Building Design for

Wind Forces

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 Building Design for
Wind Forces
Rima Taher, Ph.D., P.E.

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 About the Author
Rima Taher, Ph.D., P.E., is a Senior University Lecturer at New Jersey
Institute of Technology and also practices as a civil/structural engi-
neer through her own consulting firm in New Jersey. She has authored
or co-authored several books on structural technology for architects,
and has participated in research work in the field of building design
for high winds and hurricanes and published articles on the subject.
Dr. Taher is currently serving as president of the North Jersey chapter
of the ASCE’s Structural Engineering Institute (SEI).

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 Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
1 Introduction to Wind Forces and Wind Effects on
Buildings and Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Nature and Causes of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 General Overview of Building Design for Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Wind Pressure Distribution on Building Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Wind Pressure Distribution on Pitched Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Internal Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Factors Impacting Wind Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 Air Flow around Buildings—Bernoulli Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.8 Reynolds Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9 Boundary Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.10 Gradient Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.11 Wind Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.12 Power Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.13 Surface Roughness Categories in Earlier Building
Codes and Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.14 Surface Roughness and Exposure Categories of Recent
Codes and Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.15 Wind Hazard Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.16 Types of Building Failures due to Wind and Lateral Loads. . . . . . 12
1.17 Structural Dynamics—Flexible and Rigid Structures. . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.18 Aeroelasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.19 Vortex-Induced Oscillations, Flutter, and Galloping. . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.20 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Overview of the Wind Load Provisions of the ASCE 7-16 Standard . . 17
2.1 Building Risk Categories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Introduction to the ASCE/SEI 7 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Overview of Wind Design Procedures of the
ASCE 7 Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Open, Partially Enclosed, and Enclosed Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5 Low-Rise Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6 Flexible and Rigid Buildings and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7 Diaphragms and Simple-Diaphragm Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.8 Wind Hazard Maps of the ASCE 7-16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.9 Mean Roof Height. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

vii

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3 Extreme Wind Events, Hurricanes, and Tornadoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.1 Overview of Hurricanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Regions of Occurrence of Hurricanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Classification of Hurricanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Overview of Tornadoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5 Classification of Tornadoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.6 General Impacts on Buildings and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4 Damage to Structures Caused by Extreme Wind Events. . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1 Introduction to Post-Disaster Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2 Flood-Related Damage—The National Flood Insurance
Program (NFIP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3 Post-Disaster Investigations of Hurricane Andrew. . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4 Post-Disaster Investigations of Hurricane Katrina . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.5 Post-Disaster Investigations of Tornadoes—
Safe Room Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.6 Brief Summary of Typical Wind Damage in Buildings. . . . . . . . . . 44
4.7 Hurricanes of 2017 in the United States and the Caribbean. . . . . . 45
4.8 Safety Evaluation of Buildings after Windstorm Events
and Floods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.8.1 Field Manuals of the Applied Technology
Council (ATC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.8.2 Safety Assessment Program (SAP) of the California
Governor’s Office for Emergency Services . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.9 Conclusion about Post-Disaster Investigations and Assessments. 49
4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5 Overview of Wind Engineering Activities and Research Trends . . . . . 51
5.1 Coordination of Wind Engineering Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2 General Research Methodologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3 Overview of Wind Engineering Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3.1 Cyberinfrastructure Facility—DesignSafe-Ci. . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3.2 Network Coordination Office (NCO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3.3 Experimental Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3.4 Computational Modeling and Simulation Center
(SimCenter). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6 Overview of Structural Systems for Lateral Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.1 Overview of Lateral Load Resisting Systems in Buildings. . . . . . . 61
6.1.1 Bending or Flexure (Moment-Resisting Frames). . . . . . . . 61
6.1.2 Shear (Shear Walls). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.3 Axial Tension and Compression (Braced Frames). . . . . . . 63
6.2 Overview of the General Building Design Procedure for
Lateral Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2.1 Bearing Wall System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2.2 Building Frame System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2.3 Moment-Resisting Frame System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2.4 Dual System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

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6.3 Shear Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

6.4 Diaphragms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.5 Collectors or Drag Struts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.6 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.7 Building Irregularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.8 Application Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.9 General Recommendations for Improved Design and
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.9.1 Foundation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.9.2 Framing System and Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7 Tall Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.1 Introduction to Wind Effects on Tall Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.2 Damping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.2.1 Tuned Mass Damper (TMD). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.2.2 Tuned Liquid Column Damper (TLCD). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.2.3 Passive Viscoelastic Damper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.2.4 Active Mass Dampers (AMDs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.2.5 Tuned Sloshing Water Dampers (TSWDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.3 Brief Structural History of the Skyscraper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.4 Modern Structural Wind Resisting Systems in Tall Buildings . . . 94
7.5 Steel Wind Resisting Systems in Tall Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.5.1 Rigid Tube, Braced Tube, and Bundled Tube Systems . . . 95
7.5.2 Rigid Frames and Frames with Semi-Rigid
Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.5.3 Braced Frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.5.4 Staggered Truss System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.5.5 Outrigger and Belt Truss Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.6 Concrete Wind Resisting Systems in Tall Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.7 Composite Steel Wind Resisting Systems in Tall Buildings . . . . . 113
7.8 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8 Wind Design Procedures—Wind Load Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.1 Introduction to the Wind Design Procedures
of the ASCE 7-16 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.2 Wind Load Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.2.1 Wind Directionality Factor (Kd). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.2.2 Surface Roughness Categories and Exposure
Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.2.3 Topographic Factor (Kzt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.2.4 Ground Elevation Factor (Ke) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.2.5 Gust-Effect Factor (G or Gf). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.2.6 Enclosure Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.2.7 Internal Pressure Coefficient (GCpi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.3 Velocity Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.3.1 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients (Kz and Kh). . . . . 122
8.4 External Pressure Coefficients (Cp and CN). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

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8.5 Main Wind Force Resisting System and Components

and Cladding—Collectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.6 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
9 Wind Loads on the Main Wind Force Resisting System
(Directional Procedure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.1 Introduction—Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS). . . . 125
9.2 Part 1—Buildings of All Heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.2.1 Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Enclosed
and Partially Enclosed Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.2.2 Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Open Buildings. . 127
9.2.3 Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Overhangs and
Parapets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.2.4 Wind Load Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.2.5 Application Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.3 Part 2—Enclosed Simple-Diaphragm Buildings with
h ≤ 160 ft (48.8 m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.3.2 Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.3.3 General Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.3.4 Parapets and Overhangs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.3.5 Application Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.4 Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
10 Wind Loads on the Main Wind Force Resisting System
(Envelope Procedure). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.2 Part 1—Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, or Open
Low-Rise Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.2.1 General Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.2.2 Parapets and Overhangs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
10.2.3 Minimum Wind Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
10.2.4 Application Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
10.3 Part 2—Enclosed Simple-Diaphragm Low-Rise Buildings . . . . . . 181
10.3.1 Introduction and General Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.3.2 General Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.3.3 Application Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
11 Wind Loads on Building Appurtenances and Other Structures . . . . . . 189
11.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.2 General Procedure for Rooftop Equipment and Other
Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.2.1 Solid Freestanding Walls and Signs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.2.2 Other Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

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12 Wind Loads on Components and Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

12.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12.2 General Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
12.3 General Procedure for Enclosed and Partially Enclosed
Low-Rise Buildings or Buildings with a Height (h) Not
Exceeding 60 ft (18.3 m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
12.3.1 Application Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
12.4 Simplified Procedure for Enclosed and Partially Enclosed
Low-Rise Buildings or Buildings with a Height (h) Not
Exceeding 60 ft (18.3 m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
12.4.1 Application Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
12.5 Procedure for Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Buildings
with a Height (h) of More Than 60 ft (18.3 m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
12.6 Simplified Procedure for Enclosed Buildings with a Height (h)
of More Than 60 ft (18.3 m) But Not Exceeding 160 ft (48.8 m). . . 226
13 Wind Tunnels—Introduction to the Wind Tunnel Procedure. . . . . . . . 227
13.1 Overview of Wind Tunnels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
13.2 Measurement of Wind Loads on Structures in Wind Tunnels. . . . 228
13.3 Conditions of the Wind Tunnel Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
13.4 Load Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
13.5 ASCE/SEI 49-12 Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
13.6 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
13.7 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
14 Introduction to Database-Assisted Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
14.1 Definition of Database-Assisted Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
14.2 History and Benefits of Database-Assisted Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
14.3 Examples of Aerodynamic Databases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
14.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

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 Preface

W
ind engineering is a complex subject. It is also a wide field that has evolved in
the past 50 years or so with the advancement of research in the area, and the
improvement of our knowledge about wind forces. This better understand-
ing of wind events and the behavior of structures under wind has led to improved wind
load provisions in building codes and standards, and more realistic design methods
for buildings and structures. As a result, wind provisions and design methods became
more complicated and a little more difficult to understand and apply.
The purpose of this book is to help explain the general concepts and procedures
that are involved in the design of buildings for wind forces. The book outlines the prin-
ciples and design methods in a concise, straightforward, and simplified manner. Design
examples and application problems are used to further illustrate how these principles
and methods are applied. The subjects and procedures are subdivided in a way to make
it easier for the reader to comprehend the various concepts and steps involved in the
analysis and design process.
The topic of wind engineering is deeply rooted in aerodynamics and fluid mechan-
ics. A full understanding of the wind subject would normally require some knowledge
and skills in these areas that some readers may lack. Although it is difficult to completely
avoid matters and principles of aerodynamics and fluid mechanics, issues related to
these fields are reduced to a minimum in this book and explained in a simplified form.
The book can be used by engineers and architects. It can be helpful to building pro-
fessionals and those who are involved in the design and construction of buildings and
structures. The book can also be used by engineering and architecture students to learn
the subject. The reader is assumed to have some understanding of general structural
analysis and design methods, and some knowledge of structural systems and construc-
tion methods. Generally, the design procedures, examples, and application problems
given in this book explain how to determine wind loads, and do not involve actual
structural design such as sizing of members.
The book explains mostly the wind load provisions and design procedures accord-
ing to the ASCE/SEI 7-16 standard Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for
Buildings and Other Structures, by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and
its Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) and on which the structural chapters of the
International Building Code (IBC) are based. ASCE 7-16 is the 2016 edition, which super-
sedes the previous version of 2010 (ASCE 7-10). The reader needs to have a copy of the
ASCE 7-16 standard to be able to follow the material in this book properly. Numerous
references are made in this text to sections, tables, and figures of the ASCE 7-16 standard.

xiii

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 xiv Preface

The design methods and procedures as outlined in this book apply to the most
common types of buildings and structures for which the standard provisions of ASCE
7-16 are adequate. The methods given in the ASCE 7-16 standard generally indicate
the building height ranges for which those methods are applicable. The design of “tall
buildings” is not within the scope of this book. As explained later in the book, these
types of buildings are often designed based on wind tunnel testing of reduced building
models in order to determine the design wind loads. However, Chap. 7 provides an
overview of the structural principles, systems, and issues involved in the design of tall
buildings for wind loads and lateral loads in general.
I wish to thank McGraw-Hill Education and its staff for their help and assistance
with this book. I thank my Editor, Lauren Poplawski, for her guidance and the oppor-
tunity to write the book. I also wish to thank Stephen M. Smith, Editing Manager; Lynn
M. Messina, Senior Production Supervisor; Poonam Bisht, Project Manager; and Nikhil,
Project Manager, for their help and for their diligent work on the book.
I dedicate this book to my dear daughter and my family, to the memory of my
departed loving parents, and to my students at New Jersey Institute of Technology.

Rima Taher, Ph.D., P.E.

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 Introduction

T
he following is a brief overview of the book content intended to give the reader
a general idea about the topics discussed in the various chapters. This summary
should be helpful in introducing the subject of building design for wind forces,
and the different aspects of this rather complex topic.
Chapter 1 of this book is an introduction to the nature of wind forces and their
effects on buildings and structures. It explains the types of pressure distribution on
building surfaces as a result of wind forces, the nature of internal pressures, and fac-
tors that impact wind forces on buildings. The nature of air flow around buildings is
explained along with some of the most important principles and terms of aerodynamics
as they apply to buildings and structures. The wind provisions of the building codes
and the ASCE 7 standard are introduced, and a brief history of these provisions is given.
Chapter 2 provides a more detailed introduction to the wind provisions of the ASCE
7-16 standard. It explains how buildings are classified according to Risk Categories,
and introduces some of the terms and definitions given in the ASCE 7 standard, such
as open, enclosed, and partially enclosed buildings, flexible and rigid structures, dia-
phragm and simple-diaphragm buildings, and low-rise buildings. The chapter also pro-
vides an introduction to the “wind hazard maps” as given in the ASCE 7-16 standard.
These maps are used to determine the basic wind speed needed for design purposes
and are a function of geography and the Risk Category of the structure.
Chapter 3 discusses extreme wind events, the nature of hurricanes and tornadoes,
their classification systems, regions of occurrences, and the impacts of these events on
buildings and structures.
Chapter 4 provides a relatively detailed discussion of damage to structures caused
by extreme wind events such as hurricanes and tornadoes. It outlines some of the most
important findings given in engineering assessment reports by FEMA and other insti-
tutions, as a result of post-disaster investigations carried out in the aftermath of past
ravaging wind events such as Hurricane Andrew and Hurricane Katrina. The chapter
provides an analysis of the investigations’ findings and gives a summary of the most
typical damage to buildings and structures that commonly occurs, and then outlines
the lessons to be learned from these investigations.
Chapter 5 is a general overview of wind engineering activities and current research
trends. The chapter discusses the history of the wind engineering field, and how it has
evolved in the past 50 years or so. It provides a brief description of general research
methodologies used in this field, and sums up actual wind engineering activities and
research.

xv

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 xvi Introduction

Chapter 6 outlines the types of structural systems used in the design and construc-
tion of buildings in order to sustain lateral loads in general. These systems are obvi-
ously used to help resist wind forces as well, considering that these forces are normally
handled as lateral loads applied to the structure. These lateral load resisting systems are
divided into three general categories: moment-resisting frames, shear walls, and braced
frames. The chapter discusses the structural principles used in the three categories.
Some other important structural notions and elements for lateral loads are explained,
such as diaphragm systems, collectors, and torsion. A list of building irregularities that
are problematic for lateral loads that designers must consider is given. The chapter also
contains some application problems that help illustrate how to apply some of these
most important structural concepts and principles when designing for lateral loads
such as wind forces.
Chapter 7 discusses the structural systems used in tall buildings to resist wind
forces and lateral forces in general. It also explains the principles used in damping sys-
tems. As indicated earlier in this book’s Preface, tall buildings are often designed for
wind using wind tunnel testing of reduced building models, and this is not within the
scope of this book. However, readers may find the material given in Chap. 7 regarding
tall buildings to be helpful and informative. Wind forces on tall buildings are always a
major concern, and special structural systems must be used to sustain these forces. The
chapter outlines the structural history of the skyscraper, and explains the lateral load
resisting systems used in tall buildings using concrete, steel, and composite steel.
Chapter 8 introduces the various wind design procedures of the ASCE 7-16 stan-
dard. Those procedures are discussed in detail in later chapters. Chapter 8 explains the
various wind parameters that are used in the ASCE 7-16 methods, such as the wind
directionality factor, surface roughness categories and exposure categories, the topo-
graphic factor, the gust factor, internal pressure coefficients, the velocity pressure and
velocity pressure exposure coefficient, and the external pressure coefficients. The chap-
ter describes how the ASCE 7-16 procedures are subdivided to deal with the Main Wind
Force Resisting System (MWFRS) and Components and Cladding (C&C).
Chapter 9 explains mostly some of the procedures given in the ASCE 7-16 standard
that are used to determine wind loads for the purpose of designing the elements of
the MWFRS. It discusses the Directional Procedure for buildings of all heights, and
enclosed simple-diaphragm buildings with heights not exceeding 160 ft (48.8 m). Some
application problems and design examples are provided to help explain these methods
and illustrate how the procedures are applied.
Chapter 10 explains some other procedures given in the ASCE 7-16 standard for the
MWFRS. It discusses the Envelope Procedure for enclosed, partially enclosed, and open
low-rise buildings, and enclosed simple-diaphragm low-rise buildings. Some problems
and application examples are given to help illustrate how these procedures are applied.
Chapter 11 discusses some of the procedures given in the ASCE 7-16 standard to
determine wind loads on building appurtenances and other structures. These proce-
dures apply to elements such as solid freestanding walls and signs, open signs, chim-
neys, trussed towers, single-plane open frames, and rooftop structures and equipment.
Some application problems are given to help explain how these methods are applied.
Chapter 12 is dedicated to Components and Cladding. It discusses some of the pro-
cedures given in the ASCE 7-16 standard to determine wind loads for the purpose of
designing the elements of C&C. The chapter includes a section that explains the dif-
ference between procedures used for the MWFRS and elements of Components and

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 Introduction xvii
Cladding. The chapter explains the general C&C procedure for enclosed and partially
enclosed low-rise buildings or buildings not exceeding 60 ft (18.3 m), and the simpli-
fied procedure for low-rise buildings. It also briefly outlines the procedures used for
enclosed and partially enclosed buildings of more than 60 ft (18.3 m), and the simplified
procedure for enclosed buildings of more than 60 ft (18.3 m). Some application prob-
lems are given for the first two procedures.
Chapter 13 provides a general overview of wind tunnels, their types, and the mea-
surement of wind loads on structures in them. It provides a brief introduction to the
wind tunnel procedure as discussed in Chap. 31 of the ASCE 7-16 standard and the
conditions of this procedure. The chapter also introduces the ASCE/SEI 49-12 standard
Wind Tunnel Testing for Buildings and Other Structures.
Chapter 14 is an introduction to Database-Assisted Design, often referred to as
DAD. The chapter explains the meaning of DAD. It outlines the history and the research
work that led to this method, and discusses its benefits. Some examples of aerodynamic
databases are given at the end of this chapter.

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 Building Design for
Wind Forces

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 CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Wind Forces
and Wind Effects on
Buildings and Structures
1.1 Nature and Causes of Wind
Wind is simply a movement of the earth’s atmosphere from areas of high pressure to
areas of low pressure to equalize the pressures. Air pressure is a measure of the weight
of the air on the surface of the earth. The difference in pressures is related to the ris-
ing and sinking of air. Rising air causes low pressure and sinking of air causes high
pressure. Air pressures are generally connected to the temperature differences of the
various parts of the globe and to the rotation of the earth. Warm air near the equator
rises, creating an area of low pressure, and moves toward the colder regions near the
poles, leading to high pressure in those regions. A general wind circulation takes place
with air from the polar high-pressure areas moving to replace the rising air in the low-
pressure warmer areas.

1.2 General Overview of Building Design for Wind

Wind effects on buildings and structures are complex. However, and in order to develop
design methods for buildings and structures, it is often necessary to simplify these wind
effects. For instance, the wind velocity and direction are rarely constant in a wind event.
Wind can change in velocity and direction fairly quickly in some cases. Building codes
and standards generally provide different design methods depending on the type of
building or structure in question. In some cases, it is acceptable to use some simplified
design procedures. In these procedures wind direction and velocity may be considered
constant. The wind direction is often considered horizontal, leading to lateral forces on
buildings. In some other cases, buildings and structures must be designed using wind
tunnel procedures by creating reduced-scale models of the structure, and testing these
models in a wind tunnel facility. Wind conditions that are closer to reality are recreated
in a wind tunnel laboratory, and reduced-scale models are subjected to them and stud-
ied for wind effects.
The general procedure in designing buildings for wind forces is to consider the
wind effect in the form of pressure applied to various building surfaces. These wind
pressures are then converted into wind forces applied to structural members that must
be designed to resist these forces.

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 2 Chapter One

The term pressure in physics simply means the force that is applied per unit area
of surface. When discussing wind pressure on building surfaces, the unit often used
to express the pressure is psf, pounds per square foot (or N/m2 using metric units).
Pressure is considered as applied in a direction that is perpendicular to the surface in
question. In our discussion here, pressure is a consequence of air flow.
At this time, buildings in the United States are designed according to the International
Building Code (IBC) and the International Residential Code (IRC). The current editions are
the 2015 editions for both codes.1,2 The structural chapters of these codes are generally
based on a standard published by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE):
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, often referred to as the ASCE
7 standard. The current version of this standard is the 2016 edition.3 The title of the
current version was slightly changed from the previous ASCE 7-10 to Minimum Design
Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures. The building design pro-
cedures according to the ASCE 7 standard will be covered in this book. In this first chap-
ter, some of the most basic concepts of wind design are summarized. It is important for
the reader to understand some of the elementary terms and principles associated with
wind design, and to have an idea about the historic basis and context of these principles
as explained in this chapter.

1.3 Wind Pressure Distribution on Building Surfaces

Wind flowing around a building or structure creates a complex pressure distribution on
the building surfaces. Generally, on a building of rectangular plan form, the wall under
the wind, referred to as the windward wall, is under high inward pressure called posi-
tive pressure. This pressure decreases near the edges of the windward wall. The pressure
on the leeward wall is an outward pressure or suction referred to as negative pressure.
This pressure is higher near the edges of the leeward wall and decreases near the wall
center.
As the wind flows around a building, it creates a “drag” effect on the walls that
are parallel to the wind direction. The drag force can be described as the resultant of the
forces created by the positive and negative pressures acting on the building structure
in the direction of the flow. Side walls also experience an outward pressure. Corners
generally get a large outward pressure due to flow turbulence.
The term turbulence can be discussed at length. In simple terms, the jumbled air at
the side walls and leeward wall is called turbulence, and consists of a chaotic air flow of
little swirling and spiraling air movements that tend to join the general air flow.
A flat roof experiences an outward pressure or uplift forces. The wind action on
a pitched roof depends on various factors such as the pitch of the roof and the rela-
tive building dimensions. Eaves and overhangs of roofs are affected by wind getting
entrapped underneath those areas, creating turbulence and leading to pressure stagna-
tion on those parts.
Large suction or large negative pressures can also be due to vortex formation. This
generally happens when the vertical line of a building is broken, such as in the case of
recesses, protrusions along the building height, or the presence of a podium. The phe-
nomenon consists of little rotational flows near the building facades, leading to large
suctions or negative pressures.

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 Wind Forces and Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures 3
Side Wall

Wind
Leeward
Windward Wall (–)
Wall (+)

Side Wall

Figure 1.1 General pressure distribution on a rectangular building—plan view.

Roof Uplift (–)

Wind
Leeward
Windward Wall (–)
Wall (+)

Figure 1.2 General pressure distribution on a rectangular building—elevation view.

Also, wind speeds are generally lower near the ground due to friction, and they
tend to increase with height as explained later. For this reason, wind pressure on the
windward wall is generally considered lower near the ground, and it increases with
height from the ground as explained in later sections.
Figures 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate the general pressure distribution as described above,
and show diagrams of wind pressure distribution on a rectangular-shape building,
both in plan and elevation views.

1.4 Wind Pressure Distribution on Pitched Roofs

Compared to that on a flat roof, the wind pressure distribution on a pitched roof tends
to be more complicated and generally depends on the roof slope and building dimen-
sions. Wind pressures in this case can be either positive or negative. Figure 1.3 illus-
trates the general wind pressure distribution on a pitched roof. It is important to note
that this distribution is normally not of the uniform type. Pressures tend to be larger
near the ridge and bottom edges. Also, the roof slope plays an important role in the
amount and form of the wind pressure distribution on pitched roofs, as discussed in
later chapters of this book.

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 4 Chapter One

Wind

Figure 1.3 General wind pressure distribution on a pitched roof.

Wind Opening

(a)

Roof

Wind Opening

Floor
(b)

Figure 1.4 Internal pressures due to an opening. (a) Plan view. (b) Elevation view.

1.5 Internal Pressures

The previous discussion of wind pressure relates to exterior pressures. However, inter-
nal pressures on building surfaces may develop from within the structure. These inter-
nal pressures are generally due to window and door openings that may not remain
securely closed during a wind event. As a matter of fact, a lot of glazed surfaces break
during extreme wind events such as hurricanes due to flying debris when these glazed
surfaces are not protected by strong shutters.
Internal pressures must generally be considered in the building design because build-
ings are not entirely fully closed. As air enters a building through an opening, internal
pressures develop on the inside surfaces of windward and leeward wall as well as on the
inner surfaces of the floor and roof. These internal pressures must be algebraically added
to the external pressures. The term algebraically is used here because the external and
internal pressure vectors may be in the same direction or in opposite directions.
Figures 1.4a and b illustrate the concept of internal pressures due to an opening, in
both plan and elevation views.

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 Wind Forces and Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures 5

1.6 Factors Impacting Wind Effects

Wind effects on buildings and structures depend on various factors. Some of these fac-
tors are related to wind conditions, such as the magnitude of sustained wind velocity,
prevailing wind directions, presence of gusts, and duration of high wind velocities.
Other factors are related to the environment, such as effects resulting from sheltering
or funneling caused by ground forms and landscaping or by the presence of adjacent
structures. These environmental factors can increase or reduce wind effects. They can
also lead to turbulence. Other factors that generally impact wind effects are connected
to the structure itself, such as the size and dimensions of the structure, its aerodynamic
shape, its fundamental period of vibration, type of construction, stiffness of surfaces,
and strength of connections.
Wind tunnel tests have been very useful in providing much of the information we
have today regarding building behavior under wind. Wind tunnel testing of reduced-
scale models of buildings and structures has also resulted in establishing much of the
data and methods used today in building design.
The failure of a building component under severe winds can lead to the failure
of other structural members, thus triggering a progressive type of chain reaction.
Generally, lateral wind pressures on a building or structure have an overturning effect
or a sliding effect on it. So a structure can actually tend to rotate, or can slide off its foun-
dation due to lateral wind pressures. In some extreme wind events such as hurricanes,
wind is accompanied by heavy rains leading to storm surge, flooding, and damage
from water and airborne debris as discussed later. The effect of flowing water on the
foundation of a building can also be extremely damaging.

1.7 Air Flow around Buildings—Bernoulli Effect

The simplified air pressure distribution on building surfaces as described in the previ-
ous sections is closely related to the patterns of air flow around buildings and struc-
tures. In the design of cars and airplanes, some knowledge and an understanding of air
flow around streamlined bodies is required. Buildings and structures are different from
cars and airplanes in the sense that they have sharp edges and are often referred to as
bluff bodies. Therefore the study of wind effects on buildings and structures is a particu-
lar field of aeronautics often referred to as architectural aerodynamics.
A fluid or air flow can be represented using a series of parallel lines with arrow-
heads indicating the direction of the flow. Moving air with a particular mass at a par-
ticular velocity has a kinetic energy that can do “work” and that can be expressed by
this expression from dynamics:

1 2
E= mv
2

where E = kinetic energy

m = mass
v = velocity
The mass (m) is the weight (in lb) divided by the gravity constant (g) in ft/sec2 (or kg
in metric units). The unit for velocity is ft/sec (m/s) and that for kinetic energy is ft-lb
(N·m or joule where 1 J = 1 N·m).

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 6 Chapter One

Building

Figure 1.5 Air flow pattern around a building—Bernoulli effect.

Bernoulli’s equation establishes a relationship between pressure and velocity for

points located along the path of a fluid flow. It is an important equation in hydraulics
and it is given by

1 1
p1 + mv12 = p2 + mv2 2
2 2

The equation means that the sum of pressure and kinetic energy is constant for
various points along the flow path. So a decrease in pressure is compensated for by an
increase in kinetic energy and vice versa. Since the kinetic energy is related to the veloc-
ity, and since the mass is constant, an increase in kinetic energy would mean an increase
in velocity, and a decrease in kinetic energy would be a decrease in velocity.
The Bernoulli effect is used to explain wind pressures and air flow around a build-
ing or structure. The structure can be seen as an obstruction in the path of the air flow.
The flow must push the same volume of air through. The velocity is decreased when
the flow reaches the windward surface of a building, resulting in a pressure increase
there and an inward positive pressure. The flow velocity increases near the sides of the
building, resulting in a drop of pressure on side walls or a negative outward pressure
there. The same effect is seen on the leeward surface that will receive an outward nega-
tive type of pressure or suction effect. At some distance down the flow path, the air flow
returns to its original unaltered state. Figure 1.5 shows the air flow pattern around a
building and the Bernoulli effect.

1.8 Reynolds Number

A fluid flow experiences shear stresses in addition to the pressures described in the
previous section. From Bernoulli’s equation, the fluid velocity induces a pressure on a
body as explained earlier, leading to inertial forces. Viscosity makes the fluid adhere to
the body. The ratio between the inertial force and the friction or viscous force on a vol-
ume of fluid is referred to as the Reynolds number of the flow and it is dimensionless.
It is interpreted as the ratio of the dynamic pressure (ρV 2) and the shear stress (μV/L).
The number is expressed as follows:

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 Wind Forces and Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures 7

ρV 2
Re =
μV/L
ρVL
Re =
μ
VL
Re =
ν

where Re = Reynolds number of the flow

ρ = fluid density in lbm/ft3 (kg/m3)
V = fluid velocity in ft/sec (m/s)
μ = fluid viscosity in lbm/sec ft (N·s/m2)
L = linear dimension of the volume of fluid or traveled length of fluid in ft (m)
ν = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (μ/ρ) in ft2/sec (m2/s)
Reynolds number is used to predict flow patterns in a fluid and the transition of a
flow from laminar to turbulent. It has some important applications in fluid dynamics,
such as in scaling effects like in the case between a reduced-scale model in a wind tun-
nel and the full-scale version.

1.9 Boundary Layer

In Fig. 1.5, the air flow is deflected and also delayed as it passes near the side sur-
faces parallel to the air flow motion, due to friction with these surfaces. The air velocity
increases as the distance increases from side surfaces in a direction perpendicular to
them, and gradually regains its original value at some point. This is related to fluid vis-
cosity. A similar effect takes place as air flows near the ground surface. The air velocity
gets reduced due to friction with the ground surface, and then it increases with height
from the ground. The boundary layer or atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is defined
as the area between the ground surface where air velocity is zero and the limit height
where friction has no more effect on air flow, and where the air regains its upper veloc-
ity limit. The height of the boundary layer above the earth varies with the degree of sur-
face roughness. The boundary layer effect is considered in wind engineering. The rough
ground surface slows down the average flow, and it also creates some mixing of flows,
leading to turbulence or random wind speed fluctuations. Both effects are considered
in wind engineering applications.

1.10 Gradient Height

The surface of the earth has different ranges of surface roughness. The earth surface
is nearly flat at seas and oceans; other areas have mountains and forests. Urban and
suburban areas represent another degree of surface roughness influencing wind veloci-
ties. So the height above the ground where the higher limit of wind velocity is reached
depends on the degree of surface roughness. The height above the ground where the
influence of friction is diminished and is no longer significant in affecting the air flow
is referred to as the gradient height. This gradient height is function of surface rough-
ness. As a general rule, it increases as the surface roughness increases. A series of other
factors have also an impact on the gradient height. These factors include the viscosity

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 8 Chapter One

Gradient Wind

Wind Velocity Profile

Figure 1.6 General wind speed profile near the ground surface.

of the air, pressure gradients of the atmosphere, air mass density, the latitude of the
region, and other factors that will not be discussed here.
Figure 1.6 illustrates the general wind speed profile near the ground surface.

1.11 Wind Measurement

Various methods have been used to measure wind speed. A traditional and common
way of measuring wind has been by using a device called a cup anemometer. A sonic
anemometer was also invented in 1994 that measures wind speed and direction using
sound waves. There are also other modern methods of measurement, such as inertial
navigation and global positioning systems.
First, the “fastest-mile wind speed” was used as a standard for wind measurement.
This speed was measured by the time taken by a 1-mile-long column of air to pass
the cup anemometer device. This anemometer, which is still used today, consists of
cups that rotate horizontally with the wind, and a combination of wheels records the
number of revolutions for a given time to measure the wind speed. The “fastest-mile
wind speed” was phased out many years ago by the National Weather Service, and
was replaced by the “3-second gust wind speed,” which considers the effect of sud-
den and short wind gusts. Wind measurements have been standardized at a height of
33 ft or 10 m. The “3-second gust wind speed” is the maximum 3-second gust speed that
is recorded at this standard height. This is the wind speed used today in the building
codes and standards, as discussed later.

1.12 Power Law

The power law is at the basis of the methods used in the building codes and stan-
dards. It is a mathematical formula that has an exponential form and can be generally
expressed by
1/a
Vz z
=  
VX X 

where Vz = wind velocity at a height z above ground

VX = wind velocity at a height X above ground
a = constant related to ground surface conditions

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 Wind Forces and Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures 9
The power law allows the calculation of wind speed at a certain height (z) above
the ground using a known wind velocity at another height (X) above the ground, and
depending on the ground surface conditions. A height (X) of 33 ft (10 m) is of particular
importance since wind speed measurement has been standardized at this particular
height, as mentioned in the previous section.
Based on the general power law equation, another equation was developed that
allows the calculation of wind speed at a certain height for a particular (a) ground con-
dition based on a known value of the wind speed at another height and for a different
a condition. This equation is given by
1/a
  900 1/7   z 
Vz = V33     
  
  33    z g 

where V33 = wind velocity at a height of 33 ft above the ground

zg = gradient height corresponding to a particular a-value of 7
z = height for which the velocity is calculated for a different a-value
The number “900” is the gradient height for a particular surface roughness case, or
a particular (a) condition.
The work of the wind researcher A. G. Davenport of the University of Western
Ontario in Canada led to the definition of a-values for various terrain conditions, and
became the basis of the applications and methods given in building codes and stan-
dards. The value of 7 used for a in the equation corresponds to a terrain condition given
by Davenport as “open slightly rolling farmland” or “open grassland with few trees.”
See Davenport4 and Davenport et al.5
There is also another law used to define wind velocity profiles in the lower part of
the boundary layer known as the log law.

1.13 Surface Roughness Categories in Earlier Building Codes and

Standards
As explained in the previous section, values of the exponent 1/a were provided in the
work of A. G. Davenport. The exponent value varied from 1/10.5 for coastal waters to
½ for the center of a large city. The value of the exponent increased gradually with a
transition from smooth terrain conditions such as coastal waters to rougher terrain con-
ditions, with the roughest condition being similar to the center of a large city where tall
obstructions such as high-rise buildings are encountered. The values of the exponent
were correlated with the fastest-mile wind velocities. They were changed later to corre-
late with the 3-second gust velocities. In the earlier building codes and standards, four
different terrain roughness conditions were used. Some 14 different roughness condi-
tions were initially suggested in the work of Davenport.
Figure 1.7 illustrates wind velocity profiles function of terrain roughness.6 The
general roughness conditions are urban, suburban, open country, and very flat terrain.
Although the main general form of the wind velocity profile is about the same, the fig-
ure shows the variation in this profile function of terrain roughness.
Initially, “urban centers” were considered as Exposure Category A, “suburban
areas” were considered as Exposure Category B, “open terrain” was considered as

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 10 Chapter One

Figure 1.7 Wind velocity profiles function of terrain roughness categories. (Wind Issues in Building
Design by Structural Wind Engineering Committee of ASCE; with permission from ASCE.)

Terrain Roughness Exposure Category Gradient Height

Urban A 1500 ft (457 m)
Suburban B 1200 (366 m)
Open C 900 (274 m)
Coastal D 700 (213 m)

Table 1.1 Gradient Heights for the Four Exposure Categories

Exposure Category C, and “coastal waters” were considered as Exposure Category D.

These terrain roughness conditions and exposure categories have changed in recent
building codes and standards. Gradient height values were also provided for the vari-
ous exposure categories. This value is needed in order to determine the wind velocity at
a certain height and for a certain roughness condition according to the previous equa-
tion. Table 1.1 shows the gradient height values (in feet) that were used for the four
exposure categories mentioned above.
Based on the previous discussion, the main concepts used in wind engineering
applications and building design can be summarized. All buildings are generally
within the boundary layer. The wind velocity varies exponentially with height above
the ground. This velocity is zero at the ground surface due to friction, and it reaches its
maximum velocity at the gradient height. The value of the gradient height increases as
terrain roughness is increased.

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 Wind Forces and Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures 11

1.14 Surface Roughness and Exposure Categories of Recent Codes

and Standards
In recent codes and standards, surface roughness categories and exposure categories have
changed compared to those mentioned in the previous section. For instance, Exposure
Category A is no longer used. The current ASCE 7-16 standard uses three surface rough-
ness categories along with three exposure categories (B, C, and D) instead of four.
A detailed description of these categories is given in later chapters of this book.
Generally, Surface Roughness B and Exposure Category B relate to urban and suburban
areas. Surface Roughness D and Exposure Category D are used for flat, unobstructed
areas and water surfaces. Surface Roughness C and Exposure Category C are used
where categories B and D do not apply.
The wind design methods according to the current building codes and standards
are covered in detail in later chapters.

1.15 Wind Hazard Maps

The current IBC and the ASCE 7-16 standard provide wind hazard maps of the United
States, with basic wind velocity contour lines based on the 3-second gust speed at 33 ft
(10 m) above the ground, for Exposure Category C and for various “Building Occupancy
or Risk Categories.” The wind hazard map is used by designers to get the basic wind
speed needed for the design calculations. Wind speeds are given on the wind hazard
maps in miles per hour (m/s). Older codes and standards used wind maps based on
fastest-mile wind data. The current wind hazard maps also show some “special wind
regions.” In these regions, wind conditions can be different from those indicated on the
map, and therefore these areas must be examined for unusual wind conditions. In these
cases, designers must use local wind data, and adjust the map wind values as necessary
and possibly for higher local wind speeds.
The Building Occupancy or Risk Categories mentioned earlier are given in the IBC,
and are referred to as Building Risk Categories in the 2015 edition of the IBC. The term
Building Occupancy Categories was used in earlier versions of this code. These categories
refer to a certain building classification based on the type of occupancy or importance,
and are discussed in the next chapter.
For building design purposes, the wind velocity of importance is obviously the
maximum one to be expected at a standard height for a particular geographic location.
Probability methods are utilized to predict wind data for design purposes. A recurrence
interval of 50 years is used on the wind hazard maps of the current codes and the ASCE
7 standard. On each map, a percentage is given for the probability of exceeding the
indicated basic wind velocities in 50 years. For example, basic wind speeds given on
the ASCE 7 wind map for Occupancy Category II have a 7% probability of exceedance
in 50 years. In the past, wind velocity maps given in building codes and standards have
typically used recurrence intervals of 25, 50, and 100 years. The most common, and the
currently used, recurrence interval is 50 years.
Similar probability methods have been used for the determination of other struc-
tural loads such as snow and earthquake loads. The concept of recurrence interval has
been also utilized for those loads and it is now widely accepted in the design community.

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 12 Chapter One

The wind hazard map and its uses in design methods are explained in further detail
in later chapters of this book.

1.16 Types of Building Failures due to Wind and Lateral Loads

Building failures due to lateral or wind loads can occur in different ways. Generally,
there are three different modes of failures: uplift failure, overturning failure, and sliding
or shearing failure.
An uplift failure occurs when the upward uplift forces become larger than the
downward gravity loads and the forces of attachment to the soil or foundation system.
This type of failure is illustrated in Fig. 1.8.
An overturning failure occurs when the structure rotates off its foundation about a
pivoting point on the side of the building. This type of failure is caused by the moment
of the lateral forces acting on the structure due to wind, which may also get combined
with lateral pressures from flood waters. When these active moments exceed the sta-
bilizing resisting moment, an overturning failure takes place. The stabilizing resisting
moment is generally due to the structure’s weight and passive soil pressures. Figure 1.9
illustrates the concept of an overturning failure. Lightweight structures such as garages
and manufactured homes are especially vulnerable to this type of failure.
When the resultant of the lateral loads becomes larger than the foundation strength
and the friction forces between the base of footings and soil, a sliding or shearing fail-
ure occurs. In this case, a building can slide off its foundation system. The foundation
can also slide due to lateral loads. In a structure supported on piles, this type of failure
can take place if the piles break. Erosion and foundation scour can also remove the

Uplift

Building Weight

Wind

Flooding Ground
Surface

Pile

Figure 1.8 Uplift failure of a structure.

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 Wind Forces and Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures 13

Overturning

Building Weight

Wind

Flooding Ground
Surface

Pile

Figure 1.9 Overturning failure of a structure.

Building Weight
Sliding

Wind

Flooding Ground
Surface

Pile

Figure 1.10 Sliding or shearing failure of a structure.

soil around piles and footings and make the foundation system vulnerable to sliding.
Figure 1.10 illustrates the principle of sliding or shearing failure.
These types of failures can lead to the entire collapse of a structure in some cases.
The process of a structural failure is generally progressive where the failure of one
structural member can lead to the failure of other members until the structure becomes
unstable and collapses. When certain members fail, the load path is broken, and forces
are no longer transmitted properly from one structural element to the other.

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 14 Chapter One

1.17 Structural Dynamics—Flexible and Rigid Structures

Buildings are structurally designed for wind-induced loads and wind-induced motions.
The motion issue is mostly a serviceability matter in design. Generally, on a typical
building, wind forces are considered as horizontal loads, and are divided into three
different types: along-wind loads, across-wind loads, and torsional loads. Figure 1.11
illustrates the building response to wind and how these loads are applied. Each one of
these forces has two components: a static one and a dynamic one. Generally, the static
component is the principal and most important component. In buildings with large
roof, the “uplift” wind force on the roof is also generally significant.
The behavior of flexible structures under wind loads is different from that of rigid
structures. Flexible structures are subject to dynamic effects that involve motions, and
this includes resonant amplification effects. For instance, the effect on a bridge of sol-
diers marching on it at a frequency equal to the fundamental frequency of vibration of
the bridge is well-known.
In order to estimate the wind loads on flexible structures, a dynamic analysis must
be performed that includes the effect of the resonant response. The dynamic response
of a structure is related to Newton’s second law, which states that the product of the
mass by the acceleration is equal to the force applied to that mass. For flexible struc-
tures, the dynamic response can be obtained by using frequency domain approaches.
For example, the fluctuating wind forces acting on a structure can be linearly connected
to the fluctuating wind speeds, and defined in a similar fashion, thus leading to a solu-
tion for the response in the frequency domain.
Generally, the response of a structure to wind forces can be divided into three
components:

1. A static part of the response which is the mean component.

2. A fluctuating dynamic response due to the components of the wind loads that
have frequencies different from the natural frequency of the structure.
3. A fluctuating dynamic response due to the components of the wind loads that
have frequencies either equal or close to the natural frequency of the structure.

Torsional
Loads

Along-Wind
Loads
Across-Wind
Loads

Wind

Figure 1.11 Building response to wind.

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 Wind Forces and Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures 15
As indicated above, the resonant effect must be considered for flexible structures.
However, in rigid structures, this resonant effect is insignificant and can be neglected.
The ASCE 7-16 standard defines flexible and rigid buildings and structures in
Chap. 26. It defines flexible buildings or structures as “slender buildings and other
structures that have a fundamental natural frequency of less than 1 Hz.” It defines a
rigid building or structure as “a building or other structure whose fundamental natural
frequency is greater than or equal to 1 Hz.”

1.18 Aeroelasticity
A structural motion induced by a flow can change the flow in a way that can conse-
quently affect structural motions. Self-exited structural motions are motions that change
the aerodynamic effect of the flow on a building or structure, and their behavior is gen-
erally referred to as aeroelastic. Aeroelasticity can be briefly described as the science that
examines interactions between aerodynamic, elastic, and inertia forces.
A famous example of aeroelastic behavior is the flutter of the first Tacoma Narrows
Bridge in Tacoma, Washington, which was a suspension bridge that collapsed in
November 1940 under a 40-mph (64-km/h) wind due to aeroelastic flutter.
The aeroelastic study of buildings and other structures is based mostly on empirical
modeling and testing.
The interaction between flow and body can have either a destabilizing or a stabiliz-
ing effect due to energy transfer.

1.19 Vortex-Induced Oscillations, Flutter, and Galloping

Vortex shedding can create fluctuating lift forces that can lead to motion especially in
flexible bodies. If the motion is small, it will not affect the vortex shedding. If the fre-
quency of the vortex shedding and that of the related lift force is equal to the natural
frequency of vibration of the body, then a resonant amplification can follow.
Flutter affects mostly structures or bodies that are flexible and flat in form. It is an
aeroelastic behavior characterized by oscillations that increase in time which can lead
to structural collapses. Flutter does not generally affect buildings, but it can be a serious
concern in bridge structures as mentioned earlier in the case of the collapse of the first
Tacoma Narrows Bridge. It is therefore of interest to structural engineers.
Galloping is an aeroelastic behavior that is related to bodies and elements of certain
cross-sectional forms such as some types of cylinders or prisms. It is an oscillation of
relatively large amplitude that can be up to ten times or more the cross-sectional dimen-
sion of the element. The oscillation happens in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
the flow velocity affecting the body.
Issues related to structural dynamics and aeroelasticity are out of the scope of this
book. Readers may refer to other textbooks that deal with these topics in more detail.7

1.20 References
1. 2015 IBC, International Building Code, International Code Council, Inc., 2014.
2. 2015 IRC, International Residential Code, International Code Council, Inc., 2014.
3. Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures,
ASCE/SEI 7-16, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 2017.

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 16 Chapter One

4. The Relationship of Wind Structure to Wind Loading, Davenport, A. G., Proceedings

of the Symposium on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, Vol. I, 53–102,
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, U.K., Her Majesty’s Stationary Office,
London, 1965.
5. A Simplified Model of Wind Pressure Coefficients for Low-Rise Buildings, Davenport,
A. G., Stathopoulos, T., Surry, D. A., Proceedings of the International Conference
on Structural Safety & Reliability, ICOSSAR 85, 1985.
6. Wind Issues in the Design of Buildings, Structural Wind Engineering Committee
of the Technical Council on Wind Engineering of the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), edited by Leighton Cochran, 2012.
7. Design of Buildings for Wind—A Guide for ASCE 7-10 Standard Users and Designers of
Special Structures, Simiu, Emil, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011.

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