Learning Objectives

• Know the different aspects of jungle operations.

• Know the different elements of the Philippine
climates as they affect military operations.
• Know the different techniques in mountain
climbing.
• Appreciate the importance of knots in
mountaineering operations.
• Know how to tie the different knots.
• Know how to set up and perform the different
kinds of rappel.
• Know the different field expedients in crossing a
river.
The Philippine Jungle
• Dense vegetation characterized by rapid growth ,
dense concentration and a natural ability to
proliferate.
• Generally covered with shrubs, bushes, small trees
and ferns interlaced with vines.
• Dense growth of trees from the upper level of
swamps to the mountain crest.
• Neighborhood of rivers and streams, has a lot of
large, deep and whitewater rivers which instantly
become raging wild ones during the rainy season.
• Jungle weather is unpredictable, clear weather
suddenly changes into brief and frequently violent
torrential rainfall which often causes floods in
slopes, low area and stream and river banks.
 Jungle Mountain Operations

• Jungle – an area located in the humid

tropics, wherein the land is covered with
such dense growth of trees or other types
of associated vegetation which impede
military operations and tends to obstruct
lines of communications.

• Mountain – a land-form higher than 500 or

600 meters and characterized by slopes.
Mountains may consist of an isolated peak,
single ridge or complex of ranges,
extending for several kilometers.
 Tactical Aspects of the Jungle
• a. Key Terrain
• - The tactical advantage of high ground is diminished due to
limited observation and fields of fire.
• - All features that expedite movement, resupply and evacuation
are considered key terrain.
• b. Observation and Fields of Fire
• - Obscured by trees, bushes, shrubs and jungle canopy.
• - Fire tunnels
• c. Cover and Concealment
• - Excellent concealment, does not provide excellent cover.
• - Most of the cover will be afforded not by the vegetation but by
the surface irregularities, such as ravines and gullies, and large
rock
• - Fallen logs
• d. Command and Control
• - Large units are difficult to control due to the Commander’s
lack of observation of the major portion of the troop file.
 Operational Limitations

1. Control is difficult and must be decentralized.

2. Frontages must be shortened and intervals must be

lessened.

3. Maintaining direction of movement is difficult.

4. Limits use of heavy equipment and support weapons.

5. Limits use of armor and to some extent, artillery

fire.
 Advantages of the Guerrilla
1. Dominant terrain provides the defender and denies
the attacker observation and firing position.

2. Slopes and vegetation serve as obstacles.

3. There are areas that are either impassable or

extremely difficult to negotiate.

4. The attackers, us, have limited use of other combat

assets, such as armoured vehicles.
 Philippine Climate

Four Climatic Patterns:

Type 1: April and May are the hottest, while July and August
are the wettest.The two pronounced seasons are November to
April (dry) and May to October (wet). Included in this pattern
are Manila and Western Philippines, such as Mindoro, Palawan,
Panay and Negros.

Type 2: There is a very distinctive period of maximum rainful

from May to January. This is the climate of Quezon, Bicol,
Samar, Leyte and down to Eastern Mindanao.

Type 3: It is relatively dry from November to April and the

season are not very pronounced. This type prevails in Central
Philippines, Cebu and Northern Mindanao.

Type 4: There is a marked uniform distribution of rainfall -

Central Mindanao’s climate.
Humidity
- warm and humid year-round, varies from 71 % in March to 85
% in September.
- wear loose clothing, made of light materials for easy drying.
- Undershirt made of thin cotton
- Dark colored Bikini-type of briefs

Typhoons
Three-stage warning system to announce the coming of
typhoons:
a. Signal #1 - there is a possible threat of typhoons within 72
hours.
B. Signal #2 - coming of a typhoon within 48 hrs
c. Signal #3 - within 36 hrs.

causes flash floods due to soil erosion and deforestation

Rain
- during the wettest periods, rains comes almost everyday,
particularly along the Pacific Coast.
- the western and central parts of the country receive most of
their rain from the southwest monsoon and the eastern side
gets its rain from the northeast.
- in tropical rainforest, it could rain anytime, make sure to
waterproof your clothes and other personal belongings.
- prior to jump-off, apply pomade to your feet to protect it
from water.
- don’t forget to bring along your slippers.
Heat
- General daytime temperature range from 30 to 36 degree
centigrade and night time temp go from 21 to 24 degrees
centigrade.
- the annual mean temp is 26.7 degree centigrade.
- the heat is unforgiving during dry season, bring extra water
containers.
- wear what is functional and comfortable, don’t forget your
tubao.
Mobility in the Jungle
- greatly hampered by the dense growth of trees and thick
undergrowth, the swamps and unfordable rivers and streams with
slippery banks, soft and clay like soil which becomes slippery when
wet.
- extremely difficult to maintain direction of movement in the
jungle.
- often a tendency to overestimate the distance you have
traveled because of the time and great efforts you have expended
in navigating a certain distance.
- it’s best to estimate the distance in terms of time, rather
than distance, most of the natives in the jungles also estimate
distance in terms of time.

Selection of Route
- Do not rely on maps, ask information from returning patrols
and from reliable/sympathetic natives in the area.
- Aerial recon (if available) in the area is highly encouraged.
Jungle Mud
- Your jungle adventure will see you wading through soft, clinging
mud which can be up to your waist.
- Molasses-thick mud can easily tire you as these stick and cling
to your trousers. Avoid passing thru quicksand, these can swallow
your team down if you are not careful.
- To conveniently negotiate these areas, it is necessary that you
tuck in all the unnecessary flaps of your trousers.

Jungle Insects
- Learn to live with buzzing, creaking and swarming insects.
- Of all the insects in the jungle, the mosquitoes are the most
irritating. If you are operating in areas such as Surigao, Agusan,
North and South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao, Isabela and
Samar, you will find it convenient to bring mosquito nets.
- learn also to live with the tiny, stinging gnats called neknek.
- As a word of caution, do not and never disturb honeybees, they
sting like a bullet
 Mountain-Climbing

Primary Considerations
- conservation of troops
- safety
- secrecy of movement

Tips in mountain climbing

1. Be as light as possible
2. Travel small.
3. Carry along a bolo or machete.
4. Store water when you can.
5. Use common sense.
6. Maintain a steady, rhythmic pace decreasing in
speed with increasing steepness of slope.
7. On the ascent, do not tire yourself too much.
Rock-Climbing
- When there is rockfall ( most common mountaineering
hazard), lean on the cliff to reduce exposure and do not look up.
- Make use of natural anchors such as rooted trees with
sufficient sizes, refrain from using artificial anchors.
- Use the balance-climbing techniques as follows:
a. Weight is centered over the feet.
B. Feet and legs carry the body’s weight.
C. Hands are mainly for balance.
D. As much boot sole as possible is in contact with the
rock.
E. Keep handholds low, between waist and shoulder height.
This position aids the desired upright and balanced position, and
gives maximum rest to the arms.
F. Keep the body out and away from the rock to counter
the gravitational pull on the body.
G. Three points of contact with the rock must be
maintained.
H. Go for relaxed, slow and deliberate actions.
 i. Plan route two or three steps ahead.
J. Use all available hand and footholds. Avoid
overstretching and, hence, ending in a spread-eagle position.

4. In ascending, remember these:

a. If you face sideways, climbing is easy to difficult.
B. If you face inward, climbing is more difficult, very
steep.

5. In descending remember these:

a. If you face out, climbing is very easy, not steep.
B. If you face sideways, climbing is easy to difficult.
C. If you face inward, climbing is more difficult, very
steep.
6. Holds need not be large to be safe. Plan each move in advance,
knowing exactly where the hands and feet are going to be placed. All
hand and footholds are tested before use by gradually applying
weight.

7. Avoid hugging the rock.

8. Avoid using knees, buttocks and elbows.

9. Don’t jump and lunge to reach a hold.

10. Avoid wet rocks.

11. Avoid wearing gloves when climbing.

12. Remove jewelry from hands before climbing.

13. Stay within individual capabilities. Don’t attempt a very, very

steep cliff, if you are carrying too much rations and very heavy loads
of ammos.
Footholds
Descending Position
KNOT-TYING
The success of a unit operating in mountainous terrain depends
on its ability to use a number of skills in overcoming a great
variety of obstacles

Rope
-intended to provide security for climber and equipment in
operations involving steep ascents and descents.
- Ropes must be selected based on the ff:
1. Impact force ( the jerk on the climber caused by a fall)
must be low.
2. Elasticity (stretch) must be considered.
3. Weight must be considered.
4. The tensile strengths and versatility of the rope must also
be considered.
Parts of a Rope
Care of Ropes
- inspect thoroughly before, during and
after use for cuts, excessive fraying,
abrasions, mildew, soft and worn spots.
- when wet, hand rope to drip dry at
room temp.
- don’t step on the rope or drag on the
ground unnecessarily.
- Avoid running ropes over sharp or
rough edges
- keep rope away from oil, acids, and
other corrosive materials.
- Avoid rubbing ropes together under
high tension.
- Don’t leave rope knotted or tightly
stretched longer than necessary.
Knot - interlacement of the parts of one or more flexible bodies,
such as cordage rope, forming a lump.
- it is also a tie or fastening formed with a rope, including bends,
hitches and slices.
- often used as a stopper to prevent a rope from passing through
an opening.
- a good knot must be easy to tie, must hold without slipping and
must be easy to untie.

Classification of Knots:
1. Knots at the end of a rope.
2. Knots for joining two ropes.
3. Knots for making loops.
Knots at the End of the Rope
* Overhand knot
* Figure-eight knot

Overhand knot
- to prevent the end of a rope from untwisting, to form knob
at the end of a rope or to serve as a part of another knot.
- reduces the strength of a rope by 55 percent.
Figure-eight knot
- to form a larger knot by an overhand knot.
- prevents the end of the rope from slipping through a
fastening or loop in another rope.
- easy to untie.
Knots for Joining Two (2) Ropes
* Square-knot
* Single-sheet bend
* Double-sheet bend

Square-knot
- to tie two ropes of equal size together, so they
will not slip.
- the end and standing part of one rope come out
on the same side of the bight formed by the outer
rope.
- the square knot will not hold , if the ropes are
wet or if they are of different sizes.
- it tightens under strain but can be untied by
grasping the ends of the two bights and pulling the
knot apart.

NOTE: It makes no difference whether the first

crossing is tied left-over-right or right-over-left as
long as the second crossing is tied opposite to the
first crossing.
Single-sheet bend
- sometimes called weaver’s knot, has two major uses:
a. Tying together two ropes of unequal size.
B. Tying a rope to an eye.
- fast and secure way of joining two ropes.
- do not use these knots for climbing, the knot will draw
tight but will loosen or slip when the lines are slackened.
- stronger and unties easier than the square knot.
Double-sheet bend
- an extra tuck in the sheet bend produces the
double-sheet bend.
- both knots will not slip even when the ropes are wet.
- will draw tight under heavy loads, more secure than
the single-sheet bend
Knots for Making Loops
* Bowline
* Double bowline
* Running bowline
* Bowline on a bight

Bowline
- most common, used for lowering of men and material
- traditional knot for tying on a rope
- it is the best knot for forming a single loop which will not
tighten or slop under strain and can be untied easily if each
running end is seized to its own standing part.
Double Bowline
- forms three nonslipping loops, use this knot to sling a man.
- as he sits on the sling, one loop supports his back and the
remaining two loops supports his legs.
Running Bowline
- forms a strong running loop
- use it when tying a handline around an object at
a point you cannot safely reach, such as the end of
the limb.
Bowline on a Bight
- forms two non slipping loops, the same purpose as a
boatswain’s chair.
- it does not leave both hands free, but its win nonslipping
loops form a comfortable seat.
- use it when you need to form a loop at some point in a rope
other than at the end.
- you do not have access to the end of a rope.
Knots for Tightening a Rope

* Butterfly Knot
- used for tying in the middle of a rope, where the strain
will come from both sides of the knot.
- using this knot provides the capability to tighten a fixed
rope when mechanical means are not available.
- it will not jam when a stick is placed between the two
upper loops.
 Hitches
- a hitch is any of the various knots used to form a
temporary noose in a rope or to secure a rope around a timber,
pipe or post, so that it will hold temporarily and can be readily
undone

Types of Hitches
•Half-Hitch - to tie a rope to a timber or to a larger rope, it will
hold against a steady pull on the standing part of the rope.
- is the foundation of many knots.

* Two Half-Hitch - useful for

securing the running end of a rope to
the standing part
Sheepshank
- a method of shortening a rope, but you can use it to take the
load of a weak spot in the rope.
- a temporary knot unless the eyes are fastened to the
standing part of each end.
Clove Hitch
- used to fasten a rope to a piece of timber, pipe or
post.
- used to make other knots.
- this knot put very little strain on the fibers when the
rope is put around an object in one continuous direction.
Round Turn and Two Half-Hitches
- This can be tied under load, although it is not as strong as
the fisherman’s bend.
- The two half-hitches should form a clove hitch on the
standing part of the rope.
- this hitch does not jam.
Timber Hitch
- used to move heavy timber or poles, excellent for
securing a piece of lumber or similar objects.
- the pressure of the coils, one over the other , holds
the piece of timber, it will not slip but will readily loosen
when the strain is relieved.
Snaplinks
- metal devices used to attach a climbing rope to protect
anchor points, conducting rappels and erecting rope installations
for the movement of the team and equipment in mountainous
terrain.
- be sure you know the characteristics of the snap link
selected. Steel, aluminum or steel alloys.
- check gate for safety and proper locking. Check the
threads and locking nut on locking snaplinks.
- inspect before, during and after use for cracks, burrs,
grooves and defects. Remove rust with steel brush.
- store in a dry place when not in use.
RAPPELLING

Selecting the proper rappel point, observe the ff:

a. Select proper rappel point, close to the edge, if possible.
B.Test anchor for safety and retrievability of the rope. If
possible tie a secondary anchor point.
c. Remove loose rocks or other obstacles from the rappel point,
as well as along the rappel route or lane.
D. Avoid running rope over sharp edges, pad the edge, if
necessary.
E. Ensure that the rope reaches the bottom or a good unloading
platform and further progress is possible. Tie the two ends of
the rope together at the bottom of the rappel lane, if the length
is doubtful.
Belays
Observe the following procedures when involved in all types
of body belays:
a. Tie a safety line ( bowline around the waist with an
end-of-the-rope bowline with snaplink inserted) and hook the
snaplink into an anchor point.
b. Backfeed the climbing rope so it will run freely through the
brake hand to the climber.
C. Place the climbing rope through guide hand around to brake
hand; make sure rope will slide freely.
D. Never allow braking hand to go forward of guide hand when
taking up rope, nor to release the grasp of the climbing rope.
E. Anticipate the climbers needs.
F. Don’t allow excessive slack to accumulate between the
belayman and the climber.
G. Prepare for the climbers fall by keeping the body braced and
the head and eyes on the climber in the direction of the pull.
The guide hand must be on the uphill side of the slope.
 Types of Rappelling Techniques

Hasty Rappel
- when carrying light loads and the
slope is not as steep.
- when there is a need for speed
Procedure:
a. Face sideways to anchor.
B. Place rappel rope across the back.
C. The hand nearest the anchor is the
guide hand. The downhill hand is the brake
hand.
D. Descend sideways, full sole, body is
almost perpendicular to rock.
E. To stop, bring brake hand in front of
body and turn facing anchor point.
Sit-Hip Rappel
a) Stand on one side of the rope, so that the square knot
faces the anchor point.
B) Place doubled rope into snaplink. Pull an arms length of
slack between the snaplink and the anchor point.
C) Make round turn around the soild shaft of the
snaplink(with the rope between anchor and the body).
D) Rappel rope held with brake hand to the rear in the
small of the back, guide hand on the rope with arm extended,in
front of the snaplink.
E) Legs straight, feet shoulder width apart; maintain
L-shaped body position with the legs parallel to the ground and
the back straight.
F) In a walk down-down rappel, the brake hand is kept in the
small of the back.Regulate descent by the opening and closing
your fist.
G) In a bounding rappel (always without equipment)the brake
hand is moved out to the rear of the body during the descent.To
brake,bend the elbow and gradually grasp the rope, while
simultaneously moving the brake hand to the small of the back.
Run Down Rappel
- used when going down a gradual
incline, and you expect an enemy
down below.
- you only need one hand to run
this type of rappel.
allows you to hold on to your rifle
and keep it pointed twds the
suspected enemy psn.
- you release the rope when you
want to go down, pull the rope to
your chest when you want to break.
- don’t go too fast, you may not
be able to control your speed.
Piggy Back
- used for carrying along casualties.
To prepare - belay rope is tied around casualty’s chest
with a bowline, rappeller hooks-up for sit-hip rappel.
To lash the casualty – casualty straddles rappeller’s
back.
-end of the rope is placed on the rappeller’s guide
hand hip & passed under the casualty’s buttocks around
to the front of the rappller& run diagonally across his
chest over his guide-hand shoulder, under the patient’s
armpit& horizontally across his back, under the armpit,
over the rappeller’s shoulder & run diagonally across
the rappeller’s chest to his guide hand hip. Tie the two
ends together with a square knot & two-half hitches.
The evacuation procedure – the rappeller’s braking
hand goes over the casualty’s leg with a rope passing
under the casualty’s leg. Rappeller backs over the edge
and execute a nomal sit-hip rappel. The belayman
regulates the descent by providing slack or braking, as
required.
Bowline on a Coil
- This is used by climbers when harnesses are not available.
- Prepare the running end of the rope.
- Make a loop followed by a Half-hitch
- Make 3 rnd turns over the loop.
- Insert the standing end to the loop.
- Pull both ends.
Heli Rappel

The rappeller is hooked-up while he

sits on the platform just above the
helicopter skid
- on the rappell master’s
command “Get Ready”, the rappeller
looks over the edge of the tower to
ensure the running ends of the
ropes are on the ground.
- On the command “Sit in the
Door”, the rappeller rotates his
feet & legs of the platform & places
them on the skid.
- on the command ”Position”,
the rappeller turns around and
assumes an L-shaped psn.
- On the command “Go”, the
rappeller bounds away from the
helicopter skid and rappels to the
ground.
River Crossing
- determine if the river is fordable or not
- a simple map scan cannot pinpoint which among the rivers you can
negotiate, without having to use a rope bridge

Making a One-Rope Bridge

1. Ask for a volunteer to swim across the opposite bank.
2. You are in charge of the near bank, then make two round turns, with
two half -hitches and anchor knots
3. Then make a butterfly and get a snaplink, and put it into the loop.
4. Get a stick and insert it, make one turn over the post, and insert it
inside the snaplink.
5. Start the tensioning process, have men pull the rope to tighten.
6. When satisfied with the tightening of the rope, fasten it by
makingtwo round turns and two half-hitches. This should lock the anchor.
Improvised Flotation Devices
- Philippine rivers are treacherous
- Before crossing a deep river, the first thing to ask yourself
is:
a. Is there any threat of a sudden inundation of the river?
B. Has it been raining?
C. Is there a great likelihood it has been raining in the upland
where the river flows from?
D.
1.Bamboos
2. Logs
3. Coconuts
4. Empty Containers
5. Trousers
6. Poncho
7. Airtight Bags
8. Bananas

Friendly Reminder: Swim with the current

 Bamboo Raft

Friendly Reminder: Swim with the current

 Banana Raft

Friendly Reminder: Swim with the current

 Coconut Raft

Friendly Reminder: Swim with the current

 Pack Raft

Friendly Reminder: Swim with the current

 Poncho Raft

Friendly Reminder: Swim with the current