9 = (x2 + 3x + 3)(x2 – 3x + 3).

(a) Find a and b so that 4 36 2 = 2x + a − 2x − b .
x − 3x + 9 x 2 + 3x + 3 x 2 − 3x + 3
(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that for any real number p,
p
36 ⎛ p2 + 3p + 3 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 2p + 3⎞ ⎛ 2p − 3⎞ ⎞.
∫ 4 2
0 x − 3x + 9
dx = log e ⎜ 2
⎝ p − 3p + 3 ⎠⎟ + 2 3 ⎜ tan−1 ⎜
⎝ ⎝ 3
⎟
⎠
+ tan −1 ⎜
⎝ ⎟
3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
p
36
(c) Find the limiting value as p → ∞ as 4 2
0 x − 3x + 9 ∫
dx .

25 The shaded region in the diagram is bounded by y = x loge x, y = 0 and x = e. y

When this region is rotated about the y-axis, the volume of the solid formed is
e
given by V = 2π
solid.
∫ 1
x y dx where y = x loge x. Calculate the exact volume of this

O x
1 e

26 The base of a solid is formed by the area bounded by y = sin x and y = –sin x for 0 < x < π and the line x = π .
2 2
Vertical cross-sections of the solid taken parallel to the y-axis are isosceles triangles with equal sides of length
π

∫
2
1 unit, as shown. The volume of this solid is given by V = y 1 − y 2 dx where y = sin x. Calculate the exact
0
volume of this solid.
y
y = sin x y

1
1
O π x O x
2

y = –sin x

CHAPTER REVIEW 5
π 4
5x − 7 dx
∫ ∫
3
1 Evaluate: (a) x cos x dx (b) 2
π
6
3 x − 3x + 2
x + 2 dx
2 Find: (a) ∫ log e
2x dx (b) ∫x 2
−1
3
dx
3 Evaluate: ∫ 2 x2 + x

Chapter 5 Further integration 163

YEAR 12

3 2
6 dx
4 Evaluate: (a) ∫ 1
tan −1 x dx (b) ∫ −2 9 − x2
5 Find the derivative of loge (cosec x + cot x) and deduce the value of:
π π

∫ cosec θ dθ (b) ∫
2 3
(a) secu du
π
3
2 π
6

6 (a) Find the derivative of: sin x + log 1 + sin x

e 1 − sin x
1 − sin 2 x
π

∫
3
(b) Hence evaluate: π
sec 3 θ dθ
6

7 (a) Write (x − 1)(7 − x) in the form b2 − (x − a)2, where a and b are real numbers.
Using the values of a and b from part (a) and making the substitution x − a = b sin θ, or otherwise,
(b) 
7
evaluate: ∫
1
(x − 1)(7 − x) dx

8 Find real numbers a, b and c such that: 1 = a + b2 + c

x (x + 1) x x x +1 2

9 Reduce each rational function to its partial fractions.

(a)
x 2 − 10x + 13 (b)
x 2 + 10x + 16 (c)
x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x + 6 (d)
6x 2 − 53x + 42
(x − 1)(x 2 − 5x + 6) (x − 1)(x 2 − 4) (x − 3)(x − 2) (2x − 3)(2x 2 − 5x − 3)
10 Express each rational function as partial fractions.
(a)
x 2 − 6x + 14 (b)
2x 2 + x + 6
(x − 3)(x − 2)(2x − 1) x2 − 4
2(5x + 6)
11 (a) Show that: = 2x + 4 + 2x
(x 2 + 2x + 2)(3 − x 2 ) x 2 + 2x + 2 3 − x 2
(b) Show that: 2
2x + 4 = 2x + 2 + 2
x + 2x + 2 x 2 + 2x + 2 (x + 1)2 + 1
11x − 28 = a b c
12 Given that 2 2 + x + 3 + x − 2 where a, b and c are real numbers, find a, b and c.
(x + 3) (x − 2) (x + 3)
13 Evaluate:
3π
3
2x 2 + 2x + 5 dx
∫ ∫
4
(a) (b) x cos x dx
1 (x 2 + 3)(2x − 1) π
4

( )
4
dx
14 Differentiate log e x − log e a + a 2 − x 2 where a > 0 and deduce the value of: ∫x 25 − x 2
3

4 π 6
dx
∫ ∫ ∫
2
15 Evaluate: (a) (x + 1) x dx (b) cos x e sin x dx (c) 2
1 0 5 x − 16
1 3
(d) ∫ −1
(2x − 1)sin x dx (e) ∫ 0
x 2 9 − x 2 dx

dx x dx x 2 dx
16 Find: (a) ∫ 1 − 4x 2
(b) ∫ 1 − 4x 2
(c) ∫ 1 − 4x 2
x dx dx
(d) ∫ 1 − 4x 2
dx (e) ∫ 1 − 4x 2
(f) ∫ 1 + 4x 2
17 Find:
dx dx dθ cos θ
(a) ∫ sin x + tan x (b) ∫ 5 + 4 cos 2x (c) ∫ 4 cosθ − 3sinθ (d) ∫ 5 − 3cosθ dθ

164 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

π
18 Use the substitution t = tan x to find the exact value of ∫
3 1 dx .
2 0 4 + 5cos x
19 Find: ∫ x log e
2x dx

20 Find:
x 2 + 1 dx dx x 3 + 1 dx x +1
(a) ∫ x 3 + 3x
(b) ∫ x 2 + 2x + 1
(c) ∫ x
(d) ∫ x + 2x − 3 dx
2

x + 4 dx dx
∫ ∫ ∫ x sin ∫ x tan x dx
−1 2 −1
(e) (f) (g) x dx (h)
x 3 + 4x 3
x −1
21 Find:
dx dx dx dx
(a) ∫x 2
− 4x − 1
(b) ∫ 3x 2
+ 6x + 10
(c) ∫ 2
x − 4x + 1
(d) ∫ x 2 + 16

22 (a) Sketch the graph of the curve with equation y = 1 for 0 < x < 3.
x(3 − x)
(b) Find the area bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 2.
23 Calculate the area of the region bounded by the curve y = xe−x, the x-axis and the line x = 1.
cos x
24 Sketch the graph of y = for −π < x < π, stating the coordinates of its intersection with the x-axis and
1 + cos x
of the turning point. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve and the x-axis.
dy
25 Find the particular solution of = 1 + 1 given that y(0) = 1.
dx x 2 + 1
dy
26 Find the general solution of = ( 2 − y ) ( 2 + y ) given that y(0) = 1.
dx
a a
27 (a) Using the substitution u = a − x, or otherwise, prove that ∫0
f (x)dx = ∫
0
f (a − x)dx .
π
x sin x dx .
(b) Hence evaluate ∫ 0 1 + cos2 x

Chapter 5 Further integration 165

 CHAPTER 6
Mechanics
6.1 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION AS FUNCTIONS OF x
The expressions for displacement x(t), velocity v(t) = x(t)& and acceleration a(t) = x(t)
&& = v(t)
& all clearly define
functions of time t. This makes sense because an ordinary particle cannot be in two different places at the same time:
for each value of t there corresponds only one value of x(t) that satisfies the function. Similarly, v(t) and a(t) define
functions because a particle cannot be moving in two different ways (that is, cannot have more than one velocity and
one acceleration) at any given time.
However, sometimes it is still useful to express acceleration in terms of the displacement x or in terms of the
velocity v, rather than in terms of time t. In this case you must be careful, because equations relating a, v and x
will not necessarily define functions.
Consider a particle that moves so that its displacement at time t ≥ 0 is given by x(t) = sin t. This means that the
particle is moving back and forth between the limits x = ±1. (This is an example of simple harmonic motion, an
important kind of motion that is explored in more detail later in this chapter.)
The particle is at x = 1 whenever sint = 1 , i.e. when t = π , π − π , 2π + π , … so that x(t) defines a many-to-one
2 2 6 6 6
function of time. Similarly, v(t) = x(t)
 = cos t defines a many-to-one function of time.
Note that v2 = cos2 t = 1 − sin2 t = 1 − x2. Hence the equation v2 = 1 − x2 expresses v A P B
in terms of x. However, this equation is not a function of x, because (for example) x
–1 0 1 1
at x = 1 you may have v = ± 3 ⎛ ⎞
. The point ⎜ 1 , 3 ⎟ corresponds to t = π , while 2
2 2 ⎝2 2 ⎠ 6
⎛1 3⎞ 5π
⎜⎝ 2 ,− 2 ⎟⎠ corresponds to t = 6 . There is an infinite number of values of t for each value of x. As the particle moves
to and fro between A and B, its velocity has two possible values at any point P in between, depending on whether the
particle is moving towards A or towards B at the time. At the extremes A and B, the velocity is zero, so at these points
you can say the particle is instantaneously at rest.
dv
Remember that differential calculus needs to be applied to functions. In this context, can only have a useful
dx
meaning if v = v(x) defines a function. Hence if you want to differentiate the equation v = 1 − x2 you must restrict v
2

to be either positive or negative. This means that in the equation v2 = 1 − x2 you consider v to apply only to velocities
as the particle moves from A to B, i.e. v > 0, or only from B to A, i.e. v < 0.
If v(x) specifies a velocity function of x according to one of these restrictions, then you can use the chain rule
of differentiation to calculate acceleration:
dv dv dx
= ×
dt dx dt
dv dx
= v as v =
dx dt

= ( )
d 1 2 dv
dv 2
v ×
dx
= ( )
d 1 2
dx 2
v

Hence acceleration may be expressed in any of the forms

dv d 2 x dv
, ,v
dt dt 2 dx
or ( )
d 1 2
dx 2
v .
The form to use in a particular problem will depend on the form of the equation that defines acceleration:
• Given a = f (t), use
dv
dt
or 2
d 2x
dt
• Given a = g(x), use ( )
d 1 2
dx 2
v

166 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

⎧ dv if initial conditions are values for t and v

⎪ dt
• Given a = h(v), use ⎨
⎪v dv if initial conditions are values for x and v
⎩ dx
It is customary to write derivatives with respect to time using dots above the dependent variable,
dx d 2x dv
e.g. x& = , x&& = 2 , v& = .
dt dt dt

Example 1
A particle moves in a straight line so that at time t its displacement from a fixed origin is x and its velocity is v.
If the acceleration is 3 − 2x, find v in terms of x given that v = 2 when x = 1.

Solution
x!! = 3− 2x gives the acceleration as a function of x and the initial conditions are v and x, so to find v as a
function of x:
Use x = ( )
d 1 2
dx 2
v :
dx 2( )
d 1 2
v = 3− 2x
1 v 2 = (3− 2x)dx
Integrate with respect to x:
2 ∫
1 v 2 = 3x − x 2 + C
2
At x = 1, v = 2:  2 = 3 − 1 + C
C = 0
∴ 1 v 2 = 3x − x 2
2
v2 = 6x − 2x2
v = ± 6x − 2x 2
The conditions include x = 1, v = 2, which means that v is positive when x = 1.
To satisfy the initial conditions you must take the positive square root.
∴ v = 6x − 2x 2
It is worth noting the domain of the velocity function. For v to exist, 6x − 2x2 ≥ 0, so 0 ≤ x ≤ 3: this means that
the motion exists only for 0 ≤ x ≤ 3.

Example 2
A particle moves in a straight line so that at time t its displacement from a fixed origin is x and its velocity is v.
If x&& = 3x 2 and v = − 2, x = 1 when t = 0, find x as a function of t.

Solution
x&& = 3x 2 gives acceleration as a function of x, so to find v as a function of x:

Use x = ( )
d 1 2
dx 2
v :
dx( )
d 1 2
2
v = 3x 2

Chapter 6 Mechanics 167

YEAR 12

1 v 2 = 3x 2 dx
Integrate with respect to x: 2 ∫
1 v = x3 + C
2
2 1

At x = 1, v = − 2: 1 = 1 + C1
C1 = 0
∴ 1 v2 = x3
2
v2 = 2x3
v = ± 2x 3

The conditions include x = 1, v = − 2, which means that v is negative when x = 1.

To satisfy the initial conditions you must take the negative square root.
3
∴ v = − 2x 2
dx dx 3
Now v = : = − 2x 2
dt dt
3
dt
=− 1 x 2
−
Reciprocal of both sides:
dx 2
3
t = − 1 ∫ x 2 dx
−
Integrate with respect to t:
2
( )
−1
t = − 1 × − 2 x 2 + C2
2 1
−1
t = 2x 2 + C2
At x = 1, t = 0: 0 = 2 + C2
C2 = − 2
−1
∴ t = 2x 2 − 2
−1
Find x in terms of t: 2x 2 =t+ 2
−1 t+ 2
x 2=
2
1 2
x2 =
t+ 2
2
x=
( )
2
t+ 2

Example 3
The velocity of a particle is v = 3x + 7 m s−1.
(a) Find an expression for the acceleration.
(b) If the initial displacement is 1 m to the right of the origin, find the displacement as a function of time.

168 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Solution
dx
(a) v = 3x + 7 (b) = 3x + 7
dt
dv = 3
dx dt 1
Reciprocal of both sides: =
dx 3x + 7
dv dx
Use x&& = v : x&& = (3x + 7)× 3 Integrate with respect to x: t=∫
dx 3x +7
= 3(3x + 7) m s−2 1
t = log e (3x + 7)+ C
3
At t = 0, x = 1: C = − 1 log e 10
3
∴ t = log e (3x + 7)− 1 log e 10
1
3 3
1 ⎛ 3x + 7 ⎞
t = log e
3 ⎝ 10 ⎠
3x + 7 ⎞
3t = log e ⎛
⎝ 10 ⎠
⎛ 3x + 7 ⎞ = e 3t
⎝ 10 ⎠
3x + 7 = 10e3t
x = 1 10e 3t − 7
3 ( )

Example 4
A particle moves in a straight line so that at time t its displacement from a fixed origin is x and its velocity is v.
−x
If x&& = −e 2 and v = 2, x = 0 when t = 0, find x as a function of t.

Solution
Use x = ( )
d 1 2
dx 2
v :
dx 2( )
d 1 2
v = −e 2
−x

x
1 v 2 = − e − 2 dx
Integrate with respect to x:
2 ∫
x
1 v 2 = 2e − 2 + C
2 1

At x = 0, v = 2: 2 = 2 + C1
C1 = 0
x
∴ 1 v 2 = 2e − 2
2
−x
v 2 = 4e 2
−x
v = ±2e 4
−x
The conditions include x = 0, v = 2, which means that v is positive when x = 0; also e 4 > 0 for all x.
To satisfy the initial conditions you must take the positive square root.
−x
∴ v = 2e 4
dx dx −x
Now v = : = 2e 4
dt dt
dt 1 x4
Reciprocal of both sides: = e
dx 2

Chapter 6 Mechanics 169

YEAR 12

x
Integrate with respect to t: t = 1 ∫ e 4 dx
2
x
t = 1 × 4e 4 + C2
2
x
t = 2e 4 + C2
At t = 0, x = 0: 0 = 2 + C2
C2 = −2
x
∴ t = 2e 4 − 2
x t+2
Find x in terms of t: e4 =
2
x t + 2⎞
= log e ⎛
4 ⎝ 2 ⎠
t + 2⎞
x = 4 log e ⎛
⎝ 2 ⎠

EXERCISE 6.1 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION AS FUNCTIONS OF x

1 A particle moves in a straight line so that at time t its displacement from a fixed origin is x and its velocity is v.
If its acceleration is given by x&& = 4 + x and v = 1 when x = 0, find v when x = 1.
2
2 The acceleration of a particle moving in a straight line is given by d x2 = 7 − 2x and the particle starts from rest
dt
at the point where x = 0. Find the speed in terms of x. What values can x take?
3 At time t, the displacement of a particle moving in a straight line is x. If the acceleration is given by
d 2 x = 3− 4x and the particle starts from rest at x = 1, find its velocity at any position. At what other point,
dt 2
if any, does the particle come to rest?
4 The acceleration of a particle moving in a straight line is given by x&& = kx where k = 1. If x& = 10 ms −1 when
x = 6 m, the velocity of the particle when it is 15 m from the origin is:
−1
A −17 m s B 79 m s−1 C 17 m s−1 D 23 m s−1
5 A particle leaves O with velocity 2 m s−1. Its acceleration is − 1 3 x m s−2 when its displacement from O is
6
x metres. Find its displacement when it first comes to rest.
6 A particle moves in a straight line and its acceleration at any time t is cos x. If v = 0 and x = 0 when t = 0,
express v in terms of x.
2
7 A particle moves in a straight line and its acceleration at any time is given by d x2 = sin 2 x. Find dx given
dt dt
that dx = 1 when x = 0.
dt
8 If x = ( )
d 1 2
dx 2
v = 2x − 3x 2 and v = 2 when x = 0, find v in terms of x.
9 A particle moves in a straight line. At time t its displacement from a fixed origin is x. If x&& = x − 3 and x& = −2
when x = 1, find x& when x = 0.
10 The velocity of a particle is given by v = 4 + x2 m s−1.
(a) Find the acceleration as a function of x.
(b) If initially x = −2 m, what is the displacement after π seconds?
4

170 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

dx 1
11 If = and x = 0 when t = 0, find t when x = 2.
dt x + 4
dx
12 If = x + 4 and x = −3 when t = 0, express x in terms of t.
dt
13 The velocity of a particle at any time t is 2(4 − x)2. Find its position x(t) at any time t given x(0) = 0.
dx ( 2 d 2x
14 If = 3− x ) and x = 2 when t = 0, find: (a) x as a function of t (b) as a function of x.
dt dt 2
15 A particle moves in a straight line. At time t its displacement from a fixed origin is x. If x& = x + 3:
(a) express x&& in terms of x (b) find x when t = 1, given that x = −2 when t = 0.
16 The acceleration of a body moving under gravitational attraction towards a planet varies inversely as the
d 2x k
square of its distance from the centre of the planet. This can be written as 2 = − 2 where x is the distance
dt x
from the centre of the planet and k is a constant. If the body starts from rest at a distance a from the centre of
the planet, show that its speed at x (before it hits the planet) is given by dx = 2k(a − x) .
dt ax
17 A particle is moving in a straight line with its acceleration as a function of x given by x&& = −e −2x . It is initially at
the origin and travelling with a velocity of 1 metre per second.
(a) Show that x& = e − x. (b) Hence show that x = loge (t + 1).
18 A particle is moving so that x&& = 32x 3 + 48x 2 +16x. Initially x = −2 and the velocity v is −8.
1
(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that −4t = ∫
2 2 2
(a) Show that v = 16x (1 + x) . dx .
x(1+ x)
1
It can be shown that for some constant C, log e ⎛1+ ⎞ = 4t + C. Using this equation and the initial
(c) 
⎝ x⎠
conditions, find x as a function of t.
2
19 The acceleration of a particle P is given by the equation d x2 = 32x(x 2 + 9), where x metres is the displacement
dt
of P from a fixed point O after t seconds. Initially the particle is at O and has a velocity 36 m s−1 in the
positive direction.
2 −1
(a) Show that the speed at any position x is given by 4(x + 9) m s .
(b) Hence find the time taken for the particle to travel 3 metres from O.
20 A body falls from rest so that its velocity v metres per second after t seconds is v = 80(1 − e−0.4t).
(a) Show that the acceleration is proportional to (80 − v).
(b) Calculate the distance fallen in the first five seconds.  
(c) Calculate the distance fallen when v = 60.
21 A particle is brought to top speed by an acceleration that varies linearly with the distance travelled, i.e.
x&& = kx + C where k and C are constants. It starts from rest with an acceleration of 3 m s−2 and reaches top speed
in a distance of 160 metres. Find:
(a) the top speed (b) the speed when the particle has moved 80 metres.

Chapter 6 Mechanics 171

YEAR 12

6.2 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

Consider the motion of a particle moving along a straight line back and forth, so that its displacement from a fixed
point at time t is given by a sine or cosine function.

Example 5
A particle moves in a straight line so that its displacement x m from a fixed point O at time t seconds is defined
by x = 4 sin 2t. After considering properties of the graph of x = 4 sin 2t to analyse the motion of the particle, find
expressions for:
(a) the velocity (b) the acceleration. (c) Discuss the motion of the particle.

Solution
Look at the properties of the sine curve to help x
Displacement
determine the nature of the movement of the particle.
4 A
• When t = 0, x = 0 x = 4 sin 2t

• When t = π , x = 4
4
π
• When t = , x = 0 O p p 3p p t
2 4 2 4
• When t = π , x = −4
3
4 –4 B
• When t = π, x = 0

Remember that the particle is moving in a straight line along the x-axis. It starts at x = 0 and takes π seconds
4
π
(approximately 0.8 s) to move to A, another π seconds to return to O, another 4 seconds to move to B and
4
then another π seconds to return to O again. This pattern of movement repeats every π seconds. You say that
4
the particle oscillates from A to B about the point O, the centre of the motion, with a period of π. The distance
between O and the extreme positions A and B (in this case 4 m) is called the amplitude.
dx Velocity
(a) v = = 8cos2t [1] v
dt
8
• When t = 0, v = 8 at x = 0 v = 8 cos 2t

• When t = π , v = 0 at x = 4
4
π
• When t = , v = −8 at x = 0 O p p 3p p t
2 4 2 4
• When t = π , v = 0 at x = −4
3
4 –8
• When t = π, v = 8 at x = 0

In the original displacement diagram above, the particle is at rest at A and B because v = 0
when t = π at x = 4 and when t = 3π at x = −4.
4 4
The velocity diagram above right shows that v = 0 when t = π and when t = 3π .
4 4
π
When t = 0, x = 0 and v = 8. When t = , x = 0 and v = −8. This means that at O, v = 8 when the particle
2
is travelling in the positive direction (towards A) but v = −8 when the particle is travelling in the negative
direction (towards B).

172 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Squaring [1]: v2 = 64 cos2 2t

v2 = 64 (1 − sin2 2t)
2
⎛ ⎞
v 2 = 64 ⎜1 − x ⎟
⎝ 16 ⎠
v2 = 4(16 − x2) [2]
Equation [2] gives the velocity in terms of x.
dv
(b) x&& = = −16sin2t [3]
dt
x&& = −4x [4]
Equation [3] gives the acceleration in terms of t. Equation [4] gives the acceleration in terms of x.
x&& = −4x tells us that when x = 0, x&& = 0; when x = 4 (at A), x&& = −16; and when x = −4 (at B), x&& = 16.
x&& and x always have the opposite sign. dv
dt
• When t = 0, x&& = 0 at x = 0
16
When t = π , x&& = −16 at x = 4
dv
• = –16 sin 2t
4 dt

• π
When t = , x&& = 0 at x = 0
2 O p p p t
3p
• When t = π , x&& = 16 at x = −4
3 4 2 4
4
• When t = π, x&& = 0 at x = 0 –16

(c) In this type of motion, the particle moves in a straight line so that its acceleration is always directed towards
a fixed point in the line and the magnitude of this acceleration is proportional to its distance from the fixed
point.
Taking O as the fixed point, the above description tells you that when the B 0 A
particle is at A (x > 0) its acceleration is towards O ( x&& < 0), while when x = –4 x=0 x=4
the particle is at B (x < 0) its acceleration is again towards O ( x&& > 0). x=0 x=8 x=0
x = 16 x=0 x = –16

Note that the equation of motion x = 4 sin 2t in this example could also be written as x = 4cos 2t − π .
2 ( )
In a situation such as Example 5, x&& and x are always opposite in sign and the magnitude of the acceleration is always
proportional to the distance from O. This means you can take the differential equation x&& = −4x from this example
and write it as a general equation x&& = −kx, where k can be any positive constant, to define all motion of this type.
This type of motion is called simple harmonic motion (SHM) and it can be applied to many real-life physical
situations. Because k is a positive constant, it is usually replaced by n2 so that x&& = −n 2 x is the basic equation of SHM.
In general, for simple harmonic motion you have:
• displacement x: x = a cos(nt + α), α > 0, n > 0 OR x = a sin(nt + α), α > 0, n > 0
.
• velocity, x : x! = −an sin(nt + α ) x! = ancos(nt + α )
2
• acceleration x:
!! x!! = −an cos(nt + α ) x!! = −an2 sin(nt + α )
or x!! = −n2 x x!! = −n2 x
• Squaring the velocity: v = −an sin(nt + α )    v = −ancos(nt + α )
v 2 = a2n2 sin2 (nt + α ) v 2 = a2n2 cos2 (nt + α )
(
= n2 a2 − a2 cos2 (nt + α ) ) (
= n2 a2 − a2 sin2 (nt + α ) )
= n2 (a 2
− x2 ) = n2 (a 2
− x2 )
Chapter 6 Mechanics 173
YEAR 12

So, regardless of your starting point you have the very useful result: v2 = n2(a2 – x2).
As you work through this chapter, you will discover which form (sine or cosine) is best to use in a particular situation.
Of course, if you start with the differential equation x!! = −n2 x and use either form, the forms will only differ by a
constant, which will be given by the initial conditions.
Important results
1 When x& = 0 (e.g. at A and B in Example 5) the magnitude of the acceleration is greatest.
2 When x&& = 0 (i.e. at O, the centre of the motion), the speed is greatest (i.e. the velocity has its greatest or least value).

The general equation x = a cos (nt + α ), α > 0, n > 0

If when t = 0, x = a, the particle is initially at A (the extreme point) and a = a cos α, then cos α = 1 and α = 0.
The equation of motion can then be written x = a cos nt.
x = a cos nt [1] x
v = x& = −nasinnt [2]
v2 = n2a2 sin2 nt A a
x = a cos nt
2 2 2
= n a (1 − cos nt)
⎛ x2⎞
= n 2a 2 ⎜1− 2 ⎟ O t
⎝ a ⎠ 2π
n
v2 = n2(a2 − x2) [3]
B –a
dv
= x = −n 2a cosnt
dt
x&& = −n 2 x [4]
2π
• The period T is the time for one complete oscillation: T =
n
1 n
• The frequency f is the number of oscillations per unit time: f = =
T 2π
• The amplitude a is the distance from the centre of motion O to either of the extreme points A or B.
Simple harmonic motion problems are usually solved using either x = a cos (nt + α) or x&& = −n 2 x, or occasionally
v2 = n2(a2 − x2). The starting point will depend on the information given.
Simple harmonic motion (SHM)—summary

x = a cos (nt + α) dv v2 = n2(a2 − x2) −a ≤ x ≤ a

= x = −n 2a cosnt
= a cos nt if x(0) = a dt 2π 1
T= =
v = x = −na sinnt x&& = −n 2 x n f

Note:
• x = a sin (nt + α) can also describe the displacement function, but it is more conventional to use
x = a cos (nt + α).
• In problems involving a pendulum, the motion usually starts at the maximum displacement,
so α = 0 and the equation of motion becomes x = a cos nt.
The following diagrams illustrate the velocity and acceleration of a particle undergoing SHM, including the extreme values.
v = –na v = –n√a2 – x2
v=0 v=0

–a 0 x a
v = na v = n√a2 – x2

x = n2a x = –n2x x = –n2x x = –n2a

x=0

–a 0 x a

174 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Note that to the left of O, x is negative, so −n2x (the acceleration) is positive.

The equation x&& = −n 2 x describes the motion of a particle under the influence of a force that is directed towards the
origin O and is proportional to the distance of the particle from O. The force (and hence the acceleration) is zero
at O, where the speed is greatest. The magnitude of the force (and hence the acceleration) is greatest at the extreme
points, where the speed is zero.
This type of motion occurs in real physical situations (either approximately or exactly) where a particle oscillates
about an equilibrium position. For example:
• the to-and-fro motion of a pendulum bob
• the up-and-down motion of a mass attached to a spring
• the bobbing motion of a buoy floating on water.

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Simple harmonic motion

Use technology to explore the representation of a point moving along a straight line as a trigonometric function.

Example 6
The displacement x m of a particle moving in a straight line is given by x = 4 cos 6t. Discuss the motion of the particle.

Solution
x = 4 cos 6t is of the form x = a cos (nt + α), so the motion is simple harmonic about the origin.
2π 2π π
Amplitude a = 4 n=6 Period = n = 6 = 3
When t = 0: x = 4 cos 0 = 4
∴ The particle starts 4 m to the right of O.
Velocity: x& = −24sin6t Acceleration: x&& = −144cos6t
x&& = −36x
When t = 0: x& = −24sin0 = 0 When t = 0: x&& = −144
∴ The particle is initially at rest. ∴ The initial acceleration is 144 m s−2 towards O.
The motion is simple harmonic with amplitude 4 m, period π seconds, initially at rest 4 m to the right of O
3
with an acceleration of 144 m s−2 towards O.

Example 7
d 2x
The motion of a particle moving along a straight line is given by the equation = −16x.
dt 2
If x = 0 and v = 4 when t = 0, find its displacement at any time t and state the period and amplitude.
Solution
d 2x
Because = −16x = −n 2 x where n = 4, the motion is simple harmonic.
dt 2
∴ x = a cos (nt + α)
For n = 4: x = a cos (4t + α) [1]
v = x = −4asin(4t + α ) [2]

When t = 0, x = 0 in [1]: 0 = a cos α

α=π
2

Chapter 6 Mechanics 175

YEAR 12

When t = 0, v = 4 in [2]: 4 = −4asin π

2
a = −1
∴ x = −cos 4t + π
2 ( )
 ou can use the identity −cos θ = cos (π − θ ) to remove the negative sign and write the answer in a more
Y
familiar form:
( )
−cos 4t + π = cos π − 4t − π
2 ( 2 )
= cos π − 4t
2 ( )
= cos 4t − π (
2 )
(
∴  x = cos 4t − π Period =
2 )2π 2π π
n
= = Amplitude = a = 1
4 2

( )
It is worth noticing that cos π − 4t = sin4t, so the equation of motion could be written as x = sin 4t.
2
This would make it easier to sketch the function.

Example 8
A particle moves in a straight line so that its acceleration at any time is given by x&& = −4x. Find its period,
amplitude and displacement at time t given that at t = 0, x = 3 and v = −6 3.

Solution
x&& = −4x = −n 2 x where n = 2, so the motion is simple harmonic.
x = a cos (nt + α)
For n = 2: x = a cos (2t + α)
When t = 0, x = 3: 3 = a cos α [1]
Velocity: x = −2a sin(2t + α )

When t = 0, v = −6 3: −6 3 = −2a sin α

3 3 = a sin α [2]

[2] ÷ [1]: asinα = 3 3

acosα 3
tanα = 3
As a > 0: sin α > 0 (from [2]) and cos α > 0 (from [1]), so α is in the first quadrant and is an acute angle.

Hence: α = π
3
From [1]: 3 = a cos π
3
a=6

∴ x = 6 cos 2t + π(3 )
Hence the period =
2π
2 (
= π , amplitude = 6 and displacement is given by x = 6 cos 2t + π .
3 )

176 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

This diagram shows the motion of the particle at t = 0. v = –6 3

It starts at A and moves towards the centre of the motion. C A B
C and B are the extreme points of the motion. –6 –3 0 3 6 x

This diagram shows the displacement x for any time t in the x

domain 0 ≤ t ≤ π. 6 p
x = 6 cos ⎛⎝2t + ⎞⎠
3
3

O p p p t
7p 5p
–3 12 3 12 6
–6

Example 9
The speed v m s−1 of a particle moving in a straight line is given by v2 = 6 + 4x − 2x2, where the magnitude of
its displacement from a fixed point O is x m. Show that the motion is simple harmonic and find:
(a) the centre of the motion (b) the period (c) the amplitude.

Solution
v2 = f (x), so it seems likely that using x = ( )
d 1 2
dx 2
v might help.

v2 = 6 + 4x − 2x2
1 v 2 = 3+ 2x − x 2
2

Differentiate with respect to x: ( )

d 1 2
dx 2
v = 2 − 2x

Hence: x&& = −2(x −1)

With y = x − 1: y = x)
y = −2 y  (as &&
&& &&
This is simple harmonic motion about y = 0.
(a) With y = x − 1, SHM about y = 0 is the same as SHM about x = 1.
2 2π
(b) n = 2, so n = 2 and the period = = π 2.
2
(c) The extreme positions of the particle are found where v = 0.
6 + 4x − 2x2 = 0
−2(x2 − 2x − 3) = 0 C
(x + 1)(x − 3) = 0 x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x = −1 or 3
The particle oscillates between x = −1 and x = 3 about the centre x = 1, so the amplitude is 2 m.

Chapter 6 Mechanics 177

YEAR 12

Example 10
A particle moves in a straight line so that its position at any time t is given by x = 3 cos 2t + 4 sin 2t.

(a) Show that 3 cos 2t + 4 sin 2t = 5 cos (2t − α) where 0 < α < π and tanα = 4 .
2 3
(b) Show that the motion is simple harmonic and find its greatest speed in metres per second.

Solution
(a) Expression = 3 cos 2t + 4 sin 2t

(
32 + 4 2 = 5: = 5 3 cos 2t + 4 sin 2t
5 5 )
cos α = 3 , sin α = 4 : = 5( cos 2t cos α + sin 2t sin α )
5 5
sinα 4
tanα = = : = 5 cos (2t − α) where 0 < α < π and tanα = 4
cosα 3 2 3

(b) x = 5 cos (2t − α)

Velocity: x = −10 sin (2t − α )

Acceleration: x = −20 cos (2t − α )

= −4x
x&& = −n 2 x with n = 2, so the motion is simple harmonic.
The greatest speed occurs when x&& = 0, i.e. when cos (2t − α) = 0.

Hence: 2t − α = π
2

Thus: x = −10 sin π

2
= −10   The greatest speed is 10 m s−1.

Example 11
A particle moving in a straight line with SHM has a speed of 15 m s−1 when passing through its mean position
(the centre of the motion). Find the amplitude of the motion and the acceleration in the extreme positions,
given that the period of the motion is 2 seconds.

Solution
2π
x = 0   v = 15   T = 2 = hence n = π.
n
The values of x, v and n are known. Use the result v2 = n2 (a2 − x2) to find a.
2
225 = π (a2 − 0)
225
a2 = 2
π
15
a= as a > 0
π

178 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Motion is SHM, so: x&& = −n 2 x

Hence: x&& = −π 2 x
15 15
At the extreme position, x = a = : x&& = −π 2 × = −15π
π π
15 15
At the other extreme position, x = − : x = −π 2 × ⎛ − ⎞ = 15π
π ⎝ π⎠

Thus the amplitude of the motion is 15 metres and the magnitude of the acceleration is 15π m s−2.
π

Example 12
A particle is moving in a straight line with SHM. The velocity of the particle is respectively 5 m s−1 and 2 m s−1
at distances of 1 m and 2 m from the centre of motion. Find:
(a) the length of the path (b) the period of the motion.

Solution
(a) Given x = 1, v = 5; x = 2, v = 2.
Hence use: v2 = n2(a2 − x2)
At x = 1, v = 5: 5 = n2(a2 − 1) [1]
At x = 2, v = 2: 4 = n2(a2 − 4) [2]
2 2
5 n (a −1)
[1] ÷ [2]: = 2 2
   4 n (a − 4)
5a2 − 20 = 4a2 − 4
a2 = 16
a = 4 as a > 0
The amplitude of the motion is 4 m, so the length of the path (2a) is 8 m.
2
(b) Substitute a = 4 into [1]: 5 = 15n
1
∴ n= as n > 0
3
2π
Thus the period of the motion is T = = 2π 3 seconds.
n

Simple harmonic motion about the point x = c

In Example 5, you considered a particle moving in a straight line with displacement x m from a fixed point O at time
t seconds defined by the equation x = 4 sin 2t. The graph of the displacement is given in the following diagram.
Displacement
x
4 A
x = 4sin 2t

π π π t
O 3π
4 2 4

–4 B

Simple harmonic motion about the point x = c will involve a vertical translation of the trigonometric graph.
This will be considered in the following example.

Chapter 6 Mechanics 179

YEAR 12

Example 13
The equation of motion changes to x = 4 sin 2t + 3. By considering the graph of this function, analyse the motion
of the particle, and find expressions for (a) velocity, (b) the acceleration. (c) Discuss the motion of the particle.

Solution
Displacement
The effect of the +3 on the equation x = 4 sin 2t is to translate the graph
 x
3 units upwards with no horizontal translation. 8
The graph shows the following points. 7
A
6 x = 4sin 2t + 3
• When t = 0, x = 3.
5
• When t = π , x = 7. 4
4
π
• When t = , x = 3. 3
2 2
• When t = π , x = −1.
3
1
4
• When t = π, x = 3. O π π 3π π t
–1 4 2 4
The particle is moving in a straight line along the x-axis. It starts at x = 3 –2
B
π
and takes seconds to move to A, a distance of 4 m. It takes another π
4 4
seconds to return to x = 3 and then another π seconds to move to B,
4
a point 4 m below x = 3. It then takes π seconds to return to x = 3.
4
The pattern repeats every π seconds and the particle oscillates about x = 3, the centre of the motion, with a
period of π. The amplitude of the motion is 4.
Velocity
(a) x = 4 sin 2t + 3 v
8
dx = 8cos 2t
v = 8 cos 2t
dt

This is the same as the velocity function in Example 5
(page 172), so shifting the centre of the motion makes t
O π π 3π π
no change to the velocity of the motion as a function 4 2 4
of time.
The particle is instantaneously at rest at A and B –8

because v = 0 when t = π and t = 3π .

4 4
When t = 0, x = 3, v = 8 so the particle is travelling towards A with its greatest velocity.

When t = π , x = 3, v = −8 so the particle is travelling towards B with its least velocity.

2
Squaring the velocity function gives v 2 = 64 cos2 2t
(
v 2 = 64 1 − sin2 2t )
⎛
( ) ⎞2
But sin 2t = x − 3 : v 2 = 64 ⎜ 1 − x − 3 ⎟
4 ⎝ 4 ⎠
(
v 2 = 4 16 − (x − 3)2 )
This gives the velocity in terms of x and reflects the shift of 3 units in the centre of the motion.

180 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

(b) x! = v = 8cos 2t

x!! = dv = −16 sin 2t

dt
This is the same as the acceleration function in Example 5 (page 172), so shifting the centre of the motion
makes no change to the acceleration of the motion as a function of time.
x −3
But sin 2t = x − 3 : x!! = −16 ×
4 4
x!! = −4(x − 3)
This gives the acceleration in terms of x and reflects the shift of 3 units in the centre of the motion. It
shows that the acceleration is always directed towards the centre of motion.
Thus when x = 3, x!! = 0: the acceleration is zero when the particle passes through the centre of the motion.
When x = 7, x!! = −16: the acceleration is least when the displacement is greatest.
When x = −1, x!! = 16: the acceleration is greatest when the displacement is least.
(c) In this motion, the particle moves in a straight line so that its acceleration B A

is always directed towards the fixed point in the line that is the centre of the x = –1 x=3 x=7
x=0 |x| = 8 x=0
motion. The magnitude of this acceleration is proportional to its distance x = 16 x=0 x = –16
from the centre of the motion.
x < 0),
x = 3 is the centre of the motion, when the particle is at A (x > 3) its acceleration is towards x = 3 (!!
x > 0).
while when the particle is at B (x < 3) its acceleration is again towards x = 3 (!!

Thus the equations of motion for simple harmonic motion about the point x = c may be written as:
Displacement: x = a sin (nt + α) + c x = a cos (nt + α) + c
Velocity: x! = ancos(nt + α ) x! = −an sin(nt + α )
Acceleration: 2
x!! = −an sin(nt + α ) x!! = −an2 cos(nt + α )
2
or: x!! = −n (x − c)
where x = c is the centre of the motion, a is the amplitude, 2π is the period and α the phase shift.
n n

Example 14
A particle is moving with SHM about the point x = 5 cm. The particle starts from rest at the point x = 14 cm
with a period of 4π seconds. Calculate:
(a) the amplitude (b) the acceleration when t = 4.

Solution
(a) The centre of motion is x = 5 so the (b) Period: 4π = 2π
n
displacement is given by: x = a cos (nt + α) + 5
n= 1
t = 0, x = 14: 14 = a cos α + 5
2
a cos α = 9
Velocity is given by: x! = −an sin(nt + α ) x! = −9n sinnt
t = 0, x! = 0: 0 = –an sin α 9 t
α=0 n = 1 : x! = − 2 sin 2
2
a cos 0 = 9
x!! = − 9 cos t
a=9 4 2
The amplitude is 9. 9
t = 4: x!! = − cos 2
4
≈ 0.936 cm s−2

Chapter 6 Mechanics 181

YEAR 12

Example 15
Assume that the tides of the ocean rise and fall in SHM. The depth of water y metres in a harbour channel
πt
is given by y = 10 − 2 cos where t is the number of hours after low tide. On a particular day, low tide occurs
6
at 7 a.m. when the channel is 8 metres deep. On the same day, high tide occurs at 1 p.m. when the channel is
12 metres deep.
πt
(a) Show that these values satisfy the equation y = 10 − 2cos .
6
(b) What is the depth of the channel at 10 a.m.?
(c) State the amplitude and period of the motion.
πt
(d) Draw the graph of y = 10 − 2cos for 0 ≤ t ≤ 12.
6
A ship needs at least 9 metres of water in the channel to be able to pass through safely. Use your graph to
(e) 
find when the ship can safely pass through the channel.
(f) Find the answer to part (e) algebraically.

Solution
(a) At 7 a.m., t = 0: (d) y
y = 10 − 2 cos ( 0 ) = 10 − 2 = 8 m 12
The depth at 7 a.m. is 8 metres.
10
At 1 p.m., t = 6:
y = 10 − 2 cos (π ) = 10 − 2 × (−1) = 10 + 2 =12 m 8
The depth at 1 p.m. is 12 metres. 6
(b) 10 a.m., t = 3:

2 ( )
y = 10 − 2 cos π = 10 − 0 = 10 m
4

2
The depth at 10 a.m. is 10 metres.
(This is halfway between low tide and high tide.) O t
2 4 6 8 10 12
(c) Amplitude = 2 m; period = 12 hours
(e) Draw the line y = 9 on the graph. When the curve is above the line it is safe to pass through the channel.
y It is safe to pass through the channel from 2 hours after
12
low tide (i.e. after 9 a.m.) until 10 hours after low tide
(i.e. before 5 p.m.).
10

8 an equation and interpret the result:

( )
(f) To find the answer algebraically, solve 10 − 2 cos π t ≥ 9 as
6

6 ( )
2cos π t = 1
6
4

2   6
( )
cos π t = 1
2
π t = π , 5π
6 3 3
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 t
∴ t = 2, 10

EXERCISE 6.2 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

1 The displacement x m of a particle moving in a straight line is given by x = 6 cos 4t. Describe the motion
of the particle.
2 The equation of motion of a particle moving with simple harmonic motion is x&& = −9x. Find its period,
amplitude and greatest speed if: (a) x = 0, x& = 2 when t = 0 (b) x = 2, x& = 2 when t = 0.

182 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

( )
2
( )
3 A particle is moving in a straight line. If x metres is its displacement at time t seconds and dx = 5 4 − x 2 ,
dt
find the acceleration in terms of x only. Show that the motion is simple harmonic and find its period and
amplitude.
4 The velocity v metres per second of a particle moving in simple harmonic motion along the x-axis is given by
the equation v2 = 100 − 4x2. The amplitude in metres of the motion of the particle is:
A 2 B 5 C 10 D 50
5 The displacement of a particle at time t is given by x = 8 sin 4t + 15 cos 4t. What is the maximum velocity of the
particle?
A 2 17 B 17 C 34 D 68
6 A particle undergoing simple harmonic motion in a straight line has an acceleration given by x!! = 36 − 6x,
where x is the displacement after t seconds. Where is the centre of the motion?
A x = 0 B x = 6 C x = 12 D x = 18
7 The displacement of a particle at time t is given by x = 5 sin 2t + 12 cos 2t. What is the maximum acceleration of
the particle?
A 52 B 26 C 13 D 4
8 A particle is moving along the x-axis in simple harmonic motion centred at the origin.
When x = 2, the velocity of the particle is 5.
When x = 5, the velocity of the particle is 4. Find:
(a) the amplitude of the motion (b) the period of the motion.
9 A particle moves in a straight line. At time t seconds, its displacement x cm from a fixed point O in the line
( )
is given by x = 5 cos π t − π . Express the acceleration in terms of x only and hence show that the motion is
2 3
simple harmonic. Find:
(a) the period (b) the amplitude (c) the speed when x = −2.5 (d) the acceleration when x = −2.5.
10 The speed of a point moving along the x-axis is v m s−1 and the displacement of the point from the origin is
x m. Prove in each case below that the motion is simple harmonic, finding (i) the centre of motion and (ii) the
period and amplitude, when v is given by:
2 2 2 2 2 2
(a) v = 300 + 100x − 25x (b) v = 128 − 32x − 16x (c) v = 6 + 4x − 2x
11 A particle is moving in SHM along the x-axis. Its velocity v at position x is given by v2 = 30 − 4x − 2x2. Find:
(a) all values of x for which the particle is at rest
(b) an expression for the acceleration of the particle in terms of x
(c) the maximum speed of the particle.
12 The displacement x metres at time t seconds of a point moving in a straight line is given by x = a cos (nt + ε).
Find the form that this expression takes if initially:
(a) x& = 0 and x = −5 (b) x = 0 and the velocity is negative.
13 The velocity of a particle moving in a straight line is 3 16 − x 2 m s−1 where x m is the displacement of the
particle from a fixed point in the line. Is the motion simple harmonic? Find the acceleration when x = 4. What
is the maximum speed?
2
14 Solve the differential equation d x2 +16x = 0 subject to the conditions x = 3 and dx = 16 when t = 0. Find the
dt dt
maximum displacement and the maximum speed if x metres is the displacement of the particle moving in a
straight line at time t seconds.
15 A particle moves with simple harmonic motion. If the particle starts from the equilibrium position (centre of
motion) with velocity 4 m s−1 towards the origin and the period is π seconds, find:
2
(a) the displacement at time t (b) the amplitude.

Chapter 6 Mechanics 183

YEAR 12

16 A particle moves with simple harmonic motion. When it is 2 m from its equilibrium position, its velocity is
6 m s−1; when it is 3 m from equilibrium, its velocity is 4 m s−1. Find the period of this motion and the amplitude.
17 If x = a sin nt + b cos nt, find the velocity and acceleration of a particle whose displacement from a fixed
point O is x at time t. Show that x&& = −n 2 x and find the amplitude and maximum speed.
18 The position x m of a particle relative to a fixed point O at any time t seconds is x = 5 − 2 cos2t. By finding the
acceleration in terms of x, show that the motion is simple harmonic. Find:
(a) the centre of motion (b) the period (c) the amplitude.
19 A particle executes simple harmonic motion of period 8 seconds and amplitude 10 m. Calculate the velocity and
acceleration when its displacement is 6 m from the centre of motion. Find also its maximum acceleration.
20 A particle moves in a straight line so that its position x metres from a fixed point O at time t seconds is given
by x = 10 + 8 sin 2t + 6 cos 2t. Prove that the motion is simple harmonic. Find the period and amplitude.
21 A particle moves in a straight line. At time t seconds its
distance from a point O on the line is x metres. The t 0 7 9 11 18
following is an incomplete table of observations: x 0 0.5 0
Complete the table using two different assumptions, namely:
(a) that the particle moves with uniform acceleration
(b) that the particle performs simple harmonic motion with a period of 12 seconds.
22 A floating buoy oscillates up and down with the waves, rising and falling 2 metres about its mean position.
Find its greatest velocity and acceleration if the period of the motion is 3 seconds.
23 A particle moving with SHM starts from rest at x = 5 and after two seconds reaches x = 2.5. Find:
(a) an expression for the displacement at time t ≥ 0 (b) the speed at x = 0
(c) the amplitude, frequency and period   (d)   the maximum speed   (e)   the maximum acceleration.
24 The amplitude of a particle moving with SHM is 5 m and the acceleration when 2 m from the mean position is
4 m s−2. Find the speed of the particle when at the mean position and when 4 m from the mean position.
25 A particle is moving with SHM of period π seconds and a maximum velocity of 8 metres per second. Find the
amplitude and the velocity at a distance of 3 metres from the central position.
2π
26 A particle executes SHM of period seconds. If it starts from rest with displacement 10 metres, find:
5
(a) the frequency (b) the amplitude.
27 A point moving with SHM has a speed of 5 m s−1 when passing through its mean position O. Find the speed
and acceleration when it is 1.5 m from O, given that the period is π seconds.
28 A particle is moving with SHM of amplitude 10 metres. Find how much time it takes to travel 6 metres from
its mean position if the period is 10 seconds.
29 A point moves with SHM in such a way that its speed is 8 and 6 m s−1 respectively at distances 3 and 4 m from
the mean position. Calculate the period of the motion and the magnitude of the greatest acceleration.
30 Assume that the tides rise and fall in SHM. At low tide the channel in a harbour is 9 m deep and at high tide it
is 12 m deep. Low tide is at 9 a.m. and high tide is at 4 p.m.
(a) What is the depth of the channel at 12:30 p.m.? (b) What is the amplitude of the motion?
(c) What is the period of the motion?
(d) Show that the depth y m of the water in the channel is given by y = 10.5 − 1.5 cos π t where t is the number
7
of hours after low tide.
(e) A ship needs at least 10 m of water to pass through the channel safely. Between what times can the ship
safely navigate the channel?

184 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

31 Assume that over several days of constant weather, the cycle of changing temperature each day is simple
harmonic between 13°C at 4 a.m. and 23°C at 4 p.m.
(a) What is the temperature at 10 a.m.?
Show that the pattern of temperature can be represented by T = 18 − 5 cos π t where T is the temperature
(b) 
12
in °C and t is the time in hours after 4 a.m.
(c) At what time of day would the temperature be: (i) 18°C (ii) 15°C (iii) 21°C?
32 A particle is moving in simple harmonic motion in a straight line. Its maximum speed is 3 m s−1 and its
maximum acceleration is 8 m s−2. Find the amplitude and period of the motion.
33 (a) A particle is travelling in a straight line. Its displacement from the origin is x metres at time t seconds.
If x = cos 2t − 3 sin 2t, express x in the form R cos (2t + α), where R > 0 and 0 ≤ α < 2π.
(b) Find the maximum speed of the particle and the time at which it first occurs.
34 A particle moves in a straight line and its position at time t is given by x = 4 + 3 sin 3t − cos3t.
(a) If 3 sin 3t − cos3t = R sin(3t − α ), where α is in radians, find the value of R and α.
(b) Prove that the particle is undergoing simple harmonic motion.
(c) Find the amplitude and the centre of the motion.
(d) Find when the particle is first at its minimum displacement.
35 A particle with displacement x and velocity v is moving in simple harmonic motion with acceleration, x,
!! given
by x!! = −12x. The particle is initially at rest at x = −4.
2 2
(a) What is the period of the motion? (b) Show that v = 12(16 − x ). (c) Find x as a function of time.
36 A particle moves along a straight line and its displacement, x centimetres, from a fixed point O at a given time
t seconds is given by x = 4 + cos2 t.
(a) Show that its acceleration is given by x!! = 18 − 4x.
(b) Explain why the motion is simple harmonic.
(c) Find the centre, amplitude and period of the motion.
37 A particle is moving in a straight line under simple harmonic motion. It has a displacement of x metres from a
(
point O, on the line, at time t seconds given by x = 1 + 2cos 2t − π .
(a) Show that x!! = −4(x − 1).
4 )
(b) Find the centre of the motion and the time taken for the particle to first reach maximum speed.
(c) Find the amplitude of the motion and when the particle is first at rest.
38 The tide can be modelled using simple harmonic motion. At a particular location, the depth at high tide
is 5 metres and the depth at low tide is 1 metre. At this location, the tide completes two full periods every
25 hours. Let x represent the depth in metres and t be the time in hours after the first low tide of the day.
(a) If this depth of this tide can be modelled by the function x = a cos nt + c, find the values of a, n and c.
The first low tide today is at 2 a.m.
(b) At what time is the first high tide today?
(c) At what time this evening is the depth of water increasing at the fastest rate?

Chapter 6 Mechanics 185

YEAR 12

6.3 OTHER EXAMPLES OF MOTION

Displacement, velocity, acceleration—important connections
Given the displacement function, you can find the velocity and acceleration functions by differentiating with respect
to time.
Given the velocity function, you can find the displacement function by integrating with respect to time, and you can
find the acceleration function by differentiating with respect to time.
If the information is given as a graph, then you must remember that the definite integral can be seen as the area
under the graph, while the derivative can be seen as the gradient of the curve. If you have the graph of the velocity
dx against time, then the value of the definite integral gives the displacement and the slope of the curve gives the
dt
acceleration.

Example 16
The graph shows the velocity dx of a particle as a function of time. Initially the particle is at the origin.
dt

dx (a) At what times is the velocity zero?

dt (3, 2) (5, 2)
2 At what time is the displacement x from the origin a maximum?
(b) 
(c) What is the displacement when t = 4? What does this tell you?
(d) When does the particle have zero acceleration?
O 2 4 6
t (e) At what time is the acceleration the greatest?
(f) Use the trapezoidal rule to estimate the displacement when t = 6.
–2
(1, –2)

Solution
(a)
dx = 0: graph shows this at t = 2, 6.
dt
Hence the velocity is zero (particle at rest) at 2 seconds and again at 6 seconds.
(b) Maximum and minimum displacement occur when
dx = 0.
2 dt
dx dt
From the graph, the value of x =
6
0 dt ∫
< 0 so the displacement at t = 2 is a minimum.

The value of x = dx dt > 0 so the displacement at t = 6 is a maximum.

∫
0 dt
4
dx dt = 0, so the displacement is zero and the particle is again at
(c) From the symmetry of the graph, x =
the origin at t = 4.
0 dt ∫
(d) The particle has zero acceleration when the velocity is constant, i.e. when the graph is horizontal.
Acceleration is zero for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, 3 ≤ t ≤ 5.
(e) The velocity graph is steepest at t = 2 and t = 6. At t = 2, the slope > 0; at t = 6, the slope < 0.
Greatest acceleration is at t = 2.
(f) As the particle is back at the origin when t = 4, the displacement when t = 6 is given
6
by x = dx dt .
∫4 dt 6
dx dt ≈ 1 2 + 2 × 2 + 0 = 3.
From the graph, you have the points (4, 2), (5, 2), (6, 0): x =
4 dt
2( ∫ )
The particle is about 3 units on the positive side of the origin.

186 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

EXERCISE 6.3 OTHER EXAMPLES OF MOTION

1 The displacement x of a particle at time t is given by x = 6 cos 4t + 3. Find:

(a) the velocity and acceleration at any time t (b) the position of the particle when t = 0
(c) the values that x can take (d) the time when the particle first reaches the position x = 0.
2 Consider the graph.
x Which of the following functions does this graph
1.5 represent?
πt
A x = 0.9 + cos B x = 0.9 + cos
πt
1
10 5
C x = 0.9 + 0.5 cos
π t D x = 0.9 + 0.5 cos
πt
0.5
10 5

O t
5 10 15

3 The position x metres of a particle relative to a fixed point O at any time t is x = 4 − cos 2t.
(a) Sketch the graph of x as a function of t in the domain 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
(b) Find the times when the particle is at rest.
(c) Express the acceleration in terms of: (i) t  (ii) x
4 A particle moves in a straight line so that at time t its displacement from a fixed origin is x and its velocity is v.
If its acceleration is 2 sin t, and v = 1 and x = 1 when t = 0, find x as a function of t.
5 A particle moves in a straight line. At time t seconds, its displacement x cm from a fixed point O in the line is
given by x = 5 sin π t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 4.
2
(a) Sketch the graph of its displacement at any time t.   (b) At what times is the particle at rest?
(c) Find the speed when t = 2.5. (d) Express the acceleration in terms of: (i) t (ii) x
6 A particle moves in a straight line so that at time t its displacement from a fixed origin O is x, where
x = 2 + t − 2 cos t.
(a) Write the velocity and acceleration at any time t.
(b) Find its initial displacement, velocity and acceleration.
7 A particle moves in a straight line so that its displacement x from a fixed origin at any time t is given
by x(t) = 2(1 − e−t).
(a) Find x(0), x(0)
 and x(0).
 (b) Sketch the graph of x(t). (c) Find t when x(t) = 1.
8 A particle moves in a straight line. At time t its displacement from a fixed origin on the line is x, where
x = 2 − 2 sin 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
(a) Draw the graph of x as a function of t.
(b) Show that the particle oscillates between x = 0 and x = 4.
(c) For what values of t is the velocity zero?
(d) Express the acceleration in terms of: (i) t (ii) x
9 A particle moves along the x-axis. Initially it is at rest at the origin. The graph shows the acceleration a of the
particle as a function of time t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 6.
a (a) Write the time at which the velocity of the particle is a
2 maximum.
(b) At what time during the interval 0 < t ≤ 6 is the particle at rest?
(c) At what time during the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 is the particle farthest
O t
1 2 3 4 5 6 from the origin? Give brief reasons for your answer.

–2
(4, –2) (6, –2)

Chapter 6 Mechanics 187

YEAR 12

10 The graph shows the velocity dx of a particle as a function of time. Initially the particle is at the origin.
dt
dx (a) At what time is the displacement x from the origin a maximum?
dt
2 (1, 2) (b) At what time does the particle return to the origin? Justify your
answer.
2
(c) Draw a sketch of the acceleration d x2 as a function of time for
O t dt
2 6 0 ≤ t ≤ 6.

–2
(3, –2) (5, –2)

11 The table shows the velocity (in metres per second) of a moving object, evaluated at one-second intervals.

t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
v 0 4.6 5.7 8.0 9.9 12.7 18.2

Use the trapezoidal rule to estimate the distance travelled over the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 6.

12 An object is moving on the x-axis. The graph shows the velocity dx of the object as a function of time t. The
dt
coordinates of the points shown on the graph are A(2, 1), B(4, 4), C(5, 0) and D(6, -4). The velocity is constant
for t ≥ 6.
dx (a) Using the trapezoidal rule, estimate the distance travelled between
dt
B t = 0 and t = 4.
4
(b) How far is it from B to C?
1 A (c) The object is initially at the origin. During which time(s) is the
C displacement of the object decreasing?
O 2 4 6 8 10 t
(d) Estimate the time at which the object returns to the origin. Justify
your answer.
–4 (e) Sketch the displacement x as a function of time.
D

v
13 The velocity–time graph at right shows the first 10 seconds of motion of an
object moving in a straight line. The graph also shows the areas between
the curve and the t-axis from t = 0 to t = 5 and from t = 5 to t = 8.
(a) Find the distance travelled by the object before it first comes to rest.
A = 30
(b) Find the total distance travelled by the object before it comes
to rest for the second time.
(c) If the initial displacement is 20 metres, find the displacement when t
O 5 A=5 8 10
the object comes to rest for the second time.
14 Each graph below shows the velocity–time relationship for an object moving in a straight line. In which case
does the object change its direction only once?
v v v v
A B C D

O t O t O t O t

188 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

6.4 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF MOTION IN

PHYSICAL TERMS
Mechanics is a topic that includes both kinematics and dynamics.
• Kinematics is the study of the motion of bodies without reference to the causes of their motion.
• Dynamics is the study of the effects of forces that cause bodies at rest to move, or that cause bodies in motion to
have their state of motion altered.
Forces produce accelerations, so you will be using the principles of kinematics in much of the dynamics material of
this chapter.
In this topic, all bodies are treated as particles, which means that all forces are regarded as acting through a single
point in the body (as if the body were just a single point). Hence the terms ‘particle’, ‘object’ and ‘body’ will be
interchangeable.
Newton’s first law of motion
Consider a book resting on the top of your desk. It will remain there in that state of rest unless some external force
or forces are applied to change that state. The book is unable to alter its state of rest by itself.
Similarly, consider a marble rolling along a smooth horizontal floor at a constant speed. By itself, this marble is
unable to increase or decrease its speed or to change its direction.
This property of bodies is summed up in Newton’s first law of motion:

A body remains at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted on by a non-zero resultant force.

A body can be acted on by several forces that balance each other, so that the resultant force is zero. (For example, a
book resting on a horizontal desk is acted on by two forces: the weight force of gravity that acts vertically downwards
and the reaction force of the desk that acts vertically upwards.) A zero resultant force is the equivalent of no force
acting, so the body remains stationary or in its original state of motion.
Newton’s second law of motion
Experience suggests that a given force will produce different accelerations in different bodies. For example, on
a smooth horizontal floor the same amount of rolling force applied to a marble and to a heavy steel ball would
produce a larger acceleration in the marble. The steel ball is more massive than the marble. Similarly, a piano is more
massive than a school desk, as is shown by the fact that it is easier to make the desk move than it is to get the piano
to move.
This property of bodies that determines their response to an applied force is called their inertial mass. Inertial mass
is a measure of a body’s resistance to acceleration. This mass is essentially related to the amount of matter that makes
up the body. It can be shown experimentally that the ratio of the accelerations produced in two bodies by the same
force is the inverse ratio of their masses,
a1 m2
i.e. = so that m1a1 = m2a2 = a constant, proportional to the same force.
a2 m1
The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Mass is a scalar quantity.
The momentum p of a body is the product of its mass and velocity: p = mv
Because the standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg) and the standard unit of velocity is the metre per second
(m s−1), the standard unit of momentum is the kilogram metre per second (kg m s−1). This is a vector quantity that
has the same direction as the velocity.
For example, if a body of mass 5 kg is moving with a velocity of 10 m s−1, its momentum is 50 kg m s−1. According to
Newton’s first law of motion, this body is unable by itself to change its velocity, and hence is also unable to change its
momentum, unless it is acted on by a non-zero resultant force.
This leads to a statement of Newton’s second law of motion:

The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the applied force and occurs in the direction of the force.

Chapter 6 Mechanics 189

YEAR 12

If a body of mass m is acted on by a non-zero resultant force F, then:

F ∝ rate of change of momentum
∝ d (mv)
dt
∝ m dv if m is constant
dt
∴ F ∝ ma where a = dv
dt
That is, F = kma where k is a constant.
By a suitable selection of units, you can make k = 1. If 1 unit of force is defined as the amount of force required to
produce an acceleration of 1 m s−1 in a body of mass 1 kg, then: 1 = k × 1 × 1 ∴ k = 1
Hence F = ma.
This standard unit of force is called a newton (N) where 1 N = 1 kg m s−2.
Alternative definition for Newton’s second law of motion
The acceleration of a body is proportional to the resultant force that acts on the body
and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.

Look at the formula F = kma from the previous definition.

If k and m are constant, then F ∝ a and a ∝ F, which satisfies the alternative definition.
If F and k are constant, then since ma = constant then a ∝ 1 , which satisfies the alternative definition.
m
This definition says that ‘The acceleration of a body is proportional to the resultant force that acts on the body’,
which can be written a ∝ F, or removing the proportionality that F = Ka, where K is a constant.
The m, which is a constant in a given situation, is introduced by taking K = km, as this makes later calculations easier.
Newton’s third law of motion
When two objects exert force on each other, the forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
In other words: For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.

Dynamics of a particle
You will consider all bodies as particles, so that all external forces acting on a body are regarded as acting through a
single point in the body and producing only a translational effect (i.e. no rotation).
You have seen in section 6.1 that acceleration can take different forms apart from dv . For example, using the
dt
chain rule:
dv = dv × dx
dt dx dt
= v dv      as v = dx
dx dt

dv ( )
= d 12 v 2 × dv
dx
= d
( )
dx 2
1v 2

( )
2
Hence acceleration may be expressed in any of the forms: dv , d x2 , v dv , d 1 v 2
dt dt dx dx 2
The form to use in a particular problem will depend on the form of the equation that defines acceleration or force:

( )
2
d 1 v2
• Given a = f (t), use dv or d x2 • Given a = g(x), use
dt dt dx 2
⎧dv if initial conditions are values for t and v
⎪ dt
• Given a = h(v), use ⎨
⎪v dv if initial conditions are values for x and v
⎩ dx
190 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12
 YEAR 12

Derivatives with respect to time are often written using dots above the dependent variable,
2
e.g. x = dx , x = d x2 , v = dv
dt dt dt
Note also that for constant m you have F = m dv and so you obtain: dv = m F
dt dt
The derivative on the left-hand side is the acceleration, which forms the basis for the solution of a differential
equation. As m is constant, the problem is converted to a kinematics problem, for which previous methods can
be applied.
Some problems may be set in terms of acceleration and some in terms of force.

Example 17
A particle of mass 4 kg is acted on by a force whose direction is constant and whose magnitude at time t seconds
is (12t − 3t2) newtons. If the particle has an initial velocity of 2 m s−1 in the direction of the force, find the velocity
after 4 seconds.

Solution
There is only one external force acting on the particle, so F = ma becomes:
12t − 3t 2 = 4 dv
dt
where the particle moves with a variable velocity of magnitude v m s−1 in the direction of the force. Hence:
dv = 3t − 3 t 2
dt 4
There are two different methods to complete the solution for the given initial conditions:
Method 1 Method 2

∫( ) ( )
3
dv = 3t − 3 t 2 dt
2
v = 3t − t dt
4 4
= 3 t2 − 1 t3 + C
( )
final v final t
2 4 ∫ dv = ∫ 3t − 3 t 2 dt
initial v initial t 4
When t = 0: v = 2 and so C = 2.
3 2
∴ v = t − t +2
1 3 ∫2
v
dv = ∫ 0
4
( 4 )
3t − 3 t 2 dt
2 4 4
When t = 4: v = 10 [v]v2 = ⎡ 3 t 2 − 1 t 3 ⎤
⎣2 4 ⎦0
v − 2 = 24 − 16 − (0 − 0)
v = 10
Hence the velocity after 4 seconds has a magnitude of 10 m s−1.

Example 18
A particle of mass 2 kg moves in a straight line so that at time t seconds its displacement from a fixed origin is x
metres and its velocity is v m s−1. If the resultant force (in newtons) that acts on the particle is:
(a) 6 − 4x, find v in terms of x given that v = 2 when x = 1
2
(b) 8 − 2v , find t in terms of v given that the particle is initially at rest
2
(c) 8 − 2v , find x in terms of v given that the particle is initially at the origin.

Chapter 6 Mechanics 191

YEAR 12

Solution
(a) F = m
x: 2x = 6 − 4x
Hence the equation of motion is x = 3 − 2x. As the question requires v in terms of x and the initial
conditions are in v and x, you can use either x = v dv or x = d 1 v 2 :
dx dx 2 ( )
Method 1 Method 2

( )
d 1 v 2 = 3 − 2x
dx 2
v dv = 3 − 2x
dx
v dv = (3 − 2x) dx
1 v 2 = (3 − 2x ) dx
∫
2 From start v = 2, x = 1 to end v = v, x = x:
1 v 2 = 3x − x 2 + C v x

2 ∫ 2
v dv = ∫
1
(3 − 2x)dx
When v = 2, x = 1 v
⎡v 2 ⎤ [
= 3x − x 2 ]1
x
∴ 2 = 3 − 1 + C, so C = 0:
1 v 2 = 3x − x 2 ⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥ 2
2 v 2 − 2 = 3x − x 2 − (3 − 1)
v 2 = 6x − 2x 2 2
v 2 = 3x − x 2
v = ± 6x − 2x 2 2
v 2 = 6x − 2x 2
v = ± 6x − 2x 2
Which solution for the velocity is valid—positive or negative?
On a quick inspection, you might say that because the initial condition is v = 2 (i.e. positive), then
you should take the positive square root. However, you should recognise from the start of the question
( )
that the motion is simple harmonic, as: x = −2 x − 3
2
Hence the particle moves both left and right, and so both solutions are valid: v = ± 6x − 2x 2
In future examples, Method 2 will be used.
2
and m = 2, so the equation of motion is: x = 4 − v 2
(b) m x = 8 − 2v
You require t in terms of v, hence: dv = 4 − v 2
dt
dt = 1 , v ≠ ±2
dv 4 − v 2
t v
dv

0 ∫dt = ∫
0 4−v
2

Use partial fractions: 1 = 1 =1 1 + 1

4 − v 2 (2 − v)(2 + v) 4 2 − v 2 + v
( )
v
[t]t0 = 1 ⎡log e 2 + v ⎤
4 ⎢⎣ 2 − v ⎥⎦0
t = 1 log e 2 + v ,  −2 < v < 2
4 2−v

192 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

(c) m x = 8 − 2v 2 and m = 2, so the equation of motion is: x = 4 − v 2

You require x in terms of v, hence: v dv = 4 − v 2
dx
dv = 4 − v 2
dx v
dx = v
dv 4 − v 2
x v
v dv
∫ 0
dx = ∫ 0 4−v
2 (from start x = 0, v = 0 to end x = x, v = v)

[ x ]0x = − 1 ⎡ log e 4 − v 2 ⎤
v

2 ⎣ ⎦0

x = − 1 log e 4 − v 2 − log e 4
( )
2
x = 1 log e 4 2
2 4−v

Example 19
Assume that Earth is a sphere of radius R and that at any point x ≥ R distant from the centre of Earth, the
acceleration due to gravity is proportional to x−2 and is directed towards Earth’s centre. Ignore all forces
other than Earth’s gravity.
A body is projected vertically upwards from the surface of Earth with initial speed V.
gR 2
Show that the equation of motion of the particle is x = − 2 , where g is the acceleration due to gravity
(a) 
at Earth’s surface. x

Show that the velocity v of the particle during its flight is given by: v 2 = V 2 + 2gR 2
(b)  ( x1 − R1 )
Prove that the body’s ‘escape velocity’ is 2gR (i.e. prove that if the particle’s initial speed is V ≥ 2gR,
(c) 
then the particle will escape from Earth and never return).
If V =
(d)  2gR , prove that the time taken to rise to a height R above Earth’s surface
is 1 (4 − 2 ) R .
3 g

Solution
(a) Take O as the centre of Earth and define motion away from O as being in the positive direction.
Then: x = − k2 [1] P P
x x = – k2
But at x = R, x = − g x

(i.e. at the surface, acceleration due to gravity is g):

− g = − k2 ∴ k = gR2 x
R
gR 2 R
Substitute into [1]: x = − 2
x
O O

Chapter 6 Mechanics 193

YEAR 12

(b) v dv = − gR 2 x −2
dx
v x
∫V
v dv = − gR 2 ∫ R
x −2 dx   (from start v = V, x = R to end v = v, x = x)
v
⎡ 1 v 2 ⎤ = gR 2 [x −1 ]x
R
⎣ 2 ⎦V
1 v 2 − 1 V 2 = gR 2 1 − 1
2 2 x R ( )
v2 = V 2 + 2gR ( 1 − 1 )
2
x R
(c) If the particle escapes, then x → ∞ and so
1 →0
x

2 2
R ( )
From the solution of part (b): v 2 → V 2 + 2gR 2 0 − 1 or v2 → V 2 − 2gR
But v ≥ 0 and hence V − 2gR ≥ 0
i.e. V 2 ≥ 2gR
As the particle is escaping (i.e. always only moving away from the centre of Earth):
V ≥ 2gR

(d) If V = v 2 = 2gR + 2gR 2 1 − 1

2gR , the solution of part (b) becomes:
x R ( )
2
2gR
i.e. v 2 =
x
As you are only concerned with motion away from Earth:
− 12
v = 2g Rx
dx = 2g Rx − 12
dt
dt
= 1 x2
1

dx 2g R
t 2R 1
1
∫ dt =
0 2g R R ∫
x 2 dx

(Note the limits of the integral on the RHS: from Earth’s surface to distance R above Earth’s surface.)
2R
t= 1 × 2 ⎡x 23 ⎤
⎣ ⎦R
2g R 3

t= 2 (2R 2R − R R )
3R g

t= 2 (2 2 − 1)R R
3R g
(4 − 2 )R R
t=
3R g

t = 1 (4 − 2 ) R
3 g

194 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 20
A particle of mass 1 kg is fixed in position, being suspended from the ceiling by two light rods AP and BP.
The lengths of AP and BP are in the ratio 3 : 2, and AP is inclined at an angle of 30° below the ceiling. The tension
forces in the rods AP and BP are T1 and T2 respectively.
(a) Show that the rod BP is inclined at an angle α below the ceiling, where sin α = .
3
4
(b) Draw a diagram to show the three forces (T1, T2 and the weight force) that act on the particle.
(c) Resolve the forces into horizontal and vertical components.
(d) Use Newton’s first law of motion to calculate the values of T1 and T2 correct to 1 decimal place.
(Use g = 9.8 m s−2.)

Solution
(a) Using the sine rule in triangle ABP: (b) A B
30° a
sin α = sin 30°
3 2 T1
T2
P
sin α = 3
4 mg

(c) A B
30° a
T2 sin a
T1 sin 30°
T2
T1 P
T1 cos 30° T2 cos a
mg

(d) The particle is fixed in position, so according to Newton’s first law of motion there is a zero
resultant force acting horizontally and a zero resultant force acting vertically.

Horizontally: T1 cos 30° = T2 cos α

sin α = 3 ∴ cos α = 7 : 3T = 7T [1]

4 4 2 1 4 2

Vertically (mass m = 1): T1 sin 30° + T2 sin α = 9.8

1 T + 3 T = 9.8 [2]
2 1 4 2
From [1]: T1 = 21 T2
6
Substitute into [2]: 21 T + 3 T = 9.8
12 2 4 2
T2 ( 21 + 9) = 117.6
T2 = 8.65 815…
Substitute into [1]: T1 = 6.612 77…
∴ Correct to 1 decimal place: T1 = 6.6 and T2 = 8.7

Chapter 6 Mechanics 195

YEAR 12

EXERCISE 6.4 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF MOTION IN PHYSICAL TERMS

1 A 1 kg object in a wind tunnel is suspended from a point A on A

the ceiling by a light rope. A wind equivalent to a horizontal force a

of 4.9 N is directed down the tunnel. This causes the rope and wind T
the object to move from their position vertically below A to be
inclined at an angle α to the ceiling. The object remains in this
position while the wind is blowing.
The diagram shows the three forces (tension T newtons in the rope, the wind force and the weight force)

acting on the object. Resolve the forces into horizontal and vertical components. Noting that the object is
stationary, use Newton’s first law of motion to find the values of α and T (Use g = 9.8 m s−2). The correct
equations are:
−1
A α = tan 2 and T =
2g
5
B α = tan −1 1 and T =
2 () 2g
5

C α = tan−1 2 and T =
5g
2
D α = tan −1 (12) and T = 5g
2

2 A particle of mass 1 kg moves in a straight line such that at time t seconds its displacement from a fixed origin
is x metres and its velocity is v m s−1. If the resultant force is 3 + 2t (in newtons), find its displacement in terms
of t given that v = 1 and x = 2 when t = 0.
3 The velocity v m s−1 of a particle of mass 2 kg that is moving in a straight line is v = t2 − 6t + 8 at any time t s.
(a) Find the resultant force in terms of t. (b) Find the force when the particle is stationary.
4 A particle of mass 10 kg starts from rest at a point A and moves in a straight line under the action of a force
that decreases uniformly from 20 N to zero in 20 seconds. The particle then travels with constant velocity for a
further 20 seconds. After this, the particle moves under the action of a retarding force of 40 N until it comes to
rest at point B.
(a) Express the force that applies for the first 20 seconds as a function of t.
(b) Find the velocity of the particle at t = 20 seconds.
(c) Find the time taken for the retarding force to stop the motion of the particle.
(d) Find the maximum speed attained during the motion.
(e) Find the total distance travelled during the motion.
(f) Find the average speed during the motion.
5 A particle of mass 10 kg moves under the action of a force so that its velocity v m s−1 is given by
v = x 2 − 6x + 5. Find the force F in terms of the displacement x.
6 A particle of mass m moves so that its velocity v is given by v = f (x). The resultant force that causes this motion
is given by:
A m f ′(x) B mx f ′(x) C mf ′ x2
1
2 ( ) D m f (x) f ′(x)
7 A particle of mass 8 kg is acted on by a force whose magnitude is 2(25 + 60x − 6x2) newtons, where x is the
displacement from a fixed point O. If the particle is initially at rest at O, find its speed when it is 10 metres
from O.
8 A particle of mass 2 kg moves in a straight line. At time t, its displacement from a fixed origin is x metres and
its velocity is v m s−1. If the resultant force (in newtons) acting on the particle is:
(a) 6 cos t, and v = 2 and x = 0 when t = 0, then find x in terms of t
(b) 2 + 4x, and v = 2 when x = 0, then find v when x = 2
(c) 4 − 2v, and v = 0 when t = 0, then find the time when v = 1.

196 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

m(3 − 5x)
9 At time t a particle of mass m is moving in a straight line under the action of a force given by F = .
x3
The particle starts from rest at x = 1 .
3
(a) Find its velocity in terms of x.
(b) At what other point, if any, does the particle come to rest?
10 A particle of unit mass is acted on by a force F = v2 loge v, where v m s−1 is the velocity of the particle. The
motion starts from O with a velocity of e m s−1. Find the displacement when the velocity is e2 m s−1.
11 The acceleration of an object moving towards a planet under gravitational attraction varies inversely as the
square of the distance from the centre of the planet (i.e. x = − k2 where x is the displacement from the centre
x
of the planet and k is a constant). Show that if the object starts from rest at a distance a from the centre of the
2k(a − x)
planet, its speed at distance x from the centre of the planet is:
ax
12 A particle of unit mass starts from rest with displacement b (where b > 0) and is attracted towards the origin O
with an acceleration of magnitude k2 where x is the displacement from the origin and k is a positive constant.
x
(a) Explain why x = − k2 .
x
(b) Show that the velocity v is given by: v 2 = 2k − ( )
1 1
x b
2
(c) Use the substitution x = b cos θ to show that: ∫ b−x 2 b(
x d x = − bx − x 2 − b cos −1 2x − b + C
)
( )
1
3 2
(d) Hence show that the time required for the particle to reach the origin is: π
b
8k
4
⎛ ⎞
13 An object of mass m moves in a straight line under a force of magnitude mk 2 ⎜ x + a 3 ⎟ , k > 0 towards
⎝ x ⎠
the origin O. If the particle started from rest at a distance a units from O, show that its speed when x = a
2
15 ka
is .
2
14 The deck of a ship is 2.4 m below the level of a wharf at low tide and 0.6 m above wharf level at high tide. Low
tide is at 8:30 a.m. and high tide is at 2:35 p.m. Find the time when the deck is level with the wharf, assuming
the motion of the tides is simple harmonic.
15 A particle moves in a straight line with simple harmonic motion. Its speed at distances x1, x2 from the centre of
its motion are v1, v2 respectively. Show that:
x 22 − x12 v12 x 22 − v 22 x12
(a) the period of the motion is 2π (b) the amplitude is
v12 − v 22 v12 − v 22
16 A particle moves in a straight line under a force such that it describes simple harmonic motion of amplitude a
about a point O. The time of a complete oscillation is 5T. The particle is released from rest at a point A, where
OA = a. At time T, another particle describing an exactly similar motion is released from rest at A.
(a) Show that the two particles first meet at time 2T after the release of the second particle.
(b) Find the distance from O to the point where the particles first meet.
17 A vertical pole subtends an angle α at a point P in the same horizontal plane as the foot of the pole. Two
particles are projected at the same instant from P in directions that make angles α1 and α2 with the horizontal,
with initial speeds v1 and v2, so that the first particle hits the top of the pole at the same instant that the second
particle hits the bottom.
2v sin α 2
(a) Show that: v1 cos α1 = v2 cos α2 (b) Show that the time of flight is: 2
g
(c) Hence prove that: tan α = tan α1 − tan α2

Chapter 6 Mechanics 197

YEAR 12

18 A projectile A is projected from O with speed u at an angle α above the horizontal. A package B is parachuting
vertically downwards at a constant speed equal to −u sin α. At the moment when A is projected, the package B
⎛ 2 2
⎞
is at the point Q ⎜ u sin 2α , 2u sin 2 α ⎟ .
⎝g g ⎠
(a) Find the coordinates of A and B at time t after A is projected.
(b) Show that a searchlight, which is located at O and which is moved so that its beam is continually directed
at A, will always have B in its beam.
19 Two stones are thrown simultaneously from the same point in the same direction and with the same
non-zero angle of projection α (upward inclination to the horizontal), but with different velocities
u, v metres per second (u < v).
 The slower stone hits the ground at a point P on the same level as the point of projection. At that instant, the
faster stone just clears a wall ZQ of height h metres above the level of projection as its (downward) path makes
an angle β with the horizontal.
(a) Show that while both stones are in flight, the line joining them has an inclination to the horizontal which
is independent of time.
(b) Hence express the horizontal distance from P to Z (the foot of the wall) in terms of h and α.
(c) Show that v (tan α + tan β) = 2u tan α.
1
(d) Deduce that if β = α then u < v.
3
2 4
20 A ball thrown from a point A with speed V at an inclination α to the horizontal reaches a point B after
t seconds.
(a) Find the position of B relative to A.
(b) Show that if AB is inclined at θ to the horizontal then the direction of motion of the ball when at B is
inclined to the horizontal at an angle β, given by tan β = 2 tan θ − tan α .
21 A particle is projected, with speed V and inclination α above the horizontal, from a point O on a plane
inclined at 30° to the horizontal (so that α > 30°). It lands at a point Q on the inclined plane, at right angles to
the plane.
(a) Find the coordinates of Q.
(b) Find the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity when the particle is at Q.
V (sin α + 3 cos α )
(c) Show that the time of flight is: t =
g
(d) Show that: tan α =
5 3
3
(e) Hence show that the range on the inclined plane (i.e. OQ) is:
4V 2
7g

6.5 RESISTED MOTION

Whenever a body moves through a medium (such as air, water, oil etc.), it is subjected to a resistance that acts in the
opposite direction to the motion. If the body falls vertically downwards, the resistance acts upwards; if the body is
projected vertically upwards, the resistance acts downwards. (Of course the gravitational weight force mg always acts
vertically downwards.)
In general, the faster the body moves, the greater the resistance. Air resistance is typically proportional to some
power of the speed, so that air resistance = kvn. This topic will consider this for n = 1 and n = 2, i.e. air resistance
proportional to the speed of the body (n = 1) and air resistance proportional to the square of the speed of the body
(n = 2). These are the two most useful models for air resistance.
It is important to realise that the effect of air resistance (or other resistance) is always one of retardation:

• Resistance is force acting in the opposite direction to the motion.

• Retardation is acceleration acting in the opposite direction to the motion.

In problems involving resisted motion, you should always define the positive direction to be the direction in which
motion is actually occurring and take the origin O as the point from which the motion begins.

198 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Resisted motion in a horizontal line

Example 21
A particle of mass m and initial speed v0 moves on a horizontal surface against a resistance proportional to the
square of the speed. Express the velocity in terms of the distance travelled.

Solution
Take the origin O as the particle’s initial position. Take the particle’s direction of motion as the positive direction.
Vertically, there is no motion (i.e. the particle moves always at the same horizontal level), so there is a
zero resultant force acting in the vertical direction: ∴ N − mg = 0
Horizontally, there is motion. The only force acting horizontally is the resistance:
x = −kv 2
m
x = − k v 2 N
m
+
v dv = − k v 2
dx m motion
kv2
dv = − k v
dx m
∴ dx = − m , v ≠ 0
dv kv mg
x v

∫ dx = − m ∫
dv (from start x = 0, v = v0 to end x = x, v = v)
0 k v0 v
x = − m [log e v]
v
k v0

x = − m log e v
k v0
− kx
v = v0e m
(making v the subject)

Motion of a particle falling downwards in a resisting medium with gravity

Example 22
A body of mass 5 kg is dropped from a great height under a constant gravitational acceleration g m s−2 and air
resistance proportional to the speed v m s−1. If the constant of proportionality is 1 :
8
(a) find the velocity at time t (b) sketch the velocity–time graph
(c) find the terminal (i.e. maximum) velocity (d) find the distance the particle has fallen at time t.

O v=0
Solution x=0
(a) Take O as the point of release of the particle P. Take motion downwards as positive. t =0
There are two forces acting on P: its weight force of 5g acting downwards and its air
resistance of 1 v acting upwards (i.e. opposing the motion).
8 kv

The resultant force on P is 5 x = 5g − 1 v and this is the equation of motion: P

8
x = g − v mg
+
40
dv = 40g − v
dt 40
dt = 40 , v ≠ 40g
dv 40g − v x

Chapter 6 Mechanics 199

YEAR 12

t v
40 dv
∫ dt = ∫
0 0 40g − v
(from t = 0, v = 0 to t = t, v = v)

t = −40 [log e (40g − v)] , 0 ≤ v < 40g

v
0

40g
t = 40 log e
40g − v
t 40g
e 40 =
40g − v
t
− 40
40g − v = 40ge
t
v = 40g ⎛1 − e ⎞
− 40
⎝ ⎠
(b) v

40g
t
v = 40g (1 – e–40 )

O t

(c) As t increases, the gravitational force acting on P causes it to accelerate downwards. However, as the
speed increases, the resistance also increases until eventually the downwards weight force and the
resistance force are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. At this stage the resultant force is
zero: according to Newton’s first law of motion, P will now move in a straight line at constant speed,
i.e. the terminal velocity.

The terminal velocity occurs when the acceleration is equal to zero.

Method 1 (graphically):
In the velocity–time graph in part (b), the horizontal asymptote at v = 40g indicates the
terminal velocity.
Method 2 (algebraically):
As x = g − v the terminal velocity occurs when g − v = 0, i.e. when v = 40g.
40 40
t
v = 40g ⎛1 − e 40 ⎞
−
(d)
⎝ ⎠
dx = 40g ⎛1 − e − 40t ⎞
dt ⎝ ⎠
x t
⎛1 − e − 40t ⎞ dt   (from x = 0, t = 0 to x = x, t = t)
∫
0
dx = 40g ∫0⎝ ⎠
t
−t
x = 40g ⎡⎢t + 40e 40 ⎤⎥
⎣ ⎦0
t
x = 40g ⎛ t + 40e ⎞
− 40
− 40g × 40
⎝ ⎠
t
x = 40g ⎛ t + 40e − 40⎞
− 40
⎝ ⎠

200 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Motion of a particle moving upwards in a resisting medium with gravity

Example 23
A particle is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of u m s−1 under the influence of gravity and a resistance
force proportional to the square of the speed. Find:
(a) the greatest height reached xmax
v=0
(b) the time taken to reach the maximum height.

Solution
(a) Take O as the point of release of the particle P. Take motion upward as positive.
There are two forces acting on P: its weight force of mg acting downwards
and its resistance of mkv2 acting downwards (i.e. opposing the motion).
(Note that although you do not have a numerical value for m, you write a factor +
of m into the constant of proportionality for the resistance. This will simplify P

later calculations where factors of m can be cancelled in the equation of motion.) mg + mkv2
x = −mg − mkv 2 and this is the equation of motion.
The resultant force on P is m
You need to find x when v = 0:
x = −(g + kv 2 )
x=0
v dv = −(g + kv 2 ) t =0
dx O v =u
2
dv = − g + kv
dx v
dx = − v
dv g + kv 2
x 0
v dv (from x = 0, v = u to x = x, v = 0)
0 ∫dx = − ∫
u g + kv
2

x = − 1 ⎡⎣log e (g + kv 2 )⎤⎦u
0
2k
x = − 1 log e g + 1 log e (g + ku 2 )
2k 2k
⎛ g + ku 2 ⎞
x = 1 log e ⎜
2k ⎝ g ⎟⎠
⎛ g + ku 2 ⎞
The maximum height attained has a value of: 1 log e ⎜ m
2k ⎝ g ⎟⎠
(b) You now need to find t when v = 0:
x = −(g + kv 2 )

dv = −(g + kv 2 )
dt
t 0
1 dv (from t = 0, v = u to t = t, v = 0)
∫
dt = −
0 ∫u g + kv
2

Chapter 6 Mechanics 201

YEAR 12

0
t = −1 ∫(
1 dv
k u g
k )
+ v2
0

t = −1 × k ⎡tan −1 ⎛ k v⎞ ⎤
k g ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ g ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎦u
⎛ ⎞
t = − 1 ⎜ tan −1 0 − tan −1 k u⎟
kg ⎝ g ⎠

t = 1 tan −1 k u seconds, this is the time taken to reach the maximum height.
kg g

The next example looks at the motion of a particle that goes upwards and then downwards. This requires the
solution to take a new O and a new positive direction when you analyse the downwards motion.

Example 24
A particle of mass 1 kg is projected vertically upwards from the ground at a speed of V m s−1. The particle is acted
on by both gravity and a resistance of magnitude 0.02v2, where v is the velocity of the particle at time t.
(a) Explain why the equation of motion while the particle is moving upwards is: x = −(g + 0.02v 2 )
(b) Find the greatest height h reached by the particle.
(c) Find the time taken to reach this greatest height.
Having reached its maximum height, the particle falls back down towards its initial point of projection.
(d) Write the equation of motion for the downwards journey.
(e) Find the speed of the particle when it hits the ground.
(f) Determine whether the particle’s speed on return is less than, equal to, or greater than its initial speed on
projection.

Solution
(a) Take O as the point of projection and take upwards motion as positive.
The particle is acted on by gravitational force mg downwards and by resistance force 0.02v2
downwards (i.e. opposite to the motion).
Resultant force on the particle: m x = −mg − 0.02v 2
But m = 1, so: x = −(g + 0.02v 2 )
(b) x = −(g + 0.02v 2 )
⎛ 50g + v 2 ⎞
v dv = − ⎜⎝ ⎟
dx 50 ⎠
⎛ 50g + v 2 ⎞
dv = − ⎜⎝ ⎟
dx 50v ⎠ 0
h = −25 ⎡⎣log e (50g + v 2 )⎤⎦
dx = − 50v V

h
dv 50g + v 2
0
( )
h = −25 log e 50g − log e (50g + V 2 )
50v dv  (from x = 0, v = V
∫0
dx = − ∫
V 50g + v
2
  to x = h, v = 0)
⎛ 50g + V 2 ⎞
h = 25 log e ⎜
⎝ 50g ⎟⎠

202 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

2 0
dv = − ⎛⎜ 50g + v ⎞⎟ ⎡ −1 ⎛ v ⎞ ⎤
(c)
dt ⎝ 50 ⎠ t = − 50 ⎢tan ⎜⎝ 50g ⎟⎠ ⎥
50g ⎣ ⎦V
dt = − 50
dv 50g + v 2 t = 50 tan −1 ⎛⎜ V ⎞⎟
t 0 g ⎝ 50g ⎠
50 dv  (from t = 0, v = V
∫ dt = − ∫
0 V 50g + v 2    to t = t, v = 0)

(d) For the downwards journey it is necessary to take a new O and a new positive direction. Remember:

In problems involving resisted motion, you should always define the positive direction to be the
direction in which motion is actually occurring and take the origin O as the point from which
the motion begins.
This simplifies the calculations required to solve the problem.

Take O as the maximum height and take downwards motion as positive.

The particle is acted on by gravitational force mg downwards and by resistance force 0.02v2 upwards (i.e.
opposite to the motion).
x = mg − 0.02v 2
Resultant force on the particle: m
But m = 1, so: x = g − 0.02v 2
2
dv = 50g − v
(e) v
dx 50
2
dv = 50g − v

dx 50v
dx = 50v

dv 50g − v 2
You need to find v when x = h:
h v
50v dv
0 ∫
dx = ∫
0 50g − v
2

v
h = −25 ⎡⎣ log e 50g − v 2 ⎤⎦   
0

50g 50g + V 2
h = 25 log e But from (b): h = 25 log e
50g − v 2 50g

50g + V 2 50g
∴ 25 log e 50g
= 25 log e
50g − v 2
50g + V 2 50g
=
50g 50g − v 2
2500g2 + 50gV 2 − 50gv2 − v2V 2 = 2500g2
50gV 2 = v2(50g + V 2)
50gV 2 50g
v2 = and so the speed on return is: V
50g + V 2 50g + V 2
50g
(f) V 2 > 0, so 50g + V 2 > 50g and <1
50g + V 2
∴ Speed on return is less than V, i.e. the speed on return is less than the speed of projection.

Chapter 6 Mechanics 203

YEAR 12

EXERCISE 6.5 RESISTED MOTION

1 A particle of unit mass moves horizontally under a retarding force that is proportional to the cube of the
speed. Find:
(a) the speed of the particle when it has travelled a distance d after the instant when its speed is u
(b) the time taken to travel a distance d after the instant when its speed is u.
2 A particle has an initial velocity U. After travelling a distance d in time T along a straight horizontal path, its
velocity is V. The retardation of the particle at any time is proportional to its velocity at that time.
T (U −V )
kT
Show that: (a) V = U − kd (b) U = Ve (c) U = Ve d

3 As a truck moves along a horizontal straight road it experiences a horizontal driving force of T newtons (from
the engine) and a resistance force. The resistance force is mkv2 newtons, where m kg is the mass of the truck,
v m s−1 is its speed at time t seconds and k is a positive constant. The equation of motion of the truck is:
A m
dv = T − kv 2 B m dv = T − mkv 2 C dv = T − kv D m dv = T − mkv 2
dt dt dx dx
4 An object of mass m falls from rest under constant gravitational force and against air resistance equal to kv,
where v is the speed and k is a positive constant.
(a) Find its velocity at any time t. (b) Sketch the velocity–time graph.
Find the terminal velocity. Find the time taken to reach a speed v1 where v1 is one-quarter of the terminal
(c) 
velocity.
(d) Find the distance travelled when the speed v1 is reached.
5 A particle of mass 10 kg falls from rest and is subject to a force of (98 − 2v) newtons, where v is the speed of
the particle at time t seconds.
(a) In writing the force as ‘(98 − 2v)’ newtons, the ‘98’ represents the weight force of the particle. What is the
physical meaning of the ‘2v’?
(b) Find the terminal velocity. (c) Find the distance fallen in the first 5 seconds.
6 A particle falls from rest under constant gravity and a resistance force. If the retardation due to the resistance
force varies as the square of the velocity, find:
(a) the equation of motion (b) the terminal velocity
(c) the distance fallen as a function of the velocity
(d) the distance fallen when half the terminal velocity is reached
(e) the time taken to reach half the terminal velocity.
7 An object falls towards the Earth with constant gravitational acceleration g and against a resistance that
produces retardation proportional to the velocity.
(a) State the equation of motion. (b) Express the velocity v as a function of time t.
(c) State the terminal velocity.
If the constant of proportionality k = 0.2 and g = 9.8, find:
(d) the velocity after 5 seconds (e) the time required to reach half the terminal velocity.
8 A particle is dropped from a height of 1000 metres in a medium whose resistance provides a retardation of
0.004v2, where v is the velocity.
2
(a) Find v in terms of x, the distance fallen.
(b) Find the speed at which the particle reaches the lowest point.
9 A parachutist jumps from a stationary balloon at a great height. The parachute opens after 10 seconds.
Assume that air resistance produces a retardation proportional to the velocity, with a constant of
proportionality k = 0.1 for the first 10 seconds (i.e. during freefall) and k = 2 after the parachute opens. Find:
(a) the parachutist’s velocity after 10 seconds (b) the parachutist’s velocity after 15 seconds
(c) the parachutist’s terminal velocity, i.e. the approximate velocity while floating to the ground.

204 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

10 A particle is projected vertically upwards against air resistance. Its acceleration at any time t seconds after
( )
projection is given by x = − g + 1 v 2 , where v m s−1 is the velocity. If the initial velocity is 20 m s−1, find:
10
(a) the greatest height reached (b) the time taken to reach the greatest height.
11 A particle is projected vertically upwards with initial speed u. Its acceleration is given by the differential
equation x = −(g + kv) where v is the speed at any time t, k is a positive constant and kv is the retardation due
to air resistance.
(a) Find the maximum height reached by the particle.
(b) Find the time taken to reach the maximum height.
(c) Write the differential equation for the downward motion.
(d) Show that the particle returns to its point of projection with a speed V given by:
g + ku ⎤
k(u + V ) = g log e ⎡⎢
⎣ − kV ⎥⎦
g
12 An object of mass m is projected vertically upwards with speed u. Air resistance is equal to k times the square
of the speed, where k is a positive constant.
(a) Find the maximum height reached by the object.
(b) Find the speed V of the object when it returns to the point of projection.
(c) Show that V < u.
13 An object, projected vertically upwards with speed U, returns to the point of projection with speed V.
Assuming constant gravity and air resistance proportional to the square of the speed, find the total time taken
in terms of U and V.
14 A particle of unit mass moves in a horizontal straight line against a resistance numerically equal to v + v3,
where v is its velocity. Initially the particle is at the origin and is travelling with velocity Q, where Q > 0.
−1 Q − v ⎤
(a) Show that: tan Q − tan v = tan ⎡
−1 −1
⎣⎢1 + Qv ⎦⎥
Q − v
(b) Show that x = tan −1 ⎡ ⎤, where x is the displacement.
⎢⎣1 + Qv ⎥⎦
⎡Q 2 (1 + v 2 )⎤
Show that t = 1 log e ⎢ 2
(c)  2 ⎥, where t is the elapsed time when the particle is travelling with
2 ⎣ v (1 + Q )⎦
velocity v.
2
(d) Find v as a function of t.
(e) Find the limiting values of v and x as t → ∞.
15 A particle of unit mass is projected vertically upwards in a medium in which the retardation due to resistance
is 0.1v. It is allowed to fall back to its point of projection. The initial speed of projection is V0 and the final
speed on return is VF . Show that:
(a) the equation of motion on the upwards journey is x = −(g + 0.1v)
⎛ 10g ⎞
(b) the maximum height reached is h = 10V0 + 100g log e ⎜
⎝ 10g + V0 ⎟⎠
⎛ 10g + V0 ⎞
(c) the time taken to reach the highest point is T1 = 10 log e ⎜
⎝ 10g ⎟⎠
(d) the equation of motion on the downwards journey is x = g − 0.1v
⎛ 10g ⎞
(e) the time taken on the downwards journey is T2 = 10 log e ⎜
⎝ 10g − VF ⎟⎠
10g ⎞
(f) by analysis of the downwards journey, h = −10VF + 100g log e ⎛⎜
⎝ 10g − VF ⎟⎠
V + VF
(g) the total time of the motion is T = 0 .
g

Chapter 6 Mechanics 205

YEAR 12

16 A plane of mass 20 tonnes touches down on a runway while moving at a horizontal speed of 60 m s−1. As the
plane moves along the runway, its speed at time t seconds after touchdown is v m s−1. From the instant that it
touches down, it is being slowed by a reverse thrust of 40 000 newtons supplied by the engines and a force of
4v2 newtons supplied by the braking effect of wing flaps and other frictional forces. After 10 seconds of motion
along the runway, wheel brakes are applied which supply an additional 300(60 − v) newtons of braking force.

(a) Show that: x = ⎨

(
⎧
⎪⎪ − 2 + )v2
5000
0 ≤ t ≤ 10

(⎪− 2.9 + v − 3v
⎪⎩
2
)
5000 200
t > 10
−1
(b) Find the speed of the plane 10 seconds after touchdown. Answer in m s correct to one decimal place.
(c) Find the distance in metres (correct to one decimal place) travelled in the first 10 seconds after
touchdown.
(d) Find the total time in seconds (correct to one decimal place) from touchdown until the plane stops. Without
35.4
dv
proof, you may assume ∫ 0 v 2 − 75v + 14500
= 0.002607 21 (correct to six significant figures).

(e) Find the total distance that the plane travels along the runway before it stops. Without proof, you may
35.4 v dv
assume
∫ 0
2
v − 75v + 14500
= 0.0469319 (correct to six significant figures).

(f) By integrating, verify the integral values given in parts (d) and (e).

6.6 PROJECTILES AND RESISTED MOTION

Review of projectile motion with no resistance
In New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12, Chapter 13, you looked at projectile motion. Unless
otherwise stated, any air resistance is ignored when investigating projectile motion and it is assumed that the only
force acting on the projectile is the force of gravity. Furthermore, it is assumed that the gravitational force is constant
throughout the motion. The following examples 25–27 review projectile motion with no resistance.
r for the acceleration vector, r" for the velocity vector and r for the displacement vector.
Use ""
! ! !

Example 25
A golf ball of mass m kg is hit down the middle of a fairway with an initial speed of 25 m s−1 at an angle of
4
projection to the horizontal α, where tan α = .
3
(a) Taking unit vectors i horizontally in the direction of motion and j vertically upward, find an expression
! u m s−1 of the ball.
for the initial velocity !
!
(b) Taking the origin at the point of projection, find an expression for the position vector r of the ball
after t seconds. !
Assuming the fairway to be horizontal, find the horizontal distance that the ball travels before
(c) 
hitting the ground. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
Find the maximum height reached by the ball during its flight. Give your answer correct to one
(d) 
decimal place.

206 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Solution
(a) Draw a diagram.
y
u
r
j 5 4
𝛼 𝛼
O i x 3

Express u in component form: u = ucos α i + u sin α j

! ! ! !
()
= 25 3
5 ! ()
i + 25 4
5 !
j
= 15 i + 20 j
! !
(b) Determine the equation of motion: If the ball has a mass of m kg, its equation of motion is
−mg j = m""r ∴ "" r = −g j
! ! ! !
Integrate each component with respect to t to find r: " r" = − gt j + c
! ! ! !
Apply the initial condition to find c : At t = 0, r" = u so c = 15 i + 20 j
! ! ! ! ! !
Hence r" = 15 i + (20 − gt) j
! !
( )
!
Integrate each component with respect to t to find r : r = 15t i + 20t − 1 gt 2 j + d
! ! ! 2 ! !
Apply the initial condition to find d: At t = 0, r = 0 so d = 0
! ! ! ! !

! ! ( 2 )
Hence r = 15t i + 20t − 1 gt 2 j
!
(c) The ball hits the ground when the j component of r is zero: 20t − 4.9t 2 = 0
! !
t ( 20 − 4.9t ) = 0
t = 0 or t = 20 ≈ 4.08 s
4.9
The horizontal distance that the ball has covered is the i component of r :
! !
Distance = 15t
= 15 × 20
4.9
= 61.2 m
The ball travels 61.2 m before hitting the ground.

(d) The ball reaches its maximum height when the j component of r" is zero: 20 − 9.8t = 0
! !
t = 20
9.8
t = 2.04s
Its height is given by the j component of r : hmax = h ( 2.04 )
!
( )
!
= 2.04 20 − 4.9 × 20
9.8
= 2.04 × 10
= 20.4 m
The ball reaches a maximum height of 20.4 m.

Chapter 6 Mechanics 207

YEAR 12

Example 26
A football is kicked towards goal with an initial speed of 26 m s−1 at an angle of projection to the horizontal α,
5
where tan α = .
12 −1
(a) Find an expression for the initial velocity u m s of the football.
!
(b) Taking the origin at the point of projection, find an expression for the position vector r of the football
after t seconds. !
(c) Write the parametric equations of the path of the football and use them to find the Cartesian equation
of the path.
(d) Assuming the ground to be horizontal, find the horizontal distance that the football travels before
hitting the ground. Give your answer correct to the nearest metre.
(e) The horizontal crossbar of the goal is 2.44 m above the ground and is 0.1 m wide. If the football is
heading towards the goal, which is 40 m from where the football is kicked, will the football pass below
the crossbar?

Solution
y
(a)
u
r
13 5
j
𝛼 𝛼
O i x 12

u = 26 m s−1, tan α = 5 so sin α = 5 = 5 , cos α = 12

12 2
5 + 12 2 13 13
u = ucos α i + u sin α j
! ! !
= 26 × 12 i + 26 × 5 j
13 ! 13 !
= 24 i + 10 j
! !
r = − g j as gravity is acting against the motion in the vertical direction.
(b) ""
! ! with respect to t:
Integrate r" = − gt j + c
! !
t = 0, u = 24 i + 10 j: 24 i + 10 j = c !
! ! !j ! ! !
r" = − gt j + 24 i + 10
! ! ! !
= 24 i + (10 − gt) j
! ! ⎛ gt 2 ⎞
Integrate with respect to t: r = 24t i + ⎜ 10t − j+d
! ! ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ! !
t = 0, r = 0 : d = 0
! ! ! !

! ! ( )
r = 24t i + 10t − 1 gt 2 j
2 !
x = 24t, y = 10t − 1 gt 2 are the parametric equations of the path.
(c) 2
( )
2
g
t= ,y=x 10x − × x
24 24 2 24
10x 4.9x 2
If g = 9.8 m s−2: y = 24 − 576 is the Cartesian equation of the path.

208 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

2
(d) Hits the ground when y = 0: 10x − 4.9x = 0
24 576
x(240 − 4.9x) = 0
x = 0 or x = 240 ≈ 49 m
4.9
The ball hits the ground 49 metres from where it was kicked.
10 × 40 − 4.9 × 402
(e) x = 40, y =
24 576
≈ 3.06 m
The ball will pass over the crossbar.

Example 27
A particle is projected from level ground with a velocity of 7 i + 24 j m s−1, where i is horizontal and j
is vertically up. Use g = 9.8 m s−2. ! ! ! !
Find the initial speed and angle of projection of the particle. Give the angle of projection correct to the
(a) 
nearest tenth of a degree.
Find the time of flight of the particle. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
(b) 
Find the horizontal distance travelled by the particle, correct to one decimal place.
(c) 
Find the maximum height reached by the particle, correct to one decimal place.
(d) 
Determine whether the particle is ever travelling in a direction perpendicular to its initial velocity.
(e) 

Solution
(a) u = 7 i + 24 j : u = 7 2 + 24 2 = 25 ms−1
! ! !
( )
!
Angle of projection θ is θ = tan−1 24 = 73.7° to the horizontal
7
r = −g j
(b) ""
! !
Integrate with respect to t: r" = − gt j + c
! ! !
t = 0, u = 7 i + 24 j: 7 i + 24 j = c
! ! ! ! !
r" = − gt j + 7 i + 24! j
! ! ! !
= 7 i + (24 − gt) j

( )
! ! 1 2
Integrate with respect to t: r = 7t i + 24t − gt j + d
! ! 2 ! !
r(0) = 0: d = 0
! ! ! !
! !( 2 ) ! !
( )
r = 7t i + 24t − 1 gt 2 j = 7t i + 24t − 4.9t 2 j
!
For the time of flight, find when the vertical component of r is zero: 24t − 4.9t 2 = 0
!
t(24 − 4.9t) = 0
t = 0, t = 24 = 4.9 s
4.9
(c) Substitute t = 4.9 into the horizontal component of r : Distance = 7 × 4.9 = 34.3 m
!
(d) The time to the greatest height is half the time of flight: t = 2.45
Substitute this value of t into the vertical component of r :
Greatest height = 24 × 2.45 – 4.9 × 2.452 ≈ 29.4 m !

Chapter 6 Mechanics 209

YEAR 12

(e) The direction at any instant is given by the velocity function as it is tangential to the position function at
any point in the path.

! ! ! ! ! !
( )(
! !
)
u = 7 i + 24 j, r" = 7 i + ( 24 − 4.9t ) j. Find when u • r" = 0: 7 i + 24 j • 7 i + ( 24 − 9.8t ) j = 0
! ! ! !
49 + 24 ( 24 − 9.8t ) = 0
49 + 576 − 235.2t = 0
t = 625 = 2.66 s
235.2
The particle is travelling in a direction perpendicular to the original direction at 2.66 seconds.

As considered in section 6.5, projectile motion with no air resistance is generally not a realistic model because real
projectiles experience resistance due to the medium that they move through. This resistance is a force that can often
be approximated as being proportional to the velocity, or proportional to the square of the velocity of the projectile,
depending on the conditions of the medium. In this section you will consider resistance proportional to the velocity
of the projectile.

Resistance as well as gravity—a vector approach

If there is any resistance other than gravity, it needs to be incorporated into the acceleration vector. The new
acceleration vector can then be used to form the other equations of motion.

Example 28
During a game of badminton at the beach, a shuttlecock is hit at a
height of 1 m with a velocity of 2 i + 2 j + 8k m s−1, where i, j and k are u
! ! up directions! respectively.
unit vectors in the east, north and! vertically ! !
The acceleration of the shuttlecock due to the combined effect of 1m
gravity, air resistance and wind is 2 i − j − 8k m s−2. Assume the sand to
! !to be! at sand level, directly below
be horizontally flat and take the origin
the point of projection.
(a) Find the time of flight of the shuttlecock. Give your answer correct to two decimal places.
(b) Find where the shuttlecock will land.
(c) Find the maximum height reached by the shuttlecock.

Solution
r = 2 i − j − 8k.
(a) Define r"": ""
! ! ! ! !
! ! ∫
Integrate with respect to t: r" = r""dt

= ∫ ( 2 i − j − 8k ) dt
! ! !
= 2t i − t j − 8t k + c
! ! ! !
t = 0, r" = 2 i + 2 j + 8k : 2 i + 2 j + 8k = c
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Hence r" = 2t i − t j − 8t k + 2 i + 2 j + 8k
! ! ! ! ! ! !
= (2 + 2t)i + (2 − t) j + (8 − 8t)k
! ! !

210 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Integrate with respect to t: r =

! ∫ ((2 + 2t)i! + (2 − t)!j + (8 − 8t)k! ) dt
⎛ ⎞
= ( 2t + t ) i + ⎜ 2t − t ⎟ j + ( 8t − 4t ) k + d
2
2 2
! ⎝ 2 ⎠ ! ! !
t = 0, r = k : k = d
! ! ! !
⎛ ⎞
( ) ( )
2
Hence r = 2t + t 2 i + ⎜ 2t − t ⎟ j + 1 + 8t − 4t 2 k
! ! ⎝ 2⎠! !
The shuttlecock hits the sand when the vertical component (k) of the motion is zero: 1 + 8t − 4t2 = 0
!
2
Rewrite as 4t − 8t − 1 = 0 and solve: t = 8 ± 80 = 2 ± 5
8 2
2 + 5 ≈ 2.12 s
As t > 0, the only solution is t =
2
The time of flight of the shuttlecock is 2.12 seconds.
⎛ 2.122 ⎞ j + 0k
! !
( 2
(b) Find r when t = 2.12 s: r = 4.24 + 2.12 i + ⎜ 4.24 −
! ⎝
)
2 ⎟⎠ ! !
= 8.73i + 1.99 j
! !
The shuttlecock lands approximately 8.7 m east and 2 m north of its point of projection.
(c) The maximum height is achieved when the k component of the velocity vector is zero: 8 − 8t = 0
! t = 1s
Hence the maximum height can be found by substituting t = 1 into the k component of the displacement:
h = 1 + 8(1) − 4(1)2 = 5 m. !
The shuttlecock reaches a maximum height of 5 metres.

When the resistance to the motion is included in the acceleration vector, the solution to the problem follows the
same approach as used earlier. Note that if you are working in three dimensions, coordinates will be needed to locate
points in a plane.
Resistance as well as gravity—a Cartesian approach
A particle of mass m is launched at time t = 0, from ground level on a flat plane, with an initial velocity of u m s−1
at an angle of θ to the horizontal. In addition to gravity, there is an air resistance force, which acts in the opposite
direction to the instantaneous direction of motion. The magnitude of this resistance force is directly proportional to
the particle’s instantaneous speed.
Use standard Cartesian coordinates with the x-axis horizontal and the y-axis vertical. Let the components of
the acceleration be x!! and !!y, so that the components of the velocity are x! and y! and so the components of the
displacement are x and y.
Initially: x = 0, x! = ux = ucos θ , y = 0, y! = u y = u sin θ .
Now m!! x = −mk x! and m!! y = −mg − mk y! , where k is a positive constant.
Dividing by m reduces these equations to: x!! = −k x, y = − g − k!y
! !!
dv dv x
Consider the horizontal motion and let v x = x! so that x!! = x : = −kv x
dt dt
dv x
= −kdt
v x dv t vx
Integrate with respect to t: ∫
ux v x
x
= −k dt∫
0
vx
⎡⎣ log e ( v x ) ⎤⎦ u = −kt
x

⎛v ⎞
log e ⎜ x ⎟ = −kt
⎝ ux ⎠
v x = ux e − kt
Chapter 6 Mechanics 211
YEAR 12

Now v x = x! : dx = ux e − kt
dt
t

∫e
− kt
Integrate with respect to t: x = ux dt
0
ux − kt t
x=− ⎡ e ⎤⎦
k ⎣ 0

u
x = − x e − kt − 1
k ( )
x=
ux
k (
1 − e − kt )
dv y dv y
Consider the vertical motion and let v y = y! so that !!
y= : = − g − kv y
dt dt
dv y
= −dt
g + kv y
vy dv y t
Integrate with respect to t:         ∫ uy g + kv y
=− ∫ dt0
vy

⎣⎢ k e
(
⎡ 1 log g + kv ⎤ = −t
y ⎥
⎦ uy
)
( )
log e g + kv y − log e g + ku y = −kt ( )
⎛ g + kv y ⎞
log e ⎜ = −kt
⎝ g + ku y ⎟⎠
g + kv y
= e − kt
g + ku y
kv y = (g + ku y )e − kt − g

(
v y = 1 (g + ku y )e − kt − g
k )
Now v y = y! and
dy 1
(
= (g + ku y )e − kt − g .
dt k )
∫ ((g + ku )e )
t
Integrate with respect to t: y = 1 y
− kt
− g dt
k 0
t
⎡ g + ku y − kt ⎤
= 1⎢ e − gt ⎥
k ⎣ −k ⎦0
g + ku y − kt gt g + ku y
=− e − +
k2 k k2
g + ku y gt
=
k2
(
1 − e − kt −
k )
As a result of all of this, you have obtained the parametric equations of the velocity: x! = ux e , y! = 1 (g + ku y )e − kt − g .
− kt
k ( )
g + ku y ( )( )
The parametric equations of the path are x =
ux
k
1− e − kt
, y= ( k2
1− e − kt
)
gt
− .
k

212 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Summary of important results

Projectile motion in a medium whose resistance is proportional to the velocity of the particle:
t = 0, x = 0, y = 0, x! = ux , y! = u y where ux = ucos θ , u y = u sin θ , k is the constant of proportionality in the resistance,
θ is the angle of projection relative to the horizontal axis, and u is the initial velocity.
x!! = −k x! , !!
y = − g − k y!

( 1
k ) ( 1
) ( g
x! = ux e − kt = ucos θ e − kt , y! = (g + ku y )e − kt − g = (g + ku sin θ )e − kt − g = u sin θ e − kt − 1 −e − kt
k k )
), y = ( k ) (1 − e ) − gtk = (g + kuk sinθ ) (1 − e ) − gtk
g + ku
x=
ux
k ( ) k (
1 − e − kt = ucos θ 1 − e − kt 2
y − kt
2
− kt

With no air resistance, the equations are instead:

y = −g
Acceleration: x!! = 0, !!
Velocity: x! = ucos θ , y! = u sin θ − gt
Displacement: x = ucos θ t, y = u sin θ t − 1 gt 2
2
When there is no air resistance, the horizontal velocity is x! = ucos θ , whereas with air resistance the horizontal
velocity becomes x! = ucos θ e − kt , which means the horizontal velocity is reducing over time, decaying exponentially.
This means that with air resistance, the particle slows down and will not travel as far.
When there is no air resistance, the vertical velocity is y! = u sin θ − gt, whereas with air resistance the vertical
g
( )
velocity becomes y! = u sin θ e − kt − 1 −e − kt . With no air resistance the greatest height is achieved after
k
u sin θ seconds, but with air resistance it is after 1
log ku sin θ + 1 seconds.
g k e g
g
With no air resistance, the greatest height attained is u sin θ m; with air resistance it is u sin θ − 2 log e 1 + ku sin θ ,
2 2

2g k k g
which is always less (for sensible positive values of the constants).

This air resistance behaviour is best considered using a numerical example.

Example 29
A particle is projected from a point on the horizontal plane with an initial velocity given by the components
ux = 3 m s−1, uy = 8 m s−1. Use g = 9.8 m s−2.
(a) If the only resistance to the motion is gravity, find the parametric equations of the trajectory of the
particle. When does the particle hit the ground?
The particle is projected again into a medium which resists the motion, where the resistance to the motion is
directly proportional to the velocity of the particle. Let the constant of proportionality be k.
(
g + ku y )( gt
)
u
(
The parametric equations of the trajectory are given as x = x 1 − e − kt , y =
k ) k 2 1 − e − kt − .
k
Find the parametric equations of the trajectory when (i) k = 0.5 (ii) k = 0.1.
(b) 
Using technology, draw on the same set of axes the graphs of the three trajectories in parts (a) and (b).
(c) 
Discuss what your graphs in part (c) tell you about the motion in each case.
(d) 

Chapter 6 Mechanics 213

YEAR 12

Solution
(a) No air resistance: ux = 3, uy = 8, g = 9.8.
Initial equations of motion: x!! = 0 y = − g = −9.8
!!
Integrate with respect to t: x! = C1 y! = −9.8t + C2
t = 0, ux = 3, uy = 8: x! = 3 y! = 8 − 9.8t
Integrate with respect to t: x = 3t + C3 y = 8t − 4.9t 2 + C4
t = 0, x = 0, y = 0: x = 3t y = 8t − 4.9t2
Hits the ground when y = 0: 8t − 4.9t2 = 0
t= 8 s
4.9
3 ⎛ 1 − e − 2t ⎞ ⎛ −t ⎞ 9.8t
y = 9.8 +2 4 ⎜ 1 − e 2 ⎟ −
1
(b) (i) k = : x =
2 0.5 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
0.5 ⎝ ⎠ 0.5

⎛ −t ⎞ ⎛ −t ⎞
x = 6⎜1 − e 2 ⎟ y = 55.2 ⎜ 1 − e 2 ⎟ − 19.6t
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ −t ⎞ ⎛ −t ⎞ 9.8t
(ii) k = 0.1: x = 3 ⎜ 1 − e 10 ⎟ y = 9.8 +2 4 ⎜ 1 − e 10 ⎟ −
0.1 ⎝ ⎠ 0.1 ⎝ ⎠ 0.1
⎛ −t ⎞ ⎛ −t ⎞ y
x = 30 ⎜ 1 − e 10 ⎟ y = 1380 ⎜ 1 − e 10 ⎟ − 98t 4
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(c) In the diagram, the solid line represents part (a), the dotted line represents (a)
part (b)(i) and the dashed line represents part (b)(ii). Each line has been 2
completed for t = 8 seconds, the time taken for the particle without air
4.9 (b)(ii)
resistance to return to the ground. (b)(i)

Two of the lines show y < 0, but this is just so the line lengths can be O 8 x
2 4t = 4.9 6
compared for the largest value of t in part (a). After each particle hits the
ground, it stops, so the parts of the paths below zero do not actually exist.
(d) At the beginning of the motion the paths are similar. The trajectory in part (a) is symmetrical about its
greatest height.
The larger the air resistance, the sooner the trajectory falls below the path in part (a). The particles in
part (b) hit the ground before the particle in part (a).
The larger the air resistance, the shorter the range.
The larger the air resistance, the lower the greatest height and the steeper the fall after the particle reaches
its greatest height.

EXPLORING FURTHER

Projectile motion and initial velocity

Use technology to observe the effect of changing the initial velocity on a model of projectile motion.

214 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Example 30
A projectile is fired from the origin O with an initial velocity u m s−1 at an angle θ to the horizontal in a medium
whose resistance is proportional to the velocity.
(10 + ku sin θ )
The parametric equations of the trajectory are x =
ucos θ 1 − e − kt and
k
y=
k2
( )
1 − e − kt − 10t ,
k ( )
where k is the constant of proportionality of the resistance.
The projectile is fired at an angle of 60° to the horizontal with an initial velocity of 10 3 m s−1, k = 0.4.
(a) Find when the projectile reaches its greatest height, correct to two decimal places.
(b) Find the greatest height that is reached, correct to two decimal places.
(c) Show that the projectile hits the ground when t ≈ 2.6 s (i) graphically (ii) by substitution.
(d) Find the horizontal range of the projectile.
(e) Graph the path of the projectile.

Solution
Write the parametric equations of the trajectory using the information provided.

10 3 × 1 10 + 0.4 × 10 3 × 3
x=
0.4 (
2 1 − e −0.4t
) y=
0.4 2
2 1 − e −0.4t − 10t
0.4 ( )
(
= 12.5 3 1 − e −0.4t ) (
= 100 1 − e −0.4t − 25t )
(a) Greatest height when y! = 0: y = 100 1 − e −0.4t − 25t ( )
−0.4t
y! = 40e − 25
−0.4t
40e − 25 = 0
e −0.4t = 5
8
−0.4t = log e 5
8 ()
t = 2.5 log e 1.6
t = 1.18 s
(b) t = 1.18: y = 100 1 − e (
−0.4×1.18
− 25 × 1.18 )
= 8.12 m
The greatest height is 8.12 metres.
(c) (i) Hits the ground when y = 0: (
y = 100 1 − e −0.4t − 25t ) 100
y
y = 25t

(
100 1 − e −0.4t − 25t = 0 ) y = 100(1 – e0.4t)

(
100 1 − e −0.4t = 25t ) 50
A(2.568, 64.198)

(
Hence graph y = 100 1 − e −0.4t and y = 25t. )
It hits the ground at t = 2.6 seconds.
(
(ii) t = 2.6 s, y = 100 1 − e)−0.4t
− 25t O 10 20
t

= 100 (1 − e ) − 25 × 2.6 −1.04

= −0.345 ≈ 0
It hits the ground at approximately t = 2.6 seconds.

Chapter 6 Mechanics 215

YEAR 12

y
(
(d) t = 2.6, x = 12.5 3 1 − e −0.4×2.6 ) (e)
9

= 12.5 3 (1 − e )
−1.04 8
7
= 13.998 ≈ 14.0 m
6
5
4
3
2
1

O x
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Using terminal velocity

g
Given the terminal velocity vT = , consider what this means in the equations involving air resistance. Remember,
k
the terminal velocity for a projectile falling vertically downwards is the velocity at which the drag force (air
resistance) balances the gravitational force.
g g 1 v
Now vT = , k = or = T can be substituted in each of the previous equations for air resistance motion.
k vT k g
−gt −gt
g x! ux vT ⎛ ⎞
− kt
Horizontally: x!! = −kx = − , x! = ux e = ux e , x =
vT
vT ux
k
1− e (
− kt
=
g ⎝ ⎜) v
1− e T ⎟.
⎠
When there is no air resistance, the horizontal velocity is x! = ux , whereas with air resistance the horizontal velocity
−gt
has become x! = ux e vT , which is reducing over time, decaying exponentially.
⎛ y! ⎞
y = − g − k y! = − g ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ,
Vertically: !!
⎝ vT ⎠
−gt −gt −gt
⎛ ⎞
k ( ) ( v
)
y! = 1 (g + ku y )e − kt − g = vT + u y e T − vT = u y e T − vT ⎜ 1 − e vT ⎟ ,
v

⎝ ⎠
−gt
g + ku y gt vT ⎛ ⎞
y=
k 2 1(− e − kt
−)k
=
g
vT + (
u y ⎜ 1 − e )
vT
⎟ − vT t .
⎝ ⎠
When there is no air resistance, the vertical velocity is y! = u y − gt , whereas with air resistance the vertical velocity
−gt
−gt
vT ⎛ ⎞
has become y! = u y e − vT ⎜ 1 − e vT ⎟ .
⎝ ⎠
vT
( )
Consider some values for t: t = , x! = ux e −1 ≈ 0.37ux , y! = u y e −1 − vT 1 − e −1 ≈ 0.37u y − 0.63vT
g
t=
2vT
g ( )
, x! = ux e ≈ 0.14ux , y! = u y e −2 − vT 1 − e −2 ≈ 0.14u y − 0.86vT
−2

3v
( )
t = T , x! = ux e −3 ≈ 0.05ux , y! = u y e −3 − vT 1 − e −3 ≈ 0.05u y − 0.95vT
g
v
Because vT < 0, as it is downwards, therefore as t increases above t = T , the horizontal velocity decreases
g
exponentially and becomes negligible, so that the particle appears to be falling vertically.
v
When t < T , the equations of motion with air resistance approximate the equations of motion where air resistance
g
is ignored.

216 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

EXERCISE 6.6 PROJECTILES AND RESISTED MOTION

1 An aircraft drops a package of emergency rations to a family stranded in the floods. The aircraft is travelling
horizontally at 45.0 m s−1 and is 100 m above the ground. A parachute allows the package to fall with constant
speed and hit the ground 10 s after release. Air resistance can be ignored.
(a) Find where the package hits the ground relative to the point from where it was dropped, to the nearest metre.
(b) Find the velocity of the package just before it hits the ground, correct to one decimal place.
2 A particle is projected from level ground with a velocity of 7 i + 24 j m s−1, where i is horizontal and j is vertically up.
! !
! Give the angle
Find the initial speed and angle of projection of the particle.
(a)  of projection, !correct to the
nearest tenth of a degree. Air resistance can be ignored.
Find the time of flight of the particle. Give your answer correct to two decimal places.
(b) 
(c) Find the horizontal distance travelled by the particle. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
(d) Find the maximum height reached by the particle. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
(e) Determine whether the particle is ever travelling in a direction perpendicular to its initial velocity.
3 A cricket ball is thrown from a height of 1 metre with a speed of 30 m s−1 and at an angle of 60° to the horizontal.
(a) Taking the origin at the point of projection and assuming the ground to be level, find the horizontal
distance travelled by the ball before it lands. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
(b) Find the maximum height of the ball above the ground. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
(c) Find the Cartesian equation of the path of the ball and sketch its path.
A baseball is hit horizontally with a speed of 200 km h−1 from a height of 1.225 m. Find how far it travels horizontally
4 
before landing, assuming that the baseball field is level. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
5 A projectile is launched at an angle of 45° to the horizontal. Determine the launching speed, correct to one
decimal place, needed to achieve the following (relative to a horizontal plane through the point of projection):
(a) a range of 100 m (b) a height of 25 m.
6 A particle is projected from level ground with a speed of 19.6 m s−1 at an angle of projection of α.
(a) Show that the particle reaches its maximum height halfway through its flight.
Find the angle α for which the range of the particle is a maximum and determine this maximum range.
(b) 
Express the maximum range correct to one decimal place.
7 A projectile is projected from the origin with initial speed u and angle of projection α.
gx 2 2
(a) Show that the Cartesian equation of its path is y = x tan α − 2 sec α .
2u
(b) Hence find an expression for the projectile’s range R.
(c) Hence find an expression for the projectile’s maximum height y max .
(d) Show that for a given initial speed, the maximum range of the projectile occurs when α = 45° and is given
2
by R = u .
g
8 A golf ball is hit from a point O with initial velocity V at an angle θ to the horizontal ground. The ball first hits
the ground at a point P, which is at the same horizontal level as O.
5u
(a) Given that V cos θ = 6u and V sin θ = , find the time taken to travel from O to P, in terms of u and g.
2
(b) Find the range R of the golf ball in terms of u and g.
(c) Express V in terms of u.
(d) State the golf ball’s minimum speed during its flight.
9 The velocity (in m s−1) at time t seconds of a ball hit from a height of 2 metres above ground level is given by
r" = 12 i + 9 j + (30 − 9.8t)k, where i, j and k are unit vectors in the east, north and vertically up directions
! ! ! and the origin
respectively ! is at ground
! ! level.
! Find the ball’s height above ground level, in metres, after
2 seconds.

Chapter 6 Mechanics 217

YEAR 12

10 A golf ball is hit from the ground with a velocity 20 i + 0 j + 15k m s−1, where i , j and k are unit vectors
! ! upwards,
horizontally forward, horizontally to the left, and vertically ! ! ! After
respectively. ! being hit, the ball
−2
has a gravitational acceleration of −10k m s and also has a ‘hook’ (i.e. a horizontal acceleration to the left)
!
of 4 j m s−2. Air resistance can be ignored.
!
(a) Find the expression for r , the position vector of the ball at time t.
(b)  !
When the ball hits the ground, how far will it be to the left of the line along the horizontally forward
direction?
(c)  Find when the speed of the ball is a minimum. Give your answer correct to two decimal places.
(d) Calculate the minimum speed. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
11 A particle is projected from a point on the horizontal plane with an initial velocity given by the components
ux = 4 m s−1, u y = 6 m s−1. Use g = 9.8 m s−2.
(a) If the only resistance to the motion is gravity, find the parametric equations of the trajectory of the
particle. When does the particle hit the ground?
The particle is projected again into a medium which resists the motion, where the resistance to the motion is
directly proportional to the velocity of the particle. Let the constant of proportionality be k.
u
(
The parametric equations of the trajectory are given as x = x 1 − e − kt , y = ) (
g + ku y )( gt
1 − e − kt − .)
k k 2 k
(b) Find the parametric equations of the trajectory when (i) k = 0.4 (ii) k = 0.2.
(c) Using technology, draw on the same set of axes the graphs of the three trajectories in parts (a) and (b).
(d) Discuss what your graphs in part (c) tell you about the motion in each case.
12 The velocity (in m s−1) at time t seconds of a ball thrown at a height of 12 metres above ground level is given
by r" = 8 i + 3 j + (20 − 9.8t)k, where i , j and k are unit vectors in the east, north and vertically up directions
! ! and
respectively ! the origin!is at ground! ! level. !Find when the ball hits the ground.

13 The trajectory of a projectile fired with speed u m s−1 at an angle θ to the horizontal, in a medium whose
resistance to the projectile’s motion is proportional to the projectile’s velocity, is represented by the
(10 + ku sinθ ) 1 − e − kt − 10t , where k is the constant of
parametric equations x =
k (
ucos θ 1 − e − kt
)and y =
k2
( ) k
proportionality of the resistance.
1 ⎛ 10 + ku sin θ ⎞
(a) Show that the greatest height is reached when t = log e ⎜ ⎟⎠ .
k ⎝ 10
(b) Find the greatest height.
A ball is thrown from a point 20 m above the horizontal ground in the
NOT TO
same medium as mentioned above. It is thrown with speed 30 m s−1 at 30 m s–1 SCALE
an angle of 30° to the horizontal. At its highest point it hits a wall
as shown in the diagram. 30° Wall

(c) If k = 0.4, show that the ball hits the wall at a height of 25.8 m above
20 m
the ground.
(d) What is the horizontal distance of the wall from the point of
projection? Ground

14 A projectile is fired from the origin O with an initial velocity V m s−1 at an angle θ to the horizontal in a
medium whose resistance is proportional to the velocity.
(10 + kV sin θ )
The parametric equations of the trajectory are x =
k (
V cos θ 1 − e − kt
)
and y =
k2
( )
1 − e − kt − 10t ,
k
where k = 0.2 is the constant of proportionality of the resistance.
The projectile is fired at an angle of 45° to the horizontal with an initial velocity of 20 2 m s−1.
(a) Find when the projectile reaches its greatest height, correct to one decimal place.
(b) Find the greatest height attained, correct to one decimal place.
(c) Show that the projectile hits the ground when t ≈ 3.6 s (i) graphically (ii) by substitution.
(d) Find the horizontal range of the projectile.

218 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

6.7 RESISTANCE PROPORTIONAL TO THE SQUARE OF THE VELOCITY

In section 6.6 you considered projectile motion with resistance proportional to the velocity. In this section you will
extend this to consider projectile motion with resistance proportional to the square of the velocity.
For air resistance that is proportional to the square of the velocity, the resistance can be represented as a vector
that is opposite in direction to the velocity vector, with a magnitude equal to the magnitude of the velocity vector
squared, multiplied by a constant k.
Using this definition to derive the parametric equations of the resistance in the two-dimensional case:

2 v y
R = −k v v̂ where v̂ = ! and so 2
! ! ! ! v -k| v | vˆ
˜ ˜
!
√
-kvy vx2 + vy2

( )
2 v
2 2
R = −k v x + v y !
! vx + v y 2
2

R = −k v x 2 + v y 2 v
! !
v
√
-kvx vx2 + vy2
∴ Rx = −kv x v x 2 + v y 2 ˜ vy

Ry = −kv y v x 2 + v y 2
vx x

The horizontal and vertical components of the air resistance are given by −kv x v x 2 + v y 2 and −kv y v x 2 + v y 2 ,
respectively. These components are not independent of each other, which means there is no straightforward way
to find the position vectors by integration. Instead, projectile motion can be examined by using a mathematical
model where the components of the resistance are simplified and approximated to be simply proportional to the
velocity vector components squared. That is, −kv x v x 2 + v y 2 is approximated as −k( v x ) and −kv y v x + v y is
2 2 2

( )
2
approximated as −k v y .

A mathematical model for air resistance with the square of the velocity
A particle of mass m is launched at time t = 0, from ground level on a flat plane, at an angle of θ to the horizontal
with an initial velocity of u m s–1. In addition to gravity, there is an air resistance force that acts in the opposite
direction to the instantaneous direction of motion. The magnitude of this resistance force is directly proportional to
the square of its instantaneous speed.
Use the standard Cartesian coordinates with the x-axis horizontal and the y-axis vertical.
Let the components of the acceleration be x!! and !! y, the components of the velocity be x! and y! , and the components
of the displacement be x and y.
Initially, x = 0, x! = ux = ucos θ , y = 0, y! = u y = u sin θ .
! 2 and m!!
x = −mk( x)
Now the model is m!! y = −mg − mk( y! )2, where k is the constant of proportionality of the
resistance.
! 2 , !!
Dividing by m reduces these equations to: x!! = −k( x) y = − g − k( y! )2 .

Chapter 6 Mechanics 219

YEAR 12

dv x dv x
Consider the horizontal motion and let v x = x! so that x!! = : = −kv x 2
dt dt
dv x
= −kdt
vx 2
vx dv x t
Integrate both sides:
∫
ux vx 2
= −k ∫ dt
0
vx
⎡ −1 ⎤ = −kt
⎣⎢ v x ⎦⎥ ux
−1 + 1 = −kt
v x ux
1 = 1 + kux t
vx ux
ux
vx =
1 + kux t
ux
! dx =
Now v x = x:
dt 1 + kux t
t
dt
Integrate with respect to t: x = ux ∫ 1 + ku t
0 x

x = 1 ⎡⎣ log e (1 + kux t ) ⎤⎦ 0
t
k
1
x = log e (1 + kux t )
k
dv y
Consider the vertical motion and let v y = y! so that !!
y= :
dt
dv y
= − g − k(v y )2
dt
dv y
= −dt
g + k(v y )2

vy dv y t
Integrate both sides: ∫ uy g + k(v y )2
=− ∫ dt
0

1 vy dv y t

k ∫uy g
+(v y )2
=− ∫ dt
0
k
vy
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎢
1 k tan−1 ⎜ v y ⎟
⎥
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = −t
k⎢ g g
⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ k ⎠ ⎥⎦ u
y

1 ⎛ tan−1 ⎛ k v y ⎞ − tan−1 ⎛ ku y ⎞ ⎞ = −t
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟
kg ⎝ ⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠⎠
⎛ ku y ⎞ ⎛ k vy ⎞
k g t = tan −1 ⎜ −1
⎟ − tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠
⎛ ku y ⎞ ⎛ k vy ⎞
Now tan(A − B) = tan A − tan B and A = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ , B = tan−1 ⎜ ⎟
1 + tan A tan B ⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠
⎛ ku y ⎞ ⎛ k v y ⎞
⎜ g ⎟ −⎜ g ⎟
220 ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(
New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year
So: tan k g t = )
⎛ ku ⎞ ⎛ k v ⎞
 ⎛ ku y ⎞ ⎛ k vy ⎞
k g t = tan −1 ⎜ −1
⎟ − tan ⎜ ⎟ YEAR 12
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠
⎛ ku y ⎞ ⎛ k vy ⎞
Now tan(A − B) = tan A − tan B and A = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ , B = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
1 + tan A tan B ⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠
⎛ ku y ⎞ ⎛ k v y ⎞
⎜ g ⎟ −⎜ g ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
So: tan ( )
kg t =
⎛ ku y ⎞ ⎛ k v y ⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ g ⎠⎝ g ⎠
g ku y − k v y
tan ( )
kg t = ×
g g + ku y k v y
tan ( )(
k g t g + ku y k v y = g ) ( ku − k v ) y y

g tan ( )
k g t + kv y u y tan ( k g t ) = g ku − g kv y y

g kv y + kv y u y tan ( k g t ) = g ku − g tan ( k g t )
y

g ku − g tan ( k g t )
y
v =
g k + ku tan ( k g t )
y
y

dy g ku sin θ − g tan ( g kt ), so that y = gku sin θ − g tan ( gkt )dt .

Now v y = y and
dt
=
g k + ku sin θ tan ( g kt )
∫ gk + ku sin θ tan ( gkt )
2 α u sin θ − g tan (α t )
Let α = gk so α 2 = gk or g = α . Thus: y = ∫ α + ku sinθ tan (α t )dt
k
Rewriting this integrand in terms of sin(α t ) and cos(α t ):
g sin (α t )
α u sin θ −
cos(α t )
y= ∫ ku sin θ sin (α t )
dt
α+
cos(α t )
α u sin θ cos(α t ) − g sin (α t )
= ∫ α cos(α t ) + ku sin θ sin (α t )
dt

Now differentiate the denominator:

d α cos(α t ) + ku sin θ sin(α t ) = −α 2 sin(α t ) + α ku sin θ cos(α t )
dt
( )
2
 
= k  α u sin θ cos(α t ) − α sin(α t )
 k 
= k (α u sin θ cos(α t ) − g sin(α t ) )
f ′(t )
Thus you can write y = 1 ∫ dt where f (t ) = α cos(α t ) + ku sin θ sin(α t ), so that y = log e f (t ) + C .
k f (t )
α u sin θ cos(α t ) − g sin (α t )
Hence: y = ∫ α cos(α t ) + ku sinθ sin (α t ) dt
k (α u sin θ cos(α t ) − g sin (α t ))
=1 ∫ dt
k α cos(α t ) + ku sin θ sin (α t )
= 1 log e α cos(α t ) + ku sin θ sin (α t ) + C
k

Chapter 6 Mechanics 221

YEAR 12

Rewriting this with α =

1
gk now gives y = log e gk cos gkt + ku sin θ sin gkt + C .
k ( ) ( )
1
When t = 0, y = 0, so 0 = 1 log e gk cos0 + ku sin θ sin 0 + C and so C = − log e gk .
k k
1
( )
Hence: y = log e gk cos gkt + ku sin θ sin gkt − log e gk
k
1
k ( )
ku sin θ sin ( gkt )
= 1 log e cos
k ( gkt +) gk

=
1 log cos
k e ( gkt +) k u sin θ sin
g ( gkt )
Thus the parametric equations of the path are:

k
1
x = 1 log e (1 + ( ku cos θ )t ) and y = log e cos gkt +
k ( ) k u sin θ sin
g ( gkt )
To obtain y as a function of x, first solve x for t:
kx = log e (1 + ( ku cos θ )t )
e kx = 1 + ( ku cos θ )t
( ku cos θ )t = e kx − 1
kx
t = e −1
ku cos θ


So y = 1 log e cos 
(
gk e kx − 1 )  + 

kx
k u sin θ sin gk e − 1 ( )  is the equation of the path.
k  ku cos θ  g  ku cos θ 

Example 31
A projectile is fired from the origin O with an initial velocity u m s–1 at an angle θ to the horizontal in a medium
whose resistance is proportional to the square of the velocity. Use g = 10 m s–2.
The parametric equations of the motion are: x!! = −k( x)! 2 , !!
y = −10 − k( y! )2

x! = ucos θ , y! = 10ku sin θ − 10 tan 10kt ( )

1 + kucos θ t 10k + ku sin θ tan 10kt ( )
x = 1 log e (1 + kucosθ t ), y = 1 log e cos
k k ( 10kt + ) k u sin θ sin
10 ( 10kt )
The projectile is fired at an angle of 60° to the horizontal with an initial velocity of 10 3 m s–1. k = 0.4.
(a) Find when the projectile reaches its greatest height (correct to two decimal places).
(b) Find the greatest height (correct to two decimal places).
(c) Find when the projectile hits the ground (correct to two decimal places).
(d) Graph the path of the projectile.

222 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

Solution

(a) Greatest height when y! = 0: y! =

10ku sin θ − 10 tan( 10kt )
10k + ku sin θ tan ( 10kt )

4 × 10 3 × 3 − 10 tan 2t
= 2
Solve: 5 ( 3 − tan 2t ) = 0
4 + 0.4 × 10 3 × 3 tan 2t
2 tan 2t = 3
= 30 − 10 tan 2t 2t = 1.249
2 + 6 tan 2t
5(3 − tan 2t) t = 0.62s
=
1 + 3 tan 2t Greatest height is at 0.62 seconds.
(b) t = 0.62:

y=
10
4
log e cos ( )
4 × 0.62 +
0.4
10
× 10 3 ×
2
3
sin ( )
4 × 0.62 = 2.5 log e cos1.24 + 3 sin1.24 = 2.878 ≈ 2.88 m

(c) y = 0: 2.5 log e cos 2t + 3 sin 2t = 0

cos 2t + 3 sin 2t = −1
 
10  3 sin 2t + 1 cos 2t  = 1
 10 10 

sin ( 2t + α ) = 1 where tan α = 1

10 3
2t + 0.3218 = 0.3218, 2.82
2t = 2.4982
t = 1.25 s
( )
(d) The dotted line uses the parametric equations x = 2.5 log e 1 + 2 3t , y = 2.5 log e cos 2t + 3sin 2t
2 e
or the Cartesian equation of the path y = 2.5 log e cos 
−1 ( 0.4 x
)  + 3sin  2 ( e −1 
0.4 x

 .
)
 2 3   2 3 

y
The solid line represents no resistance, the
12
dashed line represents resistance proportional
to the velocity and the dotted line represents
10
resistance proportional to the square of the
velocity.
8
The solid graph uses the parametric equations
2
x = 5 3t, y = 15t − 5t 2 or y = 3x − x . 6
15
The dashed graph uses the parametric equations
( ) (
x = 12.5 3 1 − e −0.4t or y = 100 1 − e −0.4t − 25t.) 4

O x
4 8 12 16 20 24 28

Chapter 6 Mechanics 223

YEAR 12

EXPLORING FURTHER

Resistance proportional to the square of the velocity

Use technology to explore a model for projectile motion with resistance.

Summary of equations for projectile motion at an angle θ to the horizontal

A particle is projected from the ground with an initial velocity u at an angle θ to the horizontal where ux = ucos θ ,
u y = u sin θ . If projected from above the ground, then this initial height of projection needs to be added to the equation
for y. k is the constant of proportionality for any resistance.
No resistance
x!! = 0 y = −g
!!
x! = ucos θ y! = u sin θ − gt
x = ucos θ t y = u sin θ t − 1 gt 2
2
Resistance proportional to the velocity
x!! = −k x! y = − g − k y!
!!

x! = ucos θ e − kt (
y! = 1 (g + ku sin θ )e − kt − g
k )
( g + ku sinθ ) 1 − e − kt − gt
(
x = ucos θ 1 − e − kt
k ) y=
k2
( ) k

Resistance proportional to the square of the velocity—mathematical model

! 2
x!! = −k( x) y = − g − k( y! )2
!!

x! = ucos θ y! =
gku sin θ − 10 tan ( gkt )
1 + kcosθ t gk + ku sin θ tan ( gkt )

x = 1 log e (1 + kucosθ t ) y = 1 log cos ( gkt ) +

e
k u sin θ sin
( gkt )
k k g

EXERCISE 6.7 RESISTANCE PROPORTIONAL TO THE SQUARE OF THE VELOCITY

Use the summary of equations given above and appropriate graphing technology, where necessary, to answer the
following questions. Use g = 10 m s–2.

1 A projectile is fired at an angle of 45° to the horizontal with an initial velocity of 10 2 m s–1.
Write the equation of the trajectory if there is no air resistance.
(a) 
If air resistance is proportional to the velocity of the projectile, with k = 0.01, write the equation of the
(b) 
trajectory in parametric and Cartesian form.
If air resistance is proportional to the square of the velocity of the projectile, with k = 0.01, write the
(c) 
equation of the trajectory in parametric form.
(d) Determine, by calculation, the greatest height of attained.
(e) Determine, by calculation, the range of the projectile.
Graph the path of the projectile in each case.
(f) 
From your graph, determine the greatest height attained in each case.
(g) 
From your graph, determine the range of the projectile in each case.
(h) 
Discuss the significance of your answers.
(i) 

224 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

2 Repeat question 1 with k = 0.05.

3 Repeat question 1 with k = 0.1. Compare your answers to questions 1, 2 and 3.
4 A projectile is fired at an angle of 30° to the horizontal with an initial velocity of 6 m s–1.
Write the equation of the trajectory if there is no air resistance.
(a) 
If air resistance is proportional to the velocity of the projectile, with k = 0.02, write the equation of the
(b) 
trajectory in both parametric form and Cartesian form.
If air resistance is proportional to the square of the velocity of the projectile, with k = 0.02, write the
(c) 
equation of the trajectory in parametric form and Cartesian form.
Graph the path of the projectile in each case.
(d) 
From your graph, determine the greatest height attained in each case.
(e) 
From your graph, determine the range of the projectile in each case.
(f) 
Discuss the significance of your answers.
(g) 
5 A projectile is fired at an angle of 60° to the horizontal, from a point 2 metres above ground level, with an
initial velocity of 10 m s–1.
(a) Write the equation of the trajectory if there is no air resistance.
(b)  If air resistance is proportional to the velocity of the projectile, with k = 0.005, write the equation of the
trajectory in parametric form.
(c)  If air resistance is proportional to the square of the velocity of the projectile, with k = 0.005, write the
equation of the trajectory in parametric form and Cartesian form.
(d)  Graph the path of the projectile in each case.
(e)  From your graph, determine the greatest height attained in each case.
(f)  From your graph, determine the range of the projectile in each case.
(g) Discuss the significance of your answers.

CHAPTER REVIEW 6
1 A particle moves on the x-axis with velocity v. The particle is initially at rest at x = 2. Its acceleration is given
( )
d
by x!! = x + 6. Using x!! = dx 12 v , find the speed of the particle at x = 3.
2

2 A particle moves along the x-axis, starting from a position 2 metres to the right of the origin (i.e. x = 2
when t = 0), with an initial velocity of 5 2 m s−1 and an acceleration x!! = x 3 + x.
2
2
x + 1
(a) Show that x = ! . (b) Hence find an expression for x in terms of t.
2 2
3 The equation of motion for a particle moving in simple harmonic motion is given by d x2 = −n2 x where n
is a positive constant and x is the displacement of the particle at time t. dt
(a) 
2 2 2 2
Show that the square of the velocity of the particle is v = n (a − x ), where v = dx and a is the amplitude
dt
of the motion.
(b) Find the maximum speed of the particle. (c) Find the maximum acceleration of the particle.
(d)  The particle is initially at the origin. Write a formula for x as a function of t. Hence find the first time that
the particle’s speed is a quarter of its maximum speed.
4 A particle moves with simple harmonic motion on the x-axis about the origin. It is initially at its extreme
negative position. The amplitude of the motion is 16 and the particle returns to its initial position every
5 seconds.
(a) Write an equation for the position of the particle at time t seconds.
(b)  How much time does the particle take to move from a rest position to the point halfway between the rest
position and the equilibrium position?

Chapter 6 Mechanics 225

YEAR 12

5 A particle moves in a straight line. Its displacement x metres after t seconds is x = sin2t − 3 cos2t + 3.
(a) Prove that the particle is moving in simple harmonic motion about x = 3 by showing that x&& = −4(x − 3).
(b) What is the period of the motion?
(c) Express the velocity of the particle in the form x = Acos (2t − α ), where α is in radians.
Hence, or otherwise, find all times within the first π seconds when the particle is moving at 2 metres per
(d) 
second in either direction.
6 A particle is moving along the x-axis and is initially at the origin. Its velocity v metres per second at
time t seconds is given by v = 2t 2 .
9+t
(a) What is the initial velocity of the particle?
(b) Find an expression for the acceleration of the particle. (c) When is the acceleration zero?
(d) What is the maximum velocity attained by the particle and when does it occur?
(e) Find the position of the particle when t = 3.
7 A particle of mass 5 kg moves in a straight line under the action of a force whose magnitude after t seconds is
50 − 10t N. Initially the particle is at the origin O with velocity 24 m s−1.
(a) At what time is the particle momentarily at rest? (b) What is its position at that time?
(c) Describe the motion.
8 An object of mass 10 kg is at rest at the origin. It is acted on by a force that decreases uniformly with the
distance travelled by the object, from 50 N at the start to 10 N when the distance travelled is 25 m.
(a) Write the function for this force F in terms of displacement x.
(b) Find the velocity of the object when its displacement is 25 m.
9 A particle of mass 5 kg moves in a straight line so that at time t its displacement from a fixed origin is x and its
velocity is v.
(a) If the resultant force (in newtons) on the particle is 10 sin t, and v = 1 and x = 1 when t = 0, then find x as
a function of t.
(b) If the resultant force (in newtons) on the particle is 15 + 5v, and v = 0 when t = 0, then find v as a function
of t.
10 A parasailing waterskier is being towed horizontally at a constant speed. The tow rope from the boat makes an
angle of 20° above the horizontal and there is tension of 300 N in the tow rope. The waterskier has a mass of
100 kg. A resistance force of 120 N acts against the waterskier in a horizontal direction. A parachute is attached
to the skier by a cord that is inclined at an angle α above the horizontal. There is tension of T newtons in the
parachute cord. (Use g = 9.8 m s−2.)
(a) Draw a diagram to show the four forces acting on the waterskier, W.
(b) Explain why the resultant force on the waterskier is zero.
(c) Find T correct to one decimal place and find α correct to the nearest degree.
11 An object is fired vertically from the surface of the Moon with initial velocity v0 under a gravitational
acceleration such that x = − k2 , where x is the displacement from the centre of the Moon and k is a constant.
x g
Let the radius of the Moon be R. The gravitational acceleration at the surface of the Moon is .
6
(a) Find the velocity of the object in terms of its distance x from the centre of the Moon.
(b) Find the value of v0 for which the object travels a distance of 2R from launch before it starts
to fall back.
(c) Find the escape velocity.
12 A particle moves from the initial conditions t = t0, x = x0, v = v0 to the final conditions t = tF , x = xF , v = vF
under a force that produces acceleration x.
 Which of the following is incorrect?
vF
v dv + x B If x = f (v), then x = v F f (v) dv + x
A If x = f (v), then x F =
v0 ∫f (v) 0 F
v0∫ v 0

vF xF
dv + t
C If x = f (v), then t F = ∫
v0 f (v) 0
D If x = f (x), then v F2 = 2 ∫ x0
f (x) dx + v02

226 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 YEAR 12

13 (a) Show that the range on a horizontal plane of a particle projected upwards at an angle α to the plane and
2 2
with velocity V metres per second is V sin 2α metres, and that the maximum range is V .
g g
A garden sprinkler sprays water symmetrically about its vertical axis at a constant speed of V metres per
second in a circular pattern. The direction of the spray varies continuously between angles of 15° and 60° to the
horizontal.
(b) Prove that the sprinkler, from a fixed position on level ground, will wet the surface of an annular region
2 2
with centre O and with internal and external radii V metres and V metres respectively.
2g g
(c) Deduce that if the sprinkler is placed appropriately relative to a rectangular garden bed of size 6 m by 3 m,
2
then the entire garden bed may be watered, provided that V ≥ 1 + 7.
2g
14 An underwater camera of mass 0.5 kg is allowed to fall vertically from the ocean surface into a deep ocean
trench. As it falls to the ocean floor, it is acted upon by gravity and by a resistance of 2v newtons, where v m s−1
is the velocity of the camera t seconds after beginning its descent.
(a) Show that the equation of motion of the camera is x = g − 4v.
(b) Find v as a function of t.
(c) Find the terminal velocity of the camera.
(d) Find the time taken for the camera to reach half of its terminal velocity.
(e) It takes 50 seconds for the camera to reach the ocean floor. Find the depth of the ocean at that point.
15 A particle moves so that its position vector r at time t is given by r = 3cos 2t i + 3sin 2t j, t ≥ 0.
! ! ! !
(a) Show that the particle moves in a circle and find the Cartesian equation of its path.
(b) Show that the particle moves with constant speed.
Show that the particle’s acceleration has constant magnitude and is perpendicular to the direction of
(c) 
motion of the particle.
The position vector of a particle at time t seconds, t ≥ 0, is r = (1 + sin 4t ) i + ( 2 − cos 4t ) j metres.
16 
! ! !
(a) Show that the particle moves in a circle and sketch its path.
(b) Show that the particle’s acceleration is always perpendicular to its velocity.
17 The position vector of a particle at time t, t ≥ 0, is r = 2cos3t i + 2 sin 3t j + 3t k.
! ! ! !
Show that the magnitudes of the particle’s velocity and its acceleration are constant.
18 A particle moves so that its position vector at time t is given by r = 3cost i + 2 sint j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
! !
(a) Find the Cartesian equation of the path of the particle and sketch the path. !
Find when the velocity of the particle is perpendicular to its position vector and hence find the position
(b) 
vectors at these times.
Sketch the graph of the speed function and find the maximum and minimum speeds of the particle.
(c) 
Show that the particle’s acceleration is directed towards the origin and is equal in magnitude to the
(d) 
particle’s distance from the origin.
Find when the acceleration is perpendicular to the velocity.
(e) 

Chapter 6 Mechanics 227

 SUMMARY Geometrical representation of a complex
number as a point
1 COMPLEX NUMBERS Any complex number z = x + iy can be represented by
the point P with coordinates (x, y) in a number plane
The complex number system
in which the x-axis is the ‘real’ axis and the y-axis is
Any number z of the form x + iy, where x, y are real, is
the ‘imaginary’ axis. This Cartesian representation
called a complex number.
of complex numbers is called the Argand diagram,
x is the real part of z, Re(z) = x, and mapped on the complex number plane.
y is the imaginary part of z, Im(z) = y.
y
If y = 0, then z is purely real. The set of real numbers is Imaginary axis
a subset of the set of complex numbers. P(x + yi)

If x = 0, then z is purely imaginary.

y
Equality x
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real O x
parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal: Real axis

a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and b = d

Geometrical addition and subtraction of
Addition and subtraction complex numbers
Im
If z = z1 ± z2, where z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2, then On the Argand diagram,  6
z = (x1 + x2) ± i(y1 + y2). R
points P, Q and R represent 5 z1 + z2
4
Multiplication z1, z2 and z1 + z2 Q
3 z2
If z = z1 × z2, where z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2, then: respectively. Points Q′ and S 2 Pz
1
represent −z2 1
z= (x1 + iy1)(x2 + iy2)
and z1 − z2 respectively.
= x1x2 + i2y1y2 + ix1y2 + ix2y1 –2 –1–1O 1 2 3 S 5 6 7 Re
Note that z1 − z2 is z1 – z2
–2
= (x1x2 − y1y2) +i(x1y2 + x2y1) calculated as z1 + (−z2). –z2 –3
The conjugate of a complex number OPRQ and OPSQ′ are Qʹ
–4
If z = x + iy, then the conjugate of z is z = x − iy. parallelograms.
The product of a complex number and its conjugate is Geometrical representation of multiplication by i
a real number: The Argand diagram shows that each multiplication
z z = (x + iy)(x − iy) by i causes a complex number z to be rotated
= x2 − i2y2 anticlockwise about the origin by π (90°).
2
= x2 + y2 Im
6
5
Division z iz
4
To calculate the division z = z 1 , multiply the Q 3
z
2 2 P
numerator and denominator by the conjugate of z2. 1
This realises the denominator, i.e. makes it real. O
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re
z z –1
z= 1 2 R
–2
z2 z2 –3
i2z S
–4
Square roots of a complex number –5 i3z
To find the square roots of a + ib, let z = x + iy such that –6

z2 = a + ib, with a, b real. Equating the real parts and

the imaginary parts: Geometrical representation of conjugates
x2 − y2 = a  2xy = b The points that represent a pair of complex conjugates
Substitute to solve for x and y. are reflections in the real axis.
Modulus–argument form of a complex number
A point P on an Argand diagram may be located by
Cartesian coordinates (x, y), or by its modulus and
argument:

228 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

• The modulus is the distance from the origin O to P: Two special results
mod z = z = x + iy = x 2 + y 2 = r 1 If z = r (cos θ + i sin θ), then the conjugate
z = r cis (−θ)
• The argument is the angle at which the ray OP is
1 1
2 If z = r (cos θ + i sin θ), then z = r cis(−θ )
inclined to the positive direction of the real axis:
arg z = θ such that x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
Basic identities
• The principal argument is θ such that −π < θ ≤ π.
• z1z 2 = z1 z 2 and arg ( z1z 2 ) = arg z1 + arg z 2
Im
z1 z1 z
P • z = and arg 1 = arg z1 − arg z 2 , z 2 ≠ 0
z = x + iy 2 z2 z 2
r = |z| n
y • zn = z ( )
and arg z n = n arg z
θ
• 1 = 1 and arg 1 = −n arg z, z ≠ 0
O x Re
zn zn zn
• z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2
For any complex number:
z = x + iy = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r (cos θ + i sin θ) • z1z 2 = z1z 2
2
A complex number expressed as r (cos θ + i sin θ) • zz = z
= r cis θ is in mod–arg form. • z + z = 2Re( z )
The result z × z– = | z |2 • z − z = 2i Im( z )
The product of a complex number and its conjugate is Powers using mod–arg form
the modulus squared. De Moivre’s theorem:
Products in mod–arg form If z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) and n is an integer,
Let z1 = r1(cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and then zn = rn(cos nθ + i sin nθ)
z2 = r2(cos θ2 + i sin θ2). De Moivre’s theorem for negative integers
Then z1× z2 = r1r2(cos θ1 + i sin θ1)(cos θ2 + i sin θ2) If n is a negative integer, de Moivre’s theorem states that
= r1r2 cis (θ1 + θ2) z − n = r − n (cos( −nθ ) + i sin( −nθ )).
∴ z1 z 2 = z1 × z 2
Euler’s formula
Also: arg z1 + arg z2 is one value of arg (z1z2), not
necessarily the principal value. In general, when z ↑ 1, z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) = reiθ .
• The modulus of a product is the Powers of complex numbers
product of the moduli. Since any complex number can be written in the
• The argument of a product is the exponential form, eiθ , it is easy to find powers of this
n
sum of the arguments. number as eiθ( ) = einθ .
Quotients in mod–arg form Geometrical representation of products
Let z1 = r1(cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and z2 = r2(cos θ2 + i sin θ2). involving complex numbers—consolidation
z r (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) r1 and summary
Then z 1 = r1 = r cis (θ1 − θ 2 )
2 2 (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 ) 2 Multiplication of a complex number z by a real number k:
z z • arg (kz) = arg k + arg z
∴ z1 = z1 If k is a positive real number, then arg k = 0, so
2 2
z arg (kz) = arg z.
Also: arg z1 − arg z2 is one value of arg 1 , not
z2 If k is a negative real number, then arg k = π, so
necessarily the principal value.
arg (kz) = π + arg z = π + arg z − 2π = −(π − arg z).
• The modulus of a quotient is the (Note that 2π is subtracted to find the principal
quotient of the moduli. argument.)
• The argument of a quotient is the • kz = k × z , i.e. there is a scaling by a factor of k .
difference of the arguments. If k is a negative real number, then the direction from
the origin O to the point representing kz is opposite
to the direction from O to the point representing z.

Summary 229
 Multiplication of a complex number z by i: • To multiply by r cis θ, rotate by θ anticlockwise about
• arg (iz) = arg i + arg z = π + arg z O and then scale by a factor of r.
2
• iz = i × z = z as i = 1 Properties of complex conjugates
• Hence multiplication by i causes an anticlockwise • z + z = 2Re(z ) and z − z = 2Im(z ) × i
rotation by π about the origin O, with no change to • the conjugate of a sum is equal to the sum of the
2 conjugates
the modulus.
• the conjugate of a difference is equal to the difference
Multiplication of a complex number z by ki, where k is of the conjugates
a real number:
• the conjugate of a product is equal to the product of
• This combines the two cases above. the conjugates
• Rotate by π anticlockwise about O and then scale • the conjugate of a quotient is equal to the quotient of
2
by a factor of k , remembering also to reverse the the conjugates
direction if k is negative. • the conjugate of a power is equal to the power of the
conjugate
Multiplication of a complex number z by another
complex number r (cos θ + i sin θ): • the conjugate of a real number is itself,
i.e. if z = x + 0i, then z = x − 0i = z.
• arg (z × r cis θ) = arg z + arg (r cis θ) = arg z + θ
• z × r cisθ = z × r cis θ = z × r

Geometrical representation of a complex number as a vector

Complex numbers can be represented as vectors Im
P(z = x + iy)
Im
y P(1, 2)
for which the modulus gives the magnitude and the
argument gives the direction. B(4, 1)
|z|
On an Argand diagram, let point P represent the
complex number z = x +iy.
 This z isalso represented O Re
by the position vector OP , where OP has length z arg z
A(3, –1)
O x Re
and direction given by a rotation from the positive
direction of the real axis by arg z.
The vector to represent a complex number does not have to ‘start’ at the origin O; a complex number can be
represented by any vector with the same modulus (length) and argument (angle), called a free vector (if it is not a
position vector from the origin).
Operations on complex numbers represented as vectors q translated

Addition (to form the vector sum p + q ):
Method 1 (complete the triangle) ! ! p p+q
 

1 Translate q so that its tail is located at the head of p.
2 The vector! for the sum p + q now goes from the tail ! of p to the head
! ! ! q
of the translated q . 
!
Method 2 (construct the diagonal of the parallelogram) p+q
 
p
1 Translate q so that its tail is located at the tail of p. 
2 Locate the! fourth vertex of the parallelogram of vectors.
! q translated

3 The vector for the sum p + q now goes from the common tail of
! ! of the parallelogram.
p and q to the fourth vertex q

! !
–q translated

Subtraction (to form the vector difference p − q ): p–q
p
! ! 
 
Method 1 (add the opposite vector) –q

1 Form the vector − q.
! p + (− q).
2 Form the vector sum q

! !
230 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12
Method 2 (construct the other diagonal of the parallelogram)
1 Translate q so that its tail is located at the tail of p. p–q
 
!
2 Locate the! fourth vertex of the parallelogram of vectors. p

q translated
3 The vector for the sum p − q is the diagonal of the 
parallelogram that goes!from ! the tip of q to the tip of p.
! ! q
Let A represent z1 and B represent z2. 
Im C
When the parallelogram OACB is formed:

• vector OC represents z1 + z2 B(z2)
 
• vector AB represents z2 − z1 and vector BA represents
z1 − z2 A(z1)

• z1 + z 2 and z1 − z 2 are the lengths of the diagonals of the arg(z1 + z2)

parallelogram O arg(z1 – z2) Re

• arg (z1 + z2) and arg ( z1 − z2) are the angles at which the
diagonals are inclined to the positive direction of the real axis.
Multiplication by i:
When working with vector representations of complex numbers, multiplication by i rotates the vector anticlockwise
by π (90°).
2
Multiplication by ki (where k is real):
To multiply by ki, rotate the vector anticlockwise by π (90°) and scale by a factor of k.
2
Multiplication of a complex number z by another complex number r (cos θ + i sin θ):
To multiply z by r cis θ, rotate the vector that represents z through an angle θ and scale by a factor of r.
Hint: Whenever you see z1 + z2 and z1 − z2 in a problem, the problem can most likely be solved using the geometrical
properties of parallelograms.
The triangle inequalities
In a triangle OAC: OC ≤ OA + AC, with OC = OA + AC Im C(z1 + z2)
when O, A and C are collinear. B(z2)
z1 – z2
∴ z1 + z 2 ≤ z1 + z 2 , with z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2 when z2 = kz1 (where k is real). z1 + z2

In ΔOAB: OA ≤ OB + BA, with equality when O, B and A are collinear.

A(z1)
∴ z1 ≤ z 2 + z1 − z 2
O Re
∴ z1 − z 2 ≥ z1 − z 2 , with equality when z2 = kz1 (where k is real).
Roots of complex numbers
De Moivre’s theorem can be used in reverse to find roots of complex numbers.
• The n-th roots of 1 (i.e. the n roots of zn = 1) are equally spaced around the circumference of the circle with centre
O and radius 1, separated by an angle of 2nπ at the centre.
• One root is 1. If n is even, another root is −1. The other roots occur as non-real conjugate pairs.

( )
• The roots are 1 cos 2knπ + i sin 2knπ where k = 0, ±1, ±2, … until the n unique roots are identified.
• The n-th roots of any complex number R cis α are equally spaced around the circumference of the circle with
centre O and radius n R , separated by an angle of 2nπ at the centre.

( )
• The roots are n R cos α +n2kπ + i sin α +n2kπ where k = 0, ±1, ±2, … until the n unique roots are identified.

Summary 231
 Complex roots of unity For a statement of the form P ⇒ Q that involves some
To investigate properties of the n-th roots of 1, you can variable:
work with symbolic representations rather than the • The converse is the statement Q ⇒ P
actual values of the roots.
• The contrapositive is the statement not Q ⇒ not P
An important result is the factorisation (where w is a
• The negation is the statement ‘there exists some value
root):
of the variable for which P is true, but Q is false’.
wn − 1 = (w − 1)(wn − 1 + wn − 2 + … + w2 + w + 1)
The contrapositive of a conditional statement essentially
Curves and regions on the Argand diagram says the same thing as the original statement, and thus,
If z = x + iy, then: will be true whenever the original statement is true.
• z = x 2 + y 2 is the algebraic definition; Two statements are logically equivalent if whenever one
geometrically z is the distance from the origin O to is true, the other must be.
the point (x, y) Each of the following can be used to express the fact
that P and Q are logically equivalent:
• algebraically z − (a + ib) = ( x − a ) + ( y − b ) ;
2 2
• P is necessary and sufficient for Q
geometrically z − (a + ib) is the magnitude of the
vector from (a, b) to the point representing z • P if and only if Q
• geometrically arg z is the angle made with the • P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P
positive direction of the real axis by the vector from • P ⇔ Q.
the origin O to the point representing z
• geometrically arg (z − z1) is the angle made with the
3 FURTHER WORK WITH VECTORS
positive direction of the real axis by the vector from Algebra of vectors expressed in component
the point representing z1 to the point representing z form
• arg 0 is undefined. (i) Equality: Two position vectors are equal if and
only if the corresponding components are equal.
2 THE NATURE OF PROOF i.e. a1 i + b1 j + c1k = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k if and only if
• The negation of ‘P and Q’ is ‘not P or not Q’.      
a1 = a2 , b1 = b2 , c1 = c2.
• The negation of ‘P or Q’ is ‘not P and not Q’. (This is true because the i , j , k representation of a
The symbol ∀ (known as the universal quantifier) is vector is unique.)   
used to mean ‘for all’. (ii) The components of the sum (difference) of two
The symbol ∃ (known as the existential quantifier) is position vectors are equal to the sum (difference)
used to mean ‘there exists’. of the corresponding components of the vectors;
When the symbols ∀ and ∃ appear together in the same e.g. If
statement, the order in which they appear is important. a = x1 i + y1 j + z1k and b = x 2 i + y2 j + z 2 k , then
     
• Providing a single example is always sufficient to a ± b = (x1 ± x 2 )i + ( y1 ± y2 ) j + (z1 ± z 2 )k.
prove that a ‘there exists’ statement is true.     
(iii) The components of a scalar multiple of a p ­ osition
• Providing a single counter example is always vector are equal to the scalar multiple of the
sufficient to prove that a ‘for all’ statement is false. ­corresponding components of the vector.
The negation of a ‘for all’ statement is a ‘there exists’ e.g. If a = xi + yj + zk and λ ∈R, then
statement. Similarly, the negation of a ‘there exists’   
λ a = (λ x)i + (λ y) j + (λ z)k .
statement is a ‘for all’ statement.    
Two statements are logically equivalent if whenever one Summary of formulae
is true, the other must be. Distance formula
Each of the following means the same as P ⇒ Q: Given A(x1 , y1 , z1) and B(x 2 , y2 , z 2 ), then

• If P, then Q AB = (x 2 − x1)i + (y2 − y1) j + (z1 − z 2 )k and
• Q if P    
AB = (x 2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2 + (z 2 − z1)2
• P is a sufficient condition to conclude that Q
• Q is necessary if P
• P implies that Q.

232 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

Unit vectors • L1 and L2 intersect if a unique value of t and s satisfies
a the three equations a + bt = g + hs, c + dt = j + ks,
a =  e + ft = l + ns simultaneously
 a
 • L1 ⊥ L2 if bh + dk + fn = 0 (a • b = 0)
Scalar product  
• If they are not parallel or coincident and do not
a • b = ( x1 i + y1 j + z1k ) • ( x 2 i + y 2 j + z 2 k ) intersect, then they are skew.
       
= x1 x 2 + y1 y2 + z1z 2 Note: In three dimensions coincident lines will
be parallel and have a point in common. This
Algebraic properties of the dot product
means that for L1 and L2 above to be coincident,
• a•b = b•a b = d = f = a = c = e.
   2
• a•a = a h k n g j l
  
• a • (b + c ) = a • b + a • c Vector equation of a line
       Consider two straight lines, L1 and L2, with vector
• (a + b) • (c + d ) = a • c + a • d + b • c + b • d
            equations r1 = a1 + λb 1 and r2 = a2 + λb 2 respectively
• The angle between two vectors, θ, is given by   vectors
and with direction  b1 = x1 i + y1 j + z1k and
a•b    
cos θ =   , a ↑ 0, b ↑ 0. b 2 = x 2 i + y2 j + z 2 k respectively.
a b      
  • If the two lines are parallel, then b 1= kb 2 , k ≠ 0, and
Geometric properties of the dot product so x1 = kx2, y1 = ky2 and z1 = kz2.  
• If a • b = 0, then a and b are perpendicular, a ⊥ b Then, eliminating the constant k, you have that if L1 and
     
• If a • b = a b , then a and b are parallel vectors x y z
      L2 are parallel then 1 = 1 = 1 .
• If a and b are parallel vectors, then a • b = a b x 2 y2 z 2
      • If the two lines are perpendicular, then b 1• b 2 = 0
• By convention, 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°. and so x1 x 2 + y1 y2 + z1z 2 = 0 .  
Projections • Providing a single example is always sufficient to
 where
The scalar projection of a onto b is a ∞b, prove that a ‘there exists’ statement is true.
a•b    
a • b =   . 4 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
  b
 projection of a onto b is a • b b.
The vector
    
 ( ) Trigonometric integrals
The vector projection of a perpendicular to b is Using double-angle formulae:
a•b  
( )
a − a • b b or a −   b. ∫ sin x cos x dx = 1 sin 2x dx
∫
     b•b  2
  1
Equation of a sphere
∫ ∫
2
cos x dx = (1 + cos 2x)dx
2
( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 + ( z − k )2 = r 2
∫ sin 2 x dx = 1 (1 − cos 2x)dx
∫
2
Equation of a line
Vector equation of a line: r = r 0 + λ v, this equation
  r , of a fixed point P ∫ ∫
• For sinm x dx and cosm x dx ,
consists of the position vector, 0 0 m an even positive integer:

on L and a fixed vector, r , that determines the direction
( ) ( )
n n
Use cos 2n x = 1 + cos 2x and sin 2n x = 1 − cos 2x .

of L.
2 2
Parametric equations of a line: x = x0 + aλ, y = y0 + bλ,
∫ ∫
m m
• For sin x dx and cos x dx ,
z = z0 + cλ, represent the parametric equations of the
m an odd positive integer:
line L through the point (x0, y0, z0) parallel to the vector
v = (a , b , c ).

∫ ∫
Rewrite as sin 2n x sin x dx or cos 2n x cos x dx
where m = 2n + 1, then substitute sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x
Properties of lines in three dimensions or cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x and work towards creating an
Given line L1 with equation x = a + bt, y = c + dt,
z = e + ft and line L2 with equation x = g + hs, y = j + ks,
integral of the type
be found.
∫ f (u) du, u = g(x) that can
z = l + ns, then:
f
• L1 || L2 if b = d =
h k n

Summary 233
 Inverse trigonometric functions Logarithmic functions
f ′(x)
• ∫
1 dx = sin −1 x + C for −a < x < a • d log e ( f (x)) =
2
a −x 2 a dx f (x)
−1 dx = cos −1 x + C for −a < x < a • dx
∫
• ∫ a − x2
2 a x = log e x + C
h′(x)
• ∫
a dx = tan −1 x + C for all x
a + x2
2 a
• ∫ h(x)
dx = log e h(x) + C

You may need to complete the square to put the The substitution t = tan θ
2
integrand into the required form. The substitution t = tan θ enables us to express sin θ
2
Integration by substitution and cos θ in terms of t, which then enables us to express
This is also called ‘integration by change of variable’: any rational function of sin θ and cos θ as a rational

∫ f (x) dx = f (u) du dx = f (u) du

∫ ∫ algebraic function of t. This then allows standard
dx techniques of integration such as partial fractions or
integration by parts.
An expression like a 2 − x 2 can be integrated with
a substitution of x = a sin θ or x = a cos θ, while t = tan θ sin θ = 2t 2
an expression like a2 + x2 can be integrated with a 2           1+t
substitution of x = a tan θ. 2
dθ = 2
cos θ = 1 − t 2
The domain of the substitution should be chosen to 1 + t          dt 1 + t 2
coincide with the corresponding inverse function: If using a substitution of t = tan f (θ), f (θ ) ≠ θ ,
• for the substitution x = a sin θ, set − π < θ < π 2
differentiate the substitution to find the link between
2 2
• for the substitution x = a cos θ, set 0 < θ < π. dθ and dt.
The endpoints of the domain are not included as
1 is undefined there. 5 FURTHER INTEGRATION
a − x2
2
Rational functions
For the substitution x = tan θ, no restriction on θ is A rational function f (x) is the ratio of two polynomials,
required: 1 + x2 > 0 for all values of x, so the integrand’s A(x)
denominator will never be zero for real x. f (x) = , defined for all values of x except those for
B(x)
a
which B(x) = 0.
Special case: evaluating ∫0
a 2 − x 2 dx , a > 0
If the polynomial degree of A(x) ≥ degree of B(x),
The graph of y = a 2 − x 2 , 
y then: A(x) = B(x) × Q(x) + R (x)
y = a2 – x2
a > 0 for the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ a2 is the a where degree of R (x) < degree of B(x)
first quadrant of the circle R(x)
which leads to: f (x) = Q (x) +
x2 + y2 = a2. O x
B(x)
a The problem of partial fraction decomposition arises
The formula for the area of a circle
when B(x) is a product of polynomials of lower degree,
can be used to evaluate the integral:
2
i.e. B(x) = B1(x) × B2(x) with degree B1(x) > 0, degree
Area = 1 × π × a 2 = π a (as r = a) B2(x) > 0.
4 4
You wish to find polynomials m1(x), m2(x) such that:
Sum or difference of two squares
R(x) m 1 (x) m 2 (x)
All quadratic expressions of the form ax2 + bx + c can be = +
B(x) B1 (x) B 2 (x)
expressed as the sum or the difference of two squares,
depending on whether their discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac is Now m1(x) and m2(x) can be found if: R (x) ≡ m1(x) ×
positive or negative. This can be achieved by completing B2(x) + m2(x) × B1(x).
the square of the quadratic. Comparison of degrees shows that you can suppose
After this is done, the associated integral can usually be degree m1(x) < degree B1(x), degree m2(x) < degree
found by using an appropriate substitution. B2(x).

234 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

Linear factors
Consider the general case, where B(x) is a product of distinct linear factors: B(x) = k(x − a1)(x − a2)…(x − an)
R(x) c c c
You want to discover if constants c1, c2, … cn exist so that: = 1 + 2 + … + x −na
B(x) x − a1 x − a2 n
Linear factors—Method 1 (equating coefficients)
Consider the monic case when n = 2, so that k = 1 and B(x) is a quadratic.
R (x) = dx + e and B(x) = (x − a1)(x − a2): R(x) dx + e c c
= = 1 + 2
B(x) (x − a )(x − a ) x − a1 x − a2
1 2

dx + e c (x − a2 ) + c2 (x − a1 )
Write with common denominator: = 1
(x − a1 )(x − a2 ) (x − a1 )(x − a2 )
Write the numerators: dx + e ≡ c1(x − a2) + c2(x − a1)
Using identity property of polynomials, equate coefficients: d = c1 + c2

e = −(a2c1 + a1c2)
As a1 ≠ a2, these two equations can be solved for c1 and c2.
In the general case, a1, a2, … an are distinct, so the coefficient equations can be solved for c1, c2, … cn.

Linear factors—Method 2 (substitution)

Again consider the monic case when n = 2, so that k = 1 and B(x) is a quadratic.
R(x) dx + e c c
R (x) = dx + e and B(x) = (x − a1)(x − a2): = = 1 + 2
B(x) (x − a )(x − a ) x − a1 x − a2
1 2
dx + e c (x − a2 ) + c2 (x − a1 )
Write with common denominator: = 1
(x − a1 )(x − a2 ) (x − a1 )(x − a2 )
Write the numerators: dx + e ≡ c1(x − a2) + c2(x − a1)
Let x = a1: da1 + e = c1(a1 − a2)
da + e
Solve for c1: c1 = a 1− a
1 2
Let x = a2: da2 + e = c2(a2 − a1)
da + e
Solve for c2: c2 = a 2− a
2 1
You should always check your answer by writing the partial fractions over a common denominator again.
Partial fractions, quadratic factors
B(x) is a product of distinct linear factors and a simple quadratic factor such that
R(x) c c c
= 1 + 2 + … + x −na + 2dx + e , with degree R (x) < n + 2.
B(x) x − a1 x − a2 n x + bx + c
As for partial fractions with linear factors, here c1, c2, … cn can be found using any of the previous methods for
partial fractions with linear factors. You then only need to find d and e as follows.
• If none of a1, a2, … an is zero, then let x = 0 to find the value of e.
• Multiply through by x and let x → ∞ (which will require dividing each fraction by the largest power of x in the
numerators) to find the value of d.
• If e.g. a1 = 0, first find d and then select a small integer value for x distinct from a1, a2, … an to give a simple
equation that can be solved for e.
Two quadratic denominators
When finding partial fractions for pairs of quadratic denominators like (x2 + a2) and (x2 + b2) and the numerator
does not have odd powers of x, you can write the first step as:
cx 2 + d e f
2 2 2 2 = 2 2 + 2 where either c or d could be zero.
(x + a )(x + b ) x + a x + b2

Summary 235
 Repeated linear factors cx + d ⎛ e fx + g⎞
This course does not require you to find partial • ∫ (x + a)(x + b ) dx = ∫ ⎜⎝ x + a + x + b ⎟⎠ dx
2 2 2 2
fractions with repeated linear factors. However, you
c ⎛ d e ⎞
may be asked to show a repeated factors result. • ∫ (x + a )(x + b ) dx = ∫ ⎜⎝ x + a + x + b ⎟⎠ dx
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Partial fractions cx + d 2
⎛ e f ⎞
• ∫ (x + a )(x + b ) dx = ∫ ⎜⎝ x + a + x + b ⎟⎠ dx
∫ ( x − a + x − b ) dx
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
dx c d
• ∫
(x − a)(x − b)
=

Integration by parts
This comes from rearranging the product rule.
If u(x) and v(x) are differentiable functions of x, then, by the product rule:
d (uv) = v du + u dv d (uv) = v u′ + uv ′
or
dx dx dx dx
Hence:
∫ u dv dx = uv − v du dx
∫ ∫ uv ′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx
dx dx
∴ ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du
The LHS integrand is a product of two expressions involving x: one denoted by u and the other by dv
dx
(or just dv). The choice of which parts to label as u and dv is made so that the RHS integral can be easily found. The
arbitrary constant C is inserted into the solution at the appropriate point.
As a general rule, dv should be a function that is easy to integrate and u should be the other function. If they are
both easy to integrate, then u should be the function that will be simpler after differentiation.
Note that for complex integrals, the rule sometimes has to be applied more than once. You may also need to
rearrange terms to solve for the desired integral.
Recurrence relations
b

∫ [ f (x)] dx a relationship of the form I

n
These are found by integration by parts. Given In = n
= kIn − 1 is found, where
b a

∫ [ f (x)]
n −1
In −1 = dx . After I1 or another of the other easy I integrals can be found, the recurrence relation is then
a
used to evaluate the original integral.

Properties of the definite integral a

b b b
( f (x) ± g(x)) dx
7 ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx represents the area of a semicircle of
1 ∫a
f (x) dx ± ∫ a
g(x) dx = ∫ a
−a
radius a, so it can be quickly evaluated using
b c b
A = πr2.
2 ∫a
f (x) dx = ∫
a
f (x) dx + ∫
c
f (x) dx
b a Combinations of even and odd functions
3 ∫a
f (x) dx = − ∫ b
f (x) dx • The product of two odd functions or two even
b b functions is an even function.
4 ∫a
f (x) dx = ∫
a
f (u) du
• The product of an odd function and an even
(i.e. the value of the integral is independent of the function is an odd function.
variable of integration)
Integrals and areas
5 If f (−x) = f (x) (i.e. f (x) is an even function), then: Be aware of the difference between evaluating the
a a

∫ ∫
a

−a
f (x) dx = 2
0
f (x) dx integral ∫ −a
f (x) dx and finding the area under the
6 If f (−x) = −f (x) (i.e. f (x) is an odd function), then: curve y = f (x) between the ordinates x = −a and x = a.
a

∫ −a
f (x) dx = 0

236 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 6 MECHANICS
Velocity and acceleration as functions of x
 and a(t) = x(t)
The expressions x(t), v(t) = x(t)  = v(t),
 which denote displacement, velocity and acceleration
respectively, define functions of time t. For each t there corresponds only one value of x(t) that satisfies the function,
because the particle can only be in one place at one time. Similarly (t, v(t)) and (t, a(t)) define functions because a
particle cannot have more than one velocity and one acceleration at any given time.
However, sometimes it is useful to express acceleration in terms of the displacement x or the velocity v. In this case
you must be careful, because equations relating a, v and x will not necessarily define functions.
dv
Remember that calculus only makes sense when applied to functions, so can only have meaning if v = v(x)
dx
defines a function. Hence if you want to differentiate the equation v2 = 1 − x2 you must restrict v to be either positive
or negative, so you consider v to apply only to velocities as the particle moves from A to B, i.e. v > 0, or only from B
to A, i.e. v < 0. If v(x) specifies a function according to one of these restrictions, then the chain rule of differentiation
can be used:
dv dv dx
= ×
dt dx dt
dv dx
=v as v =
dx dt
= ( )
d 1 2 dv
dv 2
v ×
dx
= ( )
d 1 2
dx 2
v
dv d 2 x dv
Hence acceleration may be expressed in any of the forms , 2 , v
dt dt dx
or
dx 2
( )
d 1 2
v .

The form to use in a particular problem will depend on the form of the equation that defines acceleration:
dv d 2 x ⎧ dv if initial conditions
• Given a = f (t), use or 2 ⎪⎪ dt are values for t and v
dt dt •  Given a = h(v), use ⎨
⎪v dv if initial conditions
• Given a = g (x), use ( )
d 1 2
dx 2
v            ⎪⎩ dx are values for x and v
It is customary to write derivatives with respect to time using dots above the dependent variable,
dx d2x dv
e.g. x = , x = 2 , v = .
dt dt dt
Simple harmonic motion (SHM)
SHM is the motion of a point particle moving along a straight line so that its displacement x from a fixed point at
time t is given by a sine or cosine function:
• displacement x: x = a cos (nt + α), α > 0, n > 0  x = −an 2 cos(nt + α)
•  acceleration x:
• velocity x: x = −ansin(nt + α) or x = −n 2 x
Important results:
1 When x = 0 (i.e. at the endpoints of the motion), the acceleration is greatest.
2 When x = 0 (i.e. at O, the centre of the motion), the speed is greatest (i.e. velocity has its greatest or least value).

The general equation x = a cos ( nt + α ), α > 0, n > 0

If when t = 0, x = a, the particle is initially at the extreme point A and a = a cos α, then cos α = 1 and
α = 0. The equation of motion can then be written x = a cos nt.
x
x = a cos (nt + α)
    = a cos nt    if x(0) = a A a x = a cos nt
v = x = −nasinnt
dv O 2π t
= x = −n 2acosnt n
dt B –a
x = −n 2 x
2π 1
v2 = n2(a2 − x2), −a ≤ x ≤ a  T = =
n f
Summary 237
 The amplitude a is the distance from the centre of motion O to either of the extreme points A or B.
SHM problems are usually solved using either x = a cos (nt + α) or x = −n 2 x , or occasionally v2 = n2(a2 − x2).
The starting point will depend on the information given.
The following diagrams illustrate the velocity and acceleration of a particle undergoing SHM, including the extreme
values.
v = –na v = –n√a2 – x2
v=0 v=0
Velocity
–a 0 x a
v = na v = n√a2 – x2

x = n 2a x = –n2x x = –n2x x = –n2a

x=0
Acceleration
–a 0 x a
2
Note that to the left of O, x is negative, so −n x (the acceleration) is positive.
The equation x = −n 2 x describes the motion of a particle under the influence of a force that is directed towards the origin
O and is proportional to the distance of the particle from O. The force (and hence the acceleration) is zero at O, where
the speed is greatest. The force (and hence the acceleration) is greatest at the extreme points, where the speed is zero.
This type of motion occurs in real physical situations (either approximately or exactly) where a particle oscillates
about an equilibrium position. For example:
• the to-and-fro motion of a pendulum bob (approximately SHM)
• the up-and-down motion of a mass attached to a spring
• the bobbing motion of a buoy floating on water.
The equations of motion for Simple Harmonic Motion about the point x = c may be written as:
Displacement: x = a sin (nt + α) + c x = a cos (nt + α) + c
Velocity: x = an cos(nt + α ) x = − an sin(nt + α )
Acceleration: x = − an2 sin(nt + α ) x = − an2 cos(nt + α )
Or: x = −n2 ( x − c ) x = −n2 ( x − c )

Newton’s first law of motion Alternative definition for Newton’s second law
• A body remains at rest or in uniform motion in of motion
a straight line unless it is acted on by a non-zero The acceleration of a body is proportional to the
resultant force. resultant force that acts on the body and inversely
Newton’s second law of motion proportional to the mass of the body.
• The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the Newton’s third law of motion
applied force and occurs in the direction of the force. • When two objects exert force on each other, the
If a body of mass m is acted on by a non-zero resultant forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in
force F, then: direction. In other words:
F ∝ rate of change of momentum For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.
∝ d (mv) Dynamics of a particle
dt
We will consider all bodies as particles, so that all
∝ m dv if m is constant external forces acting on a body are regarded as acting
dt
∴ F ∝ ma where a = dv through a single point in the body and producing only
dt a translational effect (i.e. no rotation).
i.e. F = kma   where k is a constant.
Recall that acceleration may be expressed in any of the
k = 1 when we define 1 standard unit of force, called a
( )
2
newton (N), as the amount that produces an acceleration forms: dv , d x2 , v dv , d 1 v 2 .
dt dt dx dx 2
of 1 m s−2 in a body of mass 1 kg, hence: F = ma.

238 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

The form to use in a particular problem will depend on In general, the faster the body moves, the greater the
the form of the equation that defines acceleration or force: resistance. Air resistance is typically proportional to
2
• Given a = f (t), use dv or d x2 some power of the speed, so that air resistance = kvn.
dt dt We will consider this for n = 1 and n = 2.
• Given a = g(x), use d
dx 2
1
( )
v2 The effect of resistance is always retardation:
• Given a = h(v), use • Resistance is force acting in the opposite direction to
the motion.
⎧dv if initial conditions are values for t and v
⎪ dt • Retardation is acceleration acting in the opposite
⎨ direction to the motion.
⎪v dv if initial conditions are values for x and v
⎩ dx In problems involving resisted motion, define the
Derivatives with respect to time are often written using positive direction to be the direction in which motion
dots above the dependent variable, e.g. is actually occurring and take the origin O as the point
2 from which the motion begins.
x = dx , x = d x2 , v = dv
dt dt dt
Terminal velocity
Note also that for constant m we have F = m dv As t increases, the gravitational force acting on an object P
dt
and so: dv = F causes it to accelerate downwards. However, as the speed
dt m
The derivative on the left-hand side is the acceleration, increases, the resistance also increases until eventually
which forms the basis for the solution of a differential the downwards weight force and the resistance force are
equation. equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. At this stage
the resultant force is zero: according to Newton’s first law
Resisted motion of motion, P will now move in a straight line at constant
Whenever a body moves through a medium (such as speed, i.e. the terminal velocity.
air, water, oil etc.), it is subjected to a resistance that acts • The terminal velocity occurs when the acceleration is
in the opposite direction to the motion. equal to zero.
Summary of equations for projectile motion at an angle θ to the horizontal
A particle projected from the ground with an initial velocity V at an angle θ to the horizontal where ux = V cos θ ,
u y = V sin θ . If projected from above the ground, then this initial height of projection needs to be added to the equation
for y. k is the constant of proportionality for any resistance.
No resistance
x = 0 y = −g

x = V cos θ y = V sin θ − gt
x = V cos θ t y = V sin θ t − 1 gt 2
2
Resistance proportional to the velocity
x = − kx y = − g − k y


x = V cos θ e − kt y = 1 ( g + kV sin θ )e − kt − g
( )
k

x = V cos θ 1 − e − kt
( g + kV sinθ ) 1 − e − kt − gt
k ( ) y=
k2
( ) k

Resistance proportional to the square of the velocity, mathematical model

x = − k( x )2 y = − g − k( y )2


x = V
cos θ
y =
gkV sin θ − 10 tan ( gkt )
1 + k cos θ t gk + kV sin θ tan ( gkt )

k
x = 1 log e (1 + kV cos θ t ) y = 1 log e cos( gkt ) + u sin θ sin ( gkt )
k k g

Summary 239
 Mathematics Extension 2 Course Outcomes
Objective
Students:
• develop efficient strategies to solve complex problems using pattern recognition, generalisation, proof and modelling
techniques
Year 12 Mathematics Extension 2 outcomes
A student:
MEX12-1
understands and uses different representations of numbers and functions to model, prove results and find solutions to
problems in a variety of contexts

Objective
Students:
• develop their knowledge, skills and understanding to model and solve complex and interconnected problems in the
areas of proof, vectors and mechanics, calculus and complex numbers
Year 12 Mathematics Extension 2 outcomes
A student:

MEX12-2
chooses appropriate strategies to construct arguments and proofs in both practical and abstract settings

MEX12-3
uses vectors to model and solve problems in two and three dimensions

MEX12-4
uses the relationship between algebraic and geometric representations of complex numbers and complex number
techniques to prove results, model and solve problems

MEX12-5
applies techniques of integration to structured and unstructured problems

MEX12-6
uses mechanics to model and solve practical problems

240 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

Mathematics Extension 2 Course Outcomes
Objective
Students:
• develop their problem-solving and reasoning skills to create appropriate mathematical models in a variety of forms
and apply these to difficult unstructured problems
Year 12 Mathematics Extension 2 outcomes
A student:
MEX12-7
applies various mathematical techniques and concepts to model and solve structured, unstructured and multi-step
problems

Objective
Students:
• use mathematics as an effective means of communication and justification in complex situations
Year 12 Mathematics Extension 2 outcomes
A student:
MEX12-8
communicates and justifies abstract ideas and relationships using appropriate language, notation and logical argument

Mathematics Extension 2 Stage 6 Syllabus 2017 extracts © NSW Education Standards Authority
for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017, reproduced by permission.

Mathematics Extension 2 Course Outcomes 241

 ANSWERS
CHAPTER 1 ∴ There are two square roots of every complex number (except
0 + 0i).
EXERCISE 1.1 15 (a) z1 + z1 = 2x1 = 2 × Re(z1)
1 C (b) z1 − z1 = 2iy1 = 2i × Im(z1)
2 (a) x = ±3i (b) x = ±5i (c) x = −1 ± 4i (d) x = 1 ± 2i (c) LHS = x1 + iy1 + x 2 + iy 2 = (x1 + x 2 ) + i ( y1 + y 2 )
(e) x = 2 ± 4i (f) x = 1 ± 5 i (g) x = 1 ± i 31 = (x1 + x 2 ) − i ( y1 + y 2 )
2 2 2
2 1 ± i 15 RHS = z1 + z 2 = x1 − iy1 + x2 − iy2 = LHS
(h) x − x + 4 = 0, x =
2
(d) LHS = x1 + iy1 − x 2 − iy 2 = (x1 − x 2 ) + i ( y1 − y 2 )
3 (a) −i  (b) 1   (c) −1  (d) −i  (e) 1
4 (a) 5 + 2i (b) 5 + 2i (c) 29 (d) 29 − 20i (e) −16 = (x1 − x 2 ) − i ( y1 − y 2 )
29 29
13 1 RHS = z1 − z 2 = x1 − iy1 − (x2 − iy2) = LHS
(f) 17 + 17 i
5 (a) 10 + 3i (b) 6 − 2i (c) 23 − 14i (d) 58 (e) −21 − 20i (e) LHS = z1 × z 2 = (x1 x 2 − y1 y 2 ) + i (x1 y 2 + x 2 y1 )

(f) i (g) 7 (h) 2 − 3 i (i) 17 + 44 i (j) 19 + 16 i = (x1 x 2 − y1 y 2 ) − i (x1 y 2 + x 2 y1 )

13 13 25 25 29 29
RHS = z1 × z 2 = (x1 − iy1)( x2 − iy2) = LHS
7 17
(k) − − i (l) − − 48 247 i
5 10 25 50
6 (a) x = 3, y = −2 (b) x = 6, y = 2 16 (a) (z + 5) z − 5 −
2 (
5 3
2
i z−5+
2 )(
5 3
2
i )
7 (a) −15 + 8i (b) 9 + 7i (c) 9 + 7i (d) − 3 + 22 i
2
(b) w satisfies z − 5z + 25 = 0 (from linear factors)
29 29 ∴ w2 = 5w − 25
8 (a) (z + 3i)(z − 3i) (b) (z + 6i)(z − 6i)
(c) (5w − 25)3 = (w2)3 = (w3)2 = (−125)2 = 15 625
(c) (z − 3 + 4i)(z − 3 − 4i) (d) (2z+ 3 + 2 2i)(2z + 3 − 2 2i) (Note: w3 = −125 because w is a root of z3 + 125 = 0)
(e) (z + 1 + 5i)(z +1 − 5i) (f) (z − 3 + 11i)(z − 3 − 11i)

(
(g) 2 z + 1 +
2 2
7
)(
i z+1−
2 2
7
)i
EXERCISE 1.2
1 Im (i)
(h) (z + 10)(z − 5 + 5 3i)(z − 5 − 5 3i) 5
(h), ( j)
9 (a) z = 8 − 4i (b) z = 2i 4
(d)
10 (a) ±(1 + 3i) (b) z = i, − 1 − 1 i 3
2 2
2
(c) Sum of roots = − − i + i = − 1 + 1 i = − b
1 1
1
(l) (a)
2 2 2 2 a
(k) (c)
( 1
2 2
1
)1
Product of roots = i − − i = − i =
2 2
1 c
a –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O (f) 1
–1
2 3 4 5 6 7 Re

11 (a) ±(1 − 3i) (b) ±(2 2 − 2 2i) (

(c) ± 5 2 + 2 i
2 2 ) (e)
–2
–3
(b)

12 (a) LHS = ( 3 − i) − ( 3 − i) ( 3 − i) + 9 ( 3 − i) − 9 3 + 9i
3 2 (g)
= 0 = RHS
2 A 3 D
(b) z3 − ( 3 − i)z2 + 9z − 9 3 + 9i = 0
z2(z − ( 3 − i)) + 9(z − 3 + i) = 0
−
4(
4 (a) 2 2 cos π + i sin − π
4 )
(b) 2 cos 5π + i sin 5π
6 6 ( )
(z − 3 + i)(z2 + 9) = 0
∴ z = 3i and z = −3i are the other solutions.
(c) 6 2 cos −3
(
4
π + i sin −3
4
π
)
π
(d) 4 cos + i sin
2
π
2 ( )
(c) Sum of roots = 3 − i + 3i − 3i = 3 − i = − b
a
(e) 4(cos π + i sin π) (f) 2 3 cos −5
6
π + i sin −5π
6 ( )
Sum of products of pairs of roots
= 3i( 3 − i) − 3i( 3 − i) + 3i(−3i) = 9 = c
a
(g) 4 cos (−
6
π + i sin −
6
π ) π
(h) 2 cos + i sin
4
π
4 ( )
Product of roots = 3i(−3i) ( 3 − i) = 9( 3 − i) = − d 5 (a) 2 + 2 3i (b) 4 2 − 4 2 i
a
13 (a) z = 2 − i, 1 − i (b) z = 1 − 2i, 2i (c) z = 2 + i, i (c) −3 2 + 3 2 i
(d) −1 − 3 i
(d) z = 3 + 2i, −i
14 Let (x + iy)2 = a + ib where x, y are real. Then x2 − y2 = a [1] 2( 2 6)
6 (a) 16 cos π + i sin π , cos π + i sin π
6
and 2xy = b [2].
Substitute [2] into [1]: x4 − 4a2x2 − b2 = 0
(b) 15 cos 3
(
π
4
+ i sin 3 π
4 3
5
) (
, cos + i sin π
π
4 4 )
Solving this as a quadratic in x2: x 2 =
4a 2 ± 16a 4 + 4b 2
2
(c) 2 cos( −
2
π + i sin − π
2 )
, cos π + i sin π
Note that 16a4 + 4b2 ≥ 0 (as a, b are real) and that 7 (a) LHS = x 2 + y 2 , RHS = x − iy = x 2 + y 2
16a4 + 4b2 = 0 only when a = b = 0.
(b) LHS = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 + y2 = RHS
Also, as 16a 4 + 4b 2 ≥ 4a 2, there will be one positive value
zz
of x2 and one negative value of x2. But x is real, so the negative (c) LHS = z + = z + z = 2x = 2Re(z ) = RHS
z
value of x2 is disregarded and there are exactly two values of x,
each with a unique value of y (from [2]).

242 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 8 Im C In parallelogram OACB: a × z 3 + b × z 2 + c × z + d = 0 (conjugate of a product is the
B OA = z , OB = AC = w , OC = z + w  product of the conjugates)
w In ΔOAC: OC < OA + AC (each side 3 2
w a × (z ) + b × (z ) + c × z + d = 0 (conjugate of a real is itself;
z+w of a triangle is less than the sum  conjugate of a power is the power of the conjugate)
A
of the other two sides) ∴ P (z ) = 0 i.e. z is also a root
z ∴ z +w < z + w
O Re EXERCISE 1.3
If O, B and A are collinear then z + w = z + w iπ
1 (a) e 3 = cos π + i sin π = 1 +
3
∴ z + w ≤ z + w i
3 3 2 2
9 (a) −32i (b) 16 (c) −64 (d) −4 + 4i iπ
(b) e 2 = cos π + i sin π = 0 + i = i
3 2 2
(e) −8 − 8 3 i (f) − − 1 i (g) 1 5πi
π + i sin 5π = −
2048 2048 512 5 3 1
(c) e = cos
6 + i
6 6 2 2
(h) 128 + 128i (i) 1 − 1 i (j) −4 iπ
2 2
(d) e 4 = cos π + i sin π = 1 + 1 i
10 (a) −7 − 24i (b) −4 − 3i (c) 3 + 4 i 4 4 2 2
25 25
( ) ( )
−iπ
r (cos θ + i sin θ ) π
(e) e 2 = cos − + i sin − π = 0 − i = −i
11 LHS = 2 2 2
r (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ ) + r 2
( ) ( )
−2 π i
(f) e 3 = cos − 2π + i sin − 2π = − 1 −
3
= 2 r (cos θ + i sin θ ) i
3 3 2 2
r (2cos 2 θ − 1 + 2i sin θ cos θ + 1)
( ) ( )
iπ −iπ
(g) e 2 = e × e 2 = e ⎛ cos − π + i sin − π ⎞ = e(0 − i) = −ei
1−
= cos θ + i sin θ = 1 , which is real.
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
2r cos θ (cos θ + i sin θ ) 2r cos θ
( )
iπ iπ
π π ⎛ 3 ⎞
= e2 ⎜ 1 +
2+
(h) e 3 = e × e 3 = e cos + i sin
2 2
i
12 (a) π (b) π     3 3 ⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
3 3 1.5i
2 (a) 3e
13 (a) Step 1 Prove true for n = 1: z = cis θ, z1 = cis 1θ = z
( )
5iπ
⎛ 3 1 ⎞
 Step 2 Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that (b) − 3 + i = 2 ⎜ − + i ⎟ = 2 cos 5π + i sin 5π = 2e 6
(cos θ + i sin θ)k = cos kθ + i sin kθ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 6 6
Now when n = k + 1: ⎛ ⎞
(cos θ + i sin θ)k + 1 = (cos kθ + i sin kθ)(cos θ + i sin θ) (c) 3 + 2i = 13 ⎜ 3 + 2 i ⎟ = 13(cos θ + i sin θ )
⎝ 13 13 ⎠
= (cos kθ cos θ − sin kθ sin θ) + i(sin kθ cos θ + cos kθ sin θ)
= cos (k + 1)θ + i sin (k + 1)θ
Step 3 Conclusion 3 ()
where θ = tan −1 2 = 0.59

True for n = k + 1 if true for n = k. True for n = 1. = 13e 0.59i

∴ True for all positive integers n ≥ 1. (d) 4(cos 2 − i sin 2) = 4(cos(−2) + i sin(−2)) = 4e−2i

( ) ( )
(b) (cos θ + i sin θ )−n = 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
(cos θ + i sin θ )n (e) 2 − 2i = 2 2 ⎜ − 1 i ⎟ = 2 2 ⎛ cos − π + i sin − π ⎞
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 4 ⎠
1 (cosnθ − i sinnθ ) cosnθ − i sinnθ
= × = − iπ
(cosnθ + i sinnθ ) (cosnθ − i sinnθ ) cos 2 nθ + sin 2 nθ = 2 2e 4

= cos (nθ) − i sin (nθ) = cos (−nθ) + i sin (−nθ)

( ) ( )
4iπ
π
(f) 4 − cos + i sin
π = 4 cos 4π + i sin 4π 4e 5
14 z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) 5 5 5 5
∴ zn = rn(cos nθ + i sin nθ)
∴ z n = rn(cos nθ − i sin nθ)
⎛ 1
(g) −2 − 2 3i = 4 ⎜ − −
3 ⎞
⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 ( )
i = 4 cos − 2π + i sin − 2π ⎞
⎛
3 ⎠ ( )
z = r(cos (−θ) + i sin (−θ)) −2iπ
n
∴ (z ) = rn(cos (−nθ) + i sin (−nθ)) = 4e 3

= rn(cos nθ − i sin nθ) (h)

n
∴ z = (z )
n
⎛ ⎞
15 (a) z n + (z )n = z n + z n = 2Re(z n )
( 1 + 2 ) + (1 − 2 ) i = 6 ⎜ 1 + 2 + 1 − 2 i ⎟ = 6(cos θ + i sin θ )
⎝ 6 6 ⎠

(
(b) 1 + 3 i = 2 cos π + i sin π
3 3 ) ⎛
⎝ 1+ 2 ⎠
⎞
where θ = tan −1 ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟
∴ (1 + 3 i) = 2 cos π + i sin 10π
10 10 10
3 ( 3 ) ⎛ ⎞
= tan −1 ⎜ 2 2 − 3 ⎟ = −0.17
10
= 2 cos −2
3 (
π + i sin π
−2
3 ) ⎝
= 6e −0.17i
1 ⎠

∴ (1 + 3 i) + (1 − 3 i) = 2 × 210 cos −2π = −1024

10 10

3
16 z is a root of P(x) = 0 ∴ az3 + bz2 + cz + d = 0
π 1⎛
3 C. cos2 = ⎜ 1 +
8 2⎝
1 ⎞ = 1 ⎛1 + 2 ⎞ = 1 2 + 2 .
⎟
2⎠ 2⎝
⎜ 2 ⎟⎠ 4 ( )
az 3 + bz 2 + cz + d = 0 (taking conjugates of both sides) cos π = 1 2 + 2 . sin π = 1 2 − 2
8 2 8 2
az 3 + bz 2 + cz + d = 0 (conjugate of a sum is the sum of the 4 (a) ei θ = cos θ + i sin θ , e − i θ = cos θ − i sin θ
 conjugates; conjugate of 0 is 0)

Answers Chapter 1 243

 (b) ei θ + e −i θ = cos θ + i sin θ + cos θ − i sin θ = 2cos θ . 8 (a) e 2i θ = cos 2θ + i sin 2θ ,
(
cos θ = 1 ei θ + e −i θ
2 ) (e )
iθ 2
= (cos θ + i sin θ )2 = cos2 θ − sin 2 θ + 2i sin θ cos θ
(b) cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ; sin 2θ = 2sin θ cos θ
ei θ − e −i θ = cos θ + i sin θ − (cos θ − i sin θ ) = 2i sin θ .
9 (a) e 3i θ = cos3θ + i sin 3θ
(
sin θ = 1 ei θ − e −i θ )
2i
(e )
iθ 3
= (cos θ + i sin θ )3
( )
iπ
⎛ 3 1 ⎞
5 (a) z = 3 + i = 2 ⎜ + i ⎟ = 2 cos π + i sin π = 2e 6 = cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ + 3i 2 cos θ sin 2 θ + i 3 sin3 θ
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 6 6

( ) = cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ − 3cos θ sin 2 θ − i sin3 θ

2iπ iπ
(b)(i) z 2 = 22 e 6 = 4e 3 = 4 cos π + i sin π = 2 + 2 3i
3 3
  = cos3 θ − 3cos θ sin 2 θ + 3cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ i ( )
= 8 ( cos π + i sin π ) = 8i
3iπ iπ
(ii) z 3 = 23 e 6 = 8e 2 (b) cos 3θ = cos3 θ − 3cos θ (1 − cos2 θ) = 4cos3 θ − 3cos θ
2 2

= 16 ( cos 2π + i sin 2π ) = −8 + 8 3i
4iπ 2i π (c) sin 3θ = 3sin θ (1 − sin2 θ) − sin3 θ = 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ
(iii) z 4 = 24 e 6 = 16e 3
3 3 1 − 3i = 1 − 3i × 1 − 2i = −5 − 5i = −1 − i = 2 ⎛ − 1 − 1 i ⎞
10 ⎜⎝ ⎟
= 2 ( cos π + i sin π ) = 1.37 + 0.37i
iπ 1 + 2i 1 + 2i 1 − 2i 5 2 2 ⎠
(iv) z = 2e 12
12 12 −3iπ
= 2e 4 . r = 2 , θ = − 3π
= 1 ⎛ cos ( − π ) + i sin ( − π )⎞ =
− iπ 4
−1 1e 6 3 1
(v) z = − i ⎛ 3 ⎞
2 2⎝ 6 6 ⎠
− iπ
4 4 11 ( )( )
3 − i − 3 + i = −3 + 2 3i − i 2 = −2 + 2 3i = 4 ⎜ − 1 +
⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
i
⎛ ⎞
6 (a) z = 1 − 3i = 2 ⎜ 1 − 3 i ⎟ = 2e 3 2iπ
⎝2 2 ⎠ = 4e 3 . r = 4, θ = 2π
−2iπ −2iπ 3
(b)   (i) z 2 = 22 e 3 = 4e 3 ( ( )
= 4 cos − 2 π + i sin − 2 π
3 3 ( )) 12 (a) z1 × z 2 = 2e 6 × 3e
−iπ 2iπ
3 = 6e
− i π 2iπ
6
+
3
iπ
= 6e 2 ( = 6i )
= −2 − 2 3i

  (ii) z 3 = 23 e
−3iπ
3 = 8e − i π = 8 ( cos(− π ) + i sin(− π )) = −8 + 0i
( π
= 6 cos + i sin
2
π
2 )
( )
2iπ iπ 2iπ + iπ 11iπ
11π 11π
(b) z 2 × z 3 = 3e 3 ×e4 = 3e 3 4 = 3e 12 = 3 cos + i sin
( )
−5iπ iπ 12 12
  (iii) 5
z = 25 e 3 = = 32 cos π + i sin π = 16 + 16 3i
32e 3 −2iπ 2iπ iπ
3 3
(c) z12 × z2 = 22 e 6 × 3e 3 = 12e 3 ( π
= 12 cos + i sin
π
)
( ) ( ) 3 3
− iπ
  (iv) π
z = 2e 6 = 2 cos − + i sin − ⎞ =
⎛ π 6
− 2i −iπ
⎝ 6 6 ⎠ 2 2 − i π 2iπ −5iπ
= 6 ( cos
6 )
z1 2e 6 −5iπ −5iπ
= 2e = 2e
−

( ) (d) = + i sin
iπ 6 3 6
  (v) 1 = 1 e 3 = 1 cos π + i sin π = 1 + 3 i z2 2iπ 3 3 6
z 2 2 3 3 4 4 3e 3
3iπ 2iπ
1 = 1 e 3 = 1 ei π = 1 cos π + i sin π = − 1 + 0i
( ) 8 2iπ − iπ

( )
5iπ
  (vi) z 2 3e 3 5π 5π
z 3 23 8 8 (e) = iπ = 3e 3 4 = 3e 12 = 3 cos + i sin
z3 12 12
e 4
7 (a) Cosine and sine are both negative in the third quadrant. −2iπ 2iπ
iπ − iπ iπ
−3 i π z 2 × z 2 22 e 6 × 3e 3

(
z = 2 −cos π − i sin π = 2 cos − 3π + i sin − 3π
4 4 4 4) ( ( ) ( )) = 2e 4 (f)  1
z3
= iπ
e4
= 12e 3 4 = 12e 12

(
or z = 2 −cos π − i sin π = 2 cos 5 π − i sin 5 π = 2e
4 4 4 4 ) ( )
5πi
4 = 12 cos ( π + i sin π
12 12 )
(g)
( )
iπ Im
2 −6iπ −3iπ
(b)   (i) z 2 = ( 2) e 4 = 2e 2 = 2e 2 = 2 cos π + i sin π
2 2 6 z1 × z2

= 0 + 2i
3 −9iπ −iπ
  (ii) z = 3
( 2) e 4 = 2 2e 4 5

4 ( ( )
= 2 2 cos − π + i sin − π
4 ( )) = 2 − 2i 4
4 −12iπ
  (iii) z 4 = ( 2) e 4 = 4e −3iπ = 4e − iπ
3
= 4 ( cos(− π ) + i sin(− π )) = −4 + 0i z2
1 −3iπ −3iπ
( 2)
1
  (iv) z = 2
e 8 = 24 e 8 2

( ) ( )
1
= 24 ⎛ cos − 3π + i sin − 3π ⎞ = 0.46 − 1.10i
⎝ 8 8 ⎠ 1

= 1 ( cos 3π + i sin 3π ) = − 1 + 1 i
3iπ
   (v) 1 = 1 e 4
z 2 2 4 4 2 2
O
6iπ 3iπ −i π –2 –1 1 2 Re
  (vi) 12 = = 1e 2 = 1e
−2

z
( ) 2
2
e 4
2
2

–1 z1
1 π
( ( )
= cos − + i sin −
2 2
π
2
= 0− 1i
2 ( ))
244 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12
 (h) Im 5iπ
5iπ + iπ 7iπ −5iπ
4 z 2 3e 6
(d) = − iπ = 3e 6 3 = 3e 6 = 3e 6
z3
e 3
z2 Im
3 z3
z2 3

2 2
z2

1 1
z3

O
–2 –1
O
1 2 Re –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 Re

–1
–1 z3
z2
z3
–2
iπ iπ
1 − iπ + − iπ − iπ
13 (a) z1 × z 4 = 2e 4 × 2 e 2 = e 4 2 = e 4
Im –3

2  
z1 iπ
iπ 3i π
z + iπ
(e) 1 = 2e − iπ = 4e 4 2 = 4e
4
4
1 z4 1 2
e
2
Im
z1
O z4 3
–2 –1 z4 1 2 Re
z 1 × z4
–1 2
z1

–2 1

 
5iπ − iπ 5iπ + − iπ 3iπ iπ O
(b) z2 × z3 = 3e 6 ×e 3 = 3e 6 3 = 3e 6 = 3e 2 ( = 3i ) –4 –3 –2 –1 z4 1 2 Re

Im –1
3 z2 × z3

–2
2
z2

1 –3
 
2iπ 5iπ
O z12 × z 2 22 e 2iπ + 5iπ + iπ
–3 –2 –1 1 2 Re (f) =
4 × 3e 6
= 12e 4 6 3
z3 − iπ
–1
z3 e 3
iπ + 7iπ 10iπ − iπ
–2 = 12e 2 6 = 12e 6 = 12e 3

  Im
10iπ − iπ 5iπ − iπ 7iπ −5iπ 2
× 1e 2 = 9e = 9e = 9e
2 2 z2 z1
(c) z 2 × z 4 = 3 e 6 3 2 6 6
2 2 2 2 1
Im
3 O
–4 –3 –2 –1–1 z13 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Re

–2
2
z2 –3
1 –4
–5

O –6
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 z4 1 Re
–7
–1
–8
–9
–2
z22 × z4 –10 z12 × z2
–11 z3
–3
   

Answers Chapter 1 245

 − iπ − iπ iπ iπ 5iπ −5iπ 5iπ − 5iπ −5iπ
(g) z 4 × z1 = 1 e 2 × 2e 4 = 1 e 4 × 2e 4 = 2e 0 = 2
2 2
( ) (b) z 2 × z3 = 3e 12 × 1 e
3
6 = e 12 6 =e 12

Im
Im z3
3
2

z1

2
1

1
√z4 × z1
O
–1 1 2 Re

z4

–1 z2 O 1 2 Re
–1
 
iπ 5iπ i π 5iπ 13iπ –1 z 2 × z3
+
z1 × z 2 2e 4 × 3e 6
= 6e− iπ − iπ = 12e−5iπ
4 6 12
(h) = − iπ  
z3 × z 4 1
− iπ
1 +
e 3 × e 2 e 3 2 e 6 iπ −5iπ −3iπ
2 2 (c) z1 × z 2 × z 3 × z 4 = 2e 8 × e 12 × 1e 4
13iπ + 5iπ 23iπ − iπ 2
= 12e 12 6 = 12e 12 = 12e 12 i π 5iπ 3iπ
− − −25iπ 23iπ
=e8 12 4 =e 24 =e 24
Im
2 Im
z2 3 z2
z1
1

2
O Re
5 10
z4
–1 z3

1
–2
z1

–3 z1 × z2 × z3 × z4
z1 × z2
z3 × z4
z3 O
–4 –1 1 2 Re
z4
 
2iπ −3iπ iπ − 3iπ − iπ
14 (a) z12 × z 4 = 22 e 8 × 1e 4 = 2e 4 4 = 2e 2 ( = −2i ) –1
2
Im  
1
2iπ
iπ + 3iπ
z1 z12 22 e 8 4 4 = 8e iπ (= −8)
(d) = −3iπ = 8e
z4 1e 4
2
Im
3
–1 O 1 2 Re
z4
2

–1
1 z1
z12
z4
O
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 Re
–2 z 1 × z4
2 z4
  –1
 

246 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 (b) 0, ± π , ± 2π
−5iπ
1 e 12
3 3
(e) z3 =
−5iπ − 5iπ −5iπ
3 3
= 1 e 12 12 = e 6 5 cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ, cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1;
z2 5iπ
3 3 9
3e 12 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1
Im
3 z2 4 cos3 θ − 2 cos2 θ − 3 cos θ + 1 = 0
∴ 4x3 − 2x2 − 3x + 1 = 0 where x = cos θ
cos 3θ = cos 2θ :
2 3θ = 2θ + 2kπ or 3θ = −2θ + 2kπ,
θ = 2kπ or 5θ = 2kπ, θ = 2kπ
5
1 Cubic equation ∴ only 3 roots: x = cos 0, cos 2π , cos 4π
5 5
i.e. x = 1, cos 2π , cos 4π
5 5
O By division, equation becomes: (x − 1)(4x2 + 2x − 1) = 0
–1 1 Re
, 1 ∴ cos 2π =
z3 √z3 −2 ± 20 −1 ± 5 −1 + 5
x= =
–1
z2 8 4 5 4
  6 (a) cos 4θ = 8 cos4 θ − 8 cos2 θ + 1
(b) cos 4θ = 0
15 z = r(cos θ + i sin θ )
4θ = π , 3π , 5π , 7π
z n = r n (cos θ + i sin θ )n 2 2 2 2
θ= , π 3π , 5 π , π
7
= r n eni θ 8 8 8 8
= r n (cosnθ + i sinnθ ) x = cos θ : x = cos π , cos 3π , cos 5π , cos 7π
8 8 8 8
16 (a) C is 2 + 4i, D is −1 + 3i; or C is −2 − 4i, D is −3 − i
(c) Sum of roots: cos π + cos 3π + cos 5π + cos 7π = 0
π π 8 8 8 8
(b) − , (respectively)
4 4
(d) Product of roots: cos cos π 3 π cos 5 π cos 7 π =1
17 1 (1 + 2i) z or 1 (1 − 2i)z 8 8 8 8 8
2 2 7 (a) c os 5θ = cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ
EXERCISE 1.4 sin 5θ = 5 cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ
4
1 (a) (cos θ + i sin θ )4 = cos 4θ + i sin 4θ (b) tan5θ = 5cos θ sin θ − 10cos 2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ
(cos θ + i sin θ )4 = (8 cos4 θ − 8 cos2 θ + 1) + i cos θ − 10cos3 θ sin 2 θ + 5cos θ sin 4 θ
5

(4 cos3 θ sin θ − 4 cos θ sin3 θ) 3 5

θ = t 5 − 10t 3 + 5t
(i) Equate the real parts of the expansion. = 5 tan θ − 10 2tan θ + tan4
   1 − 10 tan θ + 5 tan θ 5t 4 − 10t 2 + 1
(ii) Equate the imaginary parts of the expansion. (c) t an 5θ = 0:
(b) tan 4θ = 4 tan θ − 4 tan3 θ 5θ = 2kπ or π + 2kπ, hence θ = 2kπ or θ = π + 2kπ
tan θ − 6 tan 2 θ + 1
4 5 5 5
i.e. θ = …− 4π , − 2π , 0, 2π , 4π ,…
(c) (i) ± cos π , ± cos 3π (ii) ± cos π , ± cos 5π 5 5 5 5
8 8 12 12
π π π or θ = …− 3π , − π , π , 3π , π ,…
, − tan 7π
1 3 5 3 5 5 5 5
(iii) ± , ± (iv) tan , tan , − tan
2 2 16 16 16 16
π 2 π 4 π 10π = tan π = …,
2 (a) cos , − cos , − cos t = tan θ, so t = tan 0 = tan
9 9 9 5
(b) Product of roots [of part (a)] = − d = 1 t = tan 2π = tan −3π = … , t = tan 4π = tan − π = …,
a 8 5 5 5 5
3 (a) (i) zn + z−n = cos nθ + i sin nθ + cos (−nθ) + i sin (−nθ) t = tan π = tan −4π = … , t = tan 3π = tan −2π = …
5 5 5 5
= cos nθ + i sin nθ + cos nθ − i sin nθ t(t4 − 10t3 + 5) = 0: the roots are t = 0
= 2 cos nθ and the roots of t4 − 10t3 + 5 = 0:
(ii) zn − z−n = cos nθ + i sin nθ − cos (−nθ) − i sin (−nθ)
= cos nθ + i sin nθ − cos nθ + i sin nθ t = tan π , tan 2π , tan 3π , tan 4π
5 5 5 5
= 2i sin nθ π π
Product of roots: tan tan 2 tan 3π tan 4π = 5
(b) LHS = z − 3z 2 × 1 + 3z × 12 − 13
3 5 5 5 5
z z z
EXERCISE 1.5
= z − 3z + − 13 = (z 3 − z −3 ) − 3 (z − z −1 ) = RHS
3 3
z z 1 (a) P(i) = −i − 2i + 3i = 0
(c) ( 2i sin θ)3 = 2i sin 3θ − 3 × 2i sin θ (b) P(3) = 9 − 15 + 3i + 6 − 3i = 0
−8i sin3 θ = 2i sin 3θ − 6i sin θ (c) P(−2 + i) = 2(3 − 4i)(−2 + i) + 3(3 − 4i) − (−12 + i) − 17 − 9i
4 sin3 θ = −sin 3θ + 3 sin θ      = 2(−2 + 11i) + 9 − 12i + 12 − i − 17 − 9i = 0
sin3 θ = 1 (3 sin θ − sin 3θ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
2
(d) P 3 − 2i = 2 7 − 6 2i − 12 3 − 2i 7 − 6 2i
4
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
4 (a) w 3 − 2w 2 − w + 2 = z + 1 − 2 z + 1 − z + 1 + 2 + 23 7 − 6 2i − 18 + 6 2i + 11
z z z 
= z 3 + 3z + 3 + 13 − 2z 2 − 2 − 22 − z − 1 + 2
z z z z ( ) (
= 2 −23 − 84 2i − 12 9 − 25 2i) + 154 − 132 2i

( z ) ( z z) ( )
= z 3 + 13 − 2 z 2 + 12 + 2 z + 1 − 2
= −46 − 168 2i − 108 + 300 2i + 154 − 132 2i = 0
2 C 3 a=6 4 a = −2, b = −2
5 a = 4, b = −4
Answers Chapter 1 247
 ( )(
6 (a) z + 1 − 2i z + 1 + 2i ) (
(b) 2 z − 1 − i z − 1 + i
2 2 2 2 )( ) (c) (i) z − 3 − 2i = 0
(d) (i) z2 − (4 − 2i)z + 3 − 4i = 0
(ii) z2 − 6z + 11 = 0

(c) (2z − 3)(z − i)(z + i) (d) (z + 3)(z − i)(z + i) (ii) z4 − 8z3 + 26z2 − 40z + 25 = 0
7 (a) (z − 1)(2z2 − 2z + 1) (e) (i) z − 3 − 2i = 0 (ii) z2 − 6z + 13 = 0

( )(
(b) 2(z − 1) z − 1 − i z − 1 + i
2 2 2 2 ) (f) (i) z 2 − (2 + 2 3i)z − 2 + 2 3i = 0
(ii) z4 − 4z3 + 12z2 − 16z + 16 = 0
8 (a) (z − 2)(z + 2)(z2 + 4) 13 P(ai) = a4 + 2a3i − 7a2 − 4ai + 10 = 0
(b) (z − 2)(z + 2)(z − 2i)(z + 2i) Imaginary parts: 2a3 − 4a = 0
(
9 (a) (z2 − 2)(z2 + 3) (b) z − 2 z + 2 z 2 + 3 )( )( ) a = ± 2 (z = ± 2i, 1 ± 2i)
14 a = −2, b = −1
( )( )(
(c) z − 2 z + 2 z − 3i z + 3i )( ) 15 (a) −1, 1 ± i (b) 3 − i
10 (a) (z − 2)(z2 − 2z + 5)   (b) (z − 2)(z − 1 − 2i)(z − 1 + 2i) 16 −k3i − (2 + i)k2 + (2 + 2i)ki + 4 = 0
(
11 (a) (z + 2)(z2 − 2z + 4)   (b) (z + 2) z − 1 − 3i z − 1 + 3i)( ) Imaginary parts (divided by −k): k2 + k − 2 = 0
k = 1, −2 (z = i, −2i, −2)
12 D
13 (a) (z − 1)(z + 1)(z2 + z + 1)(z2 − z + 1) 17 (a) P(z) = z4 + 4z3 + 5z2 + 4z + 4
⎛ 1 3 ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞ P′(z) = 4z3 + 12z2 + 10z + 4
(b) (z − 1)(z + 1) ⎜ z + − i z+1+ i
⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ The factors of 4 are ±1, ±2, ±4. If z > 0, then P′(z) > 0.
P′(−1) = 2, P′(−2) = 0, P′(−4) = −100
⎛ 1 3 ⎞⎛ 1 3 ⎞ Hence z = −2 is the double real root.
⎜⎝ z − 2 − 2 i⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ z − 2 + 2 i⎟⎠
P(z) = (z + 2)2(z2 + bz + c)
14 (a) (z − 1)(z + 1)(z2 + 1)(z + 3) 4c = 4, c = 1
(b) (z − 1)(z + 1)(z − i)(z + i)(z + 3) P(z) = (z + 2)2(z2 + bz + 1)
15 (z − 1)(z + 1)(4z − i) (z2 + 4z + 4)(z2 + bz + 1) = z4 + 4z3 + 5z2 + 4z + 4
16 (a) (z + 3)(z2 − z + 1) 4z + 4bz = 4z gives b = 0
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
(b) (z + 3) ⎜ z − 1 − 3 i⎟ ⎜ z − 1 + 3 i⎟ P(z) = (z + 2)2(z2 + 1)
⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎝ 2 2 ⎠
z = −2, ±i
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
17 2 (z − 2) ⎜ z − 3 − 23 i⎟ ⎜ z − 3 + 23 i⎟ (b) P(z) = z4 + 2z3 − 2x2 − 6z + 5
⎝ 4 4 ⎠⎝ 4 4 ⎠
P′(z) = 4z3 + 6z2 − 4x2 − 6
The common factors of 5 and 6 are ±1.
EXERCISE 1.6
P′(1) = 0, P′(−1) = −8
1 (a) (z 2 + 4z + 5)(z − 2 )(z + 2 ) Hence z = 1 is the double real root.
(b) (z + 2 − i)(z + 2 + i)(z − 2 )(z + 2 ) P(z) = (z − 1)2(z2 + bz + c)
2 (a) z = 2 + 2i, 2 − 2i c=5
3 1 3 P(z) = (z − 1)2(z2 + bz + 5)
(b) P(z) = (z + 3)(z2 − z + 1), z = −3, 1 + i, − i
2 2 2 2 (z2 − 2z + 1)(z2 + bz + 5) = z4 + 2z3 − 2z2 − 6z + 5
(c) P(z) = (z3 + 8)(z3 − 1)
−10z + bz = −6z gives b = 4
= (z + 2)(z2 − 2z + 4)(z − 1)(z2 + z + 1)
P(z) = (z − 1)2(z2 + 4z + 5)
z = 1, −2, 1 ± 3i, − 1 ± 3 i −4 ± 16 − 20
2 2 z = 1, z = = −2 ± i
(d) z = ±i 2
2
3 (a) (z − 1)(z + 2z + 5) = 0, z = 1
(b) z = 1, −1 + 2i, −1 − 2i 18 z 2 = 1 ± 2 2i = ( 2 ± i)2 ; z = ±( 2 + i), ± ( 2 − i)
4 (z − 1)(z + 1)(z + 3)(z2 + 1) = 0, z = ±1, −3
5 B EXERCISE 1.7
6 P(1 + i) = (1 + i)3 + a(1 + i) + b 1 (a) 2i
2i − 2 + ai + a + b = 0 (x + iy)2 = 2i
a = −2, b = 4 x2 − y2 + 2xyi = 0 + 2i
7 (z − 1)(z + 2)(z2 + z + 2) = 0 x2 − y2 = 0, 2xy = 2
7
z = 1, −2, − 1 ± i (x2 + y2)2 = (x2 − y2)2 + 4x2y2 = 0 + 22 = 4
2 2 x2 + y2 = 2
8 −1, − , 32
3 x2 − y2 = 0
9 (z2 − 2z + 5)(z2 + z + 3) 2x2 = 2
1 11 x2 = 1, y = 1
z = 1 ± 2i, − ± i x
2 2 x = 1, y = 1. x = −1, y = −1
2
10 (z − 1)(z − 2z + 5) = 0, z = 1 2i = 1 + i or − 1 − i
11 (a) ( z − 1)(z + 4)(z2 + z + 1) = 0
1 3 (b) 3 + 4i
z = 1, −4, − ± i
2 2 (x + iy)2 = 3 + 4i
(b) ( z − 2) (z + 2z + 4)2 = 0
2 2
x2 − y2 + 2xyi = 3 + 4i
z = 2, −1 ± 3i x2 − y2 = 3, 2xy = 4
12 (a) (i) z2 − (3 + i)z + 2 + 2i = 0 (ii) z3 − 4z2 + 6z − 4 = 0 (x2 + y2)2 = (x2 − y2)2 + 4x2y2 = 32 + 42 = 25
2 x2 + y2 = 5
(b) (i) z − (3 + 3 − i)z + 2 3 + 2 − 3i − i = 0
x2 − y2 = 3
(ii) z4 − 6z3 + 11z2 − 2z − 10 = 0 2x2 = 8
248 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12
 x2 = 4, y = 2 2 ( 2 +1 ) + 2( 2 −1 )i
x
x = 2, y = 1. x = −2, y = −1 1+i =
2 2
3 + 4i = 2 + i or − 2 − i
(c) 5 − 12i or −
2 2 +1
−
2 2 −1
i
( ) ( )
2
(x + iy) = 5 − 12i 2 2
2 (a) x2 + 2x + 2i = 0
x2 − y2 + 2xyi = 5 − 12i
x2 − y2 = 5, 2xy = −12 x2 + 2x + 1 = 1 − 2i
(x + 1)2 = 1 − 2i
(x2 + y2)2 = (x2 − y2)2 + 4x2y2 = 52 + 122 = 169
Let x + 1 = α + βi
x2 + y2 = 13
(α + βi)2 = 1 − 2i
x2 − y2 = 5
α 2 − β 2 + 2αβi = 1 − 2i
2x2 = 18
α 2 − β 2 = 1, 2αβ = −2
x2 = 9, y = − 6
( ) ( )
2 2
α 2 + β 2 = α 2 − β 2 + ( 2αβ ) = 12 + (−2)2 = 5
2
x
x = 3, y = −2. x = −3, y = 2 2 2
α +β = 5
5 − 12i = 3 − 2i or − 3 + 2i
α2 − β2 = 1
(d) −8 + 15i 2α 2 = 5 + 1
(x + iy)2 = −8 + 15i
x2 − y2 + 2xyi = −8 + 15i α2 =
2 ( 5 +1
,β=−1
)
4 α
x2 − y2 = −8, 2xy = 15
(x2 + y2)2 = (x2 − y2)2 + 4x2y2 = 82 + 152 = 289
α=
2 ( 5 +1 ),β =− 2 =−
2 ( 5 −1 ).
x2 + y2 = 17
x2 − y2 = −8
2 2 ( 5 +1 ) 2

2x2 = 9
x 2 = 18 , y = 15 α =−
2 ( 5 +1 ) , β = 2( 5 −1 )
4 2x 2 2

x = 3 2 , y = 5 2. x = −3 2 , y = −5 2
2 2 2 2 x +1 =
2 ( 5 +1 ) − 2( 5 −1 ) i,
2 2
−8 + 15i = 3 2 + 5 2 or − 3 2 − 5 2
3 2 3 2 ( (( ) )) ((
2 252+51 5+ 1+ 1 2 2 5 5− 1− 1 ))
xx += 1 = − 2 2 − 1 − + 22
i i
(e) −3 − 4i 2
(x + iy)2 = −3 − 4i
xx += 1−= −
( ( ( ) ) ) ( ((
2 2 525+ 1+51 + 1 2 22 5 55− 1−
− 1 − +
− 11
i ii
) ))
x2 − y2 + 2xyi = −3 − 4i 22 2 − 1 + 2 22
x2 − y2 = −3, 2xy = −4
(x2 + y2)2 = (x2 − y2)2 + 4x2y2 = 32 + 142 = 25 x=−
2 5 +1
−1+
( 2 5 −1
i
) ( )
2 2
x2 + y2 = 5
x2 − y2 = −3 (b) x2 − 4x + 2 − i = 0
2x2 = 2 x2 − 4x + 4 = 4 − 2 + i
x2 = 1, y = − 2 (x − 2)2 = 2 + i
x Let x − 2 = α + βi
x = 1, y = −2. x = −1, y = 2
(α + βi)2 = 2 + i
−3 − 4i = 1 − 2i or − 1 + 2i α 2 − β 2 + 2αβi = 2 + i
(f) 1 + i α 2 − β 2 = 2, 2αβ = 1
(α ) = (α )
2 2
+ ( 2αβ ) = 22 + 12 = 5
2
(x + iy)2 = 1 + i 2
+ β2 2
− β2
x2 − y2 + 2xyi = 1 + i
α2 + β 2 = 5
x2 − y2 = 1, 2xy = 1
α2 − β2 = 2
(x2 + y2)2 = (x2 − y2)2 + 4x2y2 = 12 + 12 = 2
2α 2 = 5 + 2
x2 + y2 = 2
x2 − y2 = 1
α2 =
2 ( 5+2
,β= 1
)
2x 2 = 2 + 1 4 2α

2 ( 2 +1) 2 ( 5+2 ),β = 1 =1× 2 2 ( 5−2 ).

x2 = ,y= 1 α= =
4 2x 2 2α 2 2 5−2 ( ) 2

x=
2 ( 2 +1 ),y=1× 2 =
2 ( 2 −1 ). 2 ( 5−2 ) , β = − 2( 5+2 )
α =−
2 2 2 ( 2 +1 ) 2 2 2

2 ( 2 +1 ) , y = − 2( 2 −1 ). x−2=
2 ( 5−2 ) + 2( 5+2 ) i,
x=− 2 2
2 2

x = 2+
2 ( 5−2 ) + 2( 5+2 )i
2 2
Answers Chapter 1 249
 x−2=−
2 ( 5−2 ) − 2( 5+2 ) i, x + 3 − 4i =
6 ( 73 + 3 ) + 6( 73 − 3 ) i,
2 2 2 4 4

x = 2−
2 ( 5−2 ) − 2( 5+2 )i x + 3 − 4i = −
6 ( 73 + 3 ) − 6( 73 − 3 )i
2 2 2 4 4
(c) x2 + 2(2 + i)x + 3 = 0
x=
6 ( 73 + 3 − 6 ) +
6 ( 73 − 3 + 8 ) i
2 2 2
x + 2(2 + i)x + (2 + i) = (2 + i) − 3 4 4
(x + 2 + i)2 = 4i
Let x + 2 + i = α + βi x=
−6 − 6 ( 73 + 3 ) + 8 − 6( 73 − 3 )i
(α + βi)2 = 4i 4 4
α 2 − β 2 + 2αβi = 4i
(e) x + 2(1 − 3i)x + 2 + i = 0
2
α 2 − β 2 = 0, 2αβ = 4
x2 + 2(1 − 3i)x + (1 − 3i)2 = (1 − 3i)2 − 2 − i
(α ) = (α )
2 2
+ ( 2αβ ) = 02 + 4 2 = 16
2 2
+ β2 2
− β2 (x + 1 − 3i)2 = −10 − 7i
α2 + β2 = 4 Let x + 1 − 3i = α + βi
α2 − β2 = 0 (α + βi)2 = −10 − 7i
2α 2 = 4 α 2 − β 2 + 2αβi = −10 − 7i
α 2 − β 2 = −10, 2αβ = −7
α2 = 2, β = 2
α (α ) = (α )
2 2
+ ( 2αβ ) = 102 + 7 2 = 149
2 2
+ β2 2
− β2
α = 2, β = 2 = 2. α = − 2, β = − 2.
2 α 2 + β 2 = 149
x + 2 + i = 2 + 2i,
α 2 − β 2 = −10
x= ( 2−2 + ) ( 2 −1 i ) 2α 2 = 149 − 10
x + 2 + i = − 2 − 2i,
α2 =
2 ( 149 − 10
, β = −7
)
x=− ( 2+2 − ) ( 2 +1 i ) 4 2α

(d) x2 + (3 + 4i)x − 4 = 0 α=
2 ( 149 − 10 ) , β = −7 × 2 =
− 2 ( 149 + 10 ).
( ) ( ) 2 2
( ) 2
2 2
x 2 + (3 − 4i)x + 3 − 4i = 3 − 4i + 4 2 149 − 10
2 2

( ) ( ) , β = 2( )
2
x+ 3 − 4i = 9 − 24i − 2 149 − 10 149 + 10
2 4 α=
2 2
Let x + 3 − 4i = α + βi
2 2 ( 149 − 10 ) − 2( 149 + 10 )i
(α + βi )2 = 9 −424i x + 1 − 3i =
2 2

α 2 − β 2 + 2αβ i = 9 − 6i x=
2 ( 149 − 10 − 2 ) −
2 ( 149 + 10 − 3 ) i,
4 2 2
9
( ) + 2( )i
2 2
α − β = , 2αβ = 6 − 2 149 − 10 149 + 10
4
() x + 1 − 3i =
2
( ) (
α 2 + β 2 = α 2 − β 2 + ( 2αβ ) = 9 + 62 = 657 = 9 × 73 )
2 2 2
2 2
4 16 16

x=
− 2 ( 149 − 10 − 2 ) +
2 ( 149 + 10 + 6 )
α 2 + β 2 = 3 73 2 2
i
4
2
α −β = 2 9 (f) ix2 − 4x + 3 = 0
4 x2 + 4ix − 3i = 0
3 73 + 9 x2 + 4ix + (2i)2 = (2i)2 + 3i
2α 2 =
4 (x + 2i)2 = −4 + 3i

α2 =
6 ( 73 + 3
, β= 3
) Let x + 2i = α + βi
(α + βi)2 = −4 + 3i
16 α α 2 − β 2 + 2αβi = −4 + 3i
6 ( 73 + 3 ),β = 3× 4 6 ( 73 − 3 ). α 2 − β 2 = −4, 2αβ = 3
α= =
(α ) = (α )
2 2
+ ( 2αβ ) = 4 2 + 32 = 25
2 2
+ β2 2
− β2
4 6 ( 73 + 3 ) 4
α2 + β2 = 5

α =−
6 ( 73 + 3 ) , β = − 6( 73 − 3 ) α 2 − β 2 = −4
4 4 2α 2 = 1
α2 = 2 , β = 3
4 2α

α = 2 ,β = 3 2. α =− 2 ,β =−3 2.
2 2 2 2

250 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 x + 2i = 2 + 3 2 i, x = 2 + 3 2 − 4 i 2α 2 = 5 2 − 7
2 2 2 2 25

x + 2i = − 2 − 3 2 i, x = − 2 − 3 2 + 4 i
2 2 2 2 α2 =
(
2 5 2 −7 )
100
(g) ix2 + 2ix + 3 = 0
x2 + 2x − 3i = 0
α=
(
2 5 2 −7 )
x2 + 2x + 1 = 1 + 3i 10
(x + 1)2 = 1 + 3i
Let x + 1 = α + βi
β=
(
− 2 5 2 +7 )
(α + βi)2 = 1 + 3i 10
α 2 − β 2 + 2αβi = 1 + 3i
α 2 − β 2 = 1, 2αβ = 3 α=
(
− 2 5 2 −7 ) , β = 2 (5 2 +7 )
10 10
(α 2
+β 2 2
) = (α 2
−β 2 2
) + ( 2αβ ) = 12 + 32 = 10
2

α 2 + β 2 = 10 x+
(2 + i)
=
(
2 5 2 −7 ) − 2 (5 2 +7 )i
α2 − β2 = 1 5 10 10
2α 2 = 10 + 1
x=
(
2 5 2 −7 −4 ) −
(
2 5 2 +7 +2 ) i
α2 =
2 ( 10 + 1
,β = 3
) 10 10
4 2α
x+
(2 + i) − 2 5 2 − 7
= +
(
2 5 2 +7
i
) ( )
α=
2 ( 10 + 1 ),β = 3× 2 =
2 ( 10 − 1 ). 5 10 10
2 2
( 10 + 1)
2 2
x=
(
2 5 2 −7 +4 ) +
(
2 5 2 +7 −2 ) i
10 10

α=
− 2 ( 10 + 1 ),β = − 2 ( 10 − 1)
. 3 (a) Expression (x − 3)(x − 1 − i)(x − 1 + i)
2 2 = (x − 3)(x2 − 2x + 2)
= x3 − 5x2 + 8x − 6
x +1 =
2 ( 10 + 1 ) + 2( 10 − 1 )i, (b) x = 3, 1 + i, 1 − i
2 2

x=
2 ( 10 + 1 − 2 ) +
2 ( 10 − 1 )i EXERCISE 1.8
P Im
2 2 1 D
2 (a) For Q1: w = (−3 + 4i) × i Q2

x +1 =
− 2 ( 10 + 1 ) − 2( 10 − 1 ) i, = −4 − 3i
 
2 2 For Q2: OQ2 = Q1O

x=−
2 ( 10 + 1 + 2 ) −
2 ( 10 − 1 )i w = −(−4 − 3i)
O Re
2 2 = 4 + 3i
(h) (2 − i)x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
5x2 +2(2 + i)x + 2 = 0 Q1

2(2 + i)
x2 + x + 2+i = 0  or Q1: PO represents 3 − 4i
(b) F
5 5  
PQ1 = PO rotated anticlockwise π
( ) = ( 2 5+ i ) − 2 5+ i  2
2 2
2(2 + i)
x2 + x + 2+i ∴ PQ1 represents (3 − 4i) × i = 4 + 3i
5 5   
Then OQ1 = OP + PQ1 = −3 + 4i + 4 + 3i = 1 + 7i
( )
2
⎛x + 2+i ⎞ = −7+i i.e. w = 1 + 7i
⎝ 5 ⎠ 25  
For Q2: PQ2 = PO rotated anticlockwise 3π
2+i  2
Let x + 5 = α + iβ ∴PQ2 represents (3 − 4i) × i3 = −4 − 3i
  
7 − 1 Then OQ2 = OP + PQ2 = −3 + 4i + (−4 − 3i) = −7 + i
(α + iβ )2 = − 25 25 i.e. w = −7 + i
α 2 − β 2 + 2αβ i = − 7 − 1 i Im
25 25 Q1

α − β = − , 2αβ = − 1
2 2 7
25 25

( ) + ( 251 ) = 252
2 2 P
(α ) = (α ) + ( 2αβ ) = 7
2 2 2 2
+ β2 2
− β2
25

α2 + β2 = 2
5 Q2
2
α −β =2 7 O Re
25

Answers Chapter 1 251

 (c) For Q1: w = (−3 + 4i) × 2i  
∴ OD = 2 × OC = 2 × − 1 z = − 2 z i.e. D represents

= −8 − 6i 2
  − 2z
For Q2: OQ2 = Q1O
w = −(−8 − 6i) 8 z1 = z 2 ∴ OA = OB ∴ OACB is a rhombus.
= 8 + 6i
Im ∠AOB = θ2 − θ1 ∴∠AOC = 1 (θ2 − θ1)
Q2 2
P arg (z1 + z2) = ∠XOC = ∠XOA + ∠AOC
= θ1 + 1 (θ2 − θ1) = 1 (θ1 + θ2)
2 2
arg (z1 − z2) = −(∠XPQ) = −(∠APO)
O Re
= −(π − ( π + ∠XOM)) (angle sum of ΔOPM)
2
θ1 + θ 2 − π
∴ arg (z1 − z2) =
2
Q1
Im C
 
3 For B: EB = EA rotated anticlockwise π B
2
= i(3 + 4i) = −4 + 3i
  
Then OB = OE + EB = −2 + i + −4 + 3i = −6 + 4i M
i.e. B represents −6 + 4i.
 
For C: EC = AE = −3 − 4i Im A
   B A
Then OC = OE + EC θ2
θ1 P X
= −2 + i + −3 − 4i = −5 − 3i E O Re
i.e. C represents −5 − 3i. Q
 
For D: ED = BE = 4 − 3i O Re  
uuur uuur uuur
D
 Q = OP rotated anticlockwise π
9 (a) O
Then OD = OE + ED 2
C ∴w=z×i
= −2 + i + 4 − 3i = 2 − 2i 2 2
w = −z
i.e. D represents 2 − 2i.
w2 + z2 = 0
4 (a) z1 = 10 and z 2 = 15 ∴ z1 + z 2 ≤ z1 + z 2 ≤ 25 (b) R is z + w. E is midpoint of OR.
(b) z1 + z 2 = 25 when z2 = kz1 (real k) ∴ z 2 = k × z1 , ∴ E represents 1 (z + w) = 1 (1 + i)z
  2 2
15 = 10k, k = 1.5 10 (a) OE = AB = w2 − w1 ∴ E is w2 − w1
∴ z2 = 1.5(6 + 8i) = 9 + 12i  
  (b) OF = OE rotated anticlockwise π
5 For Q1: OQ1 = OP rotated anticlockwise π ∴ F is (w2 − w1) × i
2
3

( )
    
π
= (1 + i) × cis = (1 + i) + 1 3
i =
1 − 3 1+ 3
+ i (c) OD = OA + AD = OA + OF = w1 + (w2 − w1)i
3 2 2 2 2 z + z2
  5 π 11 1 = 2i ∴ OC = 2 × AB and OC ⊥ AB
For Q2: OQ2 = OP rotated anticlockwise z1 − z 2
3 C
( )
Im
= (1 + i) × cis 5 π = (1 + i) −1 3
i =
1 + 3 1− 3
+ i B
3 2 2 2 2
Q1 Im M

P
A

O Re
60°
(a) O ACB is a rhombus (diagonals perpendicular)
O Re ∴ OA = OB ∴ z1 = z 2
Q2 (b) ∠  AOC = α (diagonals of rhombus bisect angles)
2
6 (a) OA = z1 = 2, OB = z 2 = 2 In ΔAOM: tan α = AM = 1
2 OM 2
∴ OACB is a rhombus (parallelogram with adjacent
 (c) z 1 + z2 = 2i(z1 − z2)
sides equal) z2 + 2iz2 = 2iz1 − z1
z2(1 + 2i) = z1(−1 + 2i)
(b) z3 = z1 + z2 = 3 + i + (− 3 + i) = 2i
z2 = −1 + 2i z1 = 1 (3 + 4i) z1
(c) OC = 2 ∴ equilateral triangle ∴ θ = π 1 + 2i 5
3 12 (a) z = 1, arg z = π , |w| = 1, arg w = π
7 (a) C is the midpoint of AB 2 4
1 1 1 (b) rhombus (equal sides z = w )
∴ α = (w z + w z ) = (w + w) z = × 2Re(w ) × z
2 2 2 (c) a rg (z + w) = 3π (diagonals of rhombus bisect angles)
3π 8
= cos ×z =− 1 z 2 (2 + 2)
4 2 z+w= + i
2 2
(b) Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other, so C is also
But z + w = r cis 3π , OC = r
the midpoint of OD. 8

252 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 (b) I n a parallelogram, the sum of the squares of the diagonals is
∴ r cos 3π = 2 [1] and r sin 3π =
(2 + 2) [2]
equal to the sum of the squares of the (four) sides.
8 2 8 2
17 (a) midpoint of AC
[2] ÷ [1]: tan 3π = 2 + 1
8 (b) Parallelogram. 1 (β + δ ) is midpoint of BD;
2
Im C when α + γ = β + δ, the midpoints are the same point,
i.e. the diagonals bisect each other ∴ parallelogram.
18 z1 − z2 + z3 − z4 = 0 i.e. z1 + z3 = z2 + z4 ∴ parallelogram
B z1 − iz2 − z3 + iz4 = 0 i.e. z1 − z3 = i(z2 − z4) i.e. diagonal AC is
1 A equal to and perpendicular to diagonal BD ∴ ABCD is a square.
19 Let z1 = r1 cis θ1, z2 = r2 cis θ2, z3 = r3 cis θ3
Then z1z2 = r1r2 cis (θ1 + θ2) and z32 = r32 cis 2θ3
D r r
O 1 Re If z1z2 = z32 then r1r2 = r32, i.e. 1 = 3 ∴ geometric series
r3 r2
Also: θ1 + θ2 = 2θ3, i.e. arg z3 is the average of arg z1 and arg z2
13 (a) Values of z and w may vary. Example: ∴ OZ3 bisects ∠Z1OZ2.
Im C(z + w)
EXERCISE 1.9
B(w) 1 B
OC is z + w
BA is z – w
2 (a) cis0, cis 2π , cis −2π , cis 4π , cis −4π
5 5 5 5
Im
A(z) 1
O Re
2p
(b) (i) z = w ∴ OA = OB ∴ rhombus 5
1 Re
∴ diagonals are perpendicular ∴ z + w = ki
–1 O
z −w
(ii) z + w = z − w ∴ OC = BA
∴ rectangle (parallelogram with equal diagonals) –1
∴ z = ki
w
14 (a) w2 − w1 = i(w3 − w1) (b) cis π , cis − π , cis 3π , cis −3π
4 4 4 4
∴ w 2 − w1 = i(w 3 − w1) = w 3 − w1 Im
∴ two sides equal, also perpendicular (multiplication by i) 1
∴ right-angled isosceles triangle Im S
 
(b) PR = w 3 − w1, PQ = w 2 − w1, Q
p
   R(w3) 4
PS = PR + PQ = w 3 + w 2 − 2w1 (w2)
–1 O 1 Re
uur uuur uur
(c) OS = OP + PS P(w1)
= w1 +w 3 +w 2 − 2w1 = w 3 + w 2 −w1 –1
O Re
(c) cis π , cis −3π
( 4 4 )
15 (a) z1 = 2 cos 3π + i sin 3π , z 2 = 2 cos π + i sin π
6 6 ( ) 4 4
Im
(b) rhombus (parallelogram with adjacent sides equal)
1

2 4 6 (
(c) arg (z1 + z 2 ) = 1 3π + π = 11π
24 ) p
(d) z1 + z2 = ( 3 − 2 ) + ( 2 + 1) i in Cartesian form 4

( )
–1 O 1 Re
11π + i sin 11π
   = r cos in mod−arg form (r = OR)
24 24
So r cos 11π = 3 − 2 [1] –1
24
and r sin 11π = 2 + 1 [2] −π π −5π
(d) 2cis 6 , 2cis 2 , 2cis 6
24
[2] ÷ [1] gives the result. Im
2 2
16 (a) LHS = z1 + z 2 + z1 − z 2 2

 (z1 + z 2 ) (z1 + z 2 ) + (z1 − z 2 ) (z1 − z 2 )

=
2
 (using the property z z = z )
    = (z1 + z 2 ) (z1 + z 2 ) + (z1 − z 2 ) (z1 − z 2 )  (The conjugate of a O –p
–2 6 2 Re
 sum or difference is the sum or difference of conjugates.)
= z1 z1 + z1 z 2 + z 2 z1 + z 2 z 2 + z1 z1 − z1 z 2 − z 2 z1 + z 2 z 2
= 2 (z1 z1 + z 2 z 2 ) –2
( 2
= 2 z1 + z 2
2
) = RHS
Answers Chapter 1 253
 (e) 2cis π , 2cis 13π , 2cis −23π , 2cis −11π ∴ cos 4π + cos 2π = − 1 (equating real parts)
24 24 24 24 5 5 2
Im
But cos 4π = − cos π ∴ cos 2π − cos π = − 1
2 5 5 5 5 2
2 2 π π
(d) Using cos 2θ = 2 cos θ − 1: 4 cos − 2cos − 1 = 0
5 5
∴ cos = π 2 ± 20 1 ± 5
=
5 8 4
π
But is an acute angle, so it must be the positive option:
–2 O 2 Re
5
∴ cos π = 1 + 5
5 4
8 (a) 1, cis 2 π , cis π , cis 4π , cis −4π , cis 6π , cis −6π
−2
–2 7 7 7 7 7 7
Im
(f) cis π , cis 5π , cis 3π , cis −11π , cis −7π , cis − π 1
12 12 4 12 12 4
Im
1 2p
7
–1 O 1 Re
p
12
–1 O 1 Re –1

(b) w7 − 1 = 0
–1 (w − 1)(w6 + w5 + w4 + w3 + w2 + w + 1) = 0
w ≠ 1 as w is non-real
∴ w6 + w5 + w4 + w3 + w2 + w + 1 = 0
3 (a) 2, 2cis 2π , 2cis −2π , 2cis 4π , 2cis −4π
5 5 5 5 (c) Let α = w + w2 + w4 and β = w3 + w5 + w6
(b) 2cis π , 2cis − π , 2cis 3π , 2cis −3π ∴ α + β = w6 + w5 + w4 + w3 + w2 + w = −1
4 4 4 4
3π −3π π − π α β = (w + w2 + w4)(w3 + w5 + w6) = 2
(c) −1, cis , cis , cis , cis Equation with roots α and β is z2 − (α + β)z + αβ = 0
5 5 5 5
π
(d) 3 cis , 3 cis 7 π , 3 cis 13π , 3 cis −5π , ∴ z2 + z + 2 = 0
18 18 18 18
(d) S um of roots = − b :
3 cis −11 π , 3 cis −17 π a
18 18 π
1 + cis 2 + cis π + cis 4π + cis −4π + cis 6π + cis −6π = 0
−2
4 (a) −2, 1 − 3 i (b) z3 = −8 7 7 7 7 7 7
cos (−θ) = cos θ and sin (−θ) = −sin θ
5 (a) w1 = cis 2π , w 2 = cis −2π ∴ w1 = w 2
3 3 ∴ 1 + 2cos 2π + 2cos 4π + 2cos 6π = 0 (equating real parts)
7 7 7
Also: (w 2 )2 = cis −4π = cis 2π = w1
3 3 But cos 6π = − cos π ∴ cos π = cos 2π + cos 4π + 1
(b) Roots of z3 − 1 = 0 are 1, w1, w2 7 7 7 7 7 2
Sum of roots = − b : 1+ w1 + w2 = 0 ∴ w1 + w2 = −1 9 (a) w6 − 1 = 0
a (w2 − 1)(w4 + w2 + 1) = 0 (difference of two cubes)
(c) Product of roots = − d : w1w2 = 1 ∴ w2 − 1 = 0 or w4 + w2 + 1 = 0
a
 3−1=0
6 (a) w But w is non-real ∴ w4 + w2 + 1 = 0
2
(w − 1)(w + w + 1) = 0 (b) LHS = w−2 × w6 = w4 (as w6 = 1)
∴ w2 + w + 1 = 0 as w ≠ 1 (w is non-real) RHS = 1 + w2 + w4 + w4 = 0 + w4 = LHS
(b) (1 − w)(1 − w2) = 1 − w − w2 + w3 10 (a) z9 − 1 = (z3 − 1)(z6 + z3 + 1) (difference of two cubes)
= 1 − (w + w2) + 1 ∴ roots of z9 − 1 = 0 include
= 1 − (−1) + 1 = 3 roots of z3 − 1 = 0, and roots of z6 + z3 + 1 = 0
(c) −1  (d) 3   (e) 1   (f) 27 Im
(b)
7 (a) w is a root, so w5 = 1 1
∴ (w2)5 = (w5)2 = 1, i.e. w2 is also a root of z5 = 1
Similarly: (w−1)5 = (w5)−1 = 1 and (w−2)5 = (w5)−2 = 1
i.e. w−1 and w−2 are also roots of z5 = 1 2p
(b) Sum of roots = − b ∴ w2 + w + 1 + w−1 + w−2 = 0
9
a –1 O 1 Re
(c) L et w = cos 2π + i sin 2π :
5 5
 cos 4π + i sin 4π + cos 2π + i sin 2π + 1 + cos −2π
5 5 5 5 5 –1
+ i sin −2π + cos −4π + i sin −4π = 0
 5 5 5
But cos (−θ) = cos θ and sin (−θ) = −sin θ (c) Roots of z6 + z3 + 1 = 0 are
∴ cos 4π + i sin 4π + cos 2π + i sin 2π + 1 + cos 2π cis 2π , cis −2π , cis 4π , cis −4π , cis 8π , cis −8π .
5 5 5 5 5 9 9 9 9 9 9
As cos (−θ) = cos θ and sin (−θ) = −sin θ :
( )
− i sin 2 π + cos 4 π − i sin 4π = 0 2π + cos 4π + cos 8π
 5 5 5 Sum of roots = 2 cos
9 9 9
254 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12
 (d) Sum of roots = − b = 0
10 10

a (d) ∑ [PWi ] = 2
∑ (2 − z w i
− z wi )
∴ cos 2π + cos 4π + cos 8π = 0 i =1 i =1
9 9 9 10 10 10

cos 2π + cos 4π = cos π (as cos 8π = − cos π )

9 9 9 9 9
= ∑ ∑
i =1
2−
i =1
z wi − ∑z w
i =1
i

(e) Th e result follows from using the expansion

10 10

∑w ∑w
2
(z − α )(z − α ) = z 2 − 2 × Re(α ) × z + α with each of the = 20 − z −z
i i
three conjugate pairs. i =1 i =1
(f) If expanded there are 27 terms, although many are = 20 − z × 0 − z × 0 = 20
like terms in z2 or z. LHS term in z2 has coefficient 0.
Examining RHS terms in z2 and result of part (e): EXERCISE 1.10
4 cos 2π cos 4π − 4 cos 4π cos π − 4 cos π cos 2π + 3 = 0 1 B 2 C
9 9 9 9 9 9
cos 2π cos 4π − cos 4π cos π − cos π cos 2π = − 3 3 (a) Im (b) Im
9 9 9 9 9 9 4 4 2
11 (a) z5 − 1 = 0 ∴ (z − 1)( z4 + z3 + z2 + z + 1) = 0
z1 = cos 2π + i sin 2π is a root of z5 − 1 = 0,
5 5 –2 O 2 Re
–4 O 4 Re
hence also a root of z4 + z3 + z2 + z + 1 = 0.
(b) The roots are the non-real roots of z5 − 1 = 0 –2

i.e. cis 2π , cis −2π , cis 4π , cis −4π –4

5 5 5 5
(c) Sum of roots = − : b
a (c) Im (d) Im
3
cis 2π + cis −2π + cis 4π + cis −4π = −1
5 5 5 5
But cos (−θ) = cos θ and sin (−θ) = −sin θ : 1 (1, 3)

cos 2π + cos 4π = − 1 –3 –1 O 1
–1 3 Re r=2
5 5 2
(d) cos 2 π + cos 4 π =− 1 O Re
5 5 2 –3
cos 2 π + 2cos 2 2π
−1 = − 1
5 5 2 (e)    (f) x = –1 Im
Im
2 2π 2 π
4 cos + 2cos −1 = 0
5 5 O Re
2π = −2 ± 20 = −1 ± 5 (2,–2)
∴ cos
5 8 4 r=3
But 2π is an acute angle, so it must be the positive option: –2 –1 O Re
5
∴ cos 2π =
−1 + 5
5 4
12 (a) Im (g) Im y = 2x (h) Im

W4 1 W3 z
P (–2, 1) 2
W5 W2
O Re O 1 Re
(2, –1) –2 4
W6 36° W1
–2
–1 O 1 Re

W7 W10
(i) Im
W8 –1 W9
(–1, 1)

O Re
(b) w1, w2, …w10 are roots of z10 − 1 = 0
Coefficients of the equation are real, so roots occur as
conjugate pairs. y = x –2 (3, –3)
10 10
Sum of roots = − b = 0 ∴ ∑w =∑w =0
a i i
i =1 i =1
(c) Distance PWi = z − wi 4 (a) Im    (b) Im
z z
∴ [PWi ] = z − wi = (z − wi ) × (z − wi )
2 2

( )
= (z − wi ) × z − wi = z z − z wi − z wi + wi wi 2p
3
= 2 − z wi − z wi p
3
O Re
2 2 O Re
(as z z = z = 1 and ww = w = 1)

Answers Chapter 1 255

 (c) Im (d) Im 6 (a) Im (b) Im
2 3
z 2
2
1 p1
2p 3p
4 4
3 O
O Re –1 1 2 3 4 Re
–4–3 –2 –1
O –2 –1 O 1 2 3 Re
–p Re
–1 –2
3
–3

(c) Im (d) Im
(e) Im (f) Im 3 3
2 2
(–1, –1) O Re 1 p x2 + y2 = 9
3 1
z
1 –2 –1–1O 1 2 3 Re O
p –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 Re
– 2p –2 3
O Re 3 –2
–3 x+y=3
–3
z

(e) Im
5 (a) Im
x=2
(b) Im 3 x=1
2 1 2
1 x2 + y2 = 4 1
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 Re
–1
y = –1 –3 –2 –1–1O 1 2 3 Re
–1 O 1 2 3 Re
–1 –2 –2
–3

(c) Im (d) Im
y = –x + 1 2 2 y=x CHAPTER REVIEW 1
1 1 1 (a) 2i (b) −3 + 4i (c) 25

11 2
(d) − − i (e) ±(1 − 2i)
–1 O 1 2 3 Re –2 –1 O 1 2 Re 25 25
–1 –1
2 (a) ±5i (b) −1 ± i
–2 –2
(c) 5 ± 3i (d) 11 + 3 i
4 10 10
3 (a) p = 1, q = 1 (b) p = −1, q = 2 or p = − 4 , q = 3
(e) Im (f) 3 2
( ) ( ) ( )
Im
y=2 π π (b) cos − + i sin − π
π
2 x=3 2 3 + i sin 3
4 (a) 3 2 cos
4 4 6 6
1 1
5 (a) −2 3 + 2i (b) −3 2 − 3 6 i

( ) ( )
–1 O 1 2 3 4 Re –2 –1 O 1 2 3 Re
–1 ⎛ −π −π ⎞
–1 6 (a) (i) 8 ⎝ cos 2 + i sin 2 ⎠ , −8i

(g) Im (h) Im
y = 4x

12 (
(ii) 2 cos 7π + i sin 7π ,
12 2 )
1− 3 1+ 3
+
2
i
6
(b) Equate the real parts: 2 cos 7π =
2 1− 3
3 12 2
∴ cos 7π =
1 y2 = 4x + 4 2− 6
–9 –6 –3 O 3 6 9 Re 12 4
–3
–1 O 1 2 3 4 Re
–6 7 cis 3π
–1 10
8 (a) 3 ≤ z + 3 − 3i ≤ 3 2 (b) z − 4i = z + 2 − 2i
–2
(c) 2 ≤ z ≤ 3 and − π ≤ arg z ≤ π
4 3
(i) Im
9
(j) Im
x + y = –1 2 (d) arg(z − 1 + i) = 3π
4
(e) arg z + 2 − 2i = π
z −1+ i ( )
6 (x –
3
+ = 206)2 y2 1
4 4 ( )
9 (a) cis π , cis − π , cis 3π , cis − 3π
4 4 ( )
( ) ( )
A(6, 0) π π π
–6 –3 O 3 6 9 12 15 18 Re
–3 –2 –1 O
–1
1Re (b) cis0, cis , cis − , cis 2 , cis − 2π , cis π
–3 3 3 3 3
( ) ( )
√20
–2 π π
(c) cis , cis − , cis 2 π , cis − 2 π , cis π
–6
3 3 3 3
–9
(1 + 2i) = −5 + 2i
3
10

256 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

11 (a) Let A, B, C represent z, z2, z4 respectively.
Let D represent z2 + z4. (c) If x2 + y2 = 1 then z = 1, 1 = 1
z
On an Argand diagram OBDC is a rhombus, OB = OC = 1, Using the triangle inequality: z + 1 ≤ z + 1
so diagonal OD bisects ∠BOC. z z
∴ k ≤2
arg (z2 ) = 2θ and arg (z4 ) = 4θ, so arg (z2 + z4 ) = 3θ
18 (a) x − 2y − 4 = 0
(b) In ΔOBD: OD = 2 cos θ, i.e. z 2 + z 4 = 2 cos θ z+z
∴ z2 + z4 = 2 cos θ (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ) (b) z + z = 2x ∴ x =
2
(c) ± π z − z = 2yi ∴ y = − z = −i (z − z )
z
6 2i 2
12 π ≤ arg z ≤ 2π Substituting into x − 2y − 4 = 0:
3 3 z + z − 2 × −i (z − z ) − 4 = 0
13 (a) (−w)12 = w12 = i 2 2
(b) Roots of z12 = i are on the circumference of a circle of z + z + 2i (z − z ) − 8 = 0
radius 1. (1 + 2i)z + (1 − 2i)z − 8 = 0
z1 + z 2 = z1 − (−z 2 ) = distance from −z2 to z1,
19 (a) w5 − 1 = 0
i.e. the distance between two points on the
(w − 1)( w4 + w3 + w2 + w + 1) = 0
circumference of the circle.
But w ≠ 1 ∴ 1 + w + w2 + w3 + w4 = 0
As z1 and z2 are two distinct roots, z1 and −z2 are not
endpoints of a diameter ∴ z1 + z 2 < 2 (b) (1 − w)(1 − w2)(1 − w3)(1 − w4)
= (1 − w)(1 − w4) × (1 − w2)(1 − w3)
14 (a) arg iz = arg i + arg z = π + α
2 = (1 − w − w4 + w5) × (1 − w2 − w3 + w5)
(b) Values of z may vary. Example: = (2 − w − w4) × (2 − w2 − w3)
Im
z = 4 − 2w2 − 2w3 − 2w + w3 + w4 − 2w4 + w6 + w7
z – iz = 4 − 2(w + w2 + w3 + w4) + (w + w2 + w3 + w4)
iz
= 4 − 2(−1) + (−1) = 5
(c) Sum and product of roots:
z1 + z2 = w + w2 + w3 + w4 = −1
z1z2 = (w + w4)(w2 + w3)
Re = w3 + w4 + w6 + w7
= w3 + w4 + w + w2 = −1
(c) Pythagoras’ theorem shows the result. ∴ Quadratic equation: z2 − (z1 + z2)z + (z1z2) = 0
z2 + z − 1 = 0
(d) Area = 1 × z × iz = 1 × z × 1 × z = 1 × z = 1 z z
( )
2
2 2 2 2 20 (a) 2 cis π , 2 cis π, 2 cis − π
(e) Interval from iz to z is a diameter (subtends right 3 3
angle at O). (b) Without loss of generality,

Length of diameter is 10 , area of circle is 5π .

2
let w1 = 2 cis π and w2 = 2 cis − π .
3 3 ( )
Area of triangle is 1 (1 + 2i) (1 − 2i) = 5 Then w16n + w26n
2
∴ Area required = 5 (π − 1)
2
2
( ) ( ( )
= 26n cos 6nπ + i sin 6nπ + 26n cos − 6nπ + i sin − 6nπ
3 3 3 3 ( ))
15 C = 26n(cos 2nπ + i sin 2nπ + cos (−2nπ) + i sin (−2nπ))
16 (a) midpoint of AC = 26n(1 + i × 0 + 1 + i × 0) = 26n + 1
(b) α  + γ = β + δ ∴ 1 (α + γ ) = 1 (β + δ ) 21 Im
2 2 B(wz) (a) M is midpoint of OB
∴ midpoints of AC and BD are coincident,
∴ M represents 1 wz ,
i.e. diagonals bisect each other ∴ parallelogram M wz 2
2 ( )  1
17 (a) z + 1 = k, x + iy + 1 = k + 0i 1π A(z)
AM = wz − z
2
z x + iy
x − iy 4 1 α
x + iy + 1 × = k + 0i θ
x + iy x − iy O C Re
y
x + iy + 2 x 2 − i 2 = k + 0i
x +y x + y2
(b) Cosine rule in ΔOAM: AM = 1 wz − z = 2 − 2
y 2
Equating imaginary parts: y − 2 =0 (c) ∠OMA = 3π (angle sum of isosceles triangle)
x + y2 8
2 2
y(x + y ) − y = 0
y(x2 + y2 − 1) = 0 2( )
arg 1 wz − z = α = π + θ + 3π = 5π + θ (exterior angle of
4 8 8
ΔOMC)
∴ y = 0 or x2 + y2 = 1 22 (a) LHS = 1 − cos θ − i sin θ + cos θ − cos2 θ − i sin θ cos θ
(b) If y = 0 then z + 1 = k becomes x + 1 = k  + i sin θ − i sin θ cos θ + sin2 θ
z x 2 2
= 1 − (cos θ − sin θ) − 2i sin θ cos θ
∴ x2 − kx + 1 = 0 = 1 − (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ ) = RHS
This equation must have real roots (or else there are no (b) Step 1 Prove true for n = 1: (See part (a))
solutions to the original equation). Step 2 Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that:
∴ Δ ≥ 0, i.e. k2 − 4 ≥ 0, hence k ≥ 2
1 + cis θ + cis 2θ + … + cis kθ = 1 − cis(k + 1)θ
1 − cisθ

Answers Chapter 1 257

 Now when n = k + 1, need to prove that: −1 ± 5
1 − cis(k + 2)θ 26 (2x +1)(4x2 + 2x − 1) = 0: x =
1 + cis θ + cis 2θ + … + cis(k + 1)θ = 4
1 − cisθ 2 2
27 (a) x − y = 5, xy = 6: ±(3 + 2i)
LHS = 1 + cis θ + cis 2θ + … + cis kθ + cis(k + 1)θ
−3 ± 9 − 4(1 − 3i)
1 − cis(k + 1)θ (b) z =
= + cis(k + 1)θ 2
1 − cisθ
1 − cis(k + 1)θ cis(k + 1)θ × (1 − cisθ ) −3 ± 5 + 12i −3 ± (3 + 2i)
= + = = = i, − 3 − i
1 − cisθ 1 − cisθ 2 2
2
1 − cis(k + 1)θ + cis(k + 1)θ − cis(k + 1)θ × cisθ 28 P ′ (x ) = 3x + 2ax + b
= P ′ (1) = 3 + 2a + b = 0
1 − cisθ
1 − cis(k + 2)θ P(1) = a + b + 3 = 0
= = RHS a = 0, b = −3
1 − cisθ
Step 3 Conclusion 29 (a) Coefficients real ∴ other zeros are conjugates
True for n = k + 1 if true for n = k. True for n = 1. (a − ib), (a − 2ib): a = 1, b = 2
∴ True for all positive integers n ≥ 1. (b) (x2 − 2x + 5)(x2 − 2x + 17)
(c) Let θ = π and apply part (b) with n = 71: 30 P ′ (x ) = 3ax2 + b:
36
1 − cis 7236π 8a + 2b + c = 0, 12a + b = 0, −8a − 2b + c = 20
1 + cis π + cis 2π + … + cis 71π =
36 36 36 a = 5 , b = − 15 , c = 10
π
1 − cis 36
8 2
= 1 − cis 2ππ = 1 − 1 π = 0
1 − cis 36 1 − cis 36
(d) The sum of the 72 roots of z72 = 1 is 0. CHAPTER 2
( )
Many of the proofs below are not complete: in most cases only the
π = 3
23 (a) cos π =
3
∴ cos 2 × outline of the proof of S(k + 1) is given. For more complete solutions,
6 2 12 2
see the Student Worked Solutions book.
2 π 3 2 π 2 + 3,
2cos −1 = , cos =
12 2 12 4
EXERCISE 2.1
2+ 3
cos π = ± 1 (a) Either p is odd or q is odd.
12 2 (b) x ≤ 5 and x ≥ −5 or −5 ≤ x ≤ 5
2+ 3
But is acute: ∴ cos π =
π (c) x is divisible by neither 7 nor 8
12 12 2 (d) Neither x nor y are zero or both x and y are non-zero.
(b) sin 2 π = 1 − cos 2 π = 1 −
2+ 3 2− 3 2 (a) Doubling any integer and adding 3 results in an odd
=
12 12 4 4 number. This is true as doubling any integer results in an
π 2− 3 even number, and the sum of any even number and any odd
∴ sin =
12 2 number is odd.
4
(b) There is a real number that is equal to its reciprocal. This is
⎛ 2+ 3 2− 3 ⎞
( )
4
(c) ⎜⎝ + i⎠ = cos π + i sin π
⎟ true as the number 1 has this property.
2 2 12 12
(c) The square of a real number is always greater than zero. This
= cos π + i sin π = 1 +
3 is false since the square of zero is zero.
i
3 3 2 2 (d) There is a real number whose square is −1. This is false.
24 (a) x = tan π , − tan 2π , tan 4π (e) The product of any integer and the next is divisible by 3. This
9 9 9 is false (since, for example, 4 × 5 is not divisible by 3).
(b) Sum of roots [of part (a)] = − b = 3 3 (f) The difference between any two real numbers is positive.
a
This is false since 3 − 5 is negative, for example.
( ) ( )
4
25 z = w = −4 has roots 4 4 cos π + 2kπ + i sin π + 2kπ
4
(g) For all real numbers, there is a real number that can be
z −i 4 4
∴ w = 1 + i, 1 − i, −1 + i, −1 − i: added to it to obtain an answer of zero. This is true (since
z adding the negative of any number to itself results in an
For z − i = 1 + i answer of zero).
z = z + iz − i + 1 (h) There is a real number with the property that multiplying
iz = −1 + i it by any other real number (y) gives an answer of y. This is
z = 1 + i true, as the number 1 has this property.
z = 1−i
For
z −i 3 (a) ∀ integers n, n2 > n. This is false as 02 = 0.
z = z − iz − i − 1 (b) ∃ a real number x, such that 5x = 0. (∃ x ∈ R such that
iz = −1 − i 5x = 0.) This is true as the number 0 has this property.
z = −1 + i (c) ∀ integers n, n + n + 1 is odd. This is true.
z = −1 + i (d) ∃ a real number x such that x = x2. (∃ x ∈ R such that x = x2)
For
z −i
This is true as both 0 and 1 have this property.
z = −z + iz + i + 1
 real numbers x and y, x2 + y2 < xy. (∀ x, y ∈ R, x2 + y2 < xy)
(e) ∀
z(2 − i) = 1 + i This is false (for example, when x = −1 and y = 1).
z = 1 + 3i (f) ∃ a real number x such that for all real numbers y, = y.
y
5 x
For z = −1 − i y
(∃ x ∈ R such that ∀ y ∈ R, = y) This is true. The number 1
z −i x
z = −z − iz + i − 1 has this property.
z(2 + i) = −1 + i (g) ∀ non-zero integers n, ∃ an integer m such that n is
divisible by m. This is true as every integer is divisible by
z = −1 + 3i itself (and 1).
5

258 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 4 (a) ∃  a real number x such that x2 ≤ 0. Negation is true (since Contrapositive: If the final digit of n is not 5, then n is not
02 ≤ 0). divisible by 5. This must be false as the original statement
(b) ∀  real numbers x, x2 ≠ x. Original is true (since 12 = 1). is false.
(c) ∃ a positive integer n such that 10n ≤ n. Original is true since Negation: There exists an integer n that is divisible by 5,
10 times any positive number is greater than the number. and with the final digit of n not 5. This must be true as the
(d) ∃ a real number x such that x is neither positive nor negative. original statement was false.
Negation is true (as the number 0 has this property). (f) Original: This is clearly true.
(e) ∀ integers n, either n = 0 or n2 ≥ 1. Negation is true as Converse: If xy = 16, then x = 4 and y = 4. This is false.
squaring any integer gives a positive integer, except for the For example, 8 × 2 = 16.
integer 0. Contrapositive: If xy ≠ 16, then x ≠ 4 or y ≠ 4. This must be
(f) ∃ an integer n such that either (−1)n ≠ 1 and (−1)n ≠ −1. true as the original statement is true.
Original is true as raising −1 to any integer power always Negation: There exists real numbers x and y with the
results in 1 or −1. property that x = 4 and y = 4, and xy ≠ 16. This must be false
5 (a) x > 3 ⇒ x2 > 9 as the original statement was true.
(b) n  is divisible by 9 ⇒ n is divisible by 3 (g) Original: This is true as any number divisible by 24 must
(c) n > 5 ⇒ n > 4 contain factors of 2 and 3.
(d) p > 3 ⇒ 7p is positive Converse: If n is even and n is divisible by 3, then n is
(e) 2q is a perfect square ⇒ q is even divisible by 24. This is false. For example, 12 is even and
(f) m  is a multiple of 6 ⇒ m is divisible by 3 divisible by 3 but not by 24.
(g) x < −2 ⇒ x2 > 2 Contrapositive: If n is odd or n is not divisible by 3, then
(h) n  even and n > 2 ⇒ n is not prime n is not divisible by 24. This must be true as the original
6 (a) O  riginal: This is true, since a number divisible by 20 must be statement is true.
divisible by any factor of 20. Negation: There exists an integer n with the property that n
Converse: If n is divisible by 5, then n is divisible by 20. This is divisible by 24, and n is either odd or not divisible by 3.
is false. For example, 10 is divisible by 5 but not by 20. This must be false as the original statement was true.
Contrapositive: If n is not divisible by 5, then n is not 7 (a) n is even ⇔ n2 is even
divisible by 20. This must be true as the original statement (b) x + y = 0 ⇔ x = −y
is true. (c) n is even and divisible by 3 ⇔ n is divisible by 6
Negation: There exists an integer n with the property that 8 (a) E xamples: 7, 14, 28. Counterexample: 21
n is divisible by 20 and n is not divisible by 5. This must be (b) Examples: 2, 3, 4. Counterexample: 0.5
false as the original statement was true. (c) E xamples: 2, 3, 5. Counterexample: 11
(b) O  riginal: This is true since the square of any integer is (d) Examples: 60, 120, 180. Counterexample: 30
divisible by all factors of the integer. (e) E xamples: x = 10, y = 0; x = 10, y = 1; x = 10, y = 2.
Converse: If n2 is divisible by 3, then n is divisible by 3. This Counterexample: x = 4, y = 100
is actually true as the square of any integer must have the (f) Examples: x = 3, y = 3; x = 3, y = 4; x = 3, y = 5.
same prime factors as the integer. Counterexample: x = 0.1, y = 10
Contrapositive: If n2 is not divisible by 3, then n is not 9 D. Alternative A, in everyday language, says that for all real
divisible by 3. This must be true as the original statement is numbers x, there exists a real number y such that xy = 6. But this
true. is not true for x = 0.
Negation: There exists an integer n with the property that n Alternative B, in everyday language, says that there exists a real
divisible by 3 but n2 is not divisible by 3. This must be false number x, such that for all real numbers y, xy = 6. There is no
as the original statement was true. single number (for x) that multiplies with every real number to
(c) O  riginal: This is true, as the second inequality can be give a result of 6.
obtained by multiplying both sides of the first by 10. Alternative C, in everyday language, says that there exists a real
Converse: If 10x > 70, then x > 7. This is true as the first number x, such that for all real numbers y, x + y = 6.
inequality can be obtained by dividing both sides of the There is no single number (for x) that adds to every real number
second by 10. to give a result of 6.
Contrapositive: If 10x ≤ 70, then x ≤ 7. This must be true as Alternative D, in everyday language, says that for all real
the original statement is true. numbers x, there exists a real number y such that x + y = 6.
Negation: There exists a real number x with the property This is definitely true. If you start with any real number, you’ll
that x > 7 and 10x ≤ 70. This must be false as the original be able to find a real number to add to it that gives a result of 6.
statement was true. 10 B. The original statement, in everyday language, says that for
(d) O  riginal: This is true. (It is the null-factor law.) all real numbers x, there exists a real number y such that
Converse: If x = 0 or y = 0, then xy = 0. This is true. x + y = 6. If this is not the case, it would mean that there
Contrapositive: If x ≠ 0 and y ≠ 0, then xy ≠ 0. This must be must exist a real number x such that for all real numbers y,
true as the original statement is true. x + y ≠ 6. Thus, B is the correct alternative.
Negation: There exist real numbers x and y with the property Notice that alternative B is different from alternative C. Alternative
that xy = 0 and x ≠ 0 and y ≠ 0. This must be false as the C says that the result of adding any two real numbers is never 6.
original statement was true. This is different from saying there is at least one special
(e) O  riginal: This is false. For example, 20 is divisible and its number, such that when any number is added to it, the result is
final digit is not 5. never 6.
Converse: If the final digit of n is 5, then n is divisible by 5. 11 ∃ a real number x such that x > 0 and x < 10, but x < 0 or x > 10.
This is true. It is clear that the original statement is true.

Answers Chapter 2 259

 12 (a) S tarting with the number 6, you obtain the sequence: 6 → 3 → p
(g) Let a and b be rational numbers, i.e. let a = and b = r
10 → 5 → 16 → 8 → 4 → 2 → 1. Since the sequence reaches the q s
number 1, the conjecture is verified for this case. where p, q, r, s are integers with q, s non-zero.
p
(b) Starting with the number 13, you obtain the sequence: a+b = + r
13 → 40 → 20 → 10 → 5 → 16 → 8 → 4 → 2 → 1. Since q s
the sequence reaches the number 1, the conjecture is verified ps + qr
=
for this case. qs
(c) S tarting with the number 7, you obtain the sequence: 7 → 22 Since ps + qr and qs must both be integers, and qs cannot
→ 11 → 34 → 17 → 52 → 26 → 13 → 40 → 20 → 10 → 5 → 16 → 8 be zero (since neither q nor s is 0), it follows that a + b is
→ 4 → 2 → 1. Since the sequence reaches the number 1, the rational.
conjecture is verified for this case. (h) If n is odd, then n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
n2 = (2k + 1)2
EXERCISE 2.2
= 4k2 + 4k + 1
1 (a) L et p and q be odd integers. = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
Let p = 2k + 1 and q = 2l + 1 for integers k and l. Since 2k2 + 2k must be an integer it follows that n2 is odd.
p + q = 2k + 1 + 2l + 1 (i) If n is divisible by 7 then, n = 7k for some integer k.
= 2k + 2l + 2 n2 = (7k)2
= 2(k + l + 1) = 7 × 7k2
Since (k + l + 1) must be an integer then it follows that p + q Since 7k2 must be an integer then it follows that n2 is
is even. divisible by 7.
(b) Let p be an odd integer and q be an even integer. (j) If m + n and n + p are even, then m + n = 2k and n + p = 2l
Let p = 2k + 1 and q = 2l for integers k and l. for integers k and l.
p + q = 2k + 1 + 2l Hence n = 2k − m
= 2(k + l) + 1 Substitute in n + p = 2l: 2k − m + p = 2l
Since (k + l) must be an integer then it follows that p + q is − m + p = 2l − 2k
odd. m + p = 2l − 2k + 2m
(c) L et p and q be odd integers. m + p = 2(l − k + m)
Let p = 2k + 1 and q = 2l + 1 for integers k and l. Since (l − k + m) must be an integer then it follows that
m + p is even.
pq = (2k + 1)(2l + 1)
2 (a) The contrapositive statement is: if n is odd, then 3n + 2 is odd.
= 4kl + 2k + 2l + 1
Suppose that n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
= 2(2kl + k + l) + 1 3n + 2 = 3(2k + 1) + 2
Since (2kl + k + l) must be an integer then it follows that pq = 6k + 3 + 2
is odd. = 6k + 5
(d) Let p and q be two consecutive odd integers. = 2(3k + 2) + 1
Let p = 2k + 1 and q = 2k + 3 for some integer k. Since (3k + 2) must be an integer then it follows that 3n + 2
p + q = 2k + 1 + 2k + 3 is odd.
= 4k + 4 (b) The contrapositive statement is: if neither a nor b are even
= 4(k + 1) then at least one of a and b is even.
Since (k + 1) must be an integer then it follows that p + q is Suppose that neither a nor b are even. This means that both
divisible by 4. are odd so then a = 2k + 1 and b = 2l + 1 for integers k and l.
(Could also have used 2k − 1 and 2k + 1.) ab = (2k + 1)(2l + 1)
(e) L et n, n + 1, n + 2, n + 3, n + 4 be five consecutive integers. = 4kl + 2k + 2l + 1
Sum of squares = n2 + (n + 1)2 + (n + 2)2 + (n + 3)2 + (n + 4)2 = 2(2kl + k + l) + 1

= n2 + n2 + 2n + 1 + n2 + 4n + 4 + n2 + 6n + 9 + n2 + 8n + 16 Since (2kl + k + l) must be an integer then it follows that ab
= 5n2 + 20n + 30 is odd.
= 5(n2 + 4n + 6) (c) The contrapositive statement is: if n is odd, then n3 + 5 is even.
Since n2 + 4n + 6 must be an integer then the sum of the Suppose that n is odd, so n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
squares is divisible by 5. n3 + 5 = (2k + 1)3 + 5
(Could also have used (n − 2), (n − 1), n, (n + 1), (n + 2).) = 8k3 + 12k2 + 6k + 1 + 5
p = 8k3 + 12k2 + 6k + 6
(f) Let a and b be rational numbers, i.e. let a = and b = r
q s = 2(4k3 + 6k2 + 3k + 3)
where p, q, r, s are integers with q, s non-zero. Since (4k3 + 6k2 +3k + 3) must be an integer then it follows
p that n3 + 5 is even.
ab = × r
q s (d) The contrapositive statement is: if x is rational, then x is
pr rational.
= p
qs Suppose that x is rational, then x = where p and q are
q
integers and q ≠ 0.
Since pr and qs must both be integers, and qs cannot be zero
(since neither q nor s is 0), it follows that ab is rational. p2
Square both sides: x = 2 .
q
Since p2 and q2 are integers with q2 ≠ 0 then x is rational.

260 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

  e contrapositive statement is: if 1 is rational, then x
(e) Th
x ab = r
is rational. s
p p
Suppose that 1 is rational, then 1 = where p and q are b= r
x x q q s
integers and q ≠ 0. Also, p ≠ 0 as 1 ≠ 0. rq
x b=
q sp
Thus x = and since p and q are integers with p ≠ 0, it
p
This is a contradiction as b is irrational. Hence, ab must be
follows that x is rational.
p irrational.
3 (a) S uppose, for a contradiction that 3 is rational, then 3 = (e) Suppose, for a contradiction, that there exists integers a and
q
for integers p and q, with p and q having no common factors b such that 18a + 6b = 1.
other than 1. 6(2a + b) = 1
p2 3a + b = 1
3= 2 6
q
p2 = 3q2 and thus p2 is divisible by 3. This is a contradiction as 3a + b is an integer. Therefore,
If p2 is divisible by 3 then p is divisible by 3 so write p = 3m there cannot be integers a and b such that 18a + 6b = 1.
for some integer m. 4 (a) First, suppose that n + 9 is even. Then n + 9 = 2k for some
9m2 = 3q2 integer k.

3m2 = q2 n + 6 = n + 9 − 3

Hence q2 is also divisible by 3 so q is divisible by 3. = 2k − 3
Since p and q are both divisible by 3 then you have a = 2(k − 2) + 1
contradiction since p and q have no common factors other Thus, n + 6 is odd.
than 1. Conversely, suppose that n + 6 is odd. Then n + 6 = 2k + 1 for
It follows that 3 is an irrational number. some integer k.
p n + 9 = n + 6 + 3
(b) S uppose, for a contradiction, that 5 is rational, then 5 =
q = 2k + 1 + 3
for integers p and q, with p and q having no common factors = 2k + 4
other than 1. = 2(k + 20
p2 Thus n + 9 is even.
5= 2

q (b) First, suppose that n − 3 is odd. Then n − 3 = 2k + 1 for some
p = 5q2 and thus p2 is divisible by 5.
2 integer k.
If p2 is divisible by 5 then p is divisible by 5 so write p = 5m n + 2 = n − 3 + 5
for some integer m. = 2k + 1 + 5
25m2 = 5q2 = 2k + 6
5m2 = q2 = 2(k + 3)
Hence q2 is also divisible by 5 so q is divisible by 5. Thus, n + 2 is even.
Since p and q are both divisible by 5 then you have a Conversely, suppose that n + 2 is even. Then n + 2 = 2k for
contradiction since p and q have no common factors other some integer k.
than 1. n − 3 = n + 2 − 5
= 2k − 5
It follows that 5 is an irrational number.
= 2(k − 3) + 1
(c) Let a be a rational number and b an irrational number.
Thus, n − 3 is odd.
Suppose, for a contradiction, that a + b is rational. Since a
p (c) First, suppose that n is even. Then n = 2k for some integer k.
and a + b are both rational, a = and a + b = r where p, q, 13n + 4 = 13 × 2k + 4
q s
r, s are integers with q ≠ 0 and s ≠ 0. = 26k + 4
= 2(13k + 2)
a+b = r Thus, 13n + 4 is even.
s
p Conversely, suppose that 13n + 4 is even. Suppose, for a
+b = r contradiction, that n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for some
q s
integer k.
p
b= r − 13n + 4 = 13(2k + 1) + 4
s q
= 26k + 17
rq − ps = 2(13k + 8) + 1
=
sq Thus, 13n + 4 is odd—a contradiction. Hence, if 13n + 4 is

This is a contradiction as b is irrational. Hence, a + b must be even, n must be even.
irrational.
(d) L et a be a non-zero rational number and b an irrational
number. Suppose, for a contradiction, that ab is rational.
p
Since a and ab are both rational, a = and ab = r where
q s
p, q, r, s are integers with q ≠ 0 and s ≠ 0. Note also that p ≠ 0
since a is non-zero.

Answers Chapter 2 261

 (d) First, suppose that n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. 9 Let a, b, c, d be the digits, in order, of a four-digit number, N.
7n + 6 = 7(2k + 1) + 6 The actual number is therefore N = 1000a + 100b + 10c + d.
= 14k + 13 First, suppose that N is divisible by 9.
= 2(7k + 6) + 1 Thus, 1000a + 100b + 10c + d = 9k for some integer k.
Thus, 7n + 6 is odd. Then 999a + 99b + 9c + a + b + c + d = 9k
Conversely, suppose that 7n + 6 is odd. Suppose, for a a + b + c + d = 9k − 999a − 99b − 9c
contradiction, that n is even. Then n = 2k for some integer k. a + b + c + d = 9(k − 111a − 11b − c)
7n + 6 = 7 × 2k + 6 Thus, the sum of the digits is divisible by 9.
= 14k + 6 Conversely, suppose the sum of the digits is divisible by 9. Then
= 2(7k + 3) a + b + c + d = 9k for some integer k.
Thus, 7n + 6 is even − a contradiction. Hence, if 7n + 6 is Then N = 1000a + 100b + 10c + d
odd, n must be odd. = 999a + 99b + 9c + a + b + c + d
(e) First, suppose that n is even. Then n = 2k for some integer k. = 999a + 99b + 9c + 9k

n2 = (2k)2 = 9(111a + 11b + c + k)

= 2 × 2k2 Thus, N is divisible by 9.

Thus, n2 is even. 10 (a) Squaring a real number produces a non-negative real
To prove the converse, suppose that n2 is even. Suppose, for a number.
contradiction, that n is not even. Then this would mean that Hence, (a − b)2 ≥ 0
n is odd, meaning n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. a2 − 2ab + b2 ≥ 0

n2 = (2k + 1)2 a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab

= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
( )
(b) ( a + b) 1 + 1 = 1 + a + b + 1
a b b a
But this would mean that n2 is odd—a contradiction. Hence, 2 2
= 2+ a +b
if n2 is even, n must be even. ab
5 Alternative A is the converse of the given statement, which is From part (a), a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab, and so provided that ab is positive
not logically equivalent to it (despite being a true statement in (which it is in this case, since a and b are positive), it follows
2 2
this case). a2 + ab +≥b2ab
that ≥ 2ab
Alternative B is not the contrapositive, as the statement ‘at least ab ab ab ab
one of the integers is odd’ is not the negation of the statement 2 2
a2 + ab +≥b2 ab 2 ab
‘at least one of the two integers must be even’, i.e. if you have one ≥
ab ab ab ab
odd integer and one even integer, then both statements ‘at least 2 2
a + ab +≥b2 ≥ 2
2 2
one odd’ and ‘at least one even’ are true.
ab ab
C. A contrapositive proof must start by assuming that it is not
Combining this inequality with the earlier one yields the result
the case that at least one of the two integers is even—in other
words, assuming that both integers are odd. Hence, C is the
correct alternative.
( )
1 1
that (a + b) + ≥ 4 .
a b
Alternative D is how a proof by contradiction would proceed. (c) From part (a): a2 + b 2 ≥ 2ab
6 Suppose, for a contradiction, that this number is rational. Then a2 + 2ab + b 2 ≥ 4ab
p
1 − 5 2 = for integers p, q with q ≠ 0. (a + b)2 ≥ 4ab
q
p a + b ≥ 4ab (provided a,b positive)
−5 2 = − 1
q
a + b ≥ 2 ab
p
2=− +1 a + b ≥ ab
5q 5
2
−p+q 11 Let n be an odd integer. Then n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
2=
5q n = 2k + 1
This is a contradiction as 2 is irrational, and thus cannot be = k2 + 2k + 1 − k2
expressed as the ratio of two integers. Therefore, the number = (k + 1)2 − k2
1 − 5 2 must be irrational. 12 For a contradiction, suppose there exist integers a and b such
7 Suppose, for a contradiction, that both a and b are greater that a2 − 4b − 3 = 0, and so a2 = 4b + 3.
than c. From this equation, a2 must be odd, and so a must be odd.
Then a × b > c × c Hence, a = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
ab > c Then (2k + 1)2 = 4b + 3
This is a contradiction as ab = c. Thus, it must be the case that at 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 4b + 3
least one of a and b is less than or equal to c . 4k2 + 4k − 4b = 2
8 This is most readily proved by proving the contrapositive 4(k2 + k − b) = 2
statement: if a is not odd, then a2 − 2a + 7 is not even. k2 + k − b = 1
2
If a is not odd, then it is even, and can be expressed as a = 2k for The left-hand side of this equation is an integer, while the right-
some integer k. hand side is not. This is a contradiction. Therefore, there cannot
a2 − 2a + 7 possibly exist integers a and b such that a2 − 4b − 3 = 0. The
= 4k2 − 4k + 7 stated result follows.
= 2(2k2 − 2k + 3) + 1
Thus, a2 − 2a + 7 is odd (not even), as required.

262 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

13 If 2k+2 + 33k is divisible by 5, then 2k+2 + 33k = 5A where A is an
integer. ( )
y
(c) x3 + y3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y2) ≥ (x + y)xy = xyz xz + z
Therefore, 2k+2 = 5A − 33k

2k+3 = 2(5A − 33k)
y
( ) ( )
(d) y3 + z3 ≥ xyz x + xz , x3 + z3 ≥ xyz xy + zy

2k+3 = 10A − 2 × 33k (e) Add the results of parts (c) and (d):
y y
Thus, 2k+ 3 + 33k+3 = 10A − 2 × 33k + 33k+3 2(x3 + y3 + z3) ≥ xyz ⎛⎜ x + + + z + x + z ⎞⎟
= 10A − 2 × 33k + 33 × 33k ⎝ z z x x y y⎠
= 10A − 2 × 33k + 27 × 33k ≥ xyz(2 + 2 + 2) = 6xyz (using part (a))
= 10A + 25 × 33k ∴ x3 + y3 + z3 ≥ 3xyz
= 5(2A + 5 × 33k)  et a = x3, b = y3, c = z3 and substitute into part (e):
(f) (i) L
As the expression in the brackets is an integer, it follows that ∴ a + b + c ≥ 3 3 abc
2k+3 + 33k+3 is divisible by 5. (ii) Similarly a + b + d ≥ 3 3 abd, a + c + d ≥ 3 3 acd ,
14 Suppose, for a contradiction, that 6 + 10 is rational. Then b + c + d ≥ 3 3 bcd : Multiplying gives the result required.
p
6 + 10 = for integers p, q with q ≠ 0. 4 (a) a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab, b2 + c2 ≥ 2bc, c2 + a2 ≥ 2ca
q 2
Adding gives the result required.
( ) ⎛ p⎞
2
6 + 10 = ⎜ ⎟ (b) (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca ≥ 3(ab + bc + ca)
⎝ q⎠
5 Let a = xy, b = yz, c = zx and substitute into the given result.
p2
6 + 2 6 10 + 10 = 6 (a) ( a − b )2 ≥ 0 ∴ a + b ≥ 2 ab ∴ a + b ≥ ab
q2 2
p2 Similarly: c + d ≥ cd
16 + 60 = 2
q2 Add these results: a + b + c + d ≥ ab + cd
2
p2
60 = − 16 a + b + c + d ab + cd [1]
q2 ∴ ≥
4 2
=
p 2 − 16q 2 Using the result A + B ≥ AB with A = ab and B = cd :
q2 2
ab + cd
This is a contradiction, as 60 is irrational (since 60 is not a ∴ ≥ ab × cd = 4 abcd [2]
2
perfect square). The result follows. Link [1] and [2] to obtain the required result.
p
15 Suppose, for a contradiction, that r = is a rational solution
q (b) L  et d = a + b + c ; from part (a):
3
to the equation, where p, q are integers with no common factor
( )
a+b+c
a+b+c+ 3
other than 1 and with q ≠ 0. ≥ 4 abc a + b + c
3 4 3
⎛ p⎞ p
a + b + c ≥ 4 abc × 4 a + b + c
Then ⎜ ⎟ + + 1 = 0
⎝ q⎠ q 3 3

( ) ( ) ( )
4 3
p3 p + +
+ +1 = 0 ∴ a b c ≥ abc × + b + c ∴ a + b + c ≥ abc
a
q3 q 3 3 3

( )
2
7 (a) lb ≤ l + b , question 6(a)
p3 + pq 2 + q3 = 0
2
If p is even and q is odd, then p3 must be even, pq2 must be even,
( )
3
and q3 must be odd; this would mean the left-hand side of the (b) lbh ≤ l + b + h , question 6(b)
3
equation must be an odd number—a contradiction (since the 8 (a) Using a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab [1]
right-hand side is 0).
If p is odd and q is even, then p3 must be odd, pq2 must be even, Let a = 1 , b = 1 to obtain 1x + 1y ≥ 2 [2]
x y xy
and q3 must be even; this would mean again that the left-hand
side of the equation must be an odd number—a contradiction Let a = x , b = y and substitute into [1]: x + y ≥ 2 xy [3]
(since the right-hand side is 0).
Taking reciprocals of both sides of [3]: 1 ≤ 1
Finally, if both p and q are odd, then p3 must be odd, pq2 must x + y 2 xy
be odd, and q3 must be odd; this would mean again that the ∴ 1 ≥ 1 , 2 ≥ 4 [4]
left-hand side of the equation must be an odd number—a 2 xy x + y xy x + y
contradiction (since the right-hand side is 0).
(Note that both p and q cannot be even as it was assumed that p Link [2] and [4]: 1x + 1y ≥ x +4 y
and q have no common factor other than 1.) (b) From [1], let a = 1x , b =
1 : 1 + 1 ≥ 2 [5]
y x 2 y 2 xy
Thus, in all cases, a contradiction is obtained. The result follows.
From [3], squaring both sides: (x + y)2 ≥ 4xy
EXERCISE 2.3 1
∴ ≤ 1 or 1 ≥ 1
1 (a − b)2 ≥ 0, a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab (x + y )2 4xy 4xy (x + y )2
∴ ab(a2 + b2) ≥ 2a2b2 as both a, b are positive. 2 ≥ 8
2 x < y and x is positive ∴ x2 < xy [1] ∴ xy [6]
(x + y )2
Also x < y and y is positive ∴ xy < y2 [2]
Link [1] and [2]: x2 < y2 Link [5] and [6] to get the required result.
2
⎛ ⎞ y 9 (a) Assume that 4a2 − 6ab + 4b2 < a2 + b2:
3 (a) ⎜ x − y ⎟ ≥ 0 ∴ xy + x ≥ 2
⎝ y x ⎠ ∴ 3(a − b)2 < 0 which is a contradiction as a, b are real
(b) (x − y)2 ≥ 0, x2 − xy + y2 ≥ xy ∴ Assumption is false, so: 4a2 − 6ab + 4b2 ≥ a2 + b2

Answers Chapter 2 263

 (b) (a − b)4 = a4 − 4a3b + 6a2b2 − 4ab3 + b4
Now (a − b)4 ≥ 0, so: a4 − 4a3b + 6a2b2 − 4ab3 + b4 ≥ 0 ( )
1 1 a b
(d) ( a + b) a + = 1 + + a + 1 ≥ 4
b b
∴ a4 + b4 ≥ 4a3b − 6a2b2 + 4ab3 = ab(4a2 − 6ab + 4b2) ≥ ab
(a2 + b2) = a3b + ab3 (using the result a + ba ≥ 2, which has been proved in earlier
b

( ) questions)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
10 Assume that a + b ≤ a + b : a + b ≤ a + 2ab + b s(s − a) + (s − b)(s − c)
2 2 2 4 14 s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) ≤
i.e. a2 − 2ab + b2 ≤ 0 or (a − b)2 ≤ 0 2
2 2
which is a contradiction as a, b are real and unequal. ≤ s − as + s − bs − cs + bc

( )
2 2 2 2
∴ Assumption is false, so: a + b > a + b
2 2 2s 2 − s(a + b + c) + bc bc
≤ =
11 (a) a + b ≥ 2 ab : similarly b + c ≥ 2 bc and c + a ≥ 2 ca 2 2
Multiply to get the required result. bc
i.e. A ≤ . Similarly: A ≤ ca and A ≤ ab
2 2 2
(b) A  + B + C ≥ 3 3 ABC
Adding: 3A ≤ ab + bc + ca hence A ≤ + bc + ca
ab
Let A = bc(b + c), B = ca(c + a), C = ab(a + b): 2 6
bc(b + c) + ca(c + a) + ab(a + b) ≥ 2 2
2 2
But: ab + bc + ca ≤ a + b + c ∴ A ≤ 2 a + b + c2
3 3 bc(b + c)ca(c + a)ab(a + b) 6
15 Let f (x) = x p − px + ( p − 1) where integer p > 1. Note that f (x) is
= 3 3 a 2b 2 c 2 (b + c)(c + a)(a + b) ≥ 3 3 a 2b 2 c 2 8abc
a continuous function.
using (a), and the result is then obtained.
Now f ′ (x ) = px p − 1 − p and f ′′ (x ) = p( p − 1)x p − 2
 rom a + b ≥ 2 ab , let a = b2c2 and
(c) F Stationary points where f ′ (x ) = 0,
b = c2a2: b2c2 + c2a2 ≥ 2abc2 i.e. where p = 0 (not possible as p > 1) or x = 1.
Similarly: c2a2 + a2b2 ≥ 2a2bc and a2b2 + b2c2 ≥ 2ab2c Also: f ′′ (1) = p( p − 1) (which is positive as p > 1); and f (1) = 0
Add these results to obtain the required result. ∴ The only stationary point on the continuous function is a
(d) From a + b ≥ 2 ab , let a = ab and b = xy: minimum at (1, 0).
ab + xy ≥ 2 abxy So f (x) ≥ 0 for all x, i.e. x p − px + ( p − 1) ≥ 0
Similarly: ax + by ≥ 2 axby Multiply to get the result. ∴ x p + (p − 1) ≥ px
 rom a + b ≥ 2 ab , let a = a2 and b = x2:
(e) F Equality holds when f(x) = 0:
⎛ p−1 ⎞
∑
2 2
a2 + x2 ≥ 2ax, ax ≤ a + x (x − 1) ⎜ x i − p⎟ = 0
2 ⎝ i=0 ⎠
2 2
Similarly: by ≤ b + y p−1

2 ∴ x = 1 or ∑x i
=p
a2 + x 2 + b2 + y 2 i=0
Adding: ax + by ≤ =1
2 16 Let f (x) = ex − ea − eax + eaa. Note that f (x) is a
2 2 2 2
(as a + b = 1 and x + y = 1) continuous function.
12 (a) (i) From a + b + c ≥ 3 3 abc , let a = x2y, b = y2z, c = z2x: Now f ′ (x ) = ex − ea and f ′′ (x ) = ex
x2y + y2z + z2x ≥ 3xyz Stationary points where f ′ (x ) = 0, i.e. where x = a.
 et a = xy2, b = yz2, c = zx2:
(ii) L Also: f ′′ (a) = ea (which is positive); and f (a) = 0
xy2 + yz2 + zx2 ≥ 3xyz ∴ The only stationary point on the continuous function is a
(b) (x + y + z)3 minimum at (a, 0).
= x3 + y3 + z3 + 3(x2y + y2z + z2x) + 3(xy2 + yz2 + zx2) + 6xyz ≥ So f (x) ≥ 0 for all x, i.e. ex − ea − eax + eaa ≥ 0
3xyz + 9xyz + 9xyz + 6xyz = 27xyz ∴ ex − ea ≥ ea(x − a)
13 (a) (ad − bc)2 ≥ 0 ∴ 2abcd ≤ a2d2 + b2c2 17 (a) g (0) = sin 0 − 0 = 0
Add a2b2 + c2d2 to both sides: g ′(x ) = cos x − 1: g ′(0) = cos 0 − 1 = 0
(ab + cd)2 ≤ a2d2 + b2c2 + a2b2 + c2d2 = (a2 + c2)(b2 + d2) (b) −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1: −2 ≤ cos x − 1 ≤ 0
Take the square root of both sides to obtain the result. i.e. −2 ≤ g ′(x ) ≤ 0
(b) A  ssume that (a + 5b)(a + 2b) < 9b(a + b): (c) g ′ (x ) is non-positive ∴ g(x) is non-increasing,
a2 + 7ab + 10b2 < 9ab + 9b2 i.e. at every point g(x) is either decreasing or stationary.
i.e. a2 − 2ab + b2 < 0 or (a − b)2 ≤ 0 From part (a), there is a stationary point at (0, 0), but the
which is a contradiction as a, b are real and unequal. function decreases as x increases, i.e. g(x) ≤ 0 for x > 0.
∴ Assumption is false, so: (a + 5b)(a + 2b) ≥ 9b(a + b) (d) g(x) ≤ 0: sin x − x < 0, sin x < x (for x > 0)
2 2 2 2
⎛ 2 2
⎞ d2 y
(c) a2 + b 2 + 6 − 4a − 4b = a 2b 2 × ⎜ a2 − 4a + 3+ b 2 − 4b + 3⎟ 18 (a)  2 = e x is positive for all x, so the graph is concave up for
dx
b a b a ab ⎝ b b a a ⎠
all x.
a 2 (a 2 − 4ab + 3b 2 )+ b 2 (b 2 − 4ab + 3a 2 ) (b) R is above the curve, so the y-coordinate of R is greater than
=
a 2b 2 the y-coordinate of the point on the curve directly below R.
a 2 (a − 3b)(a − b)+ b 2 (b − 3a)(b − a) a +b c+d
= (c) e a + e b > 2e 2
; similarly e c + e d > 2e 2
a 2b 2 a +b c + d
(a − b)[(a3 − 3a 2b)− (b3 − 3ab 2 ) ] a +b c+d + a +b + c+ d
2 2
= Also a + b > c + d so e 2
+e 2
> 2e 2 = 2e 4
a 2b 2 2 2
a +b a +b
(a − b)(a − b)3 (a − b)4 ∴ e a + e b + e c + e d > 2e 2
+ 2e 2
= = 2 2 ≥ 0 as a, b are real
a 2b 2 ab
(
=2 e
a +b
2
+e
a +b
2 ) > 4e a +b + c + d
4

264 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 2
1 1 4 ⎛ x + x 2 + … + xn ⎞
19 (a) Expression + − (iii) log e (x1 x 2 …xn ) ≤ n log e ⎝ 1 ⎠
x y xy n
n
1 2 1 4 ⎛ x + x + … + x n⎞
= + + − log e (x1 x 2 …xn ) ≤ log e ⎝ 1 2
⎠
x 2 xy y 2 xy nn
⎛ x1 + x 2 + … + xn ⎞
1
= 2 −
2
+
1 (x1 x 2 …xn ) ≤ ⎝ n ⎠
x xy y 2
x1 + x 2 + … + xn
2 ∴ ≥ n x1 x 2 …xn
1 1 n
= −
x y (c) Let x1 = 1, x2 = 2, … xn = n.
≥0 LHS is simplified as the sum of the terms of an arithmetic
2 n(n + 1) n
Hence 1 + 1 ≥
4 series to give
2n
≥ n! and hence the result.
x y xy
Taking the positive square root of both sides gives EXERCISE 2.4
1 1 2 . 1 =1
+ ≥
x y 1 n = 1: LHS = ; RHS = 1 = 1 = LHS
xy 1× 2 2 1+1 2
Result is true for n = 1
2
1 1 4 Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that
(b) Expression + − k
x2 y2 x2 y2
1 2 1 4
∑ r(r1+ 1) = k k+ 1.
r=1
= + + −
x4 x2 y2 y4 x2 y2 Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that
k+1
1 2 1
= 4 − 2 2 + 4
x x y y
∑ r(r1+ 1) = kk ++ 12 .
r=1
2 k+1

=
1
−
1
x2 y2
LHS = ∑ r(r1+ 1)
r=1

≥0 k

1 1
2
4
= ∑ r(r1+ 1) + (k + 1)(k
1
+ 2)
Hence + ≥
r=1
x2 y2 x2 y2 = k + 1
Taking the positive square root of both sides gives k + 1 (k + 1)(k + 2)
1 1 2 k(k + 2) + 1
+ ≥ . =
x 2 y 2 xy (k + 1)(k + 2)
2
20 1 ≤ x ≤ 4 = k + 2k + 1
1≤ x ≤2 (k + 1)(k + 2)
2 ≤1+ x ≤ 3 (k + 1)2
=
1≤ 1 ≤1 (k + 1)(k + 2)
3 1+ x 2
= k +1
21 (a) (i) f ′ (x ) = 1 − ex − 1 and f ′′ (x ) = −ex − 1 k+2
= RHS
Stationary points where f ′ (x ) = 0, i.e. where x = 1
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
Also: f ′ (0) > 0 and f ′ (2) < 0 result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and by the
i.e. f ′ (x ) changes from +ve to −ve at x = 1 principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.
∴ Maximum turning point at (1, 0) 2 n = 2: Expression 23 − 2 = 6, which is a multiple of 6.
(ii) f (x) is a continuous function with a maximum Result is true for n = 2.
value of 0 Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that k3 − k = 6M,
∴ f (x) ≤ 0 for all x, i.e. x − ex − 1 ≤ 0, x ≤ ex − 1 where M is a positive integer.
x x …x x x x Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that (k + 1)3 −
(iii)  1 2 n n = 1 × 2 × … × n (k + 1) is a multiple of 6.
X X X X
x1 x2 xn
(k + 1)3 − (k + 1)
≤eX
−1
×eX
−1
×…× e X
−1
= k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 − k − 1
3 2
x1 + x 2 +…+ xn
= k − k + 3k + 3k
−n
=e X = e n −n = 1 = 6M + 3k(k + 1)
x x …x
∴ 1 2 n n ≤1
X

=6 M+ ( k(k + 1)
2 )
If k is odd, (k + 1) is even and thus k(k + 1) is always a positive
Hence Xn ≥ x1x2 … xn and so: X ≥ n x1 x 2 …xn integer. 2

d2 y
(b) (i)  2 = − 12 is negative for all x in the domain (x > 0),
dx x
Hence = 6 M + (
k(k + 1)
2 )
is a multiple of 6.

so the curve is concave down. The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
result is true for n = 2, hence it is true for n = 2 + 1 and by the
log e x1 + log e x 2 + … + log e xn ⎛ x + x 2 + … + xn ⎞
(ii) ≤ log e ⎝ 1 ⎠ principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 2.
n n

Answers Chapter 2 265

 3 n = 2: Expression is 22 + 4 = 8, which is divisible by 8. Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that
Result is true for n = 2. k+1

Assume the result is true for n = 2k, i.e. assume that ∑ r(r + 1)(r
4
+ 2)
= 1− 2
(k + 2)(k + 3)
4k2 + 4k = 8M, where M is a positive integer. r=1

Prove the result is true for n = 2k + 2, i.e. prove that k+1

4(k + 1)2 + 4(k + 1) is divisible by 8. LHS = ∑ r(r + 1)(r

4
+ 2)
4(k + 1)2 + 4(k + 1) r=1
k
= 4(k + 1)(k + 1 + 1)
= 4(k + 1)(k + 2)
= ∑ r(r + 1)(r
r=1
4 + 4
+ 2) (k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
= 4(k2 + 3k + 2)
2 4
= 4k2 + 4k + 8k + 8 = 1− +
(k + 1)(k + 2) (k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
= 8M + 8(k + 1)
= 8(M + k + 1), which is divisible by 8. 2(k + 3) − 4
= 1−
(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
The result is true for n = 2k + 2 if it is true for n = 2k. But the
result is true for n = 2, hence it is true for n = 2 + 2 and by = 1− 2k + 2
the principle of mathematical induction it is true for all even (k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
integers, n ≥ 2. = 1− 2
4 n = 1: Expression 34 − 1 = 80, which is divisible by 80. (k + 2)(k + 3)
Result is true for n = 1. = RHS
Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But
34k − 1 = 80M, where M is a positive integer. the result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that by the principle of mathematical induction it is true for
34(k+1) − 1 is divisible by 80. all n ≥ 1.
34(k+1) − 1 1 3 2+1 3
7 n = 2 : LHS = 1 − 2 = ; RHS = = = LHS
= 34 × 34k − 1 2 4 2×2 4
= 81 × 34k − 81 + 80 Result is true for n = 2.
= 81(34k − 1) + 80 Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that
= 81 × 80M + 80 1 1 1 k +1
= 80(81M + 1), which is divisible by 80. 1 − 2 1 − 2 ... 1 − 2 =
2 3 k 2k
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that
result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and by the
principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 1. 1 1 1 k+2
1− 1− ... 1 − =
5 n = 1: LHS = 2 − 1 = 1; RHS= 12 = 1 = LHS 22 32 ( k + 1)2 2 ( k + 1)

( )( ) ( )
Result is true for n = 1. 1 1 1 1 ⎞
LHS = 1 − 2 1 − 2 … 1 − 2 ⎛⎜ 1 −
Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that
k
2 3 k ⎝ (k + 1)2 ⎟⎠
∑ (2r − 1) = k 2
=
(k + 1) ⎛
1− 1 ⎞ = (k + 1) × k(k + 2)
2k ⎜⎝ (k + 1)2 ⎟⎠ 2k
r=1 (k + 1)2
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that
= k + 2 = RHS
k+1
2(k + 1)
∑ (2r − 1) = (k + 1) 2
1 −1 1 (1 + 1 )
r=1 8 n = 1 : LHS = ( −1) (1)2 = 1; RHS = ( −1)1−1 2
= 1 = LHS
k+1
LHS = ∑ (2r − 1)
r=1
Result is true for n = 1.
Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that
k k ( k + 1)
= ∑ (2r − 1) + (2k + 1)
r=1
12 − 22 + 32 − 4 2 + ... + ( −1)k −1 k 2 = ( −1)k −1
2
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that
= k 2 + 2k + 1
k −1 k 2
= (k + 1)2 12 − 22 + 32 − 4 2 + ... + ( −1) k 2 + ( −1) ( k + 1)

= RHS k ( k + 1)( k + 2 )
= ( −1)
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the 2

result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and by the
LHS = 12 − 22 + 32 − 4 2 + ... + (−1)k−1 k 2 + (−1)k (k + 1)2
principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.
k(k + 1) ⎤
4 2 2 2
n = 1: LHS = 1 × 2 × 3 = 3 ; RHS = 1 − 2 × 3 = 3 = LHS
6 = (−1)k−1 ⎡⎢ + (−1)k (k + 1)2
⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
Result is true for n = 1. (k + 1)
= (−1)k × × [ −k + 2(k + 1)]
Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that 2
k
(k + 1)(k + 2)
∑ 4
r(r + 1)(r + 2)
r=1
= 1− 2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= (−1)k ×
2
= RHS

266 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 9 n = 2 : LHS = log ( 1 +1 1 ) = log 2; RHS = log (1 + 1) = log 2 = LHS Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that

∑ r log ( r +r 1 ) = log (k(k++2)1)!

k+1 k+1

Result is true for n = 1. r=1

Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that
∑ r log ( r +r 1 )
k+1

1 () () ()
2 3 k ( )
log 2 + log 3 + log 4 + ... + log k + 1 = log ( k + 1)
LHS =
r=1

∑ r log ( r +r 1 ) + (k + 1)log ( kk ++ 12 )
k
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that
=
( 12 ) + log ( 32 ) + log ( 43 ) + ... + log ( k k+ 1 ) + log ( kk ++ 12 ) = log ( k + 2)
log r=1

= log
(k + 1)k
+ (k + 1)log k + 2 ( )
LHS = log ( ) + log ( ) + log ( ) + …+ log (
k ) ( k +1 )
2 3 4 k + 1 + log k + 2 k! k +1
1 2 3 = k log(k + 1) − log k!+ (k + 1)log(k + 2) − (k + 1)log(k + 1)
= log(k + 1) + log ( k + 2 ) = (k + 1)log(k + 2) − log(k + 1) − log k!
k +1
= log(k + 2)k+1 − log ( (k + 1)k! )
(k + 2) ⎞
= log ⎛ (k + 1) × = log(k + 2) = RHS = log(k + 2)k+1 − log(k + 1)!
⎝ (k + 1) ⎠
10 n = 1: Expression x − y, which is divisible by (x − y). (k + 2)k+1
= log
Result is true for n = 1. (k + 1)!
Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that xk − yk is = RHS
divisible by (x − y), i.e. that xk − yk = (x − y)(xk−1 + xk−2y + … + The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
xyk−2 + yk−1). result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and by the
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that xk+1 − yk+1 is principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.
divisible by (x − y).
xk+1 − yk+1 EXERCISE 2.5
= xk+1 − xky + xky − yk+1 1 S(k) is k2 − 11k + 30 ≥ 0
= xk(x − y) + y(xk − yk) For S(k + 1): (k + 1)2 − 11(k + 1) + 30
= xk(x − y) + y(x − y)(xk−1 + xk−2y + … + xyk−2 + yk−1) = k2 + 2k +1 − 11k − 11 + 30
= (x − y)(xk + y(xk−1 + xk−2y + … + xyk−2 + yk−1)), = (k2 − 11k + 30) + (2k − 10) ≥ 0
2
which is divisible by (x − y). as k − 11k + 30 ≥ 0 and k ≥ 6
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But 2 S(k) is k2 + 5k − 14 > 0
the result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and For S(k + 1): (k + 1)2 +5(k + 1) − 14
by the principle of mathematical induction it is true for = k2 + 2k + 1 + 5k + 5 − 14
all n ≥ 1. = (k2 + 5k − 14) + (2k + 6) > 0
11 n = 1: Expression is x1 − 1, which is divisible by (x − 1). 2
as k + 5k − 14 > 0 and k > 0
Result is true for n = 1. 3 S(k) is 12k − 7k − 5k > 0
Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that xk − 1 = (x − 1) For S(k + 1): 12k + 1 − 7k + 1 − 5k + 1
(xk−1 + xk−2 + … + x + 1). = 12 × (12k − 7k − 5k ) + 5 × 7k + 7 × 5k > 0
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that xk+1 − 1 is
4 S(k) is 10k − 2k − 3k − 5k ≥ 0
divisible by (x − 1).
k+1 For S(k + 1): 10k + 1 − 2k + 1 − 3k + 1 − 5k + 1
Consider x − 1 = 10 × (10k − 2k − 3k − 5k ) + 8 × 2k + 7 × 3k + 5 × 5k ≥ 0
x −1
5 S(k) is (1 + x)k − 1 − kx ≥ 0
x k+1 − 1 For S(k + 1): (1 + x)k + 1 − 1 − (k + 1)x
x −1
k
= (1 + x)[ (1 + x)k − 1 − kx] + kx2 ≥ 0
= xk + x − 1 6 Let S(n) be the statement that 2n − n2 > 0.
x −1
Prove that S(5) is true.
(x − 1)(x k−1 + x k−2 + ... + x + 1) LHS = 25 − 52
= xk +
x −1 = 32 − 25
= x k + x k−1 + x k−2 + ... + x + 1 =7>0
which has no remainder, hence it is divisible. Hence S(5) is true.
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But Assume that S(k) is true, i.e. assume that 2k − k2 > 0.
the result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and Prove that S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true, i.e. 2k+1 − (k + 1)2 > 0.
by the principle of mathematical induction it is true for LHS = 2k+1 − (k + 1)2
all n ≥ 1. = 2 × 2k − (k2 + 2k + 1)
21 = 2 × 2k − 2k2 + k2 − 2k − 1)
12 n = 1: LHS = 2log 2; RHS = log = log 2 = LHS = 2(2k − k2) + (k2 − 2k − 1)
1
Result is true for n = 1. > 0 + (k2 − 2k − 1)
Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that In the worked example it was shown that k2 − 2k − 1 ≥ 0 for k ≥ 3,

∑ r log ( r +r 1 ) = log (k +k!1)

k k so LHS > 0.
.
Hence S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true.
r=1
But S(5) is true so by the principle of mathematical induction
S(n) is true for all n > 4.

Answers Chapter 2 267

 7 (a) F(n) = n3 + 20n: F(n + 2) = (n + 2)3 + 20(n + 2) The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But
F(n + 2) − F(n) = (n + 2)3 + 20(n + 2) − (n3 + 20n) the result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and
= (n + 2)3 − n3 + 40 by the principle of mathematical induction it is true for all
= (n + 2 − n)((n + 2)2 + n(n + 2) + n2) + 40 n ≥ 1.
= 2(n2 + 4n + 4 + n2 + 2n + n2) + 40 10 n = r = 1: LHS = 1 + 1 = 2; RHS = 1 + 1 = 2 = LHS
= 2(3n2 + 6n + 4) + 40 Result is true when n = r = 1.
1
= 6n2 + 12n + 48 Assume the result is true for n = r = k, i.e. assume that
= 6(n2 + 2n + 8) n(n + 1) n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k − 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k)
(b) n 3
 = 2: Expression is 2 + 40 = 48, which is divisible by 48. 1+n + +…+ =
2! k! k!
Hence result is true for n = 2.
n(n + 1) n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k − 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k)
Assume the result is1true + n +for n = k, k+even,
… + i.e. assume that = .
2! k! k!
k3 + 20k = 48M where M is an integer.
Prove the result is true for n = k + 2, i.e. prove that (k + 2)3 + Prove the result is true for n = r = k + 1, i.e. prove that
20(k + 2) is divisible by 48 when k is even. n(n + 1) n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k − 1) n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k) (n
1+n + +…+ + =
2 2! k! (k + 1)!
F(k + 2) − F(k) = 6(k + 2k + 8)
Now prove that n2 +12n n(n + 1) by 8n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k − 1) n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k) (n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k)(n + k + 1)
+ n+ +8 is divisible
+ … + when n is even. + = .
n = 2: Expression is 4 + 4 + 8 =2!16, which is divisible byk!8. (k + 1)! (k + 1)!
Hence result is true for n = 2. LHS = 1 + n + n(n + 1) + … + n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k − 1) + n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k
Assume k2 + 2k + 8 = 8N, where N is an integer. 2! k! (k + 1)!
n(n + 1) by 8 n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n LHS
+ k −=1)1 + (n
n(n n(n
+ + 1)+ 2)…(nn(n
1)(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k − 1) n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k)
+k)k)
Prove that (k + 2)2 +LHS 2(k += 2) +
1+n +8 is divisible
+…+ when k is n ++ 1)(n + +
2)…(n
… + + n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + +
k)
2! k! = 2!(k + 1)! + k! (k + 1)!
even. k! (k + 1)!
2
(k + 2) + 2(k + 2) + 8 (n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k) n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n +=k)(n(n++1)(n + 2)…(n + k) n(n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k)
= + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k)+( (k + 1) + n )
= k2 + 4k + 4 + 2k + 4 + 8 k! (k + 1)! = k! (k + 1)!
(k + 1)!
2
= k + 2k + 8 + 4k + 8 (n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k) ( (k + 1) + n ) (n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k) ( (k + 1) + n )
= = (n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k)(n + k + 1)
= 8N + 4(k + 2) (k + 1)! = (k + 1)!
(k + 1)!
Since k is even then k + 2 has(na factor + 1)(n of 2 and hence
+ 2)…(n + k)(nthe
+ k + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)…(n + k)(n + k + 1)
expression is divisible by 8. = = = RHS
(k + 1)! (k + 1)!
Hence n2 + 2n + 8 is divisible by 8 when n is even.
= RHS = RHS
Hence F(n + 2) − F(n) is divisible by 6 × 8 = 48 when n is
The result is true for n = r = k + 1 if it is true for n = r = k.
even.
But the result is true for n = r = 1, hence by the principle of
Hence F(n + 2) and F(n) are each divisible by 48 when n is
mathematical induction it is true for all n = r ≥ 1.
even.
3 11 n = 3: The figure is a triangle.
Hence prove n + 20n is divisible by 48 if n is even.
d 𝛼1
8 (a) (i) S(1): LHS = (x ) = 1; RHS = 1 × x0 = 1 = LHS 𝜃1
dx
Hence result is true for n = 1.
(ii) Now xk+1 = x × xk.

dx ( )
S(k) assume that d x k = kx k−1 𝛼3 𝜃3 𝜃2
𝛼2

dx ( )
S(k +1) prove that d x k+1 = (k + 1)x k The αi are the exterior angles of the triangle, the θI are the
interior angles of the triangle.
(
LHS = d x k+1
dx ) θ1 + θ2 + θ3 = 180°, the sum of the angles of the triangle.
(
= d x × xk
dx ) α1 + θ1 = 180°, a straight angle.
Similarly, α2 + θ2 = α3 + θ3 = 180°
= 1 × x k + x × kx k−1 So α1 + θ1 + α2 + θ2 + α3 + θ3 = 3 × 180°
k k α1 + α2 + α3 = 540° − (θ1 + θ2 + θ3)
= x + kx
α1 + α2 + α3 = 540° − 180°
= (k + 1)x k α1 + α2 + α3 = 360°
= RHS Hence the result is true when n = 3.

The variable in this question is really the angle sum of the polygon
(b) The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
involved since the sum of the exterior angles is a constant.
result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and by
When n = 3, the sum of each interior angle and its
the principle of mathematical induction it is true for all
corresponding exterior angle was 3 × 180°.
n ≥ 1.
Thus what really has to be proved is that in an n-sided polygon
9 The odd numbers are 1, 3, 5, 7, …, (2n − 1) for n a positive
the sum of each interior angle and its corresponding exterior
integer.
angle is n × 180°.
n = 1; Expression 2(1) − 1 = 1. Hence the result is true for n = 1.
Assume that the sum of each interior angle and its
The first odd number from the formula is 1.
corresponding exterior angle of a k-sided polygon is k × 180°.
Assume that the kth odd number is (2k − 1).
Prove that the sum of each interior angle and its corresponding
Prove that the (k + 1)th odd number is (2k + 1).
exterior angle of a (k + 1) sided polygon is (k +1) × 180°.
Odd numbers go up by 2 so the odd number after (2k − 1) is
In the (k + 1) sided polygon, draw a diagonal to create a k-sided
(2k − 1) + 2, which simplifies to 2k + 1.
polygon and a triangle.
Hence the (k + 1)th odd number is (2k + 1) if the kth odd
This triangle gives another interior angle, of the original (k + 1)
number is (2k − 1).
sided polygon, and its exterior angle, whose sum is 180°.

268 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 Hence the sum of each interior angle and its corresponding The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
exterior angle of a (k + 1) sided polygon = k × 180° + 1 × 180° = result is true for n = 1, hence by the principle of mathematical
(k + 1) × 180°. induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the 14 n = 1: LHS = d ( x ) = 1; RHS = 1! = 1 = LHS
result is true for n = 3, hence by the principle of mathematical dx
induction it is true for all n ≥ 3. Result is true for n = 1.

( )
k
The angle sum of an n-sided polygon is (n − 2) × 180° for all Assume that the result is true for n = k, i.e. that d k x k = k!.
integers n ≥ 3. dx
Prove that the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. that
Hence the sum of the exterior angles of an n-sided polygon =
n × 180° − (n − 2) × 180 = 2 × 180° = 360°. d k+1 x k+1 = (k + 1)!.
dx k+1
( )
12 S(1): LHS= 22 = 4; RHS = 1 × 3 × 8 = 4 = LHS
( )
k+1
Hence S(1) is true.
6 LHS = d k+1 x k+1
dx
Assume that S(k) is true, i.e. assume that
(k + 1)2 + (k + 2)2 + (k + 3)2 + … + (2k)2 =
k(2k + 1)(7k + 1)
6
.
⎡ k
= d ⎢ d k x k+1 ⎥
dx ⎣ dx
⎤
⎦
( )
Prove that S(k + 1) is true, i.e. prove that d
(k + 2)2 + (k + 3)2 + (k + 4)2 + … + (2k + 2)2 =
(k + 1)(2k + 3)(7k + 8) =
dx
((k + 1)k(k − 1) ... × 2 × x )
6
(k + 1)(2k + 3)(7k + 8) = (k + 1)!
+ 4)2 +… + (2k + 2)2 = .
6 = RHS
For S(k + 1) The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
LHS = (k + 2)2 + (k + 3)2 + (k + 4)2 + … + (2k)2 + (2k + 1)2 result is true for n = 1, hence by the principle of mathematical
2 induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.
+ (2k + 2) n

= (k + 2)2 + (k + 3)2 + (k + 4)2 + … + 4(k + 1)2

n
15 (x + a) = ∑r=0
n
Cr x r an−r
= (k + 1)2 + (k + 2)2 + (k + 3)2 + (k + 4)2 + … + (2k)2 n = 1: LHS = x + a; RHS = 1C0 x 0 a1 + 1C1 x 1a0 = x + a = LHS
+ (2k + 1) + 3(k + 1) 2 2 Hence result is true when n = 1.
Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume
k(2k + 1)(7k + 1)
= + (2k + 1)2 + 3(k + 1)2 k(k − 1) k−2 2
6 (x + a)k = x k + kx k−1a + x a + … + kxak−1 + ak .
2!
2k + 1
=
6
( k(7k + 1) + 6(2k + 1)) + 3(k + 1) 2
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove
(k + 1)(k) k−1 2
(x + a)k+1 = x k+1 + (k + 1)x k a + x a + … + (k + 1)xak + ak+1
6 (
= 2k + 1 7k 2 + k + 12k + 6 + 3(k + 1)2 ) (k + 1)(k) k−1 2
2!
(x + a)k+1 = x k+1 + (k + 1)x k a + x a + … + (k + 1)xak + ak+1.
2!
= 2k
6
+ 1 2
(
7k + 13k + 6 + 3(k + 1) )
2
LHS = (xLHS + a)(x = (x+ + a)a)(x
k
+ a)k
(2k + 1)(7k + 6)(k + 1) ⎛ x k + kx k(kk−1− 1) k(k − 1) x k−2 a2 + … k⎞
+ a)=⎛=x(x ak ⎞ + a ⎠
k−1
= + 3(k 2
= (x++1)a)(x + a)k = (xLHS k
+ a)
kx⎝k−1 a+ +a)k a + x k−22!a2 + … + kxak−1 ++kxa
6 LHS ⎝ (x + a)(x 2! ⎠
⎛ x k + kxkk−1a + k(k − 1) x k−2 a2 +k+1 ⎛ k + kx k(kk−1− 1) k(k −2 1)2 k−1 k⎞
6 (
= k + 1 14k 2 + 19k + 6 +LHS 18k= + (x+ +a)a)(x
=(x18 ⎝ + a) ) 2!
=x… LHS + ==
= x(x
+ kx
kxa (xa +
kk+1k−1 k(k
+ +a)
+kx
a)(x a⎝ kxk−⎞+a1)
2! ⎠ + xk k−1a2a ++…
a) 2!
x k−1+ akx
2! +a… x k−2 2 2 k−1
++akxxa +a… k + kxak
+ xa + a ⎠
k−1

= k + 1 14k 2 LHS
6
(+ 37k=+(x24+ a)(x k+1 k
==x+(x a)++a) ) ⎛ k(k − 1) k(k − 1) k−2 22 k−1
kx⎝kxak++ kx k−1a +x k−1a2 + …x +
2! 2!
a +
kx … +=kxa
aLHS (x
xa x k+1
+
k k−1 ⎛ kkkk−1
a)
+++
x+k aa)(x kx
⎝
ax++ax⎞+
kx ⎠
k kk(k
a)+aakx
2!
− 1) k(k
++kxak−1+a−x21)
2 k−1k(k k−1 − 21) −3k−2
k(k
+ xak−2
2!
1) a2k−22 …
+ax…++…
2!
xkx+ aak(k 3k−1 − 1) k−1
+ +kxa
+… xa
k(kk−1
+ xk2 a+
−a1)
k ⎞ 2 k−1
x a k + kxa
2! +⎠kxa + a
k+1 k
+a
2! 2!
(k + 1)(2k + 3)(7k + 8) ⎛ k k(k − 1) k(k − 1) k−2k+1 k ⎞k+1 k(k −⎛ 1) k(kk(k −k(k1)
− 1)−k−21)ak−1 k ⎞− 1)
k(k −a21)
xkk⎛ +k2+ k k(k−
k(k −1)
++a⎛kxa a2k+12x+⎞ … +⎛−kk1)+⎞+k(k x 2 a+⎞k−1
k−1 k−1
x +k+1kx k−1+axk+ak a++k(k − 1) = +k a) k1)+
+ 2k−2 3
x x++ k(k k−1
++
k kx
= xak−2 =a+(x a2⎞kk−1 a⎛22… +kxa
2 k−1 kk
= (x + a) = kx k−1 2 k−1
+a +2 … + + xkxa 3
x a2 ak−1++… x+⎠xa +k(k ⎝ ++⎝ax1)x aa+k−1 +a kx + k−1 +…
ak+k−1 +xa a⎠k−1 x 2+ak−1
kxa ++
+ (k
=kx 2!akx ⎝ x⎠ x2!a2!a+2!… ⎠ + kx ⎠ (k + 1)xa +
…
6 ⎝ x + kx 2!2! x a 2!+ … (k 1)x
2!2! ⎝ 2!⎝ ⎠2!x 2!
Hence S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true.
k+1 k(k − 1) k kk−1 2⎛ k−1 k(k − 1) ⎞− 1)k−1 k−2 k(k −ak(k
1) ⎞k(k 2 −k−1 1) +2k−1 k(k 2 −k+1
++1) − 1)− 1)
k(k
k(k 2k 3 = x⎛k+1 k+1k(k
(k−+++ +ax+⎛k(k k1)ak(k ⎞1)
−k(k ⎛ kk(k ⎞ xk+1
k1) ++xa
But S(1) is true so by the
k+1
= xprinciple
+ kx= xkof + (k ++1)x
a +mathematical x xaa++akx +k …+a+2
+kx 2 ak−1 x+=xxaak+1 +a+… =+
+(k
= x+k+1 ++
+k1)x +kkx
+ xk a2⎠ak++axk−1
+
1)x
x1)x
k 1)
akx+ ax+a2(k
kkxa
k−1
+ ++2!
xa1)xa
k−1… 2k+ +k−2
x+xkx
k−1
a1) aa3k(k
2 2 k−1
ak+1 +2+…
… +k−1 1)
x+2 a2!
+⎝ k(k k−1 k2 a k−1
+x(k
2 k−1
k +k(k
+a kxa + a+k+
2!a⎠ +2!… + x a2! + ++
… x (k k−1
⎠ a1)xa
2! ⎝ 2! 2!⎠ x ⎝ a
2! 2! 2! 2! ⎝ 2! + … + 1)xa
2!
induction S(n) is true for all positive integers n. 2 1)k(k − ⎞1) k(k k(k− 1)− 1)
k(k⎛ −+1)1) k(k−==+1)RHS
k(k k(kk a +k(k k+1 −k−1 1) k−2 3k(k + 1)

()
k(kk−2− 1) k(kx−k a1)k+
a2k a+k a++k(k k + x k−1a 2+⎞… x=…RHS 1)xk+1
⎛2ka2+k−1 1)x k⎞a+kx ⎛k+1 … ++⎛ kx+22! ak−1 +x(ka⎞+x1)xa
k−1 2 k−1 2 k−1 k
(k+++kxa + ++(k a2 x+kxk−1+ aa+a2k+1++… +akxa a+k+a
k
+−1
k+1 a + kx
k+1
−1 k−11)x 3
+
k−1
+a2 +2!… x+ +k−1 x+a2 akk−1 x+ 1)xa k
+ (k
13 n = 1: LHS = d 1 = −12 ; RHS = ==x x1+1 +=+(k(k2++1)x
= LHS ⎝2!2! x2! a ⎠+ 2! ⎝x a +2!(k +⎠1)xa ⎝ 2!a 2! 2! ⎠
…
2! ⎝ 2! ⎠
dx x x x x
⎛ k +k +k(k −k+1
1) ⎞ k−1 2 k(k + 1) k(k − 1) 2 k−1
Result is true for n = 1 = x k+1 + (k = RHS
=+x1)xk+1 k a + ⎛ k + k
k(k − k(k
+ (k⎝+ 1)x a2!
1) ⎞ + k−1
1) 2 2 + ⎛ k +k(k
+ ⎠ x ax k−1+a… +… +
= x+RHS
k(k
== x
−k+1
1)1)+⎞2(k
k+1
x+
2 +k−1
xa(kk−1a+1)x 1)x
+ (k
k
+k(k a+
a + +⎝k(k
+1)xa 1)xa+k1) +k+1
a ak−1
x a 2x
+ a+ + … ⎛ kx+2 ak−1 + (k⎞+x1)xa a k ++ (k
ak++
⎝ 2! ⎠ … ⎝ 2! ⎠
d ⎛ 1 ⎞ =2! −k 2!2! ⎠ 2! 2!
Assume that the result is true for n== RHSk, ki.e. that
k(k + 1)⎜ k ⎟ k+1 . k(k + 1)
== xRHS
k(k + 1) k−1 2 k(k + 1) 2 k−1
+ thatdx ⎝ xxk−1⎠a2 +x … + x 2 ak−1
k+1 k k ak+1 k k+
Prove that the result is true = x k+1
for+ n(k=+k1)x+ 1,ai.e. + (k++(k 1)xa + 1)x + a + 2! x a + … + 2! x a + (k + 1)xa + a
2! 2!
d ⎛ 1 ⎞ = −(k + 1) = RHS = RHS
dx ⎜⎝ x k+1 ⎟⎠ x k+2 The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and by the
LHS = d ⎛⎜ 1k+1 ⎞⎟ principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.
dx ⎝ x ⎠
16 (a) n = 1, no handshakes
= d ⎛⎜ 1k × 1 ⎞⎟ n = 2, 1 handshake. 1 = 2 × 1
dx ⎝ x x⎠ 2
−k 1 1 −1 n = 3, say A, B, C so handshakes: AB, AC, BC so 2 + 1 = 3
= k+1 × + k × 2
x x x x = 3× 2
−k 1 2
= k+2 − k+2 n = 4, say A, B, C, D so handshakes: AB, AC, AD, BC, BD,
x x 4×3
−(k + 1) CD so 3 + 2 + 1 = 6 = 3
=
x k+2 For n people, (n − 1) +(n − 2) + (n − 3) + … + 3 + 2 + 1
= RHS n(n − 1)
=
2 Answers Chapter 2 269
 ∴ (An − Bn )(A − B) ≥ 0
(b) Prove that for n people there are n(n − 1) handshakes, n > 1.
2 ∴An + 1 − AnB + Bn + 1 − BnA ≥ 0
n = 2: 2 × 1 = 1 ∴ An + 1 + Bn + 1 ≥ AnB + BnA
2
( )
k k k
Assume the result is true for n = k, i.e. assume that there are (c) S(k) is A + B − A + B ≤ 0
k(k − 1) 2 2
. For S(k + 1):
2

( A +2 B ) − A +2 B = ( A +2 B )( A +2 B ) − A
Prove the result is true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that there are k +1 k +1 k +1 k k +1
+ Bk +1
(k + 1)k 2
2 .
= ( A + B ) ⎢ ( A + B ) − A + B ⎥ + AB + BA − A
k
When there are k + 1 people, each of the k people originally ⎡ ⎤
k k k k k +1
− Bk +1 ≤ 0
there now have another person whose hand they can shake, 2 ⎣ 2 2 ⎦ 4
using S(k) and the result from part (b).
this means another k handshakes.
So with (k + 1) people there are k(k − 1) + k handshakes, 19 To generate the greatest number of regions, each new line has to
2 intersect each of the existing lines inside the circle. So, if there
i.e. k − k + 2k = k + k = (k + 1)k handshakes.
2 2
are two existing lines (giving four regions), then the third line
2 2 2 would cut the other two lines inside the circle, producing three
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
extra regions for a total of seven regions.
result is true for n = 1, hence it is true for n = 1 + 1 and by the
principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n > 1. S(k) is ‘k straight lines gives a maximum of 1 (k2 + k + 2)
2
17 S(4): From the diagram, the quadrilateral has two diagonals. regions’.
For S(k + 1): next line produces maximum of (k + 1) new regions
∴ number of regions = 1 (k2 + k + 2) + k + 1 = 1 (k2 + 3k + 4)
2 2
= 1 ((k +1)2 + (k + 1) + 2)
2

20 S(k) is sin (x + kπ) = (−1)k sin x
4(4 − 3)
S(4) = = 2. Hence S(4) is true. For S(k + 1): LHS = sin (x + (k + 1) × π) = sin ((x + kπ) + π)
2
S(k) is that there are k(k − 3) diagonals. = −sin (x + kπ) as sin (a + π) = −sin α
2 ∴ LHS = −1 × (−1)k sin x = (−1)k + 1 sin x = RHS
S(k + 1) is that there are (k + 1)(k − 2) diagonals. 21 (a)
2 $1 (impossible)
Ak $2 (impossible)
A1
$3 1 × $3
Ak – 1
$4 (impossible)
A2 $5 1 × $5
A3 $6 2 × $3
A4
$7 (impossible)
Polygon with k vertices
$8 1 × $3, 1 × $5
Ak + 1
$9 3 × $3
Ak $10 2 × $5
A1
$11 2 × $3, 1 × $5
Ak – 1
$12 4 × $3
A2 $13 1 × $3, 2 × $5
A3
$14 3 × $3, 1 × $5
A4 $15 3 × $5
Polygon with (k + 1) vertices
(b) ‘Using only $3 and $5 coins, it is possible to make $n for all
S(k + 1): The polygon with (k + 1) vertices has all the diagonals integers n ≥ 8.’
of the polygon with k vertices plus the (k − 2) diagonals drawn
For S(k + 1), there are 3 cases to consider.
(dotted lines) plus the diagonal joining AkA1 (which was a side
Case 1: k is a multiple of 3, e.g. 9 or 12.
in the first polygon).
  To generate k + 1, replace 3 × $3 by 2 × $5
Number of diagonals =
Case 2: k is a multiple of 5, e.g. 10.
k(k − 3) k(k − 3) + 2(k − 1) k 2 − k − 2 (k + 1)(k − 2)
+ (k − 2) + 1 = = =   To generate k + 1, replace 1 × $5 by 2 × $3
2 2 2 2
Case 3: k = 3p + 5q where p, q are positive integers.
k(k − 3) + 2(k − 1) k 2 − k − 2 (k + 1)(k − 2) To generate k + 1, replace by 3(p + 2) + 5(q − 1)
= = = .
2 2 2  = 1: p1 = 1 and q1 = 1 ∴ true for n = 1.
22 (a) n
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that pk and qk are
result is true for n = 4, hence it is true for n = 4 + 1 and by the unique positive integers such that: (1 + 3 )k = pk + qk 3
principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 4. For n = k + 1:
18 (a) (An − Bn )(A − B) (1 + 3 )k+1 = (1 + 3 )k × (1 + 3 )
(b) If A > B then An > Bn as A, B both positive
∴ (An − Bn )(A − B) > 0 = ( pk + qk 3 ) × (1 + 3 )
n n
If A < B then A < B as A, B both positive = ( pk + 3qk ) + ( pk + qk ) 3
∴ (An − Bn )(A − B) > 0
Hence p = pk + 3qk is a unique positive integer
If A = B then (An − Bn )(A − B) = 0 k+1
and qk + 1 = pk+ qk is also a unique positive integer.
270 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12
  = 1: p12 − 3q12 = 1 − 3 = −2 ∴ true for n = 1.
(b) n The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that (pk)2 − 3(qk)2 = (−2)k. result is true for n = 4, hence it is true for n = 4 + 1 and by the
For n = k + 1: principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.
(pk + 1)2 − 3(qk + 1)2 = (pk+ 3qk)2 − 3(pk+ qk)2 2 n = 1: u1 = 6; u2 = 6 + 21 + 4 = 12
= (pk)2 + 6pkqk + 9(qk)2 − 3(pk)2 − 6pkqk − 3(qk)2 S(1): u1 = 21 + 4 = 6; u2 = 22 + 8 = 12
Result is true when n = 1
= −2(pk)2 + 6(qk)2 = −2(pk2 − 3qk2) = (−2)k + 1 as required. S(k): Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that uk = 2k + 4k
p( p − 1)k p − 2 p( p − 1)( p − 2)k p − 3 S(k + 1): Prove true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that
23 (a) k p + pk p −1 + + +… uk + 1 = 2k + 1 + 4(k + 1)
2! 3!
p( p − 1)( p − 2)k 3 p( p − 1)k 2 Now uk + 1 = uk + 2k + 4
+ + + pk + 1 = 2k + 4k + 2k + 4
3! 2!
(b) k p, 1 = 2 × 2k + 4k + 4
 erify for n = 1. Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that
(c) V = 2k + 1 + 4(k + 1)
k p − k is a multiple of p. For n = k + 1: (k + 1)p − (k + 1) The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
p( p − 1)k p − 2 p( p − 1)( p − 2)k p − 3 result is true for n = 4, hence it is true for n = 4 + 1 and by the
= k p + pk p −1 + + +… principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.
2! 3!
3 2 3 Verify for n = 1 and n = 2. Assume true for n = 1, 2, … k.
p( p − 1)( p − 2)k p( p − 1)k Prove true for n = k + 1 as follows:
+ + + pk + 1 + k − 1
3! 2! uk + 1 = 2uk − uk − 1 = 2(2k − 1) − [2(k − 1) − 1]
p−2
p( p − 1)k p( p − 1)( p − 2)k p − 3 = 4k − 2 − 2k + 2 + 1
= (k p − k) + pk p −1 + + +…
2! 3! = 2k + 1 = 2(k + 1) − 1 as required.
p( p − 1)( p − 2)k 3 p( p − 1)k 2 4 Verify for n = 1 and n = 2. Assume true for n = 1, 2, … k.
+ + + pk Prove true for n = k + 1 as follows:
3! 2!
which is divisible by p, as required. uk + 1 = 5uk − 6uk − 1 = 5(2k+ 3k) − 6(2k − 1 + 3k − 1)

(b) V
( ) 2 ( ( ))
24 (a) tan θ + π = cot π − θ + π = cot(−θ ) = − cot θ
2 2
 erify for n = 1. Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that
= 5 × 2k + 5 × 3k − 3 × 2k − 2 × 3k
= 2 × 2k + 3 × 3k = 2k + 1 + 3k + 1 as required.
5 Verify for n = 1 and n = 2. Assume true for n = 1, 2, … k.
tan ⎡⎢(2k + 1) π ⎤⎥ = (−1)k. Prove true for n = k + 1 as follows:
⎣ 4⎦ uk + 1 = 11uk − 28uk − 1 = 11(7k − 4k) − 28(7k − 1 − 4k − 1)
For n = k + 1: tan ⎡⎢(2(k + 1) + 1) π ⎤⎥ = tan ⎡⎢(2k + 1) π + π ⎤⎥ = 11 × 7k − 11 × 4k − 4 × 7k + 7 × 4k = 7 × 7k − 4 × 4k
⎣ 4⎦ ⎣ 4 2⎦
= 7k + 1 − 4k + 1 as required.
π
= − cot(2k + 1) = −1 k +1
= (−1) as required. 6 Verify for n = 1 and n = 2. Assume true for n = 1, 2, … k.
4 (−1)k
Prove true for n = k + 1 as follows:
25 (a) Assume that 2k + 3 ≤ 2 (k + 1)(k + 2) for some k > 0. uk + 1 = 10uk − 25uk − 1 = 10(k − 1) × 5k− 25(k − 2) × 5k − 1
Square both sides, which are known to be positive:
= (2k − 2) × 5k + 1 − (k − 2) × 5k + 1 = k × 5k + 1 as required
4k2 + 12k + 9 ≤ 4k2 + 12k + 8
7 Verify for n = 1 and n = 2. Assume true for n = 1, 2, … k.
which produces the contradiction 1 ≤ 0
Prove true for n = k + 1 as follows:
∴ Assumption is false, so required result is true.
() () () () ()
k k −1 k −1 k −1
(b) Verify for n = 1. Assume true for n = k. uk + 1 = uk + uk − 1 < 5 + 5 = 5 ⎡ 5 + 1⎤ = 5 × 8
Prove true for n = k + 1 as follows: 3 3 3 ⎣⎢ 3 ⎦⎥ 3 3

< (5 ) × 25 = (5 ) as required
k −1 k +1
2(k + 1) − 2 k + 1 + 1
LHS > 2 ( k + 1 − 1) + 1 = 3 9 3
k +1 k +1
2k + 3 8 n = 2: a0 = 1, a1 = 6, a2 = 6a1 − 9a0 = 6 × 6 − 9 = 27
= −2 S(2): a2 = 32 + 2 × 32 = 9 + 18 = 27
k +1
Result is true when n = 2
2 (k + 1)(k + 2)
> − 2 = 2 ( k + 2 − 1) as required. S(k): Assume true for n = k − 1, i.e. assume that
k +1 uk–1 = 3k−1 + (k − 1)3k−1
(c) Incorrect; n = 1020 is one counterexample. Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that uk = 3k + k3k
S(k + 1): Prove true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that uk + 1 = 3k + 1 +
EXERCISE 2.6 (k + 1)3k+1
The following are only brief outline proofs. For more detailed Now uk + 1 = 6uk − 9uk–1
solutions of the odd-numbered questions, see New Senior = 6(3k + k3k) − 9(3k − 1 + (k − 1)3k − 1)
Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12 Student Worked Solutions, for = 2 × 3k + 1 + 2k3k + 1 − 3k + 1 − (k − 1) 3k + 1
even-numbered questions, see Reader+ Worked Solutions. = 3k + 1 + 2k3k + 1 − k3k + 1 + 3k + 1
1 n = 1: u1 = 1, u2 = 3 × 1 + 4 = 7 = 3k + 1 + k3k + 1 + 3k + 1
S(1): u1 = 31 − 2 = 1, which is true. = 3k + 1 + (k + 1)3k + 1
u2 = 32 − 2 = 7, which is true. The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k and n = k − 1.
Result is true when n = 1. But the result is true for n = 2 and n = 1, and by the principle of
S(k): Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that uk = 3k − 2. mathematical induction it is true for all n ≥ 2.
S(k + 1): Prove true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that uk + 1 = 3k + 1 − 2. 9 (a) Assume that (4k + 3) k > (4k + 1) k + 1 for some k ≥ 0.
Now uk + 1 = 3uk + 4 Square both sides:
= 3 × (3k − 2) + 4 16k3 + 24k2 + 9k > 16k3 + 24k2 + 9k + 1
= 3k+1 − 6 + 4 which produces the contradiction 0 > 1
= 3k+1 − 2 ∴ Assumption is false, so required result is true

Answers Chapter 2 271

 (b) Verify for n = 1. Assume true for n = k. For n = k + 1: (k + 1)
(4k + 3) k
RHS =
3 (
4(k + 1)2 − 1 )
1 + 2 + 3 +…+ k + k + 1 ≤ + k +1
6 (k + 1)
=
3 (
4k 2 + 8k + 4 − 1 )
(4k + 1) k + 1 6 k + 1 (4k + 7) k + 1
≤ + = as required (k + 1)
6 6 6 =
3 (
4k 2 + 8k + 3 )
10 4 = 3 : u1 = 3 (k + 1)(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
u1 4 = = LHS
2
3
n = 1: u1 = 2 − 3 = 3 ∴ true for n = 1. Assume true for n = k.
3
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
3 −1 4
result is true for n = 1, and by the principle of mathematical
n = k + 1: 4 = uk + 3 to find: induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.
uk +1
(b) n = 1: LHS = 1 = 1 ; RHS = 1 = 1 = LHS
3 = 3 3 (3k +1 − 1) 1× 4 4 3+1 4
uk +1 = = × k +1
4 − uk 4 − 3k +1 −3
3k +1 −1
k +1
4 − 3k +1 −3 (3 − 1) ( 3 −1
) Result is true for n = 1.
k

3 −3 k+2 k+2 Assume that ∑ (3r − 2)(3r

1 = k
+ 1) 3k + 1 .
= = 3 − 3 as required r=1
4(3k +1 − 1) − (3k +1 − 3) 3k + 2 − 1 k+1

11 n = 1: u1 = 0, u2 = (1 − x) × 0 + x = x Prove that
1 = k +1 ∑
(3r − 2)(3r + 1) 3k + 4
( ) ( )
r=1
S(1): u1 = 1 ( x − 1 + 1 − x ) = 0, u2 = 1 2x − 1 + (1 − x )2 = 1 2x − 1 + 1 − 2x + x 2 = k+1
x
k+1
x x x
(
u2 = 1 2x − 1 + (1 ) (
− x )2 = 1 2x − 1 + 1 − 2x + x 2 = x )
LHS =
r=1
1
(3r − 2)(3r + 1) ∑
x x r=1
Result is true when n = 1, 2. = k + 1
S(k): Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that 3k + 1 (3k + 1)(3k + 4)

x (
uk = 1 kx − 1 + (1 − x )k . ) =
k(3k + 4) + 1
(3k + 1)(3k + 4)
S(k + 1): Prove true for n = k + 1, i.e. prove that 22
= 3k + 4k + 1
1
(
uk+1 = (k + 1)x − 1 + (1 − x )
x
k+1
) (3k + 1)(3k + 4)
Now uk + 1 = (1 − x)uk + kx (3k + 1)(k + 1)
= (3k + 1)(3k + 4)
= 1 −
x
x
( k
kx − 1 + (1 − x ) + kx )
= k + 1 = RHS
3k + 4
1
x (2
= kx − kx − 1 + x + (1 − x ) k+1
+ kx )
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the
result is true for n = 1, and by the principle of mathematical
(
= 1 kx − 1 + x + (1 − x )k+1 − kx + kx
x ) induction it is true for all n ≥ 1.

1
(
= (k + 1)x − 1 + (1 − x )
x
k+1
)
(c) n = 1: LHS = 2; RHS = 1 × 2! = 2 = LHS
Result is true for n = 1.
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the result k

is true for n = 1 and, by the principle of mathematical induction, Assume that r 2 + 1 r ! = k × (k + 1)!. ∑( )
it is true for all n ≥ 1. r=1
k+1

CHAPTER REVIEW 2 Prove that ∑(r

r=1
2
)
+ 1 r ! = (k + 1) × (k + 2)!.

1 (a) n = 1: LHS = 1; RHS = 1 (4 − 1) = 1 = LHS k+1

Result is true for n = 1.

3 LHS = ∑(r
r=1
2
+1 r!)
k
Assume that ∑ (2r − 1) 2
3 (
= k 4k 2 − 1 . ) (
= k × (k + 1)! + (k + 1)2 + 1 (k + 1)! )
r=1
k+1
(k + 1) = (k + 1)! ⎡⎣ k + k + 2k + 1 + 1 ⎤⎦
2

Prove that ∑ (2r − 1) 2

=
3 (
4(k + 1)2 − 1 . )
r=1 = (k + 1)! ⎡⎣ k 2 + 3k + 2 ⎤⎦
k+1
LHS = ∑ (2r − 1)
r=1
2 = (k + 1)!(k + 1)(k + 2)
= (k + 1) × (k + 2)! = RHS

3 (
= k 4k 2 − 1 + (2k + 1)2 ) The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the result
is true for n = 1 and, by the principle of mathematical induction,
1
(
= k(2k + 1)(2k − 1) + 3(2k + 1)2
3 ) it is true for all n ≥ 1.
3
(2k + 1) (d) n = 1: LHS = 1 + 3 = 4; RHS = 1 × 2 = 4 = LHS
=
3 (
2k 2 − k + 6k + 3 ) Result is true for n = 1.
2
k
k 3 (k + 1)3
=
(2k + 1)
3
( (2k + 3)(k + 1)) Assume that ∑(rr=1
3
+ 3r 5 =) 2
.
(k + 1)(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
= k+1
3 (k + 1)3 (k + 2)3
Prove that ∑(r
r=1
3
+ 3r 5 =) 2
.

272 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 k+1 3 (a) 3, 9, 21, 45, 93
LHS = ∑(r 3
+ 3r 5 ) (b) S(k) is Tk = 3(2k − 1)
r=1 For S(k + 1): LHS =  Tk + 1
k 3 (k + 1)3 3 5 = 2 × Tk + 3 = 6(2k − 1) + 3
= + (k + 1) + 3(k + 1)
2 = 6 × 2k − 3 = 3(2k + 1 − 1) = RHS
(k + 1) 3
4 (a) S(1): LHS = u1 + 1; RHS = 20(u1 + 1) = u1 + 1) = LHS
= ⎡⎣ k 3 + 2 + 6(k + 1)2 ⎤⎦
2 Hence S(1) is true.
(k + 1)3 ⎡ 3 S(k): uk + 1 = 2k −1(u1 + 1)
= k + 2 + 6k 2
+ 12k + 6 ⎤ S(k + 1): uk + 1 + 1 = 2k(u1 + 1)
2 ⎣ ⎦
(k + 1)3 ⎡ 3 Now uk + 1 = 2uk + 1
= k + 6k 2 + 12k + 8 ⎤⎦ = 2(2k−1(u1 + 1) − 1) + 1
2 ⎣
= 2k(u1 + 1) − 2 + 1
(k + 1)3 (k + 2)3
= = RHS = uk + 1 + 1 = 2k(u1 + 1)
2
Hence S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true. Since S(1) is true then
The result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. But the result by the principle of mathematical induction the result is true
is true for n = 1, and by the principle of mathematical induction, for all positive integral values of n.
it is true for all n ≥ 1. (b) u  r = 2r − 1(1 + 1) − 1 = 2r − 1
r + 2 − r 2
2 (a)  Expression = =
r(r + 1)(r + 2) r(r + 1)(r + 2)
. n n n
( )
2 2n − 1
∑ ∑ur = ∑
2r − 1 = 2r − n =
2 −1
− n = 2n+1 − n − 2

∑∑( ∑ () )
n n n n

∑
r=1 r=1 r=1
1 (b) =1 1 1− 1
r(r + 1)(r n+ 2) 2 ++1) = 1+ 2)
+ 1)(r
1 − 1
r(r n (r
+ + + + 5 n = 1: u2 = (1 + x)u1 − 1x = (1 + x) × 0 − x = −x

( ) (( ) (( ) )( ) ) ((
r(r 1)(r 2) 2 r(r 1) (r 1)(r 2)

)∑ ∑
r=1 1r=1r=1 =1 1 r=1 1

) ()
1 − 1
)
1 1 +u1 =⎤ x1 ⎡⎣1 +−x − (1 +1x ) ⎤⎦ = 0⎤
1
r(r + 1)(r + ⎡2) 2 r(r + 1) (r + 1)(r + 2) S(1):
(r + 1)(r + 2) r=1 = 1 ⎢ 1 − 1r=1+ 1 − 1 + = ...1 +⎡ 1 − 1 + −1 − 1 + ...++ 11 −
−
2⎣ 2 6 6 12 2 ⎢⎣ 2(n −61)n 6n(n12+ 1) (n −+1)n
n(n 1) (n + 1)(n
+ 1) + 2)n(n⎥⎦ + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2) ⎥

) ( ( ) ) (( ) ) ( ) )( )
n(n
( )
u2 = 1 1⎡⎣1 + 2x −⎤(1 + x )2 ⎤⎦ =⎦ 1 ⎡⎣1 + 2x − 1 + 2x + x 2 ⎤⎦ = − x
( ) (
1 ⎡ 11 1 1 1 1 1 S(2):
1
+ −1
6 12
1 + ... +
1
(
−1 1 −
(n − 1)n= 2n(n
1
2 + (n
=+ 1⎢ − −+1 1−
1) + 1)(n2n(n ⎣ 2+ 1)6 = (n6+ 1)(n
+ 2) 2 2 − (n +
1 + ... +⎤ −
12 2)1 ⎥ (n − 1)n n(n + 1)
+ 1)(n⎦ + 2)
+ − x
n(n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2) ⎥⎦
Hence S(1) and S(2) are true.
x

1
1)(n + 2) ) 2 =1 1−
= n + 3n + 2 −22 2 (n = ( )1
n2 ++3n2)+ 2 − 2
+ 1)(n
1
S(k): Assume that uk = ⎡⎣1 + kx − (1 + x )k ⎤⎦ .
x
4(n + 1)(n + 2)2 4(n + 1)(n + 2) S(k + 1): Prove that uk+1 = 1 ⎡⎣1 + (k + 1)x − (1 + x )k+1 ⎤⎦.
2−2 = n + 3n + 2 − 2 x
n(n + 3)
+ 2) = 4(n + 1)(n=+ 2) n(n + 3) Now:
4(n + 1)(n + 2) 4(n + 1)(n + 2) uk+1 = (1 + x )uk − kx
) n(n + 3)
=
4(n + 1)(n + 2)
+ 2) = (1 + x ) × 1 ⎡⎣1 + kx − (1 + x )k ⎤⎦ − kx
1 1 × 4 1 x
(c) n = 1: LHS = ; RHS = = = LHS
Result is true for n = 1.
6 4×2×3 6 1
( )
= ⎡⎣ (1 + x ) 1 + kx − (1 + x )k ⎤⎦ − kx
x
k
k(k + 3) 1
= ⎣⎡ (1 + x ) + kx + kx 2 − (1 + x )k+1 ⎦⎤ − kx
Assume that ∑ 1 =
r(r + 1)(r + 2) 4(k + 1)(k + 2) .
x
= 1 ⎡⎣1 + (k + 1)x + kx 2 − (1 + x )k+1 − kx 2 ⎤⎦
r=1
k+1
(k + 1)(k + 4) x
Prove that ∑r=1
1 =
r(r + 1)(r + 2) 4(k + 2)(k + 3) .
= 1 ⎡⎣1 + (k + 1)x − (1 + x )k+1 ⎤⎦
x
k+1
LHS = ∑
r=1
1
r(r + 1)(r + 2)
Hence S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true. Since S(1) is true then by
the principle of mathematical induction the result is true for all
k(k + 3) 1 positive integral values of n.
= +
4(k + 1)(k + 2) (k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3) 6 S(k) is (x + y)k − xk − yk > 0
k(k + 3)2 + 4 For S(k + 1): (x + y)k + 1 − xk + 1 − yk + 1
= = (x + y)(x + y)k − x × xk − y × yk
4(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
= (x + y)[(x + y)k − xk − yk] + y × xk + x × yk > 0
k(k 2 + 6k + 9) + 4
= using S(k) and x > 0, y > 0
4(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
3 2 7 (a) LHS = sin 2kx + cos(2k + 1)x
= k + 6k + 9k + 4 2 sin x
4(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3) sin 2kx + cos 2kx cos x − sin 2kx sin x
=
(k + 1)(k + 4) 2 sin x
RHS =
4(k + 2)(k + 3) sin 2kx + 2 sin x(cos 2kx cos x − sin 2kx sin x )
=
2 2 sin x
= k + 5k + 4
4(k + 2)(k + 3) = sin 2kx + sin 2x cos 2kx − 2 sin 2kx sin 2 x
2 sin x
=
(
(k + 1) k 2 + 5k + 4 ) sin 2x cos 2kx − sin 2kx(2 sin 2 x − 1)
4(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3) =
2 sin x
3 2 2
= k + 5k + 4k + k + 5k + 4 sin 2x cos 2kx + sin 2kx cos 2kx
4(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3) =
2 sin x
3 2
sin ( 2(k + 1)x )
= k + 6k + 9k + 4 = LHS = = RHS
4(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3) 2 sin x

Answers Chapter 2 273

 (b) For S(k + 1):
sin ( 2(k + 1)x )
LHS = sin 2kx + cos(2k + 1)x = = RHS
2 sin x 2 sin x
using the result of part (a).
8 n = 1: LHS = 1 and RHS = 1
∴ True for n = 1. Assume true for n = k, i.e. assume that:
(x1 + x 2 + x3 + … + x k ) ⎛⎜⎝ x11 + x12 + x13 + … + x1k ⎞⎟⎠ ≥ k 2
Prove true for n = k + 1 if true for n = k.
n = k + 1: LHS = ⎡(x1 + x 2 + x 3 + … + x k ) + x k +1 ⎤ × ⎡⎛⎜ x1 + x1 + x1 + … + x1 ⎞⎟ + x 1 ⎤
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎝ 1 k⎠ k +1 ⎥
⎣ 2 3
⎦
1 1 1 1 1
= (x1 + x 2 + x 3 + … + x k ) × ⎛⎜ x1 + x1 + x1 + … + x1 ⎞⎟ + (x1 + x 2 + x 3 + … + x k ) × x 1 + x k +1 × ⎛⎜ x + x + x + … + x ⎞⎟ + x k +1 × x
⎝ 1 2 3 k⎠ k +1 ⎝ 1 2 3 k⎠ k +1

x x x x k +1 x k +1 x k +1
≥ k2 + x 1 + x 2 + … + x k + x + x + … + x + 1
k +1 k +1 k +1 1 2 k

≥ k2 + 2k + 1 (using a + 1 ≥ 2)
a
= (k + 1)2
∴ True for n = k + 1 if true for n = k.
True for n = 1, ∴ by induction true for all integers n ≥ 1.

9 (a) Assume that x + x < x(x + 1) for some x ≥ 0. Square both 7 (a) 5 i + 6 j + 8 k  (b) −7 i + 35 j + 42 k   (c) −7 i + 5 j + 6 k
     
sides (which are known to be positive): (d) 8 i − 5 j − 5 k  (e) r = 3, s = 2, t = −1 
8 m   
x2 + 2x x + x < x2 + x = −3, n = 2 
2x x < 0 which is a contradiction. 9 RP = (4, 4, −7), RP = 16 + 16 + 49 = 9
   
∴ x + x ≥ x(x + 1) RQ = (1, 2, −2), RQ = 1 + 4 + 4 = 3 ∴ RP = 3 RQ
(b) Verify for n = 1 and n = 2. Assume true for n = 1, 2, …k. 1 11
n = k + 1: 10 p = , q = −
6 12
uk + 1 = u k + kuk − 1 ≥ k! + k (k − 1)! = (k − 1)! × ( k + k) 11 (a) 1   (b) 4   (c) 3   (d) 5   (e) 10   (f) 17

≥ (k − 1)! × k(k + 1) = (k + 1)! EXERCISE 3.2

∴ True for n = k + 1 if true for n = 1, 2, … k.
 1 (a) (i) 1   (ii) 81°52′  (b) (i) 4   (ii) 43°5′
True for n = 1, n = 2, ∴ by induction, true for all integers (c) (i) 24    (ii) 47°28′  (d) (i) −2  (ii) 98°27′
n ≥ 1.  
2 (a) AB = i + 2 j + 3k , CD = 5 i − 10 j − 10 k  (b) 143°18′
     
(c) BC = −4 i + 2 j + 3k , AD = 2 i −6 j − 4 k   (d) 142°34′
CHAPTER 3      
45 14
(e) −3  (f) −
EXERCISE 3.1 14
3 (a) b + c = −2 i − j − 5 k ,
1 1
1 (a) (i) 5 (ii)
5  ( 
)
3 i + 4 j   (b) (i) 13   (ii)
13 
(
−5 i + 12 j

)    
(

)(
  a • ( b + c ) = 2 i + j + 3k • −2 i − j − 5 k = −20 )
1 1         
(c) (i) 25 (ii)
25 (  
)
−7 i − 24 j   (d) (i) 5   (ii) ( 3 i − 4 i )
5      
(
  
)(
a • b + a • c = 2 i + j + 3k • 4 i − 3 j − k

)
17  
2 (a) (i) − i + 4 j   (ii) 17   (iii)
  17 (
−i + 4 j
 
) ( )(
+ 2 i + j + 3k • −6 i + 2 j − 4 k )
1     
(b) (i) 6 i + 8 j  (ii) 10   (iii) 3 i + 4 j
  5  ( 
) = 8 − 3 − 3 − 12 + 2 − 12 = −20


1
(c) (i) 2 i + 2 j + k  (ii) 3   (iii) 2 i + 2 j + k
   3  (  
) Hence a • ( b + c ) = a • b + a • c
      
(b) −100 i + 70 j + 14 k
2
(d) (i) −3 i + 4 j + 5 k   (ii) 5 2  (iii)
   10 (
−3 i + 4 j + 5 k
 
)

  
4 (a) 1   (b) 29   (c) 3   (d)
3
(
i− j−k
3    )
(e) (i) 4 i   (ii) 4   (iii) i
1 1
 
3 (
(e) (i) i − j − k ) (
(ii) 5 i + 13 j − 8 k )
(f) (i) i + j + k  (ii) 3   (iii)
  
(
i+ j+k
3    ) 3   
3 29
3   
5 (a) 8   (b) 11   (c)
3 (a) 2 i + 6 j − k (b) 6 j − 4 k   (c) 42 i − 6 j − 5 k 29
  (e) 62 i + 3k   i + 27 j − 42 k
(d) −12 i − 9 j + 15 k 5 1
1     
(f) −10
   6 (a)
5 ( ) 7  (
2 j + k   (b) ± 2 i − 3 j + 6 k

)
(
4 9, i − 4 j + 8 k
9   
) 
7 (a) 0 (b) 3a ∞b

1 2  
5 a =
 13 
(
12 i + 3 j − 4 k , b =
   10 
) (
4 i − 3 j − 5k ,
 
) 8 (a) (i) −
42 13
13
7
  (ii) − i + 2 j
5  ( )
1 

 7
(
c = −6 i + 2 j + 3k
  
)  (b) (i) −
3 14 1
(
  (ii) − 4 i + 2 j + k )
6 PQ = i − j + 3k , RS = 2 i − 2 j + 6 k = 2 i − j + 3k = 2 PQ
      
(  
) 3 29
14 7   
2 5
∴ PQ || RS. (c) (i)   (ii) i − j + k  (d) (i)   (ii) i − j
29    5  

274 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

   
5 3 5 (a) AB = i + 2 j , BC = 2 i − j , AC = 3 i + j
9 (a) a • b = −5, a • a = 9, b • b = 27  (b) −
      27        
5 5 (b) AB = 5, BC = 5, AC = 10.
(c) ( i + j − 5 k ), − 2 i − 2 j + k
27    9   
( )  2  2  2
  AB + BC = 10 = AC .
1 218
(d) ±
218
(
11i + 9 j − 4 k or ±
   218 )
11i + 9 j − 4 k
  
( ) The triangle is right-angled at B, so∠ABC is a right angle.
10 (a) a • b = 0, a • a = 49, b • b = 49  (b) 0   (c) 0 (c) 3 i − j
        
  
1 1 5
3  (  
)
11 (a) i + 2 j − 2 k   (b) 2 i + 3 j − 6 k   (c)
7   
( 5 
j + 2k

) ( ) 6 (a) OP = 5 i + j , OQ = 3 i + 5 j, PQ = −2 i + 4 j
        1 
(d) (i)
20
49 
2 i + 3 j − 6 k   (ii) 1 9 i + 38 j + 22 k
( ) ( )    
( 
)
(b) AC = −4 i + 8 j = 2 −2 i + 4 j = 2 PQ . Hence PQ = AC .
2
  49    PQ || AC and half its length.
12 a • b = a b cos θ    
    7 OA = i + 2 j , OB = 5 i + 2 j , OC = 4 i − j , OD = 2 i − j
If a • b = a b then cos θ = 1 and θ = 0°. Thus, the vectors a and
 parallel.
b are              
 AC = OC − OA = 3 i − 3 j
13 p = −1     
2 BD = OD − OB = −3 i − 3 j
14 (a) ( )
i + j   (b) 2 i + 2 j , − i + j − 4 k    
2  
15 (a) 76 = 2 19  (b) −
 
13  19 

  (c) 13   (d) 5
2 ( ) (
AC • BD = 3 i − j • 3 − i − j = 9 ( −1 + 1) = 0.
   
)
19 13 Therefore, the diagonals intersect at right angles.
1 22 21 
16 − , , 1  1
21 21 21 8 (a) OM = i + j, ON = i + j (b) 36°52′
The projection of the sum of the vectors equals the sum of the  2 2 
projections of each vector. 9 (a) m = 3
  
17 (a) b − a (b) −a (c) −b (d) − ( a + b ) or − a − b (e) 2 ( b − a )
  
(b) OA = 3i , OC = i + j + k, AC = 1 − 3 i + j + k
  
( )   
           
(f) BD • FC = − ( a + b ) • 2 ( b − a ) OB = OA + AB = 1 + 3 i + j + k ( )
      
= −2 ( a • b − a • a + b • b − b • a )  
        (( )
AC • OB = 1 − 3 i + j + k • 1 + 3 i + j + k ) (( ) )
= −2 b − a

(2


2
) = −2 + 1 + 1 = 0
     

= 0 since a = b since the hexagon is regular. Hence the diagonals of OABC are perpendicular.
      1
Hence BD and FC are perpendicular.
4 1
10 (a) PQ = − mi + 3mj (b) OM = 3mi + 3mj
  2 ( 
) 
 9 (    9
)
18 c = − i + 2 j − 2 k , d = 22 i − j + 10 k
  
( ) (c) O
 
 M • PQ =
1
((
3mi + 3m j • − mi + 3m j)) ( )
2    
19 (a) 14   (b) −2 i − 2 j − 2 k
1
3

2
  (
= −3m − 3 3m + 3 3m2 + 3m2 = 0
2 2
)
20 (a)
3
  (b) ±
2  
j−k ( )  2 
Hence OM ⊥ PQ.
1 8
  3  
(
21 (a) 2 j + 3k  (b) i + 2 j + 2 k   (c) 8   (d)
 3 )   
11 OP = i + j, OQ = 5 i + 4 j , OR = 2 i + 8 j , OS = −2 i + 5 j.

              
22 (a) AC = 3 i + 2 j , DB = 3 i − 2 j PQ = 4 i + 3 j , SR = 4 i + 3 j . PQ = SR so PQ || SR.
  angle is   
(b) 113°. The acute 67°.        
PS = −3 i + 4 j , QR = −3 i + 4 j . PS = QR so PS || QR . Hence
1 1
23 (a) ( )
i + j + 2 k   (b) 60°  (c) i + j + 2 k
2    2   
( )  
PQRS is a parallelogram

(both  pairs of opposite sides parallel).
   
24 120° ( )( )
PQ • QR = 4 i + 3 j • −3 i + 4 j = −12 + 12 = 0 so PQ ⊥ QR
   
EXERCISE 3.3 and PQRS is a rectangle (parallelogram with one angle a right
    angle).
1 (a) AC = (6,12), BC = (2, 4) (b) AC = (6, 12) = 3 ( 2, 4 ) = 3 BC    
    PQ = 5, QR = 5, so PQ = QR . Hence PQRS is a square
(c) Since AC = 3 BC then AC || BC.
As the vectors share a common point, then A, B and C are (rectangle with a pair of adjacent sides equal).
  
collinear. 12 OA = 2 i + j + 2 k , OB = 3 i − j, OC = i − 2 j − 2 k .
      
2 (a) −2 i + 4 j AC = − i − 3 j − 4 k 
           
(b) OA = 5, OB = 5, AB = 2 5 . Since OA = OB ≠ AB ( )(
AC • OB = − i − 3 j − 4 k • 3 i − j = −3 + 3 + 0 = 0.
     
)
then ΔOAB is isosceles. Hence AC ⊥ OB.
(c) 4 i + 2 j   
     AO = 3, AB = i − 2 j − 2 k, AB = 3, so ∆OAB is isosceles with
3 (a) AB = i + 3 j , CB = 6 i (b) OB = 7 i + 3 j , CA = 5 i − 3 j   
    AO = AB so the line from the vertex A perpendicular to the side
 1   1  
(c) ON
 ( )
= 7 i + 3 j , OM = 7 i + 3 j
2  2  ( ) OB bisects OB.
Hence AC bisects OB at right angles.
M and N are the same point, hence the diagonals bisect each   
other.
  13 (a) OP = 4 i + j , OQ = 3 i − 3 j + 4 k , OR = i − 2 j + k .
(d) CP = 2 i − 3 j , BP = −4 i − 3 j    
     
     PQ = − i − 4 j + 4 k , QR = −2 i + j − 3k , RP = 3 i + 3 j − k .
          
4 (a) AB = −2 i + 4 j , OC = 7 i + 2 j
     
    
( 
)(
 • RP = −2 i + j − 3k • 3 i + 3 j − k = −6 + 3 + 3 = 0
QR
  
)
(b) DC = 4 i . OA = 8 i = 2 DC hence DC is parallel to OA and so QR ⊥ RP and ∆PQR is right-angled at R.
equal to half its length.


Answers Chapter 3 275

       1 
1 266 21 AB = x , DC = 2 x , DA = y , BE = BC
(b) QR = 14 , RP = 19 . Area ∆PQR × 14 × 19 = 3
   2 2    A B
14 (a) AB = 3 i + 5 j , BC = −8 i − 2 j , AC − 5 i + 3 j Let AB = b, DA = a, DC = 2b
         
  Now AC = AD + DC = 2b − a E
( 
)( 
)
(b) AB • AC = 3 i + 5 j • −5 i + 3 j = −15 + 15 = 0.
 
  
and DB = DA + AB = a + b
 
Hence ABC is right-angled.     
   1  1 so BC = DC − DB = 2b − a − b = b − a D C
 1     
15 Let OA = a, OB = b. Thus, OP = a and OQ = b and Hence BE = ( b − a )
   2 2 3
    
AB = b − a. 1 2
  1 So DE = DB + BE = a + b + ( b − a ) = ( 2b + a )
1 1 1    3   3  
Now PQ = b − a = ( b − a ) = AB   2
2 2 2   2 AC • DE = ( 2b − a ) • ( 2b + a )
    3  
Hence PQ || AB and is half its length.
 2
= ( 4 b • b + 2b • a − a • 2b − a • a )
16 (
AB = 3 i + j ) 3        
     2  2  2
17 AO + OB + OC = AB + OC
 
D
O
C
(
= 4 AB − DA
3 )
AB = DC 2
     (
= 4x2 − y2 )
AO + OB + OC = DC + OC   3 
  A B 22 OA = a, OB = b, OC = c
= DC − CO     
 AB = b − a, AC = c − a, BC = c − b
= OD       
     OC • AB = 0
AO + OB + CO = AB + CO
  c • (b − a ) = 0
AB = DC   
     c•b − c•a = 0
AO + OB + OC = DC + CO    
c•b = c•a
    
= DO OB • AC = 0
   
18 (a) PQ = PD + DC + CQ A B b • (c − a) = 0
  
1   1  b•c −b•a = 0
= AD + DC + CB    
2 2 P Q
    b•c = b•a
PQ = PA + AB + BQ     
Consider OA • BC = a • ( c − b )
1   1    
= DA + AB + BC D C = a•c − a•b
2 2    
 1   1  1   1  = c • b − b • c from previous two parts.
(b) 2 PQ = AD + DC + CB + DA + AB + BC    
2 2 2 2 =0
 
1  1   1  1   Hence OA is perpendicular to BC.
= AD − AD + DC + CB − CB + AB
2 2 2 2 23 (a) a = 3 i − 4 j − k , b = 2 i + 3 j − 6 k
 
= AB + DC      
a • b = 6 −12 + 6 = 0 
 1   Thediagonals of the parallelogram are perpendicular, so the
(
PQ = AB + DC
2 ) shape is a rhombus.
 
Since AB || DC then AB = kDC (b) a = 26 , b = 7
 1   k + 1   
(
So PQ = kDC + DC =
2 ) 2
DC 5 3
, 72°8′, 107°52′
2
Hence PQ || DC and PQ || AB.
 1    1   24 5 3
 
(
Since PQ = AB + DC then PQ =
2 ) ( 2 )
AB + DC 25 Let OA = a, OC = b where a = b C B
    
since OABC is a rhombus.   
19 Let AB = u = DC, AD = v = BC D C 
     OB = a + b
DB = AB − AD = u − v O   
     AC = b − a
AC = AB + BC = u + v     O A
   OB • AC = ( a + b ) • (b − a )
DB ⊥ AC: DB • AC = 0    
A B = a•b − a•a + b •b − a•b
(u − v ) • (u + v ) = 0  2  2     
   
u•u +u•v − v •u − v •v = 0 =b −a
         
u•u = v •v =0
      A Hence OC ⊥ AC, so the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
20 AB = b − a, BC = c − b, AC = c − a
       26 D isthe A
Now AB ⊥ BC: AB • BC = 0  midpointof AC.
Let BA
   = a and BC = b
(b − a ) • ( c − b ) = 0  D
    BA • BC = 0
b •c − b •b − a•c + a•b = 0 B C
a•b = 0
            1 B C
b •b = a•b + b •c − a•c
 2       AC = b − a so AD = DC = ( b − a )
 2  
b = a•b +b•c − a•c 
       1 1
BD = a + ( b − a ) = ( a + b )
 2  2  

276 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

     
AC = b − a , AB = a , BC = b Consider EH • EF = 1 ( a − b ) • 1 ( b + a )
    2   2  
Now: 1
  1 1 1 = (a • b + a • a − b • b − b • a)
AD = DC = ( b − a ) = b−a =
2 2
b − 2b • a + a
2 4      
2   2   2     1
=
1 2
b + a
2 (=
4 
2
)
a −b

2

2   =0
 1  
1 2 2 1 2 2 Hence EH ⊥ EF and thus, EFGH is a rectangle (parallelogram
and BD = ( a + b ) = b + 2b • a + a = b + a
2   2     2   with one angle 90°).
Hence D is equidistant from the three vertices of ∆ABC.  1
  EH = a − b = 1 ( a − b ) = 1 a + b − 2a • b
2 2 2
27 Given AC = BD , ABCD is a parallelogram. 2   2   2    
   
Let AD = a = BC, AB = b = DC. D C
= 1 2a =
2 2 a
   2  2 
Now AC = b + a and BD = a − b O
    1 1
Hence b + a = a − b EF = a + b =
2   2  
( a + b )2 = 12 a 2 + b 2 + 2a • b
       
2 2
b+a = a−b A B 1 2 2
    = 2a = a
2 2 
2 2 2
b + 2b • a + a = a − 2 a • b + b
2   
        Hence EH = EF , so EFGH is a square (rectangle with a pair
4a • b = 0 of adjacent sides equal).
 
a•b = 0    

    30 Let AD = BC = a, AB = DC = b
Thus, AD ⊥ AB and the parallelogram ABCD is a rectangle.   1      1  
AE = EB = b = DG = GC , AH = HD = a = BF = FC
28 ABCD is a rhombus. E, F, G and H and the midpoints of the 2 2
   1
AB,
sides BC,  CD and
 DArespectively.
 EH = EA + AH = ( a − b ) D
G
C
Let AD = BC = a, AB = DC = b, a = b 2  
  1        1      1
AE = EB = b = DG = GC , AH = HD = a = BF = FC EF = EB + BF = ( b + a )
2 2 2  
   1 H F
   1 D G C
EH = EA + AH = ( a − b ) HG = HD + DG = ( a + b )
2   2  
   1    1
EF = EB + BF = ( b + a ) FG = FC + CG = ( a − b ) A B
2 2  
   1  H
F   1   1
E
HG = HD + DG = ( a + b ) Hence EH = FG = ( a − b ) and EF = HG = ( b + a ), so EFGH
2   2   2  
   1
FG = FC + CG = ( a − b ) is a parallelogram (both pairs of opposite sides parallel).
2   A E B  
  1   1 Now AD ⊥ AB so AD • AB = 0 hence a • b = 0.
Hence EH = FG = ( a − b ) and EF = HG = ( b + a ), so EFGH  
2   2    1
EH = a − b = 1 ( a − b ) = 1 a • b − 2a • b + b • b
2
is a parallelogram (both pairs of opposite sides parallel).
  1 2   2   2      
EH • EF = ( a − b ) • 1 (b + a ) 1 2 2
2   2   = a + b
2  
1
= (a • b + a • a − b • b − b • a)  1
4 EF = a + b = 1 ( a + b ) = 1 a • b + 2a • b + b • b
2
     
1 2   2   2      
= (
4 
2
a −b

)2

= 1 2
a + b
2
2 
= 0 

 
Hence EH ⊥ EF and thus, EFGH is a rectangle (parallelogram Thus, EH = EF , so the parallelogram EFGH has a pair of
with one angle 90°). adjacent sides equal, so it is a rhombus.
29 ABCD is a square. E, F, G and H and the midpoints of the sides 31 RS ⊥ PQ  P
AB, BC, CD and DA respectively. SQ
Prove that EFGH is a square. In ∆SQR, cos Q =  S
    QR
Let AD = BC = a, AB = DC = b, a = b  
  1        1   SQ = QR cos Q
AE = EB = b = DG = GC , AH = HD = a = BF = FC 
2 2 R
   1 D G C
PS
EH = EA + AH = ( a − b ) In ∆SPR, cos P =  Q
2   PR
   1
EF = EB + BF = ( b + a )  
2   H F PS = PR cos P
   1     
HG = HD + DG = ( a + b ) PQ = PS + SQ = PR cos P + QR cos Q
2     
   1
FG = FC + CG = ( a − b ) A E B PQ = PR + RQ
2        
  1   1 PQ • PQ = PR • PQ + RQ • PQ
Hence EH = FG = ( a − b ) and EF = HG = ( b + a ), so EFGH  2    
2   2  
is a parallelogram (both pairs of opposite sides parallel). PQ = PQ PR cos P + RQ PQ cos Q

Answers Chapter 3 277

 
Divide both sides by PQ : (c) Completing the square gives x2 + (y + 1)2 + (z − 1)2 = 2.
   This is a circle with centre (0, −1, 1) and radius 2.
PQ = PR cos P + RQ cos Q z
5
Write this in terms of lengths.
PQ = PR cos P + RQ cos Q 4

32 S R
3

A
2
–4
–4 –3
–3 1
–2 –2
P –1 –1
    Q 00
Let PQ = SR = a, PS = QR = b. 1 1
2
  2 0
Since PQRS is a rectangle, a • b = 0. 3 3
4
     4 –1
Now AQ = a + AP, AS = b + AP y
 2  2  2   2 x
–2
AS + AQ = b + AP + a + AP
     
( ) (
= b + AP • b + AP + a + AP • a + AP ) ( ) ( )
( 12 ) + ( y − 32 ) + ( z + 1) = 32.
2 2
    2
  2   2 (d) Completing the square gives x +
2 2
= b + 2b • AP + AP + a + 2a • AP + AP
This is a circle with centre ( − ,1 , −1) and radius 6 .
    1 1
2 2   2 2 2 2
= a + b + 2 AP ( a + b ) + 2 AP
      5 (x − 3)2 + y2 + (z − 7)2 = 14
Now AR = AQ + b. 6 (x − 4)2 + (y − 5)2 + (z + 2)2 = 38
 2  2  2  2  
AP + AR = AP + a + b + AP 7 (a) AB • AC = −2 + 4 − 2 = 0, ∠BAC = 90°   (b) 3 2
    
 2  2 8 DE = (2, 3, 4), EF = ( −1, 3, −9), DF = (1, 6, −5).
= AP + ( a + b ) + AP  
  DE • DF = (2, 3, 4) • (1, 6, −5) = 2 + 18 − 20 = 0, ∴ ∠EDF = 90°.
 2     
(
= AP + ( a + b ) + AP • ( a + b ) + AP ) ( ) DE = 29, EF = 91, DF = 62.
     2  2  2
 2   2 DE + DF = 29 + 62 = 91 = EF ,
= AP + ( a + b ) • ( a + b ) + 2 ( a + b ) • AP + AP
      ∴ DEF is right-angled at D.
 2 2 2 
= 2 AP + a + b + 2a • b + 2 ( a + b ) • AP 9 (a) (x − 2)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z − 3)2 = 4
     
2 2   2 (b) (x − 2)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z − 3)2 = 9
= a + b + 2 ( a + b ) • AP + 2 AP 7
    10 (a) z =
 2  2 8
= AS + AQ 2

EXERCISE 3.4
(b) x 2 + y 2 =
5 39
8
, z=7
8
Centre 0, 0, ( 7
8), radius
5 39
8
11
1 (a) AB = 3, BC = 3, AC = 26 . Isosceles. 11 (a) y =
4
(b) AB = 66 , BC = 245 , AC = 155 . None of these.
(c) AB = 14 , BC = 59 , AC = 73. ∆ABC is right-angled at B.
11
(b) x 2 + z 2 = 135 , y = 11    Centre 0, , 0 , radius
16 4 4
3
( ) 4
15

(d) AB = 26 , BC = 26 , AC = 26 . Equilateral. 9
12 (a) x = −
8
2 (a) Not collinear (b) Not collinear
(c) Collinear    (d) Collinear
3 (a) (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z − 3)2 = 16
64 8
9
(b) y + z 2 = 735 , x = − 9    Centre − , 0, 0 , radius
2
8 ( ) 735
8

(b) (x + 1)2 + y2 + (z − 5)2 = 3 EXERCISE 3.5

(c) (x − 3)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z − 4)2 = 2.25 x
1 (a) (i) y = + 2 or x − 2y + 4 = 0, x ≥ 0 (ii) r = 2 i + (t + 2) j , t ≥ 0
(d) x2 + (y + 1)2 + (z − 2)2 = 18 2   
4 (a) Completing the square gives (x + 2)2 + (y − 1)2 + (z + 3)2 = 10. 1 1
(b) (i) y = , x > 0   (ii) r = ti + j , t > 0
This is a circle with centre (−2, 1, −3) and radius 10. x   t
2 2
(c) (i) x + y = 4   (ii) r = 2 cos θ i + 2 sin θ j , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
 
z
–6
–8 (d) (i) y = (x − 3)2 − 5 or y = x2 − 6x + 4, x ≥ 3
–8 2
–6
–4 –2
–4    (ii) r = (t + 3) i + (t 2 − 5) j, t ≥ 0
–2
00
 2 
4
2
0
2
4
6  
(
(e) (i) y = 1 − x 3 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (ii) r = u3 i + 1 − u2 j , −1 ≤ u ≤ 1 )
6 8 
8 –2
y (f ) (i) (x − y)2 = 2(x + y), x > 0 (ii) r = ( 2 + s ) i + s 2 − s j , s > 0
 
( )
x 
–4 (g) (i) 2y2 = x + 1, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (ii) r = cos 2θ i + cos θ j, ≤ θ ≤ 2π
2   
y
()
2
x
–6 (h) (i) + = 1 or 3x2 + 4y2 = 12, −2 ≤ x ≤ 2
2 3
(b) Completing the square gives (x − 4)2 + (y + 2)2 + z2 = 14.    (ii) r = 2 cos t i + 3 sin t j , t ≥ 0
  
This is a circle with centre (4, −2, 0) and radius 14 .

278 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 2t 1 − t2 6 (a) x = −1 + 2λ, y = 2 − λ, z = 1 + 3λ
2 (a) (i) x2 + y2 = 1   (ii) r = i+ j, t ∈R
 1 + t  1 + t2 
2
(b) (1, 2, 3) does not lie on the line.
x y x2 y 2
   (3, 0, 7) lies on the line.
(b) (i) sin φ = , cos φ = , 2 + 2 = 1 (c) λ
 = 3, Answers will vary. Two examples are (5, −1, 10) (λ = 3)
a b a b
   (ii) r = a sin φ i + b cos φ j , ϕ ∈R and (−3, 3, −2) (λ = −1).
   7 y–z plane: (0, 6, 2)
(c) (i) y = ±2 x 1 − x 2   (ii) r = sin t i + sin 2t j , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π x–z plane: (3, 0, 5)
   x–y plane: (−2, 10, 0)
(d) (i) (x − 2)2 + (1 − y)2 = 1
   (ii) r = (2 + sin θ ) i + (1 − cos θ ) j , θ ≥ 0 8 (a) C does not lie on AB. (b) C lies on AB. (c) C lies on AB.
 
1 ( )
x y
( ) ( )
(e) (i) x2 − y2 = 4   (ii) r = u + i + u −
 u 
1
u 
j, u ≠ 0
9 (a) b 1 = i − 3 j + k , b 2 = 4 i − 12 j + 4 k , b 2 = 4 i − 3 j + k = 4b 1.
    
Hence the lines are parallel.
     
(f) (i) + = 1 or 4x + 3y − 12 = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, 0 ≤ y ≤ 4 (b) L1 is r 1 = (2 + λ ) i + (1 − 3λ ) j + ( −1 + λ )k .
3 4
   (ii) r = 3cos2 t i + 4 sin 2 t j , t ≥ 0    When x = 1, 2 + λ = 1, λ = −1.  
 2      For λ = −1, y = 1 − 3λ = 4, z = −1 + λ = −2.
y
(g) (i) () x
2
+
3
= 1 or 9x2 + 4y2 = 36    ∴(1, 4, −2) lies on L1.
   L2 is r 2 = ( −2 + 4 λ ) i + (3 − 12 λ ) j + (2 + 4 λ )k .
   (ii) r =
4t
i +
( )
3 1 − t2
j , t ∈R
   When x = 6, −2 + 4λ = 6, λ = 2. y= −21, z = 10. 
 1 + t2  1 + t2     For λ = −2, y = 3 − 24 = −21, z = 2 + 4λ = 10.
x2    ∴ (6, −21, 10) lies on L2.
3 (a) (i) x = 2t, y = t2, t ≥ 0   (ii) y = , x ≥ 0
4 10 b 1 = i − 3 j + 4 k , b 2 = −2 i + 2 j + 2 k .
(b) (i) x = cos 2θ, y = sin 2θ, θ ∈R  (ii) x2 + y2 = 1        
(c) (i) x = 4 cos2 θ, y = 3 sin2 θ, θ ∈ R
 
(
  
) (
b 1• b 2 = i − 3 j + 4 k • −2 i + 2 j + 2 k
 
)
   (ii) 3x + 4y = 12, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, 0 ≤ y ≤ 3 = −2 − 6 + 8
(d) (i) x = t, y = 4at2, t ≥ 0   (ii) y = 4ax2, x ≥ 0
(e) (i) x = 2 − sin θ, y = 1 + cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π =0
   (ii) (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 1 Hence the lines are perpendicular.
1 1 11 (a) r = (2 + λ ) i + (1 − 2 λ ) j + ( −2 + 3λ )k
(f ) (i) x = t + , y = t − , t ≠ 0   (ii) x2 − y2 = 4, x + y ≠ 0   
t
2
t (b) r = (1 − λ ) i + ( −2 + 4 λ )j + (1 − 3λ )k
(g) (i) x = u + 3, y = u − 5, u ∈R    
(c) (i) Not parallel (ii) Not perpendicular (iii) Do not intersect.
   (ii) y = (x − 3)2 − 5 or y = x2 − 6x + 4
2 12 C
x2 y
(h) (i) x = 2 sin t, y = 4 cos t, t ∈R  (ii) + =1
4 16
1 2 1 2 CHAPTER REVIEW 3
(i)   (i) x = t − , y = t + 2 , t ≠ 0   (ii) y = x + 2 21
t
4 x = a cos t, y = a sin t
t 1 (a) (i) − i + 4 j + 2 k  (ii) 21  (iii)
   21 ( − i + 4 j + 2k
  
)
y 109
x
a
= cos t , = sin t
a
(b) (i) 3 i + 6 j + 8 k  (ii) 109    (iii)
   109  (
3i + 6 j + 8k
 
)
1
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1
y2 x2  
 133°19′
(
(c) (i) −2 i + 2 j − k  (ii) 3     (iii) −2 i + 2 j − k
3   
)
+ =1 2 (a) 86°51′ (b) (c) 131°51′
a2 a2 3 (a) Not collinear (b) Collinear
x2 + y2 = a2 29 2
This is the equation of a circle centre (0, 0), radius = a. 4 a =
 29 (   
)
2 i + 3 j − 4 k , b =
 10( 3i − 5 j − 4 k ,
  
)
5 (a), (b) x = 4 cos 3t, y = 4 sin 3t 1
x y
= cos 3t , = sin 3t  7 
(
c = 2 i + 6 j + 3k

)

4 4 2 5 (a) −17 i + 2 j + 19 k   (b) −17  (c) −36
x2 y
sin2 3t + cos2 3t = 1 so + =1   
16 16 6 43°46′
x2 + y2 = 16 is a circle, centre (0, 0), radius = 4 7 Any multiple of 4 i + 4 j + 3k .
(c) r = 4 8 (a) Completing the square  (x + 7)2 + (y − 6)2 + (z + 1)2 = 81.
 gives
   This is a sphere with centre (−7, 6, −1) and radius 9.
EXERCISE 3.6 (b) Completing the square gives (x − 3)2 + y2 + (z + 1)2 = 4.
1 (a) r = (1 + λ ) i + (2 + λ ) j (b) (i) (1, 2) (ii) (0, 1) (iii) (3, 4)   This is a sphere with centre (3, 0, −1) and radius 2.
  x2
2 (a) r = ( −1 + λ ) i + (4 − λ) j + (6 + λ )k 9 (a) (i) y =   (ii) r = 2ti + t 2 j
4
  
1 1 1  
( ) 
(b) (i) − , 3 , 6   (ii) (5, −2, 12)   (iii) (−4, 7, 3)
2 2 2
(b) (i) x2 − y2 = 1
π π
   For − < θ < , the only restriction will be |x| ≥ 1.
3 (a) r = (4 + 4 λ ) i + (2 + 4 λ) j 2 2
      (ii) r = sec θ i + tan θ j
(b) (i) (12, 10)   (ii) (20, 18)   (iii) (36, 34)   
4 (a) r = (2 − 5 λ ) i + (3 − 5 λ ) j + (4 + 3λ )k 10 (a) (i) x = 4t2, y = 2t  (ii) x = y2
   x2
(b) (i) (7, 8, 1)   (ii) (2, 3,4)   (iii) (−3, −2, 7) (b) (i) x = cosec 2θ, y = sec 2θ  (ii) y 2 = 2
x −1
5 r = (4 + 2 λ ) i + 12 j + ( −3 − 3λ )k 11 r = (2 + 2 λ ) i + (19 − 3λ ) j − 31k
6 r = (3 + 3λ ) i + (5 − λ ) j + (7 − 2λ )k   
    12 r = (4 − 2 λ ) i + (3 + 2 λ ) j+ (6 − 3λ )k
   
EXERCISE 3.7 13 AB = (4, 4, 2), CD = (3, −5, 4)
 
1 D 2 B 3 A 4 C AB • CD = (4, 4, 2) • (3, − 5, 4) = 12 − 20 + 8 = 0
5 (a) a = 9   (b) a = −12 ∴ AB ⊥ CD
Answers Chapter 3 279
 2 1
 9   (   9
) 
(
14 c = − 2 i + j − 2 k , d = 13 i − 16 j + 5 k

) (c) 1
⎡ 4 ⎤
(d) ⎢ sin x ⎥ = 1 (1 − 1) = 0
π

1 11 16 ⎣ 4 ⎦− π 4
15 p = , q = −
6 12
(e)   (f)   (g) 4   (h) π   (i)
1 1 9 3−4 2
16 (a) OA = (1, 1, 0), OA = 12 + 12 = 2 2 2 3 2 160
π π
sin θ dθ = ⎡ 1 ⎤ 3 = 2 − 2 = 6 − 2 3
   OB = (1, 0, 1), OB = 12 + 12 = 2
∫
3
(j) ⎢⎣cos θ ⎦⎥ π
π
6 cos 2 θ 3 3
   OC = (0, 1, 1), OC = 12 + 12 = 2 6

EXERCISE 4.2
   AB = (0, −1, 1), AB = ( −1)2 + 12 = 2
1 (a) sin −1 x + C (b) 1 tan −1 x + C (c) cos −1 x + C
   AC = (−1, 0, 1), AC = ( −1)2 + 12 = 2 3 3 3 4
   BC = (−1, 1, 0), AB = ( −1)2 + 12 = 2 2 (a) sin −1 x + C (b) 1 cos −1 3x + C 1
(c) cos −1 2x
+C
3 3 4 2 5
   All lengths are equal, so all faces will be equilateral triangles 3 B
and the shape must be a regular tetrahedron. 4 (a) tan−1 (x + 2) + C (b) tan−1 (x − 3) + C
(b) 60°  (c) 90°
17 (a) m = 0  (b) m = 3 2 ( )
(c) sin −1 x − 1 + C 
4 ( )
(d) sin −1 x − 1 + C
3
1
(e) − (16 − x 2 ) 2 + C (f) sin −1 + x 9 − x 2 + C
9 x
3 2 3 2
CHAPTER 4
(g) 1 sin −1 x − x 1 − x 2 +C (h) sin −1 x
− 4 − x2 + C
2 2 2
EXERCISE 4.1
⎛ ⎞
(i) 1 tan −1 ⎜ x + 2⎟ + C
1 (a) x − 1 sin 2x + C (b) x + 1 sin 4x + C 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 4 2 8
5 (a) π    (b) π    (c) 1    (d)
x 1 x 3 3
(c) − sin x + C (d) + 1 sin 6x + C 18 12 3 8
2 2 2 12
(e) x − 1 sin 6x + C (f) x − 1 sin 8x + C
−1
dx −1 π
∫
−1
2 12 2 16 (e) ⎡ ⎤
2 = ⎣tan (x + 2)⎦ −2 = 4
−2 1 + (x + 2)
x 1
(g) + sin 3x + C x
(h) + 1 sin5x + C 3 3
dx
2 6 2 10
∫
2
(f) 1
= ⎡⎣sin −1 (x − 1)⎤⎦ 12
2 D 2 1 − (x − 1)2 2

3 (a) 1 sin3 x + C
3
(b) 1 tan 2 x + C
2
(c) − 1 cos 4 x + C
4
= sin −1 1 − sin −1 − 1 = π
2 2 3 () ( )
(d) 1 sin5 x + C (e) − 2 cos3 x + C (f) x + 1 cos 2x + C (g) 25 π    (h) 1    (i)
π 3
5 3 2 4 8 3 6
1
( ) ( )
5
(g) − cos x + C (h) sec x + C (i) −cosec x + C 1 1
5 (j) ∫
dx = 1 ⎡tan −1 x − 1 ⎤ = 1 ⎛ 0 − − π ⎞ = π
x 2
−1 (x − 1) + 4 2 ⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥ −1 2 ⎝ 4⎠ 8
∫
2
4 (a) sec x dx = tan x + C   (b) 2 tan + C
2 0
0 ⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
(c) 1 tan 3x + C   (d) 1 tan x + C  (e) − x − 1 sin 4x + C (k) π    (l) ∫
dx = 1 ⎢tan −1 ⎜ x + 1⎟ ⎥ = π
3 2 2 8 4 2
−1 (x + 1) + 3 3⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦ −1 6 3
(f) sin x + C   (g) x + sin x + C  (h) + 1 sin 2x + C
1 2 x 3
2 2 4 (m) 3
dx ⎡ x + 1 ⎤4
∫
4
= ⎢sin −1 5 2 ⎥
2 cos3 x + cos x + C x +C −7
− (x + 12 )
2
−
(i) 3    (j) tan 4 25 ⎣ 2 ⎦− 7
2 4 4

( )
3
x 1 (b) 1 sin 2x − 1 sin3 2x + C = ⎡sin −1 2x + 1 ⎤
4
5 (a) − sin 4x + C
2 8 2 6 ⎣⎢ 5 ⎦⎥ − 7
(c) x − 1 sin 8x + C (d) 3x + 1 sin 2x + 1 sin 4x + C
4

8 64
2 3 1
(e) − cos x + cos x − cos x + C 5
8 4 32 = sin −1
()
2 2 ( )
1 − sin −1 − 1 = π
3
2
3 5
(n) π a   (o) ⎡⎣tan −1 t ⎤⎦
cot x
= tan −1 (cot x ) − tan −1 (tan x )
1 1
(f) sin 6x + sin 2x + C 4 tan x
12
1
2
4
(g) sin x − sin3 x + 1 sin5 x + C
5
= π − x − x = π − 2x
2 2 ( )
6 C
1 3 1
(h) − cos x + cos x + C 5
3 5 EXERCISE 4.3
(i) 1 tan3 x − tan x + x + C
3 1 (a) loge (x + 1) + C, x > −1  (b) loge (2x + 1) + C, x > − 1
2
6 ∫ ∫
cos 4 x (1 − cos 2 x )sin x dx = (cos 4 x − cos6 x )sin x dx
(c) − log e (8 − x ) + C, x < 2 (d) − log e (1 − 2x ) + C , x < 1
1 3 1
3 4 2
= 1 cos7 x − 1 cos5 x + C
7 5 (e) 1 log e (x 2 + 2x + 3) + C, x real (f) 2x + 5 loge x + C, x > 0
π π 2
7 (a) 1 ∫ (1 − cos 2x )dx = 1 ⎡⎢x − sin 2x ⎤⎥ = π − 1
4 4

2 2⎣ 2 ⎦0 8 4 (g) loge (cos x + sin x) + C, 2nπ − π < x < 2nπ + 3π

0
π
4 4
π
1 1
(b) 1 ∫ (1 + cos 2x )dx = 1 ⎡⎢x + sin 2x ⎤⎥
3 3 2
(h) log e (1 + x ) + C , x real   (i) − + C , x real
2 π 2⎣ 2 ⎦π 2 2(1 + x 2 )
6 6
⎛
= 1 ⎜π +
3 π
− −
3⎞ π
= (j) 1 + x 2 + C, x real   (k) 1 log e (2x + 5) + C, x > − 5
2⎝ 3 4 6 4 ⎟⎠ 12 2 2

280 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 (l) − 1 + C, x ≠ − 5 ⎛ 4 + 2 3⎞ ⎛ 1 + 10 ⎞
7 (a) log e ⎜   (b) log e ⎜
2(2x + 5) 2 ⎝ 3 + 5 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

∫ (1 + 2x − 1) dx = x + log (2x − 1) + C, x > 2

2 1 ⎛ 5 + 26 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(m) e (c) log e ⎜   (d) log e ⎜ 3 + 2 2 ⎟
⎝ 3 + 10 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2+ 3 ⎠
(
(n) loge (sec x) + C, 2n − 1 π < x < 2n + 1 π
2 2 ) ( )
(o) loge (1 + sin x)2 + C, x ≠ 2n − 1 π
2 ( ) EXERCISE 4.4
1 A
(p) x + 1 log e (x 2 + 1) + C, x real ⎛ tan x ⎞
2
x 2 2 (a) log e 2 − cos x + C (b) 2 tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ +C
(q) − 3x − 5 log e (x − 2) + C, x > 2 5 ⎜ 5 ⎟
2 −2 + C ⎝ ⎠

∫( ) (c) 1 + tan x
(r)  x 2 − x + 1 − 1 dx 2
x +1
3 2 ( )
3 (a) loge 2 + 3   (b) log e 3   (c) π
2
= x − x + x − log e (x + 1) + C, x > −1 3 3
3 2
( )
x
2 −1 ⎛ tan 2 ⎞ 4 tan −1 3 tan θ − θ + C
4 (a) tan ⎜ +C   (b)
1 2
(s) log e (x + 6x − 7) + C, x ≠ −7, 1 3 ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 3 2
2 θ − 1⎞
( )
⎛ 2 tan
(t) loge (sin x) + C, 2nπ < x < (2n + 1)π (c) 2 tan −1 tan θ − 4 tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ +C
2 3 ⎝
2 A 3 ⎠

3 (a) ln 3 (b) 3 ln 7
4 3
(c) ln 13
7 () ( ) (d)
2
2 tan
( 2 tan x2 ) + C  (e) log
−1
e
sin(x ) + 1 + C
1
(d) 1 + loge 3 (e) 3 + log e 10 (f) 13 − 1 log 5 (f) tan x + C  (g) C − log e 1 − tan 2 x
2 12 16 e 2 2

(g) 17 + 11 loge 2 (h) 3 log e 5 (i) 7 + loge 2 5 (a) 1 × dt 2 = dt dt

2 2 2 ∫1+ 2t 1+t 1 + t 2 + 2t
= ∫ ∫ (1 + t )2

7 5 1
(j) log e 5 − (k) log e 3 (l) loge 2 1 + t2
8 2 2 = − 1 +C = C − 1
t +1 tan x + 1
3
(m) ⎡⎢ 1 + x 2 ⎤⎥ = 10 − 5    (n) 1   (o) 9 2t × 1 dt = t dt
⎣ ⎦2 4
2
(b) ∫1−t 2
1+ 1 − t 2 ×
1 + t 2
1 − t2 ∫
2
⎛ 2 2 1⎞ ⎡ x3 1 ⎤
(p) loge 2   (q)
∫
2
⎜⎝ x − x + 4 ⎟⎠ dx = ⎢ 3 − 2 log e x − 3 ⎥ 1+t
1 x ⎣ 3x ⎦1
= C − 1 log e 1 − t 2 = C − log e 1 − tan 2 x
2
= 21 − 2 log e 2
8
6 (a) x = , t = tan π = 1 . x = 2π , t = tan π = 3
π
(r) loge 2 (s) log e 1 + e
2
(t) loge 2 ( )    2 π
3 6 3
2
3 3

= 1 1 + t × 2dt2
3 dx
3

⎛
1 ⎞
x
∫
π sin x 2t ∫
1+t
4 (a) × ⎜1 + ⎟
3 3
2 2
x+ x −a ⎝ x −a ⎠
2 2
3
dt
1 2
x −a +x 2
1
= ∫ 1 t
= × = 3

x + x 2 − a2 x 2 − a2 x 2 − a2 = [ log e t ]
3
1
(b) log e x + x 2 − a 2 + C 3

⎛ ⎞
1 ⎛ x⎞ = log e 3 − log e ⎜ 1 ⎟
5 (a) × ⎜1 + ⎝ 3⎠
2 2 2⎟
x+ x +a ⎝ x +a ⎠
2
= 1 log e 3 + 1 log e 3 = log e 3
2 2
1 x 2 + a2 + x 1
= × = (b) x = 0, t = 0. x = , t = tan π = 1
π
x + x 2 + a2 x 2 + a2 x 2 + a2 2 4
2π
dx 1
1 × 2dt2
(b) log e x + x 2 + a 2 + C ∫ 0 5 + 4 cos x
= ∫ 0 (
4 1 − t2 1+t)
5+
6 (a) log e x + x 2 − 1 + C   (b) log e x + x 2 + 1 + C 1 + t2
1
dt
(c) log e x − 2 + x 2 − 4x + 3 + C =2 2∫
0 5 + 5t + 9 − 4t
2

1
dt
(d) log e x + 3 + x 2 + 6x + 13 + C =2
0 9+t
2 ∫
(e) log e x − 5 + x 2 − 5x + 7 + C 1
2 = 2 ⎡⎢ tan −1 t ⎤⎥
3⎣ 3⎦0
(f) log e x + 1 + x 2 + x + 1 + C
2
 
= 2 tan −1 1
3 3 ()

Answers Chapter 4 281

 (c) x = 0, t = 0. x = π , t = tan π = 1 9 t = tan θ , dθ = dt 2 . θ = 0, t = 0. θ = π , t = 1
3 6 3 1+t 4
2t π 1
π dθ 1 × dt 2
∫ ∫
1 4
3 tan x
2
=
∫ dx = 3 1 − t 2 × 2dt2
∫ 2 + sin 2θ 2t 1+t
0 1 + cos x
0 0
2+
1 + 1 − t2 1 + t
0
1 + t2
1+t 1
=1 dt
1
t 2 ∫ 2
=4 ∫ 0
3
1 + t2 + 1 − t2
dt 0 1+t +t
1
dt
=1 ∫
( )
1
2 1
2

∫
t +3
0
=4 3
dt t+
0 (
2 1 − t2 ) 2 4
1
1 ⎡ ⎛t+ 1⎞⎤
= − ⎡⎣ log e 1 − t ( 2
) ⎤ 3 = 1 × 2 ⎢ tan −1 ⎜ 3 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎦0 2 3 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 0

 
= − log e 1 − 1 − 0 = log e 3
3 ( )
2 () ⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
= 1 ⎢ tan −1 ⎜ 2t + 1 ⎟ ⎥
1

π π
(d) x = 0, t = 0. x = , t = tan = 1 3⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦0
2 4
π ⎛ −1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞
2
∫
dx
0 3 − cos x − 2 sin x
=
1
1
2 ∫ × 2dt2 = 1 ⎜ tan −1
3⎝
( 3 ) − tan ⎜⎝ ⎟
3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
3 − 1 − t 2 − 4t 2 1 + t
0

( )
1+t 1+t 3π
1
dt = 1 π −π = π =
3 3 6 18
=2 2 2 ∫
0 3 + 3t − 1 + t − 4t
6 3
1
dt
=2 2
0 4t − 4t + 2 ∫ π
10 x = , t = tan =
3
π
6
1 . x = π , t = tan π = 1
3 2 4
1 π
dt dx
=2 2
0 (2t − 1) + 1 ∫ I= π
3
2
∫
12 sin x − 5cos x + 13

( )
1
= ⎡ tan −1 2t − 1 ⎤
1
1 × 2dt2
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ 0 = ∫ 1
2t ⎛ 1 − t2 ⎞ 1+t
12 × −5×⎜ + 13
⎝ 1 + t 2 ⎟⎠
3
= tan −1 1 − tan −1 (−1) 1 + t2

( )
1
2dt
 
= π − −π = π
4 4 2
= ∫ 1
3
24t − 5 + 5t 2 + 13 + 13t 2
dθ 1 × 2dt2
7
∫ ∫
1
= 2dt
1 + cos θ + sin θ
1+ 1 − t 2
+ 2t 1+t = ∫ 1
3
18t 2 + 24t + 8
1 + t2 1 + t2
1
dt
= ∫
2dt
1 + t 2 + 1 − t 2 + 2t
= ∫ 1
3
9t 2 + 12t + 4

= dt ∫
1
dt
1+t = ∫ 1
3
(3t + 2)2
= ln 1 + t + C
1
= −1 ⎡⎢ 1 ⎤⎥
= ln 1 + tan θ + C 3 ⎣ 3t + 2 ⎦ 1
2 3
π π
x = , t = tan = 1 ⎛ ⎞
8 x = 0, t = 0. = −1⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
3 6 3 3⎝ 5
π 1
3 + 2⎠
dx 1 × 2dt2
∫ ∫
3
= 3
⎛ 3 − 2⎞
1 + cos x − sin x 1 − t 2
2t 1+t = −1⎜ 1 −
−1 ⎟⎠
0 0
1+ − 3⎝ 5
1 + t2 1 + t2
1 9−5 3
2dt =
= ∫ 0
3
1 + t + 1 − t 2 − 2t
2 15
1
2dt CHAPTER REVIEW 4
= ∫ 0
3
2 − 2t
1 (a) π (b) π
(c) 0
(d) 1
1 3 8
dt
= ∫ 0
3
1−t 2 (a) x +C
2
(b) x + tan −1 x − 1 log e (x 2 + 1) + C
1
1− x 2 2 2
= [ − log e (1 − t )] 0 3 2
(c) x − 2x + 1 + 3 log e x + 1 + C
⎛ ⎞ 2 x +1
= − log e ⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟ + 0
⎝ 3⎠ 1 1 + 2e
3 (a) 1 (b) log e 2 (c) 2 log e 3
6
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3+ 3⎞
= log e ⎜ = log e ⎜ (d) π + 2 (e) 6 1
⎝ 3 − 1 ⎠⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 64 3

282 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 4 (a)
π 3 (b) 3π + 8 (c) 3 − π 13 x = 0, t = 0. x = π ,t =1
6 32 3 2
π 1
1 1 × 2dt2
81π
∫ ∫
2
dx =
5
16 0 3sin x + 4 cos x + 5 0
6t + (
4 1 − t2 ) +5 1+t

6 (a) log e x − 2x + C 2
(b) x − cos 2x + C 1 + t2 1 + t2
2 1
2dt
(c) 1 sin3 x + C
3
(d) sec x + C
= ∫ 2
0 6t + 4 − 4t + 5 + 5t
2

1
(e) tan x − x + C (f) 4x − sin 4x + C
2dt
32
= ∫
2
0 t + 6t + 9

(g) +x sin 2x + C (h) 3x + sin 2x + sin 4x + C 1

2dt
2
1
4
1 17
8
π
4 32 = ∫
0 (t + 3)
2

7 (a) (b) log e (c) 1

12 8 5 4
π = −2 ⎡⎢ 1 ⎤⎥
(d) 1 (e) (f) π ⎣t + 3⎦0
6 4
8 (a) −ecos x + C
3
5
3
(b) 2 (x + 2)(x − 3) 2 + C
4 3 ( )
= −2 1 − 1 = 1
6
(c) 2 (x − 5)x 2 + C (d) − 1 +C 14 y
5 32(x 2 − 2)2 2.5
1
(e) − cos3 x + C (f) loge (sin x) + C
3 2
(g) −2 1 + cos θ + C
1.5
9 (a) − cosec 2θ + C (b) − 1 e − x + C
2
1
2 2 B
(c) loge (x2 + 1) + C (d) 1 sin(x 2 ) + C 0.5
2 A π
(e) 1 tan3 x + C O 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 x
3
–0.5
10 (a) 1 − π   (b) 2    (c) 1 − π
4 4 –1

( )
2
⎡
(d) log e x + 1 ⎤ = log e (e) ⎣log e (x + 1)(x + 4)⎤⎦1 = log e 9
5 ⎡
2

⎣⎢ x + 4 ⎦⎥1 4 5
π π
11 x = − , t = −1. x = , t = 1.
2 2 2 ( )
A π , 0 . For B: 2 = cos2 x , 2 sin2 x = 3 cos x,
3 sin x
π 1 2 cos2 x + 3 cos x − 2 = 0, (2 cos x − 1)(cos x + 2) = 0
dx 1 2dt
∫ ∫ ( )
2
= 2 ×
− π 2 + cos x −1
2+ 1 − t 1 + t2 ∴ x = π : B π , 2
2
2 3 3 3
1+t
( )
π
Area = 1 × π − π × 2 − π cos2 x dx ∫
1
2dt 2
= 2 ∫
−1 2 + 2t + 1 − t
2 2 2 3 3 3 sin x
1 π
2dt
= 2
−1 t + 3 ∫ 18 ⎣ sin x ⎦ π 18 ⎝
⎛ ⎞ π + 18 − 12 3
= π − ⎡⎢ −1 ⎤⎥ = π + ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ =
2

3⎠ 18
units 2
1 3
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
= 2 ⎢ tan −1 ⎜ t ⎟ ⎥
1
⎛ 2 ⎞ dx = ⎡− x + 2 tan −1 x ⎤1
3⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦ −1
15 Area =
−1
⎜⎝ −1 + ∫ ⎟
1 + x2 ⎠ ⎣ ⎦ −1

⎛
3⎝
⎛
⎝ 3⎠
⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎞
= 2 ⎜ tan −1 ⎜ 1 ⎟ − tan −1 ⎜ −1 ⎟ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠⎠
( 4 4)(
= −1 + 2π − 1 − 2π = π − 2 units 2 )
y2
( )
2

= 2 π +π =
2 3π 16 x + = 1, y = 3 4 − x 2 :
4 9 2
3 6 6 9
2
3
12 (a) y Area = 4
0 2 ∫
4 − x 2 dx = 6π units 2

4 17 (a) x = 0, t = 0. x = π , t = 1
x(3 – x) π 2
y= dx = 1 1 × 2dt2
∫ ∫
2
x–1
2 0 1 + sin x 0
1 + 2t 2 1 + t
1+t
1
2dt
–4 –2 O 2 4 x = 2
0 1 + t + 2t ∫
–2 y = 2 –x 1
2dt
=
0 (t + 1)
2 ∫
( )
1
0
x(3 − x ) 0
2 dx = ⎡⎢ −2 ⎤⎥
(b) Area = ∫ −3
2−x −
x −1
dx = ∫ −3 1 − x
⎣t +1⎦0
0 = −1 + 2 = 1
= ⎡⎣−2 log e (1 − x )⎤⎦ −3 = 2 log e 4 ≈ 2.773 units 2

Answers Chapter 4 283

 π π
(b) sin x dx = 1 + sin x − 1 dx 2 − 3 − 4
∫ ∫ (b) RHS =
2 2
0 1 + sin x 0 1 + sin x x − 2 2x + 1 (2x + 1)2
2
2(2x +
2(2x 1)2 −
+ 1) 3(x −
− 3(x 2)(2x +
− 2)(2x 1) −
+ 1) 4(x −
− 4(x − 2)
(1 − 1 + sin1 x )dx
π
= 2)
∫ =
2
= (x − 2)(2x + 1)2
2
0 (x − 2)(2x + 1)
π 8x 22 + 8x + 2 − 6x 2
6x 2 + 9x +
+ 9x +2 66 − 4x +
− 4x + 88
= [t ] − 1 2 = 8x + 8x +(x2 −− 2)(2x
=
+ 1)2
0 (x − 2)(2x + 1)
= π −2
2
2x 2 + 13x + 16
= 2x + 13x + 162 =
= (x LHS
2
(x −− 2)(2x 1)2 = LHS
+ 1)
2)(2x +
CHAPTER 5 8 (a) a = −3, b = 5, c = 2 (b) a = −1, b = −1, c = 2
EXERCISE 5.1 EXERCISE 5.3
1 D x −3 +C
1 (a) log e (b) log e x − 2 + C
     
2 (a) 1 − 1 (b) 1 + 1 x −1 x +1
x −1 x + 3 x+2 x−3
(c) 1 + 2 (d) 1 − 2 + 3 (c) 1 log e x − 4 + C   (d) log e x 2 − 1 + C
x x +1 x x −1 x + 2 6 x+2
3 (a) 1 − 1 (b) 1 + 2 (e) log e (x − 1)2 (x + 1) + C   (f) log e (x − 3)(x − 2) + C
x −1 x + 2 x−2 x+3
3 2 2 D
(c) − (d) 1 + 2 − 3
4 C
x−2 x+2 x x−3 x+4 3 (a) log e x + 1 − 1 log e (x 2 + 1) + C (b) log e x + 2 − tan −1 x + C
2 2
5 (a) 1 − 1 + 4 (b) 1 − 3 + 9
(c) log e x − 1 − tan −1 x + C  (d) log e x + 3 + 1 tan −1 x + C
3(x + 1) 3(x − 2) x−2 x−4 3 3
(c) 1 − 3 + 3
(d) 4 + 3 (e) log e x − 2 + 1 tan −1 x + C
2(x + 3) 2(x − 3) 7(x − 4) 7(x + 3) 2 2
6 (a) 4 − 5
x + 3 2x − 1
(b) 3 + 2
x+3 x−2 2 (
(f) log e x − 5 − 1 log e x 2 + 3 + C )
(c) 3 + 4 (d) 2 + 3 − 4 4 (a) tan −1 x − 1 tan −1 x + C  (b) 4 tan −1 x − tan −1 x + C
3x + 1 x + 8 x + 2 x +1 x − 3 3 3 4
−1 x −1 x
(e) 5 + 4 (f) 8 − 5 (c) tan −1
− tan x + C (d) 1 tan − 1 tan −1 x + C
x−3 x+3 2x + 3 x + 2 2 2 2 3 3
⎛ x 2 + 4⎞ −1 x
(g) 2 + 4 − 3   (h) 1 + 1 − 1 − 8 1
(e) log e ⎜ 2 1 2
+ C  (f) log e (x + 9) − 1 tan +C
x−2 x+2 x 5(x − 1) 5(2x + 3) 2 ⎝ x + 5 ⎟⎠ 2 3 3
7 4 + 3 − 2
x +1 x + 2 x + 3 (x + 2)5
5 (a) log e + C  (b) log e (x − 3)5 (x + 3)4 + C
(x −1)3
EXERCISE 5.2
1 C (c) log e (x + 1)3 x 2 + 1 − 3 tan −1 x + C
2 (a) 21 − 2 1 (b) 21 − 2 1 (x − 2)4
x +1 x + 4 x +1 x + 9 (d) 2x + log e + C   (e) log e (x − 1)2 + 3 tan −1 x + C
(x + 2)3
(c) 2 4 − 21 (d) 23 − 2 1 (f) 15 log x − 1 + 9 log x + 3 − 2 log x + 1 + C
x + 4 x +1 x +1 x + 2 4 e 4 e e
3 (a) 3x2 − 2 − 2 (b) 22x + 1 − 1
x +1 x − 2 x + x +1 x + 2 (x + 3)4 (x − 3)5
(g) log e + C   (h) log e +C
(d) 4 − 2 x − 1
5
(c) 2 − 3 + 3x + 2 (2x −1) 2 2x −1
x − 1 x + 1 x2 + 1 x x + x +1
4 B ⎛ x ⎞
(i) log e ⎜ ex + 1 ⎟ + C
⎝ e + 2⎠
5 (a) 1 + 2 2   (b) 1 + 3 + 3x − 1
x + 2 x − 2x + 5 2(1 − x ) 2(1 + x ) 1 + x 2
( ) ( )
4

(c) x − 1 + 2 − 3x2 − 1   (d) x + 1 + 2 2x + 2 6 (a) 1 5 log e 8 + log e 2   (b) ⎡log e x ⎤ = log e 16

x +1 x +1 x − 2 x + 2x + 4 6 7 ⎣⎢ x + 1 ⎦⎥3 15

(e) 2 + x − 1   (f) 2 − x2 − 1 (c) log e 3 − log e 5 (d) log e 3 (e) log e 3 (f) log e 72
1 1 1
3(x − 1) 3(x 2 + x + 1) 2x + 1 x + 1 2 2 4 25
12 1 ⎛ −1 π π ⎞ 7
6 (a) a = 4, b = 1 (b) a = 3, b= −4 7 (a) 1 + log e (b) ⎜ tan 3 − − ⎟ (c) 4 log e + log e 2
5 2⎝ 6 3 4⎠ 6
(c) a = 3, b = 4 (d) a = 2, b = 5 8 1 + log e 3
3 4 2 2 4
7 (a) RHS = − + x 2 + 1 + (1 − x )(x + 1) x 2 + 1 + x + 1 − x 2 − x
2x + 3 x − 2 (x − 2)2 9 (a) RHS = =
(x + 1)(x 2 + 1) x3 + x2 + x + 1
2
3(x − 2) − 4(2x + 3)(x − 2) + 2(2x + 3) 2
= = 3 = LHS
(2x + 3)(x − 2)
2
x + x2 + x + 1
2
2 2 ⎛ 1 1 − x ⎞ dx
=
3x − 12x + 12 − 8x + 4x + 24 + 4x + 6
2
(b) ∫1
⎜⎝ x + 1 + 2 ⎟
x + 1 x 2 + 1⎠
(2x + 3)(x − 2) 2
2
−5x − 4x + 42 = ⎡⎢ log e x + 1 + tan −1 x − 1 log e (x 2 + 1)⎤⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦1
= 2
= LHS
(2x + 3)(x − 2) 1 9
= log e − + tan 2π −1
2 10 4
284 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12
 ⎛ ⎞
= 1 1 − ∫
1 dt
2 2 ⎜⎝ (t + 1 − 2 ) (t + 1 + 2 ) ⎟⎠
(
= 1 log e t + 1 − 2 − log e t + 1 + 2 + C
2 2
)
2
10 (a) 1 ≡ (a + b)x + (b + c)x + c: a = 1, b = −1, c = 1
= 1 log e t + 1 − 2 + C
(b) log e x x+ 1 − 1x + C 2 2 t +1+ 2
11 (a) 4x − 7 ≡ a(x − 2) + b: a = 4 , b = 1 = 1 log e tan x + 1 − 2 + C
2 2 tan x + 1 + 2
(b) 4 log e x − 2 − 1 + C
x−2
1 log ⎛ tan 2 + 3 − 2 2 ⎞ + C
x
dx
12 (a) a = −3, b = 5, c = 2   (b) log e
(x − 2)5
− 2 +C
(x + 3)3 x − 2
22 ∫ 1 + 3sin x = 4 2
e⎜ ⎟
⎝ tan x2 + 3 + 2 2 ⎠

13 (a) a = 0, b = 4, c = 3   (b) log e (x − 2)3 − 4 + C (1 + sin x ) dx =

2
3 tan −1 ⎛ tan x ⎞ − x + C
x +1
2
23
∫ 1 + cos 2
x 2
⎜⎝
2 ⎠
⎟
14 (a) a = 1, b = −1, c = −1 (b) ⎡⎢log e x + 1 ⎤⎥ = log e 4 − 1
⎣ x + 1 x + 1⎦1 3 6 EXERCISE 5.4
1⎛ ⎞
2x + 2x − 4 + 1 1 C
15 ∫⎜
0 ⎝4 − x
2
x 2 − 4x + 5 (x − 2)2 + 1⎟⎠
dx
5 3
2 (a) −4 (4 − x ) 2 − 2 (4 − x ) 2 + C , x ≤ 4
1 15 3
= ⎡⎣− log e (4 − x 2 ) + log e (x 2 − 4x + 5) + tan −1 (x − 2)⎤⎦ 2

0
(b) x + 1 tan x − x + C  (c) −x cos x + sin x + C
−1
8 π
= log e − + tan 2 −1 2 2
15 4 (d) 1 sin 2x − x cos 2x + C   (e) x sin 2x + 1 cos 2x + C
x 2 − x(x − 3) − 3(x − 3) 4 2 2 4
16 (a) RHS =
9(x − 3)x 2 (f) x sin −1 2x + 1 1 − 4x 2 + C, x ≥ −1
2
2 2
(g) x sin(2x + 1) + 1 cos(2x + 1) + C
= x − x + 3x − 23x + 9 = 1 = LHS 2 4
9(x − 3)x (x − 3)x 2
(h) x cos −1 2x − 1 1 − 4x 2 + C, x ≤ 1
6
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 2
(b) Area = ∫ − 1 − 1 dx
4 ⎝⎜ 9(x − 3) 9x 3x 2 ⎟⎠ ⎛ 2 ⎞
(i) ⎜ x − 1 ⎟ sin −1 x + x 1 − x 2 + C , x < 1
⎝ 2 4⎠ 4
( )
6
= ⎡1 log e x x− 3 + 1 ⎤
3
2
3 (a) (x + 1) 2 (3x − 2) + C, x ≥ −1
⎣⎢9 3x ⎦⎥ 4 15
(b) −x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + C
= 1 log e 2 − 1 ≈ 0.049 units 2
9 36 ⎛ 2 ⎞
(c) ⎜ x − 1 ⎟ cos −1 x − x 1 − x 2 + C , x ≤ 1
(2x8+ 3 − x 5+ 2) dx ⎝ 2 4⎠
1 4
∫
2
17 Area =
−1
2
(d) x2 sin x + 2x cos x − 2 sin x + C
1 2 2
= ⎡⎣4 log e (2x + 3) − 5 log e (x + 2)⎤⎦ − 12
(e) −(x + 1) e−x + C   (f) x log e x − x + C
2 2 4
−x x
= 4 log 2 + 5 log 3 ≈ 0.218 units 2 4 (a) − e (sin x + cos x ) + C   (b) e (sin x + cos x ) + C
e e 5
2 2
18 (a) a = 2, b = 1, c = −1 −x
(c) e (sin x − cos x ) + C
⎛ ⎞ 2
(b) ⎜ ∫
2 + 1 − 1 dx = log e x − 2 − 2 + C
⎝ (x − 2)2 x − 2 x + 3 ⎠⎟ x+3 x−2 x
( )
(d) ⎡⎣ sin log e x − cos log e x ⎤⎦ + C
2 ( )
1 ⎛
2x − 2 − 2x ⎞ dx
19 ∫ ⎜
2
−1 ⎝ 4 + (x − 1)
2 − 2
x − 2x + 5 2 − x 2 ⎟⎠ 2 ( )
(e) x ⎡⎣ sin log e x + cos log e x ⎤⎦ + C ( )
(f) x tan −1 x − 1 log e (1 + x 2 ) + C
( )
1
= ⎡ tan −1 x − 1 − log e x 2 − 2x + 5 + log e 2 − x 2 ⎤ 2
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥ −1 5 (a) π − 1   (b) 2   (c) π
2 8
(
= 0 − log e 4 + log e 1 − tan −1 (−1) − log e 8 + log e 1 ) (d) 5π −
12
3 −1
2
   (e) 0   (f) 1 −
4
2(4 − π )
32
= −2 log e 2 + π + 3log e 2 = log e 2 + π
4 4 6 (a)
3 π
4 12
1 π
−   (b) e 2 + 1   (c) e − 2
2 ( 2
)e
3
20 (a) a = 1, b = 2, c = −1
⎛ ⎞
(d) 1  (e) 2 log e 2 − 3   (f) 1 e 2 − 1
4 2
π
( )
(b) ⎜ 1x + 22 − 1 ⎟ dx = log e x − x2 − log e x + 1 + C
∫
⎝ x x + 1⎠ 7
(g) 5 log e 2 −   (h)
9
5 3π 1
18 2
2 −π
− log e 3  (i) − e + e 2
5
−π
( )
= log e x − x2 + C 7 B
x +1 a a
dx 1 × dt = dt ∫
8 Area = log e x dx = ⎡⎣x log e x − x ⎤⎦1 = a log e a − a + 1
21 ∫ sin 2x − cos 2x = ∫ 2t − 1 − t 2 1 + t 2 ∫ 2t − 1 + t 2
EXERCISE 5.5
1

1 + t2 1 + t2
dt dt dx (
1 (a) d sin x cosn −1 x )
∫ =
(t 2 + 2t + 1) − 2
= ∫
(t + 1)2 − 2 = cos x cosn −1 x + sin x × (n − 1)cosn − 2 x × (− sin x )
dt
=∫
(t + 1 − 2 )(t + 1 + 2 ) ( )
d sin x cosn −1 x = cosn x − (n − 1)sin 2 x cosn − 2 x
dx

= 1
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ( )
cosn x = d sin x cosn −1 x + (n − 1)sin 2 x cosn − 2 x
−∫
2 2 ⎝ (t + 1 − 2 ) (t + 1 + 2 ) ⎟⎠
⎜ dt dx
∫ ∫
cos x dx = sin x cosn −1 x + (n − 1) sin 2 x cosn − 2 x dx
n

(
= 1 log e t + 1 − 2 − log e t + 1 + 2 + C
2 2
)
From here the recurrence relation is found as in Example 25
(see page 148).
= 1 log e t + 1 − 2 + C
2 2 t +1+ 2 Answers Chapter 5 285
1 tan x + 1 − 2
 π
π
(b) (i) I 6 = ⎡⎢1 sin x cos5 x ⎤⎥ + 5 I 4 = 5 I 4 ,
2
(b) I5 = 4 I 3 , I 3 = 2 I1, I1 =
π

∫
cos x dx = [sin x]02 = 1
2
⎣6 ⎦0 6 6 5 3 0
I5 = 4 × 2 × 1 = 8
π

I 4 = ⎡⎢ 1 sin x cos3 x ⎤⎥ + 3 I 2 = 3 I 2
2
5 3 15
⎣4 ⎦0 4 4
1
π
∫
5 (a) sinn x dx = sinn −1 x sin x dx ∫
∫
2
I2 = (1 + cos 2x )dx
2 0
∫
= sinn −1 x (− cos x ) − (n − 1) sinn − 2 x cos x (− cos x )dx
( )
π

= ⎡⎢x + 1 sin 2x ⎤⎥ = 1 π + 0 = 0 = π
2

⎣
5
2
3 π
⎦0 2 2
5 π
4
∫
= − sinn −1 x cos x + (n − 1) sinn − 2 x (1 − sin 2 x )dx
∴ I6 = × × =
6 4 4 32 = − sin n −1
x cos x + (n − 1) ∫ sin n−2
x dx − (n − 1) sinn x dx ∫
π π

∫ ∫
2 2
sin6 x dx = (1 − cos 2 x )3 dx
(ii)
0 0 ∫
∴ n sinn x dx = − sinn −1 x cos x + (n − 1) sinn − 2 x dx ∫
( ) ∫ sin
π
1 sinn −1 x cos x + n − 1
= ∫ (1 − 3cos x + 3cos ∫
2 2 4 6 n n−2
x − cos x )dx sin x dx = − n n x dx
0
π π π π
I = ∫ cos x dx : (b) ∫ sin 4 x dx = − 1 ⎡⎣sin3 x cos x ⎤⎦ + 3 ∫
2 6 6 6
6 sin 2 x dx 6
0 0 4 0 4 0
π π
π

∫ sin x dx = ∫ dx − 3I + 3I − I ⎛ 3⎞
= −1⎜ ⎟ + 3
2 6 2

∫
6
2 4 6 (1 − cos 2x )dx
0 0 4 ⎝ 16 ⎠ 8 0
= π − 3 × π + 3 × 3 × π − 5π = 5π 3 3⎡
π

+ x − 1 sin 2x ⎤⎥
6
2 4 4 4 32 32 =−
π π
64 8 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎦0
∫ ∫
2 2
(iii) cos 4 x sin 2 x dx = cos 4 x (1 − cos 2 x )dx
0 0 3 3 ⎛π 3⎞ π 7 3
=− + − = −
= I 4 − I 6 = 3π − 5π = π 64 8 ⎜⎝ 6 4 ⎟⎠ 16 64
π π
16 32 32
(iv) ∫
4
sec 4 x dx = ∫
4
sec 2 x sec 2 x dx n ∫
6 (a) I = sec n x dx = sec n − 2 x sec 2 x dx
∫
= sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2) tan x sec n − 3 x sin2x dx
∫
0 0
π π
cos x
∫ tan x × 2 sec x sin2x dx
4
= ⎡⎣sec 2 x tan x ⎤⎦ − 4
0 0 cos x = sec n−2
x tan x − (n − 2) ∫ sec n−2
x tan 2 x dx
π

∫
4
= 2−2 tan 2 x sec 2 x dx
0
π
= sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2) ∫ sec n
∫
dx + (n − 2) sec n − 2 x dx
= 2 − 2∫
4
(sec 4 x − sec 2 x )dx ∴ In = sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2)In + (n − 2)In − 2
0
π
π
(n − 1)In = secn − 2x tan x + (n − 2)In − 2
= 2 + 2 [tan x]04 − 2 ∫
4
sec 4 x dx
0 1 (sec n − 2 x tan x ) + n − 2 I
π π In =
sec 4 x dx = 4 n −1 n − 1 n−2
∫ ∫
4 4 4
∴3 sec x dx = 4,
0 0 3 π π π

∫ sec 4 x dx = 1 ⎡⎣sec 2 x tan x ⎤⎦ π3 + 2 ∫

3 3
(b) sec 2 x dx
2
dx ( )
d x n e x = nx n −1e x + x n e x hence by integration: π
6
3 6
3 π
6
⎛ 4 3⎞ 2 π
= 1 ⎜4 3 − + [tan x]π3
∫
x n e x = nx n −1e x dx + x n e x dx ∫ 3⎝ 9 ⎟⎠ 3 6

∫
∴ x n e x dx = x n e x − n x n −1e x dx ∫ =
32 3 2 ⎛
27
⎞ 44 3
+ ⎜ 3− 1 ⎟ =
3⎝ 27
n
3⎠
dx ( )
3 (a) d x n log e x = nx n −1 log e x − xx = nx n −1 log e x + x n −1 π π

∫ ∫
4 4
2 2 2 7 (a) In = tan 2n x dx = tan 2n − 2 x tan 2 x dx
(b) (i) x 2 log e x dx = ⎡⎢1 x 3 log e x ⎤⎥ − 1 x 2 dx
∫ ∫ 0 0
1 ⎣3 ⎦1 3 1 π
=∫
4
3 2 tan 2n − 2 x (sec 2 x − 1)dx
⎡ ⎤
= 8 log e 2 − ⎢ x ⎥ = 8 log e 2 − 7 ≈ 1.071 0
3 ⎣ 9 ⎦1 3 9 π π

∫ ∫
4
tan 2n − 2 x sec 2 x dx −
4
2 2 2
= tan 2(n −1) x dx
∫ x log e x dx = ⎡⎢ 1 x 4 log e x ⎤⎥ − 1 ∫
3 3 0 0

(ii) x dx
1 ⎣4 ⎦1 4 1
π

= ⎡⎢ 1 tan 2n −1 x ⎤⎥ − I 2n − 2 = 1 − In −1
4
4 2
⎡ ⎤ ⎣ 2n − 1 ⎦0 2n − 1
= 4 log e 2 − ⎢ x ⎥ = 4 log e 2 − 15 ≈ 1.835
⎣ 16 ⎦1 16 π π
1
(b) I =
∫ ∫
4 4 4 2
tan x dx = − tan x dx
π 2 3
∫
2 0 0
4 (a) In = cosn x dx π
=1−
0
∫
4
π π
(sec 2 x − 1)dx
= ⎡⎣cosn −1 x sin x ⎤⎦ 2 + (n − 1) ∫ 3
2
sin 2 x cosn − 2 x dx 0

( )
0
= 1 − [tan x − x]04 = 1 − 1 − π − 0 = π − 2
π 0 π

∫
2
= 0 + (n − 1) (1 − cos 2 x )cosn − 2 x dx 3 3 4 4 3
0 1
2n −1 x 2 1 1
x2
∫ ∫
π π 2n − 2
8 (a) In = x e dx = x 2xe dx
∫ ∫ 2 0
2
cosn − 2 x dx − (n − 1)
2
= (n − 1) cosn x dx 0
0 0 1 1
= 1 ⎡⎢x 2n − 2 e x ⎤⎥ − 2n − 2 x 2n − 3e x dx = e − (n − 1)In −1
2 2
∴ In = (n − 1)In − 2 − (n − 1)In; nIn = (n − 1)In − 2
2⎣ ⎦0 2 2 ∫
( )
0
In = n n− 1 In − 2

286 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 1 1 π π π
x 3e x dx = e −
2 2
(b) I 2 = ∫ 0 2 ∫ 0
xe x dx ∫
2

−π
2
1 − sin 2 θ cos θ dθ = ∫
2

−π
2
cos 2 θ dθ = 2 ∫
2

0
cos 2 θ dθ
1
= e − 1 ⎡⎢e x ⎤⎥ = e − 1 (e − 1) = 1
2 π
π

∫(1 + cos 2θ ) dθ = ⎡⎢θ + sin 2θ ⎤⎥

2
2 2 ⎣ ⎦0 2 2 2 =
2

0 ⎣ 2 ⎦0
∫ x (log x )n dx
( )
5
9 (a) In = e = π + 1 sin π − 0 = π
6
2 2 2
= x (log e x )n − 1 x 6n(log e x )n −1 1x dx ∫ ∫( )
⎛1 + t 2 ⎞
6 6
∫
4 (a) sec x dx = ⎜ × 2 dt = ∫
1 + 1 dt
6 ⎝ 1 − t 2 1 + t 2 ⎟⎠ 1+t 1−t
= x (log e x )n − n x 5 (log e x )n −1 dx ∫
6 6 1 + tan x
= log e 1 + t + C = log e 2 +C
6
∴ In = x (log e x ) − n In −1
n
6 6 1−t 1 − tan x
6 2
(b) I 2 = x (log e x ) dx = x (log e x )2 − 2 I1
5
∫
2
(b) sec x dx = sec x(sec x + tan x ) dt = log e sec x + tan x + C
6
6 6 ∫ sec x + tan x ∫
x 1
∫ 5 (a) sec x + C
5
I1 = (log e x ) − x dx
6 6
(b) u = π − x, du = −dx:
x 6 log e x 1 x 6 x 6 log e x x 6 2
=
6
6
− ×
6 6
=
6
6
−
36
⎛ x log e x x 6 ⎞
cosec x cot x dx = cosec π − u cot π − u (− du)
∫ 2 2 ∫ ( ) ( )
∴ I 2 = x (log e x )2 − 1 ⎜ − ⎟ = − sec u tanu du = − sec u + C ∫
6 3⎝ 6 36 ⎠
6
= x (log e x )2 −
x 6 log e x x 6
+ +C
2 ( )
= − sec π − x + C = − cosec x + C

6 18 108 dy dy − x
6 6 x2 + y2 = r2: 2x + 2 y = 0, = y
108 (
= x 18(log e x )2 − 6 log e x + 1 + C ) dx
2
dx
r
⎛ ⎞ r y2 + x2 r
C = 4 ∫ 1 + ⎜ −yx ⎟ dx = 4 ∫ dx = 4 ∫
r dx
∫
10 (a) I = e ax sin x dx = − cos xe ax − (− cos x )ae ax dx ∫ 0 ⎝ ⎠ 0 y2 0 r − x2
2

() ( )
r
= − cos xe ax + a cos xe ax dx ∫ = 4r ⎡sin −1 xr ⎤ = 4r × π − 0 = 2π r
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦0 2
∫
H = cos xe ax dx = sin xe ax − a sin xe ax dx = sin xe ax − aI ∫ cos (π (3 − u))
ax ax 1
2
6 2 (
cos 2 π − π u
2 6 )
∴ I = − cos xe + a(sin xe − aI )
(a 2 + 1)I = − cos xe ax + a sin xe ax
7 (a) I = ∫ 2 (3 − u)u
(− du ) = ∫1 u(3 − u)
du

∴ e ax sin x dx = 2 1 e ax (a sin x − cos x )

∫ a +1 2 sin 2 π u
6 ( )
e x = ∫ u(3 − u)
du
∫
x 1
(b) (i) e sin x dx = (sin x − cos x ) + C
( ) ( )
2
3x
cos 2 π x sin 2 π x
(ii) e 3 x sin x dx = e (3sin x − cos x ) + C
∫ 2
6 2
6 2
dx
x
t n
10
x n −1
t
(b) 2I = ∫ 1 x(3 − x )
du + ∫
1 x(3 − x )
dx = ∫
1 x(3 − x )
11 In = ∫
dt , In −1 = dt ∫
∫ ( x + 3 − x ) dx = 3 ⎡⎣⎢log 3 − x ⎤⎦⎥
2
0 1+t 0 1+t
2
=1 1 1 1 x
x n x n −1 x⎛ n n −1
⎞ 3
t dt + t dt = ⎜ t + t ⎟ dt
e
∫ ∫ ∫
1
∴ In + In −1 = 1
0 1+t 0 1+t 0 ⎝1 + t 1 + t⎠
= 1 ⎛ log 2 − log ( 1 )⎞ = 2 log 2
(1 +t t + 1 +1 t ) dt = ∫ t
x
x x ⎡ n⎤ n

∫ dt = ⎢tn ⎥ = xn 3⎝ 2 ⎠ 3e e e
=
t n −1 n −1
0 0 ⎣ ⎦0
∴ I = 1 log 2
3 e
EXERCISE 5.6
( )
2

1 B 8 (a) d x 2 tan −1 x = 2x tan −1 x + 2x

dx x +1
1 1 1
2 (1 + x )2
( )
2
⎛d 2 ⎞
∫
1 + x dx =
∫
1 + x dx
∫ ∫
−1
x tan −1 x − 2x ⎟ dx
∫
2 2 2
dx = (b) 2x tan x dx = ⎜
0 1− x 0 1 − x2
1 − x2 0 ⎝ dx x + 1⎠
2⎛ x ⎞ dx ⎛ ⎞
= x 2 tan −1 x − ⎜1 − 21 ⎟ dx
1
= ∫⎜
1
0 ⎝ 1− x 2
+ ⎟ ⎝ x + 1⎠ ∫
1 − x2 ⎠
11 = x 2 tan −1 x − x + tan −1 x + C
⎡ −1 2 ⎤ 22
= ⎡⎢⎢⎣sin
= sin −1 xx − − xx 2 ⎤⎥⎥⎦
− 11 − 9 (a) f (x) = x is odd, g (x) = (1 − x2)2 is even.
3
⎣ ⎦00
1
1 3 π
33 π
= sin
= sin −1 1
−1 −
−
22 22
3 − (0 −
− (0 − 1) 1) =
= 11 −
− 2 +
2
+6
6
Hence f (x) × g (x) is odd: ∫ −1
x 3 (1 − x 2 )2 dx = 0

3 (a) −x2 + 4x − 3 = 1 − (x2 − 4x + 4) = 1 − (x − 2)2 (b) f (x) = x2 is even, g (x) = (1 − x ) is even (as 1 − x2 is even). 2 3

∫
3 3
Hence f (x) × g (x) is even: x 2 (1 − x 2 )3 dx
(b) ∫ 1
(x − 1)(3 − x ) dx = ∫ 1
1 − (x − 2)2 dx −1

x − 2 = sin θ, dx = cos θ dθ 1

Limits x = 1: θ = − π x = 3: θ = π
=2 ∫ 0
x 2 (1 − x 2 )3 dx
2 2
Answers Chapter 5 287
  et x = a + b − u: dx = −du
10 (a) L
( )
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ dx = π ln 3 − ln 1 = π ln 3 units3 1
Limits are x = a: u = b x = b: u = a
b a ⎜
−1 ⎝ 4 − x 2 ⎠
⎟ 5 Volume = π
4 3 2 ∫
∫
f (x) dx = ∫
f (a + b − u)(− du)

( )
2
3⎛
x ⎞ dx = π ⎛ 3 + 1 ln 1 − 2 + 1 ln 1 ⎞ = π 2 + ln1.5 units
a b

=
a
b

∫
f (a + b − u)du =
a
b
f (a + b − x )dx
6 Volume = π ⎜
∫ 2 ⎝ x2 − 1 ⎠
⎟ ⎝ 2 2 2 3 ⎠ 2
( ∫ )

( )
2
3⎛ ⎞
2 + 1 ln 1 ⎞ = π ( 2 + ln1.5 ) units3
( ∫)
π ⎜ x ⎟ dx = π ⎛ 3 + 1 ln 1 −
π π
(b) 3 sin x dx = 3 sin π + π= −
π ∫ π 6 3 ∫ x dx
2 ⎝ x −1 ⎠
2 ⎝ 2 2 2 3 ⎠ 2
t
6 6
7 (a) ln x dx = t lnt − t + 1 ∫
( ) ∫
π π 1

= π sin π − x dx = π cos x dx (b) Area of triangle = 1 × (t − 1) × lnt

∫
3 3
2 2
6 6
(t − 1)lnt
 et u = π − x: du = −dx
11 (a) L =
2
Limits are x = 0: u = π x = π: u = 0
π 0
Area under curve > Area of triangle
0 ∫ π ∫
x sin x dx = (u − π )sin(u − π )(− du ) t lnt − t + 1 >
(t − 1)lnt
2
π
= ∫
(u − π )sin(u − π )du
0
2t lnt − 2t + 2 > t lnt − lnt
t lnt + lnt > 2(t − 1)
π
= ∫ (u − π )sin(π + u)du lnt(t + 1) > 2(t − 1)

( )
0
π
lnt > 2 t − 1 , t > 1
=− ∫ 0
(u − π )sinu du
t +1

= ∫
π
(π − u)sinu du
8 (a) d
dx
−1
(
sin x − 1 − x 2 = 1 + x
1 − x2
)
( )
0
But the variable in the integrand is arbitrary, so: d sin −1 x − 1 − x 2 = 1+ x = 1+ x
(b) Now
π π dx (1 − x )(1 + x ) 1− x
∫ x sin x dx = ∫ (π − x )sin x dx

∫ ( 1 − x ) dx = ∫ dx ( sin )
1
0 0 θ θ
1+ x d 2 −1
x − 1 − x 2 dx
π π π
∫ ∫ ∫
0 0
x sin x dx = π sin x dx − x sin x dx θ
0 0 0
= ⎡ sin −1 x − 1 − x 2 ⎤
π π ⎣ ⎦0
2 ∫ 0
x sin x dx = π ∫ 0
sin x dx
= sin −1 θ − 1 − θ 2 − ( 0 − 1)
π π
∫ x sin x dx = π ∫ sin x dx = sin −1 θ + 1 − 1 − θ 2
0 2 0
π 2

∫ sin 2 x dx = π units3
π
∫ x sin x dx = π [− cos x]0 = − π (−1 − 1) = π 9 V =π
π
(b) 2
0 2 2 0
− 2)2 (4 − x )
( )
4 (x
 ake reciprocals of each term in 1 < u < 1 + x, remembering
12 (a) T 10 V =π∫ dx = π 16 log e 2 − 10 2 ≈ 2.38 units3
2 x 3
to reverse the inequality signs: π π

∫ ( cos x − sin x ) dx = π ⎡⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥ = 2 units

1> 1 11 (a) V = π 4 sin 2x π2 2 ⎤4 3
    1 > u
1+ x 0 0
1 < 1 <1
1
(b) V = π ∫ ( sin y ) dy + π ∫ ( cos y ) dy
1
Hence:     2 2
1+ x u 2 −1 −1
0 1
1+ x
1 du < 1+ x du < 1+ x du
∫ ∫ ∫
2
(b) u
1 1+ x 1 1 ≈ 0.42 + 0.28 ≈ 0.70 units3
1+ x a
⎡ u ⎤
∫
1+ x
⎢⎣1 + x ⎥⎦1 < ⎣log e u⎦1 < [u]1
⎡ ⎤
1+ x
12 V = 4π (b − x ) a2 − x 2 dx = 2π 2 a2b units3
−a
π 2
1 − 1 < log e (1 + x ) < 1 + x − 1 sin 2 x dx = π units3
∫
2
13 (a) V = π
1+ x 0 2

( )
2
x < log (1 + x ) < x
∫( )
1
π 2
sin −1 x dx ≈ 6.283 units3
1+ x e (b) V = π × ×1− π
2 0
π

∫
2
(c) V = 2π x sin x dx = 2π units3
EXERCISE 5.7 0

1 y = tan−1 x is an odd function. Hence 14 y = −x 2 cos x + 6cos x + 4x sin x + C

0 1 1 x = 0, y = 6: 6 = 6 + C, C = 0
∫ −1
tan −1 x dx = − ∫ 0
tan −1 x dx so that ∫ −1
tan −1 x dx = 0.
y = (6 − x2) cos x + 4x sin x

( )
2 −x
1 dx = 1 ln 2 − ln 1 = 2 ln 2 units2 15 y = − e (cos x + sin x )
2 Area = ∫ x(3 − x ) 1 3 2 3 2
3 Area = ∫
5 2
x − 6x + 8 dx = 1 + 8 ln 4 − 1 ln 2 = 0.174 units2 16 y = 2 − log e x 2 + 1 ( )
4 x 2 − 3x 3 5 3 −x
4 1 − x2 = 0 ⇒ x = ±1 17 y = e cos x
2

∫ (1 − e )(1 − x )dx = π (1 − e ) units

1
1 − x 2 dx = π − 2 units2 1
Area =
−1 1 + x
2 ∫ 18 V = 2π
0
−x 2 3

288 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 ∫ (a )
2 pp p
y 2 dx = π b2 ⎛ 2x + 6 2x − 6 ⎞ dx
a a p
36 (b) ⎛ 2x + 6 36 2x − 6 ⎞
∫ ∫ ∫∫ ⎜⎝ xx −+3x3x ++39−=x∫ −⎜⎝3xx ++33x⎟⎠ dx+ 3 − x
2
19 (a) V = π − x 2 dx = ⎟
−a a −a 0 x − 3x 2 + 9
4
00
42 2 20 2 2
− 3x + 3 ⎠
a p
2
⎡ 3
⎤ 2
⎛ 3
⎞ 2 p
⎛ 2x + 3 += ⎛3 2x +− 3 2x + − 23 3+ 2 −3 2 2x − 3 +
⎞ dx 3 ⎞ dx
= π b2 ⎢ a2 x − x ⎥ = π b2 ⎜ a3 − a ⎟ = 4π ab = ∫ ⎜⎝ 2 20 ⎝⎜ 2 ∫ ⎟⎠ ⎟
a ⎣ 3 ⎦ −a a ⎝ 3⎠ 3 0 x + 3x + 3 x + 3xx ++33x +x 23− 3x
x ++33x +x 3− 3x
x +−33x + 3 x 2 − 3x + 3 ⎠

( ) ( )
p
( )
p
= ⎡⎣ log e x 2 + 3x + 3= −⎡⎣ log ⎤ log e x 2 − 3x + 3 ⎤⎦
a 2
logee xx 2 +− 3x
3x ++ 33 −
(b) V = 2π
∫ −a
2 y(a − x )dx = 2π 2 a2b units3 ⎦0 0

20 y = 4x − x log e x 2 + 1 − 2 tan −1 x + 1 ( ) p
⎛
3
p
⎛
33
⎞
3
⎞
+ ∫ ⎜ + 2 +⎜ ∫ ⎟+
2 2 dx
⎟
2 dx
21 y = 21 + 1 ⎜ ( x + 3 )2 + ( ) ⎝( (x − 2 2) ) + (( ))
33 ⎟ ( x − 3 ) +
( )
0 ⎜ 2 2
0 3 x +332 + 3 ⎟
x +1 ⎝ 2 2 22 ⎠ 2 2 ⎠
n 2 2
22 (a) Integrate by parts: In = ⎡ x ( log e x ) ⎤ − n ∫ ( loge x )n−1dx ⎛ p2 + 3 p + 3 ⎞ ⎛ p2 + 3 p + 3 ⎞
⎣ ⎦1 = log e ⎜ 2 = log
− 0 ⎜⎝ p 2 − 3 p + 3 ⎟⎠ − 0
⎝ p − 3 p + 3 ⎟⎠
1 e

= 2 ( log e x ) − nIn−1
n

p p

(b) dy = n ( log e x ) :
n−1
⎡ ⎛ x + 3 ⎞⎡ 3 × 2 2 −1 −1
⎛ x⎛ +x −32 ⎞3 ⎞ ⎤3 × 2 ⎛ x− 3⎞⎤
+ ⎢ 3 × 2 tan −1 ⎜ 3 +2 ⎟⎢ + 3 × tan
tan ⎜ ⎜ 3 3⎟2 +⎟ ⎥ tan −1 ⎜ 3 2 ⎟ ⎥
dx x ⎢⎣ 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎢⎣ 3 3 ⎝ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎠ ⎥⎦ 3
0
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 0
As n ≥ 2, for 1 < x ≤ 2 all factors are positive p p
⎛ p2 + 3 p + 3 ⎞ ⎛ p⎡ 2 + −1
3 p⎛ +2x3 ⎞+ 3 ⎞ ⎡ −1 ⎛−12x⎛ − 3+⎞3⎤⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎤
∴
dy
> 0. Hence the function increases for 1 < x ≤ 2. = log e ⎜ 2 =
⎟ +log
2 e ⎜3 ⎢ tan ⎜ ⎟ + 2⎟ +3tan
⎢ tan⎜ ⎜ 2x ⎟ ⎥⎟ + tan −1 ⎜ 2x − 3 ⎟ ⎥
⎝ p⎣ − 3 p⎝ + 3 ⎠3 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ ⎝ 3 3⎠ ⎦⎠0 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦0
2
dx ⎝ p − 3p + 3⎠
d y = n ( log e x ) ( n − 1 − log e x ) :
2 n−2
⎛ p2 + 3 p + 3 ⎞ ⎛ p2 + 3 p + 3 ⎞
dx 2 x2 = log e ⎜ 2 = log e ⎜ 2
⎝ p − 3p + 3⎠ ⎟ ⎝ p − 3 p + 3 ⎟⎠
d2 y
By a similar argument 2 > 0 for 1 < x ≤ 2.
dx
Hence the function is concave up for 1 < x ≤ 2.
⎛
⎝
⎛ 2 p ++32⎞ 3 ⎛ tan
+ 2 3 ⎜ tan −1 ⎜
⎝ ⎟ + tan
3 ⎠ ⎝
⎜
⎛ 2⎛ p2−p 3+⎞3 ⎞ + tan−1−1 ⎛ 2 p − 3−1⎞ − tan −1⎞ 3 + tan −1 −
−1 −1
⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ ⎟ −⎟ tan ⎜⎝3 + tan
3 3⎠ ⎠ 3 ⎠
⎟ − 3 ⎟ (⎠
( ( )) (
y
⎛ p2 + 3 p + 3 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛p 2 + 3−1p⎛+23p⎞+ 3 ⎞ ⎛ −1 −1 ⎛ 2⎛ p2−p 3+⎞3⎞⎞ + tan −1 ⎛ 2 p − 3 ⎞ ⎞
= log e ⎜ 2 = log
+ 2 ⎜⎝3 ⎜p 2tan ⎟⎠ + 2⎟⎠ +3tan
⎜⎝ tan ⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
1 ⎟ 3 3⎠ ⎟⎠⎠
e
⎝ p − 3p + 3⎠ ⎝ − 3 p⎝+ 3 3
(2, (ln x)n)
p
36 ⎡ ⎛ p2 + 3 p + 3 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎛ 2 p + 3 ⎞
(c) lim
p→∞ ∫ 0
4 2
x − 3x + 9
dx = lim ⎢ log e ⎜ 2
p→∞
⎣ ⎝ p − 3 p + 3 ⎟⎠ + 2 3 ⎜⎝ tan x ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠
⎟+
O x
1 p 2 ⎡ ⎛p ⎛ −1p36
36 ⎡ ⎛ p2 + 3 p + 3 ⎞ 2
+⎛ 32pp ++ 33⎞⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ ⎛2 p 2−+3 3⎞ p⎞ ⎤+ 3 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎛ 2 p + 3 ⎞
lim dx = lim ⎢ log e ⎜ 2 ⎟ +lim
∫ 2 ⎢3log
lim ⎜ e 4⎜ 2x ⎜2
tan dx⎟⎟=⎥+= log⎢−1log
lim
tan e1 ∫
x= ⎜⎝e ⎜0 p 2 − 3⎟⎠ p⎟ ⎥+ 3 ⎟ + 2 3 ⎜⎝ tan x ⎜⎝ ⎟+
(c) Area under the curve < p→∞
4
Area 0ofxtriangle
2
− 3x + 9 p→∞
⎣ ⎝ p − 3 p + 3 ⎠ p→∞ 0⎝ x ⎝ −p3x−
p→∞
⎣ ⎝ 3 +p9+3 3 ⎠⎠ ⎦ p→∞
⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦ ⎠ 3 ⎠
⎛ (plog +e 32p) + 3 ⎞ ⎤
n
⎡ 2 ⎡⎡⎛ ⎛ p 2⎛+23pp++33⎞⎞ ⎤ −1 ⎛ 2 p − 3 ⎞ ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ π π ⎤
From part (a): 2 ( log e 2 )lim
n −1
− nI n−1 e< 2 = logxe 1⎜ = 0 ⎟ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢ + ⎥ = π
⎢ log ⎜⎝ p −23 p + 3 ⎟⎠ ⎥ = log e 1 = 0 lim
lim
p→∞ ⎝
⎢⎢⎜ tan
log e ⎜⎝ px2⎜⎝− 3 p3+ 3⎟⎠⎟⎠+⎥ tan ⎝ 3 ⎠⎠⎦ ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
which yields the result:
p→∞
⎣ ⎦
p→∞
⎣⎣ ⎦
p
(d) I1 = 2 log e 2 − 1; from part (c) ⎡ ⎛ with n =⎛ 22,pthe + 3result follows. ⎡ ⎛ lim−1 ⎛ 2 p +363 ⎞
2
23 (a) 64 ≡ (2x + a)(x − 4x + 4)
lim ⎢ ⎜ tan −1 x ⎜2
p→∞ ⎝ − b)(x⎝ + 4x3 +⎠4)
− ⎣(2x
⎞
⎟ + tan −1 x ⎜
⎛ 2 p − 3 ⎞ ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ πHence
⎝ ⎟ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢ lim+ π⎢⎤⎥⎜ =tan
3 ⎠ ⎠ ⎦ ⎣ 2 p→∞2⎣⎦⎝
π x0 ⎜x 4 − 3x 2⎟ ++ 9tan
p→∞
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎜⎝ ∫
dx−1=x2⎛ 23pπ− 3 ⎞ ⎞ ⎤ = ⎡ π + π ⎤ = π
⎟ ⎥
3 ⎠ ⎟⎠ ⎦ ⎣⎢ 2 2 ⎦⎥
x = 2: 64 = −(4 − b) × 16 ⇒ b = 8 p p
36 36
x = −2: 64 = (−4 + a) × 16 Hence
⇒a= lim 8
p→∞ 0 x − 3x + 9
4 2 ∫
dx = 2 3π Hence lim
p→∞ 0 x − 3x + 9
4 2 dx = 2 3π ∫
(or use x = 0: 64 = 4a + 4b ⇒ a + b = 16, a = 16 − b)
( )
e
2x −dx8 = ⎞ dx⎛⎜ 2x + 8 − 2x − 8 ⎞⎟ dx 25 V = 2π x y dx = 2π 2e 3 + 1 units3 ∫
m m
⎛(b) 2x + 8 64
∫ ∫
m
64
− 8x 2 + 16
dx =
∫
⎜
0 ⎝ x +04x
2 4 − 2 ⎟
x +−4 8x x 2+−164x + 4 ⎠ 0 ⎝ x + 4x + 4 x − 4x + 4 ⎠
2 2
π
1 9
π
y 41 − y 2 ⎞dx = 1 ⎡⎣ sin 2 x ⎤⎦ 2 = 1 units3
∫
2
m
⎛ 2x + 4 4 2x26− 4V =
⎛ + −
∫ ⎞
m
2x 4 4 2x 4 4
= ∫
⎜ 2
0 ⎝ x + 4x + 4
+ 2 = − ⎜ 2
x + 4x + 4 0 x⎝2 x− 4x + 4x
++ 2
+ 4+ 4 x 2 x− 4x+ 4x ⎟ dx− 2 + 02
+ 4+⎠4 x − 4x + 4 x − 4x + 4 ⎠
⎟ dx 2 0 2

() ) ( )
m
(
= ⎡⎣ log e x 2 + 4x + 4 − log e x 2=−⎡⎣4x )2 m
⎦ ( 2
4 ⎤⎦
e 4x ⎤+ 4x + 4 − log e x − 4x + CHAPTER
log+
0 REVIEW 5
0

m⎛ m⎛ (2 3 − 1)π 1 − 3
1 ⎞
1 ⎞ 1
+4
0 ∫
1
⎜⎝ (x + 2)2 + (x − 2)2 ⎟⎠ dx+ 4
0 ∫ +
⎜⎝ (x + 2)2 + (x − 2)2 ⎟⎠ dx
12 2
1 (a)
4

⎛ m2 + 4m + 4 ⎞ −1 ⎛ m−1
2
+ 4m m
+ 4 ⎞ ⎡ −1 −1 (b)
⎤
m ⎡ 5 log e x − 3x + 2 + 1 log e x − 2 ⎤ = log e 18
2

= log e ⎜ 2 ⎡
− 0 + 4 = log e+⎜⎝ 2 ⎤ ⎟ − 0 + 4 ⎢ x + 2 + x − 2) ⎥ ⎣ ⎢ 2 2 x − 1 ⎥
⎦3
⎝ m − 4m + 4 ⎟⎠ ⎣⎢ x + 2 xm− −2)4m ⎦⎥ 0 + 4 ⎠ ⎣ ⎦0
3
(b) 1 log (x − 1) + C
( ) ( ) 2 1 (a) x(log e 2x − 1) + C
( )
2
m + 2
2
⎛ 1 1 m
1 + 2
1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ 2 x +1
+ = log−e −− 2 − 4 ⎝ m + 2 + m − 2 − 2 − 2 ⎠
e
= log e −4
m−2 ⎝m+2 m−2 m 2 2 ⎠ 9
( )
3 log e
(
= 2 log e m + 2 − 8m
m−2 m −4 2 )
= 2 log e m + 2 − 8m
m − 2 2
m −4
8
(4 3 − 3)π 1
4 (a) − log e 2
24 (a) 36 ≡ (2x + a)(x2 − 3x + 3) − (2x − b)(x2 + 3x + 3) 12 2
x = 0: 36 = 3a + 3b ⇒ a + b = 12 ⇒ a = 12 − b (b) 2 loge 5
x = 1: 36 = (2 + a) × 1 − (2 − b) × 7 ⇒ a + 7b = 48
Substitute a = 12 − b: 12 − b + 7b = 48 ⇒ b = 6, a = 6

Answers Chapter 5 289

 5 −cosec x 1 − 2 + 3
10 (a)
π x − 3 x − 2 2x − 1
⎛ 3 + 2⎞
(a) −2 ⎡ log e cosec θ + cot θ ⎤ = 2 log e ⎜
3

⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦ π ⎝ 2 + 1 ⎟⎠ (b) 2 + 4 − 3
6 x−2 x+2
π π

∫ (2x + 4)(3 − x 2 ) + 2x(x 2 + 2x + 2)

3
(b) π
sec udu = ⎡⎣log e (sec u + tanu)⎤⎦ π3 11 (a) RHS =
6 6
(x 2 + 2x + 2)(3 − x 2 )
⎛ ⎞ 3 2 4 2
= log e (2 + 3 ) − log e ⎜ 2 + 1 ⎟ = 6x − 2x +212 − 4x + 2x +2 4x + 4x
⎝ 3 3⎠ (x + 2x + 2)(3 − x )

⎛ 2 + 3⎞
= log e ⎜ ⎟ = 2 10x + 12 = LHS
⎝ 3 ⎠ (x + 2x + 2)(3 − x 2 )
(b) LHS = 2x + 2 + 2 = 2x + 2 + 2
⎛ ⎞
6 (a) d ⎜ sin2x + 1 log e (1 + sin x ) − 1 log e (1 − sin x )⎟ x 2 + 2x + 2 x 2 + 2x + 2 x 2 + 2x + 1 + 1
dx ⎝ cos x 2 2 ⎠
= 2 2x + 2 + 2 = RHS
cos x cos 2 x − sin x × 2cos x (− sin x ) x + 2x + 2 (x + 1)2 + 1
=
cos 4 x 12 a = 61, b = 6 , c = − 6
x − − cos x
cos 5 25 25
+
2(1 + sin x ) 2(1 − sin x )
2 2 π 3 + log 5 (b) 2(π − 4)
13 (a)
⎛ ⎞
= cos x + 32 sin x + cos x ⎜ 1 − sin x + 12+ sin x ⎟ 18 e 4
cos x 2 ⎝ 1 − sin x ⎠
2 2 14 a 1
; log e 3
= cos x + 2 sin x + cos x × 2 x a2 − x 2 5 2
cos3 x 2 cos 2 x
1 (b) e − 1 (c) 1 log e 9
2 2
2(cos x + sin x ) 15 (a) 17 15
= = 2 sec 3 x 8 5
cos3 x
(d) 4(sin 1 − cos 1) ≈ 1.205 (e) 81 π
π
π 16
⎡ ⎤3
∫ sec 3 θ dθ = 1 ⎢ sin2θ + log e 1 + sin θ ⎥ 1 1 + 2x (b) − 1 log e 1 − 4x 2 + C
3
(b) 16 (a) log e + C
π
6
2 ⎣cos θ 1 − sin θ ⎦ π 4 1 − 2x 8
6
x
(c) − + log e 1 1 + 2x + C (d) − 1 1 − 4x 2 + C
⎛ 3 2 + 3 ⎛1 4 2 + 1⎞⎞
= 1⎜ × 4 + log e − ⎜ × + log e 4 16 1 − 2x 4
2⎝ 2 2− 3 ⎝2 3 2 − 1 ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
1 −1
(e) sin 2x + C (f) 1 tan −1 2x + C
⎛ ⎞ 2 2
(2 + 3 )2 2
= 1 ⎜ 2 3 + log e
2⎝ 4−3
− − log e 3⎟
3 ⎠ 17 (a) 1 log e tan x − 1 tan 2 x + C
2 2 4 2 3 3 ( )
(b) 1 tan −1 1 tan x + C

⎛ ⎛ 2 + 3 ⎞⎞
= 1 ⎜ 2 3 − 2 + log e ⎜
2⎝ 3 ⎝ ⎟
3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
1
( θ 1
(c) log e 2 + tan − log e 2 tan − 1 + C
5 2 5 )θ
2 ( )
7 (a) −7 + 8x − x2 = b2 − a2 + 2ax − x2: a = 4, b = 3
7 7
5 −1
(d) tan 2 tan − + C
6 ( θ
2 3
θ
)
∫ ∫
π
2 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(b)  (x − 1)(7 − x ) dx = 9 − (x − 4) dx 18 ∫3 1 dx = 1 ln ⎜ 3 3 +1 ⎟ = 1 ln ⎜ 14 + 3 3 ⎟
1 1 0 4 + 5cos x 3 ⎝ 3 3 −1 ⎠ 3 ⎝ 13 ⎠
x − 4 = 3 sin θ
dx = 3 cos θ dθ x 2 log e 2x x 2
19 − +C
π 2 4
x = 1, θ = − ; x = 7, θ = π
2 2
20 (a) 1 log e x 3 + 3x + C (b) − 1 + C
7 π 3 x +1
∫ ∫
2
9 − (x − 4)2 dx = 9 − 9 sin 2 θ 3cos θ dθ 3
−π
(c) x + log e x + C (d) x 2 + 2x − 3 + C
1
2
π 3
∫
2
= 9 π 1 − sin 2 θ cos θ dθ x
−
2 (e) log e + 1 tan −1 x + C
π x +4 2
2 2

∫
2
= 9 π cos 2 θ dθ
x −1 ⎛ ⎞
(f) 1 log e − 1 tan −1 ⎜ 2x + 1 ⎟ + C
−
2
π 3 2
x + x +1 3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
9 2 (1 + cos 2θ ) dθ
=
2 −π∫ x 1 − x2
2
(g) 1 (2x 2 − 1)sin −1 x + +C
π 4 4
= 9⎡ θ+ sin 2θ ⎤ 2 =9π
2 ⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥ − π 2 3 −1 2
2 (h) x tan x − x + 1 log e (x 2 + 1) + C
3 6 6
8 (a + c)x2 + (a + b)x + b ≡ 1
5 x −2− 5 ⎛ 3(x + 1)⎞
a + c = 0, a + b = 0: b = 1, a = −1, c = 1 21 (a) log e + C (b) 1 tan −1 ⎜ +C
10 x −2+ 5 21 ⎝ 7 ⎟⎠
9 (a) 2 + 3 − 4 (b) 10 − 9
x −1 x − 2 x − 3
3 2
x − 2 x −1
(
(c) log e x − 2 + x 2 − 4x + 1 + C (d) log e x + x 2 + 16 + C)
(c) x + 1 + − (d) 4 − 3 + 5

x−3 x−2 2x − 3 x − 3 2x + 1

290 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 ⎛ ⎞
4x = ⎜ 1 + 1 ⎟ dy
∫
⎝ 2− y 2+ y⎠
(
= − ln 2 − y + ln 2 + y + C )
4x + C = ln 2 + y + C
2
dx
22 (a) y
4
(b) Area =
∫ 1 x(3 − x )

2− y

( 1x + 3 −1 x ) dx
2
=1 ∫
2+ y
= e 4 x+C
3 3 1 2− y

= 1 ⎡log ( x )⎤
2
C 2 + yC 2C+ 2 + y x 4x
Let A =Let
±eLet = ±e
A: =2A±e : y4 x =4Ae
= Ae
2 3 ⎢⎣ 3 − x ⎥⎦
e − y : 2 − 2y −= yAe
1
4 x4 x4 x − Aye 4x
+ 2y += y2Ae
−=Aye
4x
2 + y =22Ae 2Ae − Aye 4 x
= 1 log e 4 ≈ 0.462 units 2
( )( ( ) ) ( )( ) )
3
1

y 1 + Ae (
4x xAe44xx −
y 1y+ =1Ae+24Ae = 2 =Ae x 4x −1
12 4Ae−1

4x
2 Ae 2−Ae
y = y = y 4=x
( ( )( ) )
4 x 4x
12 Ae− 1 − 1
O 1 2 3 x 1 + Ae 1 + 1Ae+4Ae x 4x

1
−x 1
1 2 A − e2−4A
y=y = y−4=x
x
(
2−Ae −4−xe ( )( ) )
−4 x

∫ ∫
−x −x
23 Area = xe dx = ⎡⎣− xe ⎤⎦ − −e dx A + e A +Ae −4+xe
−4 x
0 0 0
2(A − 1)
= − 1e − ⎡⎣e − x ⎤⎦ = − 1e − 1e + 1 = 1 − 2e ≈ 0.264 units 2
1 y(0) = 1 : 1 =
0
A +1
24 y A + 1 = 2A − 2
1 A=3
–π A B π
y=
(
2 3 − e −4 x )
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x 3+e −4 x

–1 27 (a) Let u = a − x so x = a − u and dx = −du

x = 0, u = a. x = a, u = 0
–2 a 0

–3
∫ 0
f (x )dx = − ∫ a
f (a − u)du
a
=∫ 0
f (a − u)du
a
dy − sin x (1 + cos x ) − cos x (− sin x ) =∫
= = − sin x 2 f (a − x )dx
dx (1 + cos x )2 (1 + cos x ) 0
π
xx sin
sin xx2 dx
( ) ∫∫
π
II =
Turning point where sin x = 0: 0, 1 = 11 +
0
cos2 xx
+ cos
dx
2 0
((π
π − x )sin( π
π−− xx )) dx
( ) ( ) = ∫∫
π − x )sin(
π π
cos x dx =
A − π ,0 , B π ,0 ∴ Area = ∫ 0 1 + cos 2 (π − x ) dx
2 2
2 2 −π 1 + cos x 0 1 + cos (π − x )
2 π (π − x )sin x
∫∫
π (π − x )sin x
1 − t2 =
= 0 1 + (− cos x )22 dx dx
cos x dx = 1 + t 2 × 2dt = ⎛ −1 + 2 ⎞ dt 0 1 + (− cos x )
∫
1 + cos x 2 2 ∫⎜⎝ ⎟
1 + t2 ⎠ ∫ π π
sin 2xx dx
π sin
π
π x sin x
1 + 1 − t2 1 + t = ∫∫ ∫∫
π
= dx −
− x sin x2 dx
1+t 0 1 + cos 2 x 0 1 + cos 2 x dx
0 1 + cos x 0 1 + cos x
π
π π sin x
= 2 tan −1 t − t = x − tan x 2I =
2I = 0 1π ∫∫
sin x dx
2 + cos22 x dx
0 1 + cos x
π
∴ Area = ⎡ x − tan x ⎤2
= π − 2 units2 (b) Let u=
Let u = cos du =
cos xx ,, du =− xdx. xx =
sin xdx.
− sin = 0, u=
0, u = 1. =π
1. xx = u=
π ,, u = −1
−1
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥− π π
π π sin x
−1
−1 −du

dy
2
∫∫
π sin 2x dx = π
0 1 + cos 2 x dx = π 1 1 + u 2
−du2
∫∫
25 Find the particular solution of = 1 + 1, given that y = 1 0 1 + cos x 1 1+u
1
dx x 2 + 1 du
∫∫
1
when x = 0. =π
= π −1 1 +duu22
dy −1 1 + u
= 21 + 1: y = ⎛⎜ 21 + 1⎞⎟ dx ∫ 1
dx ⎝ x +1 ⎠ −1
x +1 =π
= π ⎡⎣⎡⎣ tan u ⎤⎦⎤⎦ −1
tan −1 u
1

−1
= tan −1 x + x + C
x = 0, y = 1: 1 = C
y = tan −1 x + x + 1
=π
= ⎛π
π ⎝⎛ π4 −
⎝4
−π ⎞
− −4π ⎠⎞
4 ⎠
( )
2
π 2
26
dy
= ( 2 − y )( 2 + y ) = π2
=
dx 2
π 22
dx = 1 ∴ = π4
∴ II =
dy ( 2 − y ) ( 2 + y ) 4

⎛ ⎞ CHAPTER 6
= 1⎜ 1 + 1 ⎟
4⎝ 2− y 2+ y⎠
EXERCISE 6.1
⎛ ⎞
4x = ⎜ 1 + 1 ⎟ dy
∫
⎝ 2− y 2+ y⎠ dx 2 ( )
1 d 1 v 2 = 4 + x, 1 v 2 = 4x + 1 x 2 + C
2 2
1
(
= − ln 2 − y + ln 2 + y + C ) 2
2 2
x = 0, v = 1: C = , v = 8x + x + 1
2+ y x = 1: v = 10
4x + C = ln +C
2− y
2+ y
= e 4 x+C
Answers Chapter 6 291
2− y
 2
dx 2 ( )
d 1 v 2 = 7 − 2x, 1 v 2 = 7x − x 2 + C
2 16 1 v 2 = k + C, t = 0, v = 0, x = a:
2 x
x = 0, v = 0: C = 0, v2 = 14x − 2x2, v = 14x − 2x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 7 k(a − x)
C = − k , 1 v 2 = k − k = ,
a 2 x a ax
dx 2 ( )
3 d 1 v 2 = 3 − 4x, 1 v 2 = 3x − 2x 2 + C
2
v2 =
2k(a − x)
, v =
2k(a − x)
x = 1, v = 0: C = −1, v2 = 6x − 4x2 − 2 ax ax
At rest: −2(2x2 − 3x + 1) = 0, (2x − 1)(x −1) = 0, x = 1 17 (a) 1 v 2 = 1 e −2 x + C, x = 0, v = 1: C = 0, v2 = e−2x, v = ±e−x
2 2 2
4 C x = 0, v > 0: v = e−x
4

dx 2 ( )
5 d 1 v2 = − 1 3 x , 1 v2 = − 1 x 3 + C
6 2 8
(b) dx = e - x , dt = e x, t = ex + C
dt dx
4
t = 0, x = 0: C = −1, t = ex − 1, x = ln (t + 1)
x = 0, v = 2: C = 2, v 2 = 4 − 1 x 3
4
v = 0: x = 8 m
dx 2( )
18 (a) d 1 v 2 = 32x 3 + 48x 2 +16x, 1 v 2 = 8x 4 +16x 3 + 8x 2 + C
2
dx 2 ( )
6 d 1 v 2 = cos x, 1 v 2 = sin x + C
2
x = −2, v = −8: C = 0, v2 = 16x4 + 32x3 + 16x2,
v2 = 16x2(x2 + 2x + 1) = 16x2(x + 1)2
x = 0, v = 0: C = 0, v2 = 2 sin x, v = ± 2 sin x
(b) v = ±4x(x + 1); x = −2, v < 0: v = −4x(x + 1)
7
dx 2 ( )
d 1 v 2 = sin 2 x = 1 (1 − cos 2x ),
2 dx = -4x(1 + x ), dt = −
dt dx
1
4x(1 + x)
, −4t =∫ 1
x(1 + x)
dx

2 (
1 v 2 = 1 x − 1 sin 2x + C
2 2 ) ( )
(c) log e 1 − 1 = 0 + C, t = 0, x = −2: C = −loge 2,
2
x = 0, v = 1: C = 1 , v 2 = x − 1 sin 2x +1,
2 2 ( ) x ( ) ( )
4t = log e 1+ 1 + log e 2 = log e 2 1+ 1 , 2 1+ 1 = e 4t ,
x x
dx
= x − sin 2x +1 1 1 1 2
dt 2 1+ = e , x = 4t 4t
x 2 e −2
1 v = x − x3 + C 19 (a) x = dv = dv ¥ dx = 8x ¥ 4(x 2 + 9) = 32x(x 2 + 9)
2 2
8
2 dt dx dt
x = 0, v = 2: C = 2, v2 = 4 + 2x2 − 2x3, v = 4 + 2x 2 − 2x 3 ,
v > 0 from initial conditions (b) dx = 4(x 2 + 9), dt = 1 × 1 2 , t = 1 × 1 tan−1 x + C
dt dx 4 9 + x 4 3 3
9 1 v 2 = 1 x 2 − 3x + C t = 0, x = 0: C = 0, t = tan 1 −1 x
2 2 12 3
x = 1, v = −2: C = 4.5, v2 = x2 − 6x + 9 1 −1 π
x = 3: t = tan 1 = seconds
x = 0: v2 = 9, v = −3 (v < 0) 12 48
2
10 (a) x = v dv = (4 + x 2 ) ¥ 2x = 2x 3 + 8x 20 (a) d x2 = 80(0 + 0.4e -0.4t ) = 0.4 ¥ 80e -0.4t ,
dx dt
2
(b) dt = 1 2 , t = ∫1 dx = 1 tan−1 x + C 80e−0.4t = 80 − v, d x2 = 0.4(80 − v ) ∝ (80 − v )
dx 4 + x 4 + x2 2 2 dt
π
t = 0, x = −2: C = , t = tan
8
1
2
−1 x
2 8
π
2 ( )
+ , tan −1 x = 2 t − π ,
8
(b) dx = 80(1 - e -0.4t ), x = 80(t + 2.5e−0.4t) + C
dt
t = 0, x = 0, v = 0: C = −200, x = 80(t + 2.5e−0.4t) − 200
x = 2 tan 2 t − 8 ( )π
t = 5: x = 80(5 + 2.5e−2) − 200 = 227 m

t = π : x = 2 m (c) v = 60: e −0.4t = 80 − 60 = 0.25, t = 2.5 loge 4

4 80
1
2
2
11 t = x + 4x + C ( 4)
x = 80 2.5 log e 4 + 2.5 × 1 − 200 = 127 m

t = 0, x = 0: C = 0, t = 1 x 2 + 4x
x = 2: t = 10
2 21 x = 0, x&& = 3: C = 3, d
( )
dx 2
1 v = kx + 3, 1 v 2 = 1 kx 2 + 3x,
2
2 2
v2 = kx2 + 6x
2
12 t = ∫ x +1 4 dx, t = ln (x + 4) + C x&& = 0 when x = 160: k = − 3 , v 2 = 6x − 3x
160 160
t = 0, x = −3: C = 0, t = ln (x + 4), x = et − 4
(a) x = 160, v2 = 3 × 160, v = 4 30 m s−1
13 v = 2(4 − x)2, t = 1 ∫1 dx = 1 +C (b) x = 80: v = 6 10 m s−1
2 (4 − x)2 2(4 − x)
t = 0, x = 0: C = − 1 , t = 1 − 1 , x = 32t EXERCISE 6.2
8 2(4 − x) 8 8t + 1
1 x = 6 cos 4t is of the form x = a cos (nt + α): motion is simple
14 t = ∫ (3 −1x) dx =1 +C
3− x harmonic about the origin, a = 6, n = 4; period = 2π = 2π = π .
2
n 4 2
Particle starts 6 cm to the right of O.
t = 0, x = 2: C = −1, t = 1 − 1 x& = −24 sin 4t, particle is initially at rest.
3−x
x&& = −96cos 4t, x&& = −16x, initial acceleration is 96 cm s−2 towards O.
(a) x = 3t + 2 (b) x = 1 2 , x = −2 3 = −2(3 − x )3
t +1 (t + 1) (t + 1) 2 (a) x&& = −9x, n = 3, T = 2π , v = 4 − 9x 2 , x = 2 sin 3t ,
3 3
15 (a) x = x + 0 = x + 3
&& &
a = 2 , vmax = 2
1 dx = ln(x + 3) + C
(b) t = ∫x+3
3
t = 0, x = −2: C = 0, x = et − 3 (b) x&& = −9x , n = 3, T = 2π , v 2 = 9 40 − x 2 , a = 2 10 ,
( )
3 9 3
t = 1: x = e − 3 v = 2 10
max

292 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 2 2 dx 2 ( )
3 v2 = 5(4 − x2), 1 v 2 = 5 (4 − x 2 ) , d 1 v 2 = d ⎡ 5 (4 − x 2 ) ⎤,
dx ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
(c) 1 v 2 = 3 + 2x − x 2 , x&& = 2 − 2x = −2(x − 1):
2
SHM around x = 1
5
x&& = × (−2x ) = −5x : SHM, n = 5 , T = 2 π ,a=2
2 5 (i) x = 1
4 B (ii) T  = 2π = π 2, v2 = 2(3 − x)(1 + x) = 2(4 − y2)
(
5 D. x = 17 8 sin 4t + 15 cos 4t
17 17 ) 2
where y = 1 − x; a = 2 m
11 (a) v2 = 2(3 − x)(5 + x), x = −5, 3
= 17 sin(4t + α )where tan α = 15
9 (b) 1 v 2 = 15 − 2x − x 2, x&& = −2 − 2x = −2(x + 1)
x = 17 × 4 cos(4t + α ). Maximum velocity is 68. 2
(c) x = −1, v2 = 32, vmax = 4 2
6 B. x!! = 6(6 − x )
12 (a) x = −an sin (nt + ε )
( 13 13 )
7 A. x = 13 5 sin 2t + 12 cos 2t = 13sin(2t + α ) where tan α = 12 t = 0, x& = 0: ε = 0, x = a cos nt
5
))
2t = 13sin(2t x =
= ( 13
+ α ) where tan ×13 α = + α = )
5 sin 2t12+ 12 cos 2t = 13sin(2t + α ) where tan α = 12 t = 0, x = −5: −5 = a, x = −5 cos nt = 5 cos (π − nt)
−52 + α
( )
x
! 13 2cos(2t ). x
!! sin(2t ). Maximum acceleration is 52.
2cos 13 5
cos 2t = 13sin(2t + α ) where tan α = 512
3). x!! = −52 sin(2t 5+ α ). isx!!52. or x = 5 sin nt − π
x! = 13 × 2cos(2t
+ α ). Maximum acceleration = −52 sin(2t + α ). Maximum acceleration is 52. 2
+ α ). Maximum acceleration is 52.
). x!! = −52 sin(2t (b) t = 0, x = 0: 0 = a cos ε
8 (a) x = 2, x& = 5. x = 5, x& = 4. ( )
π
ε = π : x = acos nt + , x! = −an sin nt +
2 2 ( ) π
2
v 2 = n2 (a2 − x 2 )
25 = n2 (a2 − 4)
t = 0, v < 0, a > 0: x = acos nt + ( π
2 )
[1]
16 = n2 (a2 − 25) [2] 13  ( )
v2 = 9(16 − x2), d
dx 2
1 v 2 = d ⎡ 9 (16 − x 2 ) ⎤ x&& = −9x:
dx ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ,
25 = a2 − 4 [1]÷[2] SHM x = 4: x&& = −36 m s−2, maximum speed = 12 m s−1
16 a2 − 25
25a2 − 625 = 16a2 − 64 ( )
14 d 1 v 2 = −16x, v2 = 16(25− x2), x = 5 sin (4t − C)
dx 2
2
9a = 561 where sinC = − 3
5
a2 = 561 ∴ cosC = 4 , x = 4 sin 4t + 3 cos 4t
9 5
max displacement = 5 m, maximum speed = 20 m s−1
a = 561 2π = π
3 15 (a) t = 0, x = 0, x& = −4, ,n=4
n 2
(b) 25 = n (
2 561
9
−4 ) x = a sin 4t, x& = −4acos 4t , −4 = −4a, a = 1: x = sin 4t
(b) a = 1 m
25 = n2 × 525 2
9 16 36 = n2(a2 − 4), 16 = n2(a2 − 9), 36 = a 2 − 4 , a = 13, n = 2
16 a − 9
n2 = 9 period = π s, amplitude = 13 m
21
17 x& = ancosnt − bn sinnt,
n= 3 2 2 2 2
21 x = −an sinnt − bn cosnt = −n (a sinnt + b cos nt ) = −n x ,
Period = 2π = 2π × 21 = 2π 21 amplitude = a2 + b 2
n 3 3
x& = n(acosnt − b sinnt ), maximum speed = n a2 + b 2
( π
9 x = 5cos t − , x = −
2
π
3 ) 5
2
π sin t − π ,
π
2 ( 3 ) 18 x = 4 − cos 2t, x& = 2 sin 2t ,
x&& = 4 cos 2t = 4(4 − x ) = −4(x − 4): SHM
( )
2 2
x = −
 5 π cos t −π π =− π x : SHM
4 2 3 4 (a) x = 4 m (b) n = 2, T = π s (c) a = 1 m
(a) T = 2π ÷ π = 4 s (b) a = 5 m ( )
2

2 19 n = π , a = 10: v 2 = π 100 − x 2 ; x = 6: v = 2π cm s−1

4 16
1
2 (
(c)  = cos t − π , t = 4 ,
π
2 3 )3 dx 2 ( ) dx ⎣ 32
2
( ⎦
)
2
x!! = d 1 v 2 = d ⎡⎢ π 100 − x 2 ⎥⎤ = − π x , x = 3π m s−2
16 8
2

x = − 5 π
2
sin 2
( )
3
π − π
3
=−
5π 3
4
m s−1 maximum acceleration when x = 10: xmax = 5π m s−2
8
2

( )
2 2
(d) x = − π × − 5 = 5π m s−2 20 x& = 16cos 2t − 12 sin 2t ,
4 2 8 x&& = −32 sin 2t − 24 cos 2t = −4(8 sin 2t + 6cos 2t ) = −4(x − 10):
10 (a) 1 v 2 = 150 + 50x − 25 x 2 , x&& = 50 − 25x = −25(x − 2): SHM about x = 10, n = 2, T = π s, a = 10 m
2 2
SHM around x = 2 21 (a) x = ut + 1 at 2 , 0.5 = 11u + 1 ×121a, 1 = 22u + 121a
2 2
(i) x = 2 m
0 = 18u + 1 × 324a, 0 = u + 9a
(ii) T  = 2π , v2 = 25(6 − x)(2 + x) = 25(16 − y2) 2
2
5
where y = 2 − x; a = 4 m ∴ x = 9t − t : t = 7, x = 0.5; t = 9, x = 81
77 154 154
(b) 1 v 2 = 64 −16x − 8x 2 , x&& = −16 − 16x = −16(x + 1): π π t 1
(b) n = , x = − sin : t = 7, x = ; t = 9, x = 1
2 6 6 2
SHM around x = −1
(i) x = −1
(ii) T  = π , v2 = 16(2 − x)(4 + x) = 16(9 − y2)
2
where y = x + 1; a = 3 m
Answers Chapter 6 293
 3 9
2
22 a = 2, n = 2π , v 2 = 4π (4 − x 2 ), vmax = 4π m s−1,
3
Occurs when −4 = −4 sin 2t +
π
3 ( )
9
2
xmax = 8π m s−2 sin 2t + π = 1
3 ( )
23 (a) x = 5cos π t (b) 5π (c) a = 5, f = 1 , T = 12 s 2t + = π
π
6 6 12 3 2
2
(d) 5 π (e) 5 π π
6 36 2t =
6
24 v = 2(25 − x ); x = 0: speed = 5 2 m s−1
2 2
π
t=
x = 4: speed = 3 2 m s−1 12
Maximum speed first occurs after π seconds.
25 v2 = 4(a2 − x2); a = 4 m, v = 2 7 m s−1 12
⎛ 3 ⎞
26 (a) f = 5 Hz (vibrations per second)
34 (a) 3 sin 3t − cos3t = 2 ⎜ sin 3t − 1 cos3t ⎟
2π ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
(b) n = 5 , a = 10 m = 2 sin(3t − α ) where tan α = 1
2 2 −1 −2
27 n = 2, a = 2.5, v = 4(6.25 − x ); x = 1.5: v = 4 m s , x&& = 6 m s 3
π πt
28 a =10, n = , x = 10 sin ; x = 6: t = 1.02 s
5 5
= 2 sin 3t − π
6 ( )
29 64 = n2(a2 − 9), 36 = n2(a2 − 16): a = 5, n = 2, T = π seconds, R = 2, α = π
6
x&&max = 20 m s−2
30 (a) 10.5 m (b) a = 1.5 m (c) T = 14 h (b) x = 4 + 3 sin 3t − cos3t

(d) n = π :
7 (
= 2 sin 3t − π + 4
6 )
( )
t = 0 (9 a.m.): y = 10.5 − 1.5 = 9 m
x! = 6cos 3t − π
t = 3.5 (12:30 p.m.): y = 10.5 − 1.5cos π = 10.5 m 6
2
t = 7 (4 p.m.): y = 10.5 − 1.5 cos π = 10.5 + 1.5 = 12 m.
(e) y = 10, 10 = 10.5 − 1.5cos π t , 1.5cos π t = 0.5 , cos π t = 1 ,
(
x!! = −18 sin 3t − π
6 )
πt
7
= 1.231, 5.052; t = 2.743 h, 11.257 h
7
7 7 3
(
= −9 × 2 sin 3t − π
6 )
Between 9 a.m. + 2 h 45 min = 11:45 a.m. = −9(x − 4)
and 9 a.m. + 11 h 15 min = 8:15 p.m. Since the acceleration is proportional to, but in the opposite
31 (a) 18°C direction to, the displacement from the centre of motion,
(b) t = 0 (4 a.m.), T = 13: T = 18 − 5 cos 0 = 13 x = 4, the particle is undergoing simple harmonic motion.
t = 12 (4 p.m.), T = 23: T = 18 − 5 cos π = 18 + 5 = 23 (c) a = 2, centre of motion is x = 4.
∴ formula satisfies the given conditions.
(c) (i) 10 a.m and 10 p.m. (from part (a))
(d) Minimum displacement occurs when sin 3t −
π = −1
6 ( )
3t − π = 3π
(ii) T = 15: 15 = 18 − 5cos π t , 5cos π t = 3, cos π t = 0.6, 6 2
12 12 12
π t 3t = 10 π
= 0.9273, t = 3 h 33 min = at 7:33 a.m and 12:27 a.m. 6
12
πt πt t= 5 π
(iii) T = 21: 21 = 18 − 5cos , 5cos = −3, 9
12 12
cos = −0.6, π t π t = 2.214,
t = 8 h 27 min Minimum displacement occurs after 5π seconds.
12 12 9
= at 12:27 p.m. and 7:33 p.m. 35 (a) x!! = −12x , x!! = −n2 x ⇒ n2 = 12
32 na = 3, n2a = 8: n = 8 , a = 9 m, T = 3π s π 3
3 8 4 n = 2 3 : Period = 2π = 2π =
n 2 3 3
33 (a) x = cos 2t − 3 sin 2t
⎛
= 2 ⎜ 1 cos 2t −
3 ⎞
sin 2t ⎟
dx 2 ( )
(b) d 1 v 2 = −12x
⎝2 2 ⎠ 1 v2 = x

= 2(cos 2t cos α − sin 2t sin α ) where tan α = 3 2 ∫ −4

−12x dx

( )
x
= ⎡⎣ −6x 2 ⎤⎦
= 2cos 2t + π −4
3
π = −6x 2 + 6 × 16
R = 2, α =
3 (
= 6 16 − x 2 )
(b) x = 2cos 2t + ( π
3 ) 2
v = 12 16 − x ( 2
)
x! = −4 sin 2t + π(
3 )
Maximum speed is 4 m s−1.

294 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 (
(c) Let x = 4 cos 2 3t + α ) (c) x = 3 − 2cos 4π t
25
t = 0, x = −4: −4 = 4 cos α π t π
cos α = − 1 ⇒ α = π x! = 8 sin t
4
25 25
(
x = 4 cos 2 3t + π ) 2
x!! = 32π cos 4π t
625 25
= −4 cos 2 3t
x!! = 0 when cos 4π t = 0
36 (a) x = 4 + cos2 t 25
x! = −2cost sint 4π t = π
25 2
= − sin 2t
t = 25 = 3 1 hours after low tide
x!! = −2cos 2t 8 8
(
= −2 2cos2 t − 1 ) The second low tide is at 3:30 p.m. (3 + 12.5 h)
Now 1 × 60 = 7.5, so 3 1 hours is 3 h 7.5 min.
2
= −4 cos t + 2 8 8
= −4(x − 4) + 2 The depth is increasing fastest at
3:30 + 3 h 7.5 min = 6:37:30 p.m.
= 18 − 4x
(b) x!! = 18 − 4x EXERCISE 6.3
= −4(x − 4.5) 1 (a) x! = −24 sin 4t , x!! = −96cos 4t (b) x = 9 (c) −3 ≤ x ≤ 9
This is of the form x!! = −n2 (x − k) so represents SHM π
(d) t =
about x = 4.5. 6
2 D
(c) Centre is x = 4.5, n2 = 4 so n = 2. Period = 2π = π
2 3 (a) x
Since −2cos 2t = 18 − 4x, x = 4.5 − 0.5cos 2t, so amplitude = 0.5. 5
37 (a) x = 1 + 2cos 2t − π(4 ) 3

(
x! = −4 sin 2t − π
4 ) 1

(
x!! = −8cos 2t − π
4 ) O p
(b) x = 2 sin 2t : t = 0, π , π, 3π , 2π
2p t

(
But 2cos 2t − π
4 )
= x −1
2 2
(c) (i) x = 4 cos 2t (ii) x = 4(4 − x )
x!! = −4(x − 1) 4 a = 2 sin t, v = 3 − 2 cos t, x = 1 + 3t − 2 sint
5 (a)
x (b) !x = 5π cos π t :
(b) Centre of motion is x = 1 2 2
( )
5 t = 1, 3 seconds
π =1
Maximum speed when sin 2t −
4
2t − = π
π
4 2
O t
2t = 3π 2 4
4
t= 3π seconds
8 –5
(c) a = 2

( )
2
(c) 5π 2 cm s−1  (d) (i) x!! = − 5π sin π t    (ii) x!! = − π x
2
At rest when sin 2t − π = 0 4 4 2 4
4
π 6 (a) x = 1 + 2 sint , x = 2cost (b) t = 0, x = 0: x = 1, x = 2
2t − = 0 7 (a) x(0) = 0, x(0)
 = 2, x(0)
!! = −2
4
π (b) x
2t = 2
4
π
t = seconds
8 1

38 (a) Period = 12.5 hours. 25 = 2π , n = 4π

2 n 25 O t
The depth halfway between low tide and high tide = 5 − 1 = 2 4
2 −t −t
(c) 1 = 2 − 2e , 2e = 1, t = loge 2
2 m. amplitude = 2
Halfway between 1 and 5 is 3. c = 3 8 (a) x
4
x = 2cos 4π t + 3
25
Check that this fits the given information that low tide is at
t = 0: x = 2cos 0 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5. This is high tide. 2
Hence x = 3 − 2cos 4π t and a = −2
25
(b) Low tide is at 2 a.m. so the first high tide is at
2 + 6.25 h = 8.15 a.m. O p 2p t

Answers Chapter 6 295

 (b) !x = −4 cos 2t: x = 0 at t = π , 3π , 5π , 7π (c) x = b cos2 θ ∴ dx = −2b cos θ sin θ dθ

( )
4 4 4 4
t = π , x = 0; t = 3π , x = 4
x dx = −2b cos 2 θ dθ = −b θ + 1 sin 2θ + C
4 4

b−x ∫ 2 ∫ [1]
∴ particle oscillates between x = 0 and x = 4. 2 2 x 2x −b
As x = b cos θ ∴ cos θ = , cos 2θ =
b b
(c) t = π , 3π , 5π , 7π (d) (i) x = 8 sin 2t (ii) x = 4(2 − x )
4 4 4 4 2 bx − x 2
2 Hence sin 2θ = [2]
9 (a) t = 2; v =∫ adt is largest value of v b

(b) t = 4; v = ∫
0
4
adt = 0
and θ = 1 cos −1 2x − b [3]
2 b ( )
0 Substitute [2] and [3] into [1] to complete the proof.
(c) t = 4: x is maximum when v = 0 and a < 0
10 (a) t = 2 (b) t = 4; when the area below the t-axis equals the (d) v = − 2k b − x (moving towards O)
4 b x
dx dt = 0
area above the axis, the displacement is zero: x = ∫ t
b 0
x dx,
(c) d2x
0 dt dt = − ∫ 0 2k ∫ b b−x

( )
0
dt2 (1, 2) b ⎡− b cos −1 2x − b − bx − x 2 ⎤
2 t=−
2k ⎢⎣ 2 b ⎥⎦b
which produces the required result.
a
a 2
v 1 2 2 ⎡x a4 ⎤ 2
∫ ∫
2 2 −3
O 2 6
t 13 v dv = −k 4
(x + a x )dx ∴ 2 v = −k ⎢ 2 − 2 ⎥
0 a ⎣ 2x ⎦a
which produces the required result.
–2 14 12:47 p.m.
(3, –2) (5, –2)
15 (a) v12 = n 2 (a 2 − x12 ) [1] and v 22 = n 2 (a 2 − x 22 ) [2]
1
11 distance ≈ (0 + 2 ( 4.6 + 5.7 + 8 + 9.9 + 12.7 ) + 18.2) = 50 m v2
2 From [1]: a 2 = x12 + 12
12 (a) distance ≈ 2 ( 0 + 2 × 1 + 4 ) = 6 (b) 2 (c) t > 5 n
2 2 2
⎛ 2 v2 2
⎞
(d) When the area under the curve to the right of D has a Substitute into [2]: v 2 = n ⎜ x 1 + 12 − x 2 ⎟
magnitude of 6, at time t1: ⎝ n ⎠
t1
dx dt = 0; 4(t − 6) = 6, t = 7.5, so when t ≈ 7.5 v 22 − v12
0 dt ∫ 1 1 v 22 = n 2 (x12 − x 22 ) + v12 , n =
x 12 − x 22
(e) x
8 x 22 − x12
6 ∴ T = 2π
v12 − v 22
4
2 v12 a 2 − x12
(b) [1] ÷ [2]: = , a 2 (v12 − v 22 ) = v12 x 22 − v 22 x12
O t v 22 a 2 − x 22
2 4 6
–4 v12 x 22 − v 22 x12
∴a=
v12 − v 22
13 (a) 30 m (b) 35 m (c) 45 m       
14 D
16 (a) 2nπ = 5T ∴ n = 2π
EXERCISE 6.4 5T
The displacements of the particles are given by:
( )
3 2
1 C 2 x = t + 3t + t + 2 x = acos 2π t + α
3 2 5T
3 (a) F = (4t − 12) N    (b) ±4 N
For particle 1, x = a when t = 0 ∴ α = 0: x1 = acos 2π t
4 (a) F = 20 − t   (b) 20 m s−1   (c) 5 s 5T
(d) 20 m s−1   (e) 716 2 m   (f) 15 25 m s−1
3 27
For particle 2, x = a when t = T ∴ a = acos 2π T + α ,
5T ( )
2π (t − T )
5 F = 10x − 30   6 D   7 25 m s−1 i.e. α = − 2π : x 2 = acos
5 5T
8 (a) x = 3 − 3 cos t + 2t   (b) v = 4 2π (t − T )
(c) t = loge 2 Particles meet at x1 = x2: cos = cos 2π t
5T 5T
10x − 3 − 3x 2 2π (t − T ) 2 π t
9 (a) v = ± x (b) x = 3 or 1

5T
=±
5T
+ 2kπ
3
10 loge 2 m T
For k = 0: t = , which is before particle 2 is in motion.
2
( )
v x x
−x
x −2 dx , 1 v 2 = k ⎡⎢ 1x ⎤⎥ = k aax
11
0∫ v dv = −k
a ∫ 2 ⎣ ⎦a
For k = 1: t = 3T, i.e. 2T after particle 2 starts to move.

2k(a − x ) (b) acos π

∴ Speed = 5
ax 17 (a) For particle 1: x1 = v1t cos α1 and y1 = v1t sin α 1 − 1 gt 2
2
12 (a) The displacement x in the direction away from O is positive,
For particle 2: x2 = v2t cos α2 and y 2 = v 2t sin α 2 − 1 gt 2
so acceleration towards O is negative. 2

( )
v x x They hit the pole at the same time, so x1 = x2 at t = T:
(b)  v dv = −k x −2 dx , 1 v 2 = k ⎡⎢ 1x ⎤⎥ = k 1x − 1
∫ ∫ ∴ v1 cos α1T = v2 cos α2T
0 b 2 ⎣ ⎦b b
2
∴ v = 2k x − 1
( )
1
b
T(v1 cos α1 − v2 cos α2) = 0
As T ≠ 0: v1 cos α1 = v2 cos α2

296 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 (b) For particle 2: y 2 = v 2t sin α 2 − 1 gt 2
2 2 ( 2)
(d) If β = α , v tan α + tan α = 2u tan α . Let t = tan α :
2
(
When y = 0: t v 2 sin α 2 − 1 gt = 0
2 ) ∴v (2t
1 − t2 ) ( )
+ t = 2u 2t
1 − t2
v
which gives u = (3 − t 2 ).
4
2v sin α 2 2 2
So it hits the pole when: t = 2 α > 0, so t > 0: ∴ 3 − t < 3
g
(c) Distance from O to base of pole: Hence: u < 3 v
4

2v sin α
OB = v1 cos α 1 × 2 g 2 (
20 (a) Vt cos α , Vt sin α − 1 gt 2
2 )
Let height of pole be h. As tan α = h : (b) tan θ =
Vt sin α − 12 gt 2 2V sin α − gt
=
OB Vt cos α 2V cos α
2v1v 2 cos α 1 sin α 2 tan α
h= ∴ 2V cos α tan θ = 2V sin α − gt
g
gt = 2V sin α − 2V cos α  tan θ [1]
For particle 1: y1 = v1t sin α 1 − 1 gt 2 and y1 = h At B: x = V cos α and y = − gt + V sin α
2
2v sin α V sin α − gt
when t = 2 g 2 ∴ tan β = , V cos α tan β = V sin α − gt
V cos α
2v1v 2 cos α 1 sin α 2 tan α gt = V sin α − V cos α tan β [2]
Hence: Equate [1] and [2]:
g
2
2V sin α − 2V cos α tan θ = V sin α − V cos α  tan β
2v 2 sin α 2 g ⎛ 2v 2 sin α 2 ⎞ Divide by V cos α to obtain the required result.
= v1 sin α 1 × − ×⎜ ⎟⎠
( )
g 2 ⎝ g
g 21 (a) Vt cos α , Vt sin α − 1 gt 2
Multiply both sides by : 2
2v 2 sin α 2 (b) x = V cos α and y = − gt + V sin α
v1 cos α1 tan α = v1 sin α1 − v2 sin α2 (c) The particle lands at an angle of 60° below the horizontal,
v1 cos α 1 y − gt + V sin α
But v 2 = from part (a): so tan(−60°) = : ∴ − 3 = ,
cos α 2 x V cos α
v cos α 1 sin α 2 gt = V sin α + 3V cos α [1]
∴ v1 cos α 1 tan α = v1 sin α 1 − 1
cos α 2 V (sin α + 3 cos α )
Divide by v1 cos α1 to obtain the required result. Time of flight: t F = g
 et P be the point on the horizontal plane through O such
(d) L
18 (a) A is (ut cos α , ut sin α − 1 gt 2 ), B is
2 that P is vertically below Q. Then:
⎛ u2 2u 2 sin 2 α − ut sin α ⎞ − 1 gt 2 + Vt sin α
⎜⎝ g sin 2α , ⎟⎠
g tan 30° = 2
Vt cos α
2
ut sin α − 2 gt
1
2u sin α − gt 2 3
(b) Gradient OA = = ∴ gt = 2V sin α − V cos α [2]
ut cos α 2ucos α 3
2u2
sin 2
α − ut sin α Equate [1] and [2]:
g
Gradient OB = 2 3
u2 2V sin α − V cos α = V sin α + 3V cos α ,
g sin 2α 3
2u 2 sin 2 α − gut sin α 5 3
= tan α =
3
u 2 sin 2α (e) In triangle OPQ:
2u sin 2 α − gt sin α 2u sin α − gt
= = OQ = OP = 2 × V cos α × t
2u sin α cos α 2ucos α cos30° F
3
Gradient OA = Gradient OB ∴ O, A and B are in a straight
line. 2 × V cos α × V (sin α + 3 cos α )
= g [3]
19 (a) At time t during flight, let the slower stone be at C and the 3
(
faster stone at D where C is ut cos α , ut sin α − 1 gt 2 and D
2 ) Now tan α =
5 3
so: sin α =
5 3
and cos α = 3
( 2 )
is vt cos α , vt sin α − 1 gt 2 :
3 2 21 2 21
Substitute these values into [3] to obtain the required result.
Gradient CD =
( )
vt sin α − 12 gt 2 − ut sin α − 12 gt 2
vt cos α − ut cos α EXERCISE 6.5
(v − u)t sin α ku     (b) ud 2 + 2dk
= = tan α 1 (a)
(v − u)t cos α ud + k 2ku
which is independent of t. V d
2 (a) x = −kv, v dv = −kv, dv = −k, ∫ ∫
dv = −k dx ,
dx dx
(b) In triangle PQZ: tan α = h ∴ PZ = h cot α
U 0
PZ V − U = −kd ∴ V = U − kd
(c) Slower stone hits ground at P when t = 2u sin α
g . At that (b) dv = −kv, dt = − 1 ,
T
dt = − 1
V
dv ,
time, faster stone has: dt dv kv 0 ∫ k U v ∫
 y = − gt + v sin α = −2u sin α + v sin α = (−2u + v )sin α
T = − 1 log e V , V = e − kT ∴ U = Ve
kT
and x = v cos α
k U U
(−2u + v )sin α
So, at Q: tan (− β ) =
v cos α (c) From part (a): k = U − V , substitute into part (b) to obtain
d
∴ −v tan β = −2u tan α + v tan α result.
2u tan α = v(tan α + tan β ) 3 B

Answers Chapter 6 297

 v
mg ⎛ − kt ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎤
⎞ ⎡Q 2 (1 + v 2 )⎤
4 (a) v = ⎜
k ⎝
1− e m⎟ t = 1 ⎢log e ⎜ 1 + 2v ⎟ ⎥ , t = 1 log e ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
⎠ 2⎣ ⎝ v ⎠ ⎦Q 2 ⎣v (1 + Q )⎦
2
(b) v Q
(d) v 2 = 2t    (e) v → 0, x → tan −1 Q
e (1 + Q 2 ) − Q 2
 ake O as point of projection, take upwards motion as
15 (a) T
positive. Gravity and resistance both act downwards
mg ∴ m x = −(mg + 0.1v )
k But m = 1, so: x = −( g + 0.1v )
(10 g + v ) dx
(b) x = −( g + 0.1v ), v dv = − , = − 10v ,
dx 10 dv 10 g + v
O t h 0
10v 0
⎛ 100 g ⎞
∫
0
dx = − ∫
V0 10 g + v
dv , h =
V0 ⎝∫
⎜10 − 10 g + v ⎟⎠ dv
mg
( )
2
(c) Terminal velocity is , t = m log e 4   (d) m g log 4 − 1 h = [10v − 100 g log e (10 g + v )]
0
k k 3 k2 e 3 4 V0

⎛ 10 g ⎞
5 (a) Resistance force    (b) 49 m s−1    (c) 245 e m h = 10V0 + 100 g log e ⎜
⎝ 10 g + V0 ⎟⎠
g ⎛ g ⎞
   (c) 1 log e ⎜ 10 g + v T1 0
6 (a) x = g − kv 2   (b) (c) x = −( g + 0.1v ), dv = − , ∫ dt = − ∫
10 dv
k 2k ⎝ g − kv ⎟⎠
2
dt 10 0 V0 10 g +v

2k 3 ()
(d) 1 log e 4    (e) 1 log e 3
2 g ⎛ 10 g + V0 ⎞
T1 = 10 [log e (10 g + v )] 0 , T1 = 10 log e ⎜
V

g g 0 ⎝ 10 g ⎟⎠
7 (a) x = g − kv   (b) v = (1 − e − kt )   (c)
k k  ake O as maximum height, take downwards motion as
(d) T
(d) 49(1 − e−1) m s−1   (e) 5 loge 2 seconds positive. Gravity acts downwards, resistance acts upwards
∴ m x = mg − 0.1v
5 10 g (e 8 − 1)
8 (a) v2 = 250g(1 − e−0.008x) (b) m s−1 But m = 1, so: x = g − 0.1v
e8
10 g − v T2 VF
10 g (e − 1) g (e11 − 20 + 19e) g (e) x = g − 0.1v, dv = , ∫ dt = ∫
10 dv
9 (a) e m s−1 (b) m s−1 (c) m s−1 dt 10 0 0 10 g − v
2e11 2
⎛ 10 g ⎞
T2 = −10 [log e (10 g − v )] F , T2 = 10 log e ⎜
V
g + 40⎞ −1 ⎛ 10 ⎞
10 (a) 5 log e ⎛⎜ m (b) 10 g tan ⎜⎝ 2 g ⎟⎠ s

⎝ 10 g − VF ⎟⎠
⎝ g ⎟⎠
0

10 g − v dx
g ⎛ g ⎞ g + ku⎞ (f) x = g − 0.1v, v dv = , = 10v
11 (a) u + 2 log e ⎜ (b) 1 log e ⎛⎜ (c) x = g − kv dx 10 dv 10 g − v
k k ⎝ g + ku⎟⎠ k ⎝ g ⎟⎠
h VF
10v dv , h = VF ⎛ −10 + 100 g ⎞ dv
(d) x = g − kv, v dv = g − kv, dv =
dx dx
g − kv
v
,
∫ 0
dx =∫0 10 g − v
⎜
0 ⎝∫ 10 g − v ⎟⎠

⎛ 1 g h = [−10v − 100 g log e (10 g − v )]0 F

h V V V
v dv 1 ⎞
∫
0
dx = ∫
0 g − kv
,h= ∫ ⎜ − + k × g − kv ⎟⎠ dv,
0 ⎝ k
V ⎛ 10 g ⎞
g h = −10VF + 100 g log e ⎜
⎡
h = ⎢− v − 2 log e ( g − kv )⎥
⎤
⎝ 10 g − VF ⎟⎠
⎣ k k ⎦0
u g ⎛ g ⎞ V g ⎛ g ⎞ (g) Equate results of parts (b) and (f):
+ 2 log e ⎜ = − + 2 log e ⎜
k k ⎝ g + ku⎟⎠ k k ⎝ g − kV ⎟⎠ ⎛ 10 g ⎞
10V0 + 100 g log e ⎜
the result follows. ⎝ 10 g + V0 ⎟⎠
2
⎛ ⎞
12 (a) m log e ⎜1 + ku
mg ⎠⎟   (b) V =
u ⎛ 10 g ⎞
= −10VF + 100 g log e ⎜
2k ⎝ 2
⎝ 10 g − VF ⎟⎠
1 + ku
mg
2 ⎛ 10 g + V0 ⎞
(c) 1 + ku
mg > 1 as k, m, g all positive ∴ V < u
V0 + VF = 10 g log e ⎜
⎝ 10 g − VF ⎟⎠
1 ⎡2 tan −1 ⎛U k ⎞ + log ⎛ g + V k ⎞ ⎤ Total time T = T1 + T2
13 ⎢ ⎜⎝ g ⎟⎠ e⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎛ 10 g + V0 ⎞
2 gk ⎢⎣ ⎝ g − V k ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎛ 10 g ⎞
= 10 log e ⎜ + 10 log e ⎜
⎝ 10 g ⎟⎠ ⎝ 10 g − VF ⎠⎟
14 (a) Take tan (…) of both sides to obtain the result.
⎛ 10 g + V0 ⎞ V0 + VF
(b) v dv = −(v + v 3 ), dv = −(1 + v 2 ), dx = − 1 2 , = 10 log e ⎜
⎝ 10 g − VF ⎟⎠
=
g
dx dx dv 1+ v
x v
∫ dx = − dv
∫ , x = − [ tan −1 v
v ] 16 (a) For 0 ≤ t ≤ 10: 20000 x = −(40000 + 4v 2 )

( )
2 Q
0 Q1+ v 2
−1 −1
x = tan Q − tan v, x = tan −1 ⎡ Q − v ⎤ ∴ x = − 2 + v
5000
⎣⎢1 + Qv ⎦⎥
t v For t > 10: 20000 x = −(40000 + 4v 2 + 18000 − 300v )
(c) dv = −(v + v 3 ), dt = − 1 3 , dt = −∫
dv ,
∫
dt
t = −
v
1 −∫ ( v
dv v+v
)
0 Qv+v

dv (using partial fractions)

3
( 2
∴ x = − 2.9 + v − 3v
5000 200 )
Q v 1 + v2 (b) 35.4 m s−1  

298 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 (c) 473.6 m   (d) 23.0 s   (e) 708.3 m
5 (a) V = 31.3 m s−1 (b) V = 980 = 31.3 m s−1
    (f ) 35.4
dv 35.4
dv 6 V = 19.6 m s−1, α.
∫0
2
v − 75v + 14500
=
0 ∫v 2 − 75v + 1406.25 + 13093.75 (a) a = − gj
! !
35.4
dv v(t ) = c − g t j
= ∫
0 (v − 37.5) + (114.4279)
2 2 ! ! !
v(0) = 19.6cos α i + 19.6 sin α j
35.4 ! ! !
1 ⎡ −1 ⎛ v − 37.5 ⎞ ⎤ v(t ) = 19.6cos α i + (19.6 sin α − g t ) j
= tan
114.4279 ⎢⎣ ⎝ (114.4279⎠ ⎥⎦0 ! !
Greatest height when 19.6sin α − gt!= 0
= 0.00260721 (to 6 sig. figs) 19.6 sin α = 2 sin α
       t = 9.8
( )
35.4 35.4 35.4
vdv 1 2v − 75 75 dv
∫0 ∫ =
v − 75v + 14500 2 0 v − 75v + 14500
2 2 ∫ dv +
2 0 v − 75v + 14500
2 r(t
!
) = 19.6cos α t i + 19.6 sin α t − 1 g t 2 j + d
! 2 ! !
1 2
= ⎡⎣log e (v − 75v + 14500)⎤⎦ +
35.4 75 × 0.00260721 r(0) = 0 : d = 0
! ! ! !
( )
2 0 2
= 0.0469319 (to 6 sig. figs) r(t ) = 19.6cos α t i + 19.6 sin α t − 1 g t 2 j
! ! 2 !
Hits ground when 19.6 sin α t − 1 g t 2 = 0
EXERCISE 6.6 2
1 t = 0, x! = 45, x = 0, y = 0, y! = 0. t = 10, y = 100. t(19.6 sin α − 4.9t ) = 0
(a) x = 45t: t = 10, x = 450 m
t = 0, t = 19.6 sin α = 4 sin α
The package hits the ground 450 m relative to the point from 4.9
where it was dropped. Hence reaches maximum height halfway through the flight.
(b) Taking downwards as positive, travels 100 metres in (b) t = 4sin α, x = 19.6cos α t.
10 seconds so y! = 10. Range = 19.6cos α × 4 sin α = 39.2 × 2 sin α cos α = 39.2 sin 2α
 x! = 45, y! = 10, V = 452 + 102 = 46.1 m s−1. tan θ = 10 , Range is greatest when sin 2α = 1 or α = 45°
45 Maximum range = 39.2 m
θ = 12.5°.
Hits the ground with a velocity of 46.1 m s−1 at an angle of 7 (a) aa == −− ggjj
!! !!
12.5° to the horizontal (77.5° to the vertical). v(t)) == cc −− ggtt jj
v(t
2 u = 7 i + 24 j !! !! !!
! ! !2 v(0) == ucos
v(0) ucosα α ii ++ uusinsinαα jj
(a) u = 7 + 24 2 = 25 ms−1. θ = tan −1 24 = 73.7° !! !! !!
! 240 7 v(t ucosα
v(t)) == ucos α ii ++ (u sinα
(usin α −− ggtt)) jj
(b) t = = 4.90 s !! !! !!
49
(c) Horizontal distance = 7 × 240
49
= 240
7
= 34.3 m
r(t
r(t
!!
)
) =
= ucos
ucos( α
α tt ii
!!
++ u
u)sin
sin α
α t
t −
−
11 g t 22 j + d
22 g t !j + d!!
!
(d) G  reatest height when t = 2.45 s r(0) == 00 :: dd == 00
r(0)
!! !! !! !!
( )
2
Greatest height = 24 × 2.45 − 4.9 × 2.45 = 29.4 m 1 2
αtt −− 21 ggtt 2 jj
! ! ( !
)(
(e) Find when v • u = 0: 7 i + ( 24 − 9.8t ) j • 7 i + 24 j = 0
!
) ! !
! !
ucosα
r(t)) == ucos
r(t αtt ii ++ uusin
!!
sinα
x
2 !!
49 + 576 − 235.2t = 0 x = ucos α t so t =
ucos α
625 y = u sin α t − 1 gt2
t= ≈ 2.7 s 2
235.2
Yes, when t = 2.7 seconds.
( )
2

3 t = 0, x = 0, y = 1, V = 30 m s−1, α = 60°. = u sin α × x − 1 g × x

ucos α 2 ucos α
(a) Horizontal distance travelled = 15 × 5.34 = 80.1 m g x2
(b) Maximum height = 35.4 m = x tan α − 2
2 2u cos2 α
49x
(c) y = 3x − g x2
2250 = x tan α − 2 sec 2 α
y
2u
35
gx 2
30 (b) y = 0: x tan α − sec 2 α = 0
2u2
25 ⎛ gx ⎞
x ⎜ tan α − 2 sec 2 α ⎟ = 0
20 ⎝ 2u ⎠
2
15
x = 0, x = 2u tan α = u2 × 2 sin α cos α = u2 sin 2α
10
2
g sec α g g
2
5 Range = u sin 2α
g
O x (c) Greatest height when u sin α − gt = 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Ground level is when y = −1. t = u sin α
g
1
Height is given by y = u sin α t − g t 2
4 Horizontal distance travelled 500 × 1 = 27.8 m 2
9 2

Answers Chapter 6 299

 Greatest height = u sin α × u sin α − 1 g ⎛⎜ u sin α ⎞⎟
2
y! = 0:
(10 + ku sinθ ) e − kt − 10 = 0
g 2 ⎝ g ⎠ k k
2 2 2 2 (10 + ku sinθ ) e − kt = 10
= u sin α − u sin α
g 2g 10
e − kt =
2 2 10 + ku sin θ
= u sin α
2g ⎛ 10 ⎞
−kt = log e ⎜
u 2
sin 2α ⎝ 10 + ku sin θ ⎟⎠
(d) Range = and is a maximum when sin 2α = 1.
g
⎛ 10 + ku sin θ ⎞
Hence α = 45°. t = 1 log e ⎜ ⎟⎠ s
k ⎝ 10
2 2
Maximum range = u sin 90° = u
10 + ku sin θ ⎞
g g (b) Greatest height is u sin θ − 102 log e ⎛⎜ ⎟⎠ m
5u k k ⎝ 10
8 V cos θ = 6u, V sin θ = .
2 (c) k = 0.4, t = 0, x = 0, y = 20, u = 30 m s−1, θ = 30°,
(a) Time taken to travel from O to P is 5u seconds.
30u 2 g x = ucos θ 1 − e − kt ,
k ( )
(b) Range is
g ( 10 + ku sin θ )
(c) V = 13u
y=
k2
1 − e − kt − 10t
k ( )
2
(d) Th
 e minimum speed vertically will be zero when it reaches x =
30cos30°
0.4
1− e −0.4t
= 37.5 3 1 − e −0.4t ( ) ( )
5u (10 + 0.4 × 30 sin 30° )
its highest point. At this time, t = , the horizontal speed
is 6u.
2g y=
0.4 2 1 − e −0.4t − 10t = 100 1 − e −0.4t − 25t
0.4 ( ) ( )

(106u.+ 0.4 × 30 sin 30° )
Hence minimum speed = 36u2 y+ =
9 Ball is 42.4 m above the ground.
0=
0.4 2
−0.4t
1 − e − 10t
0.4
= 100 1 − e (
−0.4t
)
− 25t ( )
(
10 (a) r = 20t i + 2t 2 j + 15t − 5t 2 k (b) 18 m (c) t = ) 300 ≈ 1.29 s Greatest height when t = 1 log e 10 + 0.4 × 30 sin 30° = 2.5 log e 1.6
0.4 10 ( )
( )
! ! ! 232
+ 0.4 × 30 sin
! t = 1 log e 10 −1 30° = 2.5 log 1.6

( )
2
(d) t = 1.29: v = 116 × 1.29 − 300 × 1.29 + 6250.4 = 20.8 m s 10 e
30 sin 30° 1 − 10 − 10 log 1.6 = 20 + 1125 − 62.5 log
6 Greatest height is 20 + e( )
11 (a) t = ≈ 0.6 s 0.4 16 0.4 2 32
( )
9.8
u
( ) (
g + ku y 20 +− kt
30 sin
)
30° 10 10 1125
g t 1 − 16 − 2 log e (1.6 ) = 20 + 32 − 62.5 log e 1.6 = 25.8 m
(b) x = x 1 − e − kt , y = 1− e −0.4 ( )
0.4
( ) ( )
k k 2 k 75 3 75 3 6 225 3
1 − 10 =
 
4
(i) k = 0.4: x = 0.4 1 − e ( −0.4t
)
= 10 1 − e −0.4t ( ) (d) t = 2.5 log e 1.6: x =
2 16 2 16
=
16
m
≈ 24.4 m
( 9.8 + 0.4 × 6 ) 9.8t
  y = 1 − e (
0.4t
− = )
76.25 1 − e 0.4t
− 24.5t 14 ((a) )
t = 5 log e 1.4 ≈ 1.7 s

( )
0.4 2 0.4
5
(b) y = 350 1 − − 50 × 5 log e 1.4 = 100 − 250 log e 1.4 ≈ 15.9 m
(ii) k = 0.2: x = (
4 1 − e −0.2t = 20 1 − e −0.2t
0.2 ) ( )
(c) (i) y
7
( 9.8 + 0.2 × 6 ) 9.8t
y=
0.22
(
1 − e −0.2t −
0.2 )
= 275 1 − e −0.2t − 49t ( 20

15
)
(c) y (d) Th  e greater the value of
10 t = 3.58
2.5 k, the lower the greatest
2 height and the shorter 5
the range. The graphs
1.5 (a) O x
are very similar over the 5 10 15 20 25
1

0.5
(b)(i)
first second.
(ii) t = 3.6: y = 350 1 − e −0.2×3.6 − 50× 3.6 ≈ −0.36 ≈ 0 ( )
(b)(ii)
(
(d) x = 50 1 − e −0.2×3.6
) = 50 (1 − e ) ≈ 25.7 m−0.72

O x
1 2 3 4 5
EXERCISE 6.7
12 Hits the ground after 4.6 seconds.
1 θ = 45°, V = 10 2, k = 0.01, Vcos θ = 10, Vsin θ = 10
ucos θ 1 − e − kt y = (10 + ku sin θ ) 1 − e − kt − 10t
13 x =
k ( , ) k2 k ( ) (a) x = 10t, y = 10t − 5t 2 Trajectory: y = x −
x2
20
(10 + ku sinθ ) 10
( ) ( )
(1 − e ) − 10tk
−0.01t −0.01t
(a) y = − kt (b) x = 0.01 1 − e = 1000 1 − e ,
k2
(10 + ku sinθ ) y = 10 + 0.1
0.012
1− e −0.01t
− (10t
0.01 )
= 101000 1 − e −0.01t − 1000t ( )
y! = × ke − kt − 10
k 2

(10 + ku sinθ ) e − kt −x10

k x = 1 − e −0.01t , e −0.01t = 1 − x = 1000 − x , − 0.01t = log e 1000 − x ,
1000 1000 1000 1000 ( )
=
k 1000k = 1− e
−0.01t
, e −0.01t
= 1− x
1000
= 1000 −

1000
x , − 0.01t = log e 1000
1000
− x
(
, t = 100 log e 1000
1000 − x ) ( )
Trajectory is y = 101x − 100000 log e 1000
1000 − x ( )

300 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 (c) x =
1
log 1 +
0.01 e (t
10
= 100 log e
10 + t
10 ) ( ) (e) y = 0: 20 log e cos ( )
0.5 t + 0.5 sin ( 0.5 t = 0)
t = 1.74 s
y = 100 log e cos ( 0.1 t + 0.1 sin ) ( 0.1t )
(d) y = 0: 10 − 10 tan ( 0.1t = 0 )
(
x = 20 log e 2 + 1.74 = 12.5 m
2 )
y
t = 0.97 s (f )
5
y = 100 log e cos(0.3063) + 0.1 sin ( 0.3063 ) = 4.77 m

(e) y = 0: 100 log e cos ( 0.1 t + 0.1 sin ) ( 0.1t = 0 ) 4

t = 1.94 s

(
x = 100 log e 10 + 1.94 = 17.7 m
10 ) 3

(f ) y
2
5

1
4

O x
3 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

part (a) − solid line

2 part (b) − dashed line
part (c) − dotted line
1 (g) solid line, 5 m; dashed line, 4.8 m; dotted line, 4.1 m
(h) 20 m, 18.6 m, 12.5 m
(i) The three trajectories are similar to begin with. The greater
O x the air resistance, the sooner the path drops away, and the
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
steeper the descent.
part (a) − solid line 3 (a) Same as Q1(a)
part (b) − dashed line (b) k = 0.1
part (c) − dotted line 10
x = 0.1 1 − e
−0.1t
= 100 1 − e −0.1t , ( ) ( )
(g) solid line, 5 m; dashed line, 5 m; dotted line, 4.8 m
(h) 20 m, 19.9 m, 17.8 m
y = 10 + 21 1 − e −0.1t − 10t = 1100 1 − e −0.1t − 100t
0.01 0.1 ( ) ( )

(i) The trajectories with no air resistance and the air resistance
proportional to the velocity are very similar. With the air
100
x = 1 − e −0.1t , e −0.1t = 1 − x = 100 − x , − 0.1t = log 100 − x , t = 10 log
100 100 e
100 e ( ) (
resistance proportional to the square of the velocity, the
trajectory is similar until just before x the
100
− e −0.1t , height,
= 1greatest
is less, and then falls away faster to give a smaller range.
1 − x = 100 − x , − 0.1t = log e 100 − x , t = 10 log e 100
e −0.1t = which
100 100 100 100 − x ( ) ( )
2 (a) Same as Q1(a)
(b) k = 0.05
Trajectory is y = 11x − 1000 log e
100
100 − x ( )
1
x = 0.05 1 − e
10
( −0.05t
)
= 200 1 − e −0.05t , ( ) (c) x =
0.1 e
log (1 + t ) = 10 log e (1 + t )

= 10 log e cos ( t ) + sin ( t )
y = ( )
10 + 0.5 1 − e −0.05t − 10t = 10.5 × 400 1 − e −0.05t − 200t = 4200 1 − ey−0.05t
0.052 0.05 ( − 200t ) ( )
5 (
= 10.5 × 400 1 −
e −0.05t
) − 200t = 4200 1 − e ( −0.05t
− 200t ) (d) y = 0: 10 − 10 tan t = 0
t = 0.79 s

200
x = 1 − e −0.05t , e −0.05t = 1 − x = 200 − x , − 0.05t = log 200 − x , t = 20 log
200 200 e
200 y = 10
200
e −x
200
4
( 4
)
e log cos π + sin π = 3.47 m ( )
.05t
= 1− x =
200
200
200
− x , − 0.05t = log e 200
(
200
− x , t = 20 log e )
200
200 − x ( (e) y = 0: 10 )
log e cos t + sin t =0
t = 1.57 s
Trajectory is y = 21x − 4000 log e 200
200 − x ( )
x = 10 log e (1 + t ) = 10 log e 2.57 = 9.44 m

(c) x =
1
0.05 e ( ) t
log 1 + = 20 log e
2
2+t
2 ( )

(
y = 20 log e cos 0.5 t + 0.5 sin 0.5 t ) ( )
(d) y = 0: 5 2 − 10 tan ( 0.5 t = 0 )
t = 0.87 s
y = 20 log e cos(0.6155) + 0.5 sin ( 0.6155 ) = 4.05 m

Answers Chapter 6 301

 (f) y y
(d)
5 2

1
3

2
O x
2 4 6 8 10 12 14

1 part (a) − solid line

part (b) − dashed line
part (c) − dotted line
O x
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 (e) solid line, 1.8 m; dashed line, 1.8 m; dotted line, 1.7 m
22
(f) 12.5 m, 12.3 m, 10.9 m
part (a) − solid line
(g) The three trajectories are similar during the upward motion.
part (b) − dashed line
The greater the air resistance, the sooner the path drops
part (c) − dotted line
away, and the steeper the descent.
5 θ = 60°, t = 0, x = 0, y = 2. V = 10, k = 0.005, Vcos θ = 5,
(g) solid line, 5 m; dashed line, 4.7 m; dotted line, 3.5 m Vsin θ = 5 3
(h) 20 m, 17.6 m, 9.5 m 2
(a) x = 5t, y = 2 + 5 3t − 5t
(i) The three trajectories are similar to begin with. The greater
Trajectory is y = 3x − 5x 2
the air resistance, the sooner the path drops away, and the
steeper the descent. (b) x = ( )
5 1 − e −0.005t = 1000 1 − e −0.005t
0.005
, ( )
As k increases, the greater effect of air resistance reduces
the greatest height and the range. When the air resistance

y = 2+
10 + 0.025 3
0.0052
( )
1 − e −0.005t − 10t = 2 + 40000 10 + 0.025 3 1 − e −0.005
0.005 ( )(
is proportional to the square of the velocity, the descent
becomes steeper. y = 2+
10 + 0.025 3
0.0052
( ) (
1 − e −0.005t − 10t = 2 + 40000 10 + 0.025 3 1 − e −0.005t − 2000t
0.005

)( )
4 θ = 30°, V = 12, k = 0.02, Vcos θ = 6 3 , Vsin θ = 6.
(a) x = 6 3t, y = 6t − 5t2

x = 1 − e −0.005t , e −0.005t = 1 − x = 1000 − x , − 0.005t = log 1000 − x , t
1000 1000 1000 e
1000 ( )
( ) ( )
2
3x 5x
Trajectory is y = − x = 1 − e −0.005t , e −0.005t = 1 − x = 1000 − x , − 0.005t = log e 1000 − x , t = 200 log e 1000
3 108
1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 − x
(b) x =
6 3
( )
1 − e −0.02t = 300 3 1 − e −0.02t , ( ) Trajectory is
( )
0.02
10 + 0.12
y = 0.022 1 − e (
−0.02t
)
− 10t = 25300 1 − e −0.02t − 500t( ) ( )
y = 2 + 40 10 + 0.025 3 x − 2000 × 200 log e 1000
1000 − x
0.02
x = 1 − e −0.02t , e −0.02t = 1 − x = 300 3 − x , − 0.02t = log ⎛ 300 3=−2x+⎞ 40
e⎜ ⎟⎠ ,
(
10 + 0.025 3 x − 400000 log e ) 1000
1000 − x ( )
300 3 300 3 300 3 ⎝ 300 3
(c) x = 200 log e (1 + 0.025t )
300 3 − x t = x50 log 1⎛− e300 3 ⎞− x ⎞
⎛ 3003 −0.02t x 300 3 − x ⎛ 300 3 − x ⎞
− x =
−0.02t
300 3 ⎜⎝ e ⎜⎝ , e ⎟⎠ =⎟⎠ 1, − 300 3 = 300 3 , − 0.02t = log e ⎜⎝ 300y =3 2 +⎟⎠ 200
, − 0.02t = elog ,
log e cos 0.05 t + ( 15
)
sin 0.05 t ( )
300 3 300 3
300 3
300− x 3 20
⎛ 300 3 ⎞
t = 50 log e ⎜
⎝ 300 3 − x ⎟⎠ (d) y
6
25150x ⎛ 150 3 ⎞
Trajectory is y = − 500 × 50 log e ⎜
150 3 ⎝ 150 3 − x ⎟⎠
5
503 3x ⎛ 150 3 ⎞
= − 25000 log e ⎜
9 ⎝ 150 3 − x ⎟⎠
4
3 3t
(c) x = 50 log e 1 +
50
3
3 5
y = 50 log e cos( 0.2 t ) +
50
sin ( 0.2 t )

2

O x
2 4 6 8 10

302 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 (e) The greatest height in each case is about 5.7 m (5.75 m in
graph (a)). (
x& = −2, 4 cos 2t − π = −2, cos 2t −
3 ) (
π = − 1,
3 2 )
(f) Th
 e range for graphs (a) and (b) is 9.7 m, the range for graph π 2 π 4 π 5 π π 5 π
2t − 3 = 3 , 3 ; 2t = π , 3 ; t = 2 , 6 s
(c) is 9.4 m.
(g) When the resistance is small, the results from the three cases Hence t = 0, π , π , 5π , π s
3 2 6
are very similar.
6 (a) 0 (b) a = 18 − 2t 2
( )
2
CHAPTER REVIEW 6 9 + t2

dx 2 ( )
1 d 1 v 2 = x + 6, 1 v 2 = 1 x 2 + 6x + C
2 2
(c) t = 3 (d) t = 3, v = 1 m s−1
3
t = 0, v = 0, x = 2: C = −14, v2 = x2 + 12x − 28 3 2t dt

x = 3: v = 17
(e) x = ∫
0 9+t
2 = log e 18 − log e 9 = log e 2

dx 2 ( )
2 (a) d 1 v 2 = x 3 + x, 1 v 2 = 1 x 4 + 1 x 2 + C
2 4 2
7 (a) 12 s   (b) 432 m from O
(c) Particle moves right (i.e. in the positive direction) from O,
5 2 1 1 slowing until momentarily at rest after 12 s, then moves left
x = 2, v = : C = , v = (x + 2x 2 + 1),
2 4
2 4 2 with increasing speed.
v = ±
2
(
1 x2 + 1
) 8 (a) F = −1.6x + 50   (b) 5 6 m s−1
9 (a) x = 3t − 2 sin t + 1   (b) v = 3et − 3
v > 0: v = 1 x 2 + 1
2
( ) 10 (a) T
2
(b) dx = x + 1 , dt = 2 : t = 2 tan −1 x + C
dt 2 dx x 2 + 1
a W
t = 0, x = 2: C = − 2 tan −1 2 120 N
t = 2 tan −1 x − 2 tan −1 2
t −1 −1 300 N
2 = tan x − tan 2 20°
100 g Boat
⎛ t ⎞
tan ⎜⎝
2⎠
−1
( −1
⎟ = tan tan x − tan 2 = 1 + 2x
x−2
) (b) The waterskier is moving with constant speed in a straight

x=
2 + tan ( ) t
2
line. By Newton’s first law of motion, either there is no force
or the resultant of all forces is zero.
1 − 2 tan ( ) t
2
(c) T = 1094.6, α = 81°

dx 2 ( )
3 (a) d 1 v 2 = −n2 x, 1 v 2 = − 1 n2 x 2 + C
2 2
11 (a) Take O as the centre of the moon.
Take motion away from O as positive.

x = a, v = 0: C = 1 a2 x 2 , 1 v 2 = 1 a2 x 2 − 1 n2 x 2, x = − k2 [1]
2 2 2 2 x g
v2 = n2(a2 − x2) But when x = R, x = −
6 g
(b) x = 0: v2 = n2a2, v = na (on the surface, acceleration due to gravity is − ):
6
(c) x = −a: x&& = n2 a g gR 2
an ∴ − = − k2 , k =
(d) t = 0, x = 0, x = a sin nt, x& = ancosnt, x! = : 6 R 6
4 gR 2 gR 2 −2
4
an = ancosnt, cosnt = 1 ,
4
nt = cos −1 1
4
, t =
n ()
1 cos−1 1
4 () Substitute into [1]: x = − 2 ∴ v dv = −
6x dx 6
x
v gR 2 x −2 v
gR 2 −1 x
4 (a) t = 0, x = −a; a = 16, T = 5; ∴ ∫ v dv = − x dx , ⎡⎢1 v 2 ⎤⎥ =
∫ [x ]R
n = 2π , x = 16 sin 2π t − π ( )
or x = 16cos 2π t + π ( ) v0 6 R ⎣ 2 ⎦ v0 6

( 1x − R1 ), v ( )
5 5 2 5 gR 2
gR 2 1 1
( ) ( )
2 π t π 2π t − π = − 1 v 2 − v02 = − 2
= v02 + −
(b) x = −8: −8 = 16 sin − , sin , 3 3 x R
5 2 5 2 2

3 (x R)
2
π π gR 1 1
2π t − π = − π , 2 t = ,t = s
5 v = ± v02 + −
5 2 6 5 3 6
5 (a) x& = 2cos 2t + 2 3 sin 2t ,
x&& = −4 sin 2t + 4 3 cos 2t = −4(sin 2t − 3 cos 2t )
(b) v = 0 when x = 2R: 0 = v02 +
gR 2 1
3 2R R
−1 ( )
gR 2 gR gR
= −4(x − 3) v02 = × 1 = ∴ v0 =
3 2R 6 6
(b) n = 2, T = π s
(c) If the particle escapes: x → ∞ ∴ 1x → 0
⎛1 3 ⎞
(c) x! = 2(cos 2t + 3 sin 2t ) = 4 ⎜ cos 2t + sin 2t ⎟ The equation from part (a) gives:
⎝2 2 ⎠
= 4 cos 2t − π
3 ( ) v 2 → v02 +
gR 2
6 ( )
0 − 1 , v 2 → v02 −
R
gR
3
gR
(d) x& = 2, 4 cos 2t −(π
3 3)
= 2, cos 2t − π = ( ) 1,
2
But v2 ≥ 0 hence v 02 ≥
gR
3
gR
π π π 5 π i.e. v0 ≥ : escape velocity is
2t − 3 = − 3 , 3 , 3 ; 3 3

2t = 0, 2π , 2π ; t = 0, π , π s
3 3

Answers Chapter 6 303

 12 B (c) r" = −6 sin 2t i + 6cos 2t j
! !
13 (a) x = Vt cos α, y = Vt sin α − 1 gt 2, particle hits ground at !
r = −12cos 2t i − 12 sin 2t j
""
2 ! ! !
( )
2
y = 0: t = 2V sin α ,x= V sin 2α = −4 3cos 2t i + 3sin 2t j
g g !
2 !
Maximum value of sin 2α = 1 ∴ maximum range = Vg = −4 r
!
2
(b) α = 15°: R = V sin 30° = V 2 "" r = 4 9cos2 2t + 9 sin 2 2t = 12, which is a constant.
g 2g !
Consider
2
α = 60°: R = V sin120°
g =
3V 2
2g ! !
( ! !
)(
r • r" = −12cos 2t i − 12 sin 2t j • −6 sin 2t i + 6cos 2t j
""
! !
)
2
90° = V 2 = 72 sin 2t cos 2t − 72 sin 2t cos 2t
α = 45°: R = V sin
g g =0
2 2
∴ spray lands within distances of V and Vg Hence the acceleration is perpendicular to the direction of
2g the motion.
(c) A F B 16 (a) r = (1 + sin 4t ) i + ( 2 − cos 4t ) j
x! = 1 + sin 4t, y! = 2 − cos 4t !
C E D sin 4t = x − 1, cos 4t = 2 − y
sin2 4t + cos2 4t = 1
O (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = 1 is a circle centre (1, 2), radius 1
y
(x – 1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 1
3

2
2 2 1
OB = Vg , OE = V , EF = 3, FB = 3:
2g
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 –1
⎛V 2 ⎞ ⎛V 2 ⎞ 2
⎜⎝ g ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 2 g + 3⎟⎠ + 3 –2
2 –3
Let A = V : (2A)2 = (A + 3)2 + 32
2g
2 ± 28 (b) r = (1 + sin 4t ) i + ( 2 − cos 4t ) j
A2 − 2A − 6 = 0, A = =1± 7 ! ! !
2
r" = 4 cos 4t i + 4 sin 4t j
2 2 ! ! !
But A = V , must be positive ∴ V ≥ 1 + 7 r"" = −16 sin 4t i + 16cos 4t j
2g 2g ! ! !
14 (a) mx = mg − 2v, 0.5 x = 0.5 g − 2v, x = g − 4v ! !
( ! !
)(
r • r" = −16 sin 4t i + 16cos 4t j • 4 cos 4t i + 4 sin 4t j
""
! !
)
g = −64 sin 4t cos 4t + 64 sin 4t cos 4t
(b) v = (1 − e −4t )
4 =0
g
(c) m s−1 Hence the acceleration is perpendicular to the direction of
4
1 the motion.
(d) log e 2 s 17 r = 2cos3t i + 2 sin 3t j + 3t k
4 ! ! !
!
199 g r" = −6 sin 3t i + 6cos3t j + 3k
(e) m ! ! !
16 !
r = −18cos3t i − 18 sin 3t j + 0 k
""
15 (a) r = 3cos 2t i + 3sin 2t j ! ! ! !
! ! !
x = 3cos 2t, y = 3sin 2t r" = 36 sin 2 3t + 36cos2 3t + 9 = 36 + 9 = 3 5 , a constant.
!
y
cos 2t = x , sin 2t =
3 3 r = 182 cos2 3t + 182 sin 2 3t = 18, a constant.
""
!
But sin2 2t + cos2 2t = 1 2 y2
2
18 (a) x + = 1 is the equation of the path.
2 y 9 4
So x + =1 y
9 9
 Hence x + y2 = 1 is the equation of the path. It is a circle
2 3
x2 y2
centre (0, 0), radius 3. 9 + 4 =1 2
(b) r = 3cos 2t i + 3sin 2t j
! ! 1
!
r" = −6 sin 2t i + 6cos 2t j
! ! ! x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 2 2 –1
Speed = r" = 36 sin 2t + 36cos 2t = 6 sin 2t + cos 2t = 6
! –2
Hence particle moves with a constant speed.
–3

304 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

 (b) r = 3cost i + 2 sint j (d) r = 3cost i + 2 sint j
! ! ! ! ! !
r" = −3sint i + 2cost j r" = −3sint i + 2cost j
! ! ! ! ! !
! !
( !
)( !
)
Consider r • r" = 3cost i + 2 sint j • −3sint i + 2cost j
! !
r = −3cost i − 2 sint j
""
! ! !
= −9 sint cost + 4 sint cost = −r
!
= −2.5 sin 2t Hence the acceleration vector is parallel to the position
Perpendicular when r • r" = 0 hence require sin 2t = 0 for vector but in the opposite direction. Thus the acceleration
0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. ! ! vector is always directed towards the origin.
π 3π And "" r = r so the magnitude of the acceleration is equal to
t = 0, , π, , 2π ! !
2 2 the particle’s distance from the origin.
t = 0: r = 3cos0 i + 2 sin 0 j = 3 i Or ""r = 9cos2 t + 4 sin 2 t = 5cos2 t + 4
! π! !π !
t = π : r = 3cos i + 2 sin j = 2 j
2 ! 2! 2! !
!
! !
( !
)(
r • r" = −3cost i − 2 sint j • −3sint i + 2cost j
(e) Consider ""
! ! !
)
t = π: r = 3cos π i + 2 sin π j = −3 i = 9 sint cost − 4 sint cost
! ! ! !
t = 3π : r = 3cos 3π i + 2 sin 3π j = −2 j = 2.5 sin 2t
2 ! 2 ! 2 !
t = 2π: r = 3cos 2π i + 2 sin 2π j = 3 i
! Require sin 2t = 0, i.e. t = 0, π , π, 3π , 2π
! ! ! 2 2
(c) r" = −3sint i + 2cost j !
! ! !2
Speed = r" = 9 sin t + 4 cos2 t
!
Maximum speed when cos t = 0, i.e. t = π , 3 so maximum
2 2
speed is 3.
Minimum speed when sin t = 0, i.e. t = 0, π, 2π so minimum
speed is 2.
v
4

O π π 3π 2π t
2 2
The maximum and minimum speed can also be read from
the graph.

Answers Chapter 6 305

 GLOSSARY
A asymptote
A line or curve that a function approaches but never
acceleration reaches.
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time:
• Asymptotes of a hyperbola
d 2 x = x = v(t
dt 2 dt dx dx 2 ( )
 ) = dv = v dv = d 1 v 2 , 2
y2
The asymptotes to x 2 − 2 = 1 are: y = ± bx
a
standard units m s− .
2 a b

angular acceleration C
The rate of change of angular velocity with respect Cartesian equation
( ) A Cartesian equation is the equation of a relation or a
2
to time: d θ2 = θ = dω = ω dω = d 1 ω 2 ,
dt dt dθ dθ 2 function expressed in terms of the Cartesian coordinates
2
standard units radians s− . x and y.
A Cartesian equation may sometimes be formed from
angular displacement
two parametric equations by eliminating the parameter.
Consider a particle P that moves about the origin O
along a curve AP. OA is a fixed arbitrary (reference) line. Cartesian form of a complex number
At time t, ∠AOP = θ, with rotation anticlockwise taken The Cartesian form of a complex number (z) is z = x + iy,
as positive. θ is thus the angular displacement of P about where x and y are real numbers and i is the imaginary
O at time t, in radians. number. Also known as standard or rectangular form.
angular velocity column vector notation
The rate of change of angular displacement with respect to A vector in two or three dimensions can be represented
time: ω = dθ = θ, standard units radians s− . in column vector notation.
1
dt
For example, v = 4 i + 5 j + 6 k can be represented as
Argand diagram  v = (4,5,
the ordered triple  6), and in column vector
The representation of complex numbers on a Cartesian 
4
plane such that the real axis is x and the imaginary axis notation as v = 5 .
is y. 
6
argument and principal argument of a complex
number complex conjugate
When a complex number z is represented by a point P The complex conjugate of the number z = a + ib is
in the complex plane, then the argument of z, denoted given by z = a − ib, where a and b are real numbers.
arg z, is the angle θ that OP (where O denotes the origin) A complex number and its conjugate are called a
conjugate pair.
makes with the positive real axis Ox, with the angle
measured from Ox. complex number
If the argument is restricted to the interval (–π, π], this is Any number z of the form z = x + iy, where x and y are
2
called the principal argument and is denoted by Arg z. real numbers and i = −1.

argument of a complex number complex plane

For a complex number z = x + iy, the argument is A complex plane is a Cartesian plane in which the
arg z = θ such that x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. On an horizontal axis is the real axis and the vertical axis is the
Argand diagram, this is the angle made with the positive imaginary axis. The complex plane is sometimes called
direction of the real axis by the vector from O to the the Argand plane. Geometric plots in the complex plane
point representing z. are known as Argand diagrams.
• arg 0 is undefined. component form of a vector
The component form of a vector describes the
• arg (z − z1) is the angle made with the positive
projections of a vector in the x, y and z-directions. It can
direction of the real axis by the vector from the point
be expressed as an ordered triple (in three dimensions)
representing z1 to the point representing z.
or by a linear combination of unit vectors ~i , j and k~ .
See also principal argument of a complex number. ~
conjugate hyperbolae
arithmetic mean Two hyperbolae are a conjugate pair when the transverse
The arithmetic mean of the numbers x1, x2, x3, …, xn is and conjugate axes of one hyperbola are respectively the
x + x 2 + x 3 + … + xn
defined to be: 1 . conjugate and transverse axes of the other.
n

306 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

conjugate of a complex number
For a complex number z = x + iy, the conjugate of z is
F
z = x − iy . factor theorem
(1) For any polynomial P(z), if P(a) = 0, then (z − a) is
2
• z z = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x 2 + y 2 = z a factor of P(z).
conjugate root theorem
If a polynomial P(x) has real coefficients and
b
()
(1a) For any polynomial P(z), if P a = 0, then (az − b) is
a factor of P(z).
P(a + bi) = 0, b ≠ 0, then P(a – bi) = 0. Complex zeros of (2) For any polynomial P(z), if (z − a) is a factor of
real polynomials occur in conjugate pairs. P(z), then P(a) = 0.
contrapositive fundamental theorem of algebra
The contrapositive of the statement ‘If P, then Q’ is ‘If not Every polynomial equation with complex coefficients,
Q, then not P’. The contrapositive is true if and only if P(z) = 0, of degree n (where n is a positive integer), has a
the statement itself is also true. root that is a complex number.
converse
The converse of a statement ‘If P, then Q’ is ‘If Q, then P’. G
The statements can be represented as: the converse of geometric mean
P Q is Q P or P Q. The geometric mean of the positive numbers
1
The converse of a true statement need not be true. x1, x2, x3, …, xn, is defined to be: ( x1 x 2 x 3 … xn )n
counterexample
A counterexample is an example that demonstrates that
I
an assertion is not true in general. identity of polynomials
If two polynomials of degree n are equal for more
D than n values of the variable, then the polynomials are
identically equal, i.e. equal for all values of the variable.
de Moivre’s theorem
If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and n is an integer, then imaginary part of a complex number
zn = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ). For a complex number z = x + iy, the imaginary part is
de Moivre’s theorem states that for all integers n: Im(z) = y.
[r (cos θ + i sin θ )]n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ ) implication
In exponential form, when r = 1, de Moivre’s theorem is To say that P implies Q means that if P is true, then Q is
simply a statement of the law of indices: (e iθ )n = e inθ true.
In shorthand it can be written as ‘If P, then Q’, and in
E notation form as P Q.
ellipse implicit differentiation
(1) A conic with eccentricity 0 < e < 1. Its equation is: To differentiate a function without explicitly finding its
2
x + y =1
2
derivative. For example, the derivative of yn with respect
a 2
b 2
dy
to x is: ny n −1
(2) The locus (or set) of all points P in a plane such that dx
the ratio of the distances from P to a fixed point S integration by parts
(the focus) and to a fixed straight line (the directrix) is If u(x) and v(x) are differentiable functions of x, then:
a positive constant e (the eccentricity) less than 1.
∫u dv dx = uv − v du dx or uv ′ dx = uv − v u′ dx
∫ ∫ ∫
dx dx
(3) The locus (or set) of all points P in a plane such that
the sum of the distances from P to two fixed points or ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du
(the foci) is a constant.
Euler’s formula
M
Euler’s formula states that for any real number θ: modulus of a complex number
e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ For a complex number z = x + iy, the modulus is
mod z = z = x 2 + y 2 = r.
even function
A function is even if f (−x) = f (x) for all values of x in the • z = r is the distance from the origin O to the point
domain. The function is also symmetrical about the y-axis. (x, y).
• z − (a + ib) is magnitude of the vector from (a, b) to
exponential form of a complex number
the point representing z.
The complex number z = a + ib can be expressed in
exponential form as z = re iθ , where r is the modulus of
the complex number and θ is the argument expressed in
radians.

Glossary 307
 mod–arg form of a complex number • Parametric equations of an ellipse
For a complex number z = x + iy, the mod–arg form x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
is the expression z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = r cis θ, • Parametric equations of a hyperbola
where r = x 2 + y 2 and x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ. x = a sec θ, y = b tan θ, −π < θ ≤ π, θ ≠ − π , π
2 2
N • Parametric equations of a rectangular hyperbola
x = ct, y = c
negation t
If P is a statement, then the statement ‘not P’ is the • Parametric equations of a parabola
2
negation of P. The negation of P is denoted by ¬P or ~P. x = 2at, y = at
A parametric equation is the equation of a relation or
Newton’s first law of motion function expressed in terms of independent parameters.
A body remains at rest or in uniform motion in a
straight line unless it is acted on by a non-zero resultant partial fractions
force. When a function f (x) is the ratio of two polynomials
R(x )
Newton’s second law of motion B(x )
such that degree of R(x) < degree of B(x), this
The rate of change of momentum is proportional to may be be decomposed into partial fractions with
the applied force and occurs in the direction of the force: denominators that are the factors of B(x), such that:
F = kma, where k is a constant.
R(x ) c c c
Newton’s third law of motion • = 1 + 2 + … + x −na
B(x ) x − a1 x − a2 n
When two objects exert force on each other, the forces
are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. R(x ) c c c
‘For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.’ • = x −1 a + x −2a + … + x −na + 2 dx + e ,
B(x ) 1 2 n x + bx + c
Newton’s laws of motion degree of R(x) < n + 2
Newton’s laws of motion consist of three fundamental perpendicular equation of a straight line
laws of classical physics: The line perpendicular to the line ax + by + c = 0
(1) Unless acted upon by a resultant force, a body which passes through (x1, y1) has the equation:
remains at rest or in uniform motion in a straight b(x − x1) − a(y − y1) = 0
line.
polar form of a complex number
(2) The acceleration of a body is proportional to the The complex number z = a + ib can be expressed in
resultant force that acts on the body and inversely polar form as:
proportional to the mass of the body.
z = r cos θ + ri sin θ = r (cos θ + i sin θ ), where r is the
(3) For every action, there is an equal and opposite modulus of the complex number and θ is its argument
reaction. expressed in radians. This is also known as modulus–
argument form.
O polynomial equations and roots
odd function Every polynomial equation P(z) = 0 of degree n has
A function is odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for all values of x in
n solutions (‘roots’ of the equation, or ‘zeros’ of the
the domain. The function has rotational symmetry about
polynomial) over the field of complex numbers.
the origin.
Complex roots of a polynomial equation with real
P coefficients occur in conjugate pairs.
parameter principal argument of a complex number
(1) A parameter is a quantity that defines certain The argument arg z = θ of a complex number z such that
characteristics of a function or system. For example, −π < θ ≤ π.
θ is a parameter in y = x cosθ. proof by contradiction
(2) A parameter can be a characteristic value of a Proof by contradiction is when a mathematical proof
situation; for example, the time taken for a machine assumes the opposite (negation) of the original
to produce a certain product. statement being proven and illustrates through a logical
parametric equation chain of arguments that the opposite is demonstrably
Equation in which related variables (e.g. x and y) are false. As the reasoning is correct and the conclusion
expressed in terms of another variable, the ‘parameter’ absurd, the only element that could be wrong was the
(e.g. t or θ), so that x = f (t), y = g(t) or x = f (θ), y = g(θ). initial assumption. Therefore, the original statement
is true.
• Parametric equations of a circle
x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π

308 New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12

R S
rational function smooth
A rational function f is the ratio of two polynomials: In physical problems, ‘smooth’ is assumed to mean
A(x ) ‘no friction’.
f (x ) = , defined for all values of x except those for
B(x ) square root of −1
which B(x) = 0. This is the basis of imaginary numbers, denoted by i
p( x ) 2
such that i = −1. The two square roots of −1 are ±i.
A rational function is a function of the form where
q( x )
p(x) and q(x) are polynomials and q(x) ≠ 0. square root of a function
real part of a complex number ( f (x))2 = f (x) = f (x) for f (x) ≥ 0
For a complex number z = x + iy, the real part is
Re(z) = x. = − f (x) for f (x) < 0

reciprocal functions statement

Two functions f and g are a pair of reciprocal functions A statement is an assertion that can be true or false but
if: g(x ) = 1 not both.
f (x )
string
recursive formula In physical problems, a light inelastic string is assumed
A recursive formula defines a sequence in which to have a negligible weight force and constant length, so
successive terms are expressed as a function of the that it does not stretch.
preceding terms.
resistance T
A force that acts in the opposite direction to a body’s terminal velocity
motion. The maximum velocity of a body falling under the action
resisted motion of gravity and a resistance force, which occurs when the
Whenever a body moves through a medium (such as air, acceleration is equal to zero.
water, oil etc.), it is subjected to a resistance that acts in Terminal velocity is the constant velocity that a
the opposite direction to the motion. If the body falls free-falling object will eventually reach when the
vertically downwards, the resistance acts upwards; if the resistance of the medium through which the object is
body is projected vertically upwards, the resistance acts falling prevents further acceleration.
downwards.
t formulae or t substitution
Resisted motion is motion that encounters resisting Expressions for sin θ, cos θ and tan θ in terms of t where
forces, for example friction and air resistance.
t = tan θ .
retardation 2
2
Acceleration acting in the opposite direction to a body’s If t = tan θ , then: sin θ = 2t 2 , cosθ = 1 − t 2 ,
2 1+t 1+t
motion. dθ = 2
roots of unity dt 1 + t 2
n
A complex number z is an nth root of unity if z = 1.
triangle inequalities
The points in the complex plane representing the roots Where z1, z2 are complex numbers and k is real:
of unity lie on the unit circle and are evenly spaced.
• z1 + z 2 ≤ z1 + z 2 , with equality when z2 = kz1

• z1 − z 2 ≥ z1 − z 2 , with equality when z2 = kz1

Glossary 309