BODY TISSUES AND

INTUGEMENTARY SYSTEM
Physiology Of Touch Sensation And Reflex Action
Physiology Of Respiration
 What is Body
Tissue?
• The term tissue is used to describe a group of cells found
together in the body.
• The cells within a tissue share a common embryonic
origin.
• Microscopic observation reveals that the cells in a tissue
share morphological features and are arranged in an
orderly pattern that achieves the tissue’s functions.
• There are many types of cells in the human body, they are
organized into four broad categories of tissues: epithelial,
connective, muscle, and nervous.
• Each of these categories is characterized by specific
functions that contribute to the overall health and
maintenance of the body.
Type of Tissues
We have determined that we are made up of
four different types of tissue. In addition:-
1. Muscle tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Epithelial tissue
4. Nervous tissue
 • Muscle tissue is made up of excitable cells that
are long and fibrous. These cells are ready for
contraction, or the activation of tension in our
Muscle Tissue muscles, making it possible for us to move our
body parts. They are arranged in parallel lines
and are bundled, making muscle tissue very
strong.
 Epithelial Tissue

• The simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells. They are

typically where absorption, secretion, and filtration occur. The
thinness of the epithelial barrier facilitates these processes.
• These cells can be flat, cuboidal, or columnar. They are joined tightly
together, making a single or stacked continuous sheet. Like a quilt
that is tightly stitched, epithelium makes an excellent protective cover
for the body, in the form of skin.
Connective Tissue

• Holding our body parts together and providing support are the main
jobs of this tissue. We would certainly not be in good shape if all our
internal body parts were free-floating. Connective tissue fills in the
spaces inside our body with a matrix made of fibers within a liquid, solid,
or jelly-like substance.
 Nervous Tissue

• Nervous tissue is the term for groups of

organized cells in the nervous system,
which is the organ system that controls
the body’s movements, sends and carries
signals to and from the different parts of
the body, and has a role in controlling
bodily functions such as digestion.
Tissue Membrane

• A tissue membrane is a thin layer or sheet of cells that

covers the outside of the body, the organs, internal
passageways that lead to the exterior of the body, and the
lining of the moveable joint cavities.
 Integumentary System
Physiology of Touch Sensation, Reflex Action
and Physiology of Sweating
What is integumentary system?

The integumentary system is an organ system consisting of the

skin, hair, nails, and exocrine glands.

The skin is the largest organ in the body.

Skin forms the body’s outer covering and forms a barrier to

protect the body from chemicals, disease, UV light and
physical damage.

Hair and nail : extend from the skin to reinforce the skin and
protect it from environmental damage.
 1) Protection
i. Chemical factors in the skin:
• Sebum (or oil) from the sebaceous glands is slightly
acidic, retarding bacterial colonization on the skin surface.
• Sweat from the sudoriferous glands is slightly hypertonic
and can flush off most bacteria on the skin surface.
• Melanin (skin pigment ) from melanocytes avoids
Functions of excessive ultraviolet radiation from penetrating the skin
layers .
Integumentary ii. Physical factors in the skin:
System • Stratified squamous epithelium in the epidermis layer
provides many layers of cells, preventing most bacteria
invasion. Keratinized cells in the stratum corneum layer of
the epidermis provides a physical barrier against most
invasion.
iii. Biological factor in the skin:
• White blood cells such as macrophages destroy most
invaded bacteria and other foreign substances.
2) Excretion
• Waste materials such as ammonia , urea , and excessive salt are eliminated from
sweating .
3) Body temperature (Thermoregulations)
• Regulation sweating by the sweat glands promotes evaporation, resulting in a loss
of excessive body heat. Vasoconstriction by arterioles (small arteries ) in the dermis
layer provides a smaller surface area in the blood vessels, resulting in less heat loss .
vasodilatation by arterioles in the dermis layer provides a larger surface area in the
blood vessels , resulting in greater heat loss .
4) Cutaneous sensation
• Nerve receptors in the dermis layers detect sensations such as heat, cold, pain,
pressure, and touch, allowing the body to be aware of these stimuli.
5) Vitamin D synthesis
• Ultraviolet radiation in the sunlight activates a series of chemical reactions in the
epidermis layer, resulting in the synthesis of vitamin D from the modification of
cholesterol for the absorption of calcium.
 Function of skin

• Maintains homeostasis.
• Prevents the body from the penetration of harmful substances.
• Prevents water loss (desiccation) .
• help to regulate body temperature .
• contains nerve receptors for various sensations .
• synthesizes chemical substances such as keratin, melanin, and vitamin d.
• Excretes waste materials such as ammonia , urea , and salts.
• Produces skin pigment (melanin) in the epidermis and hair to avoid
excessive penetration of uv radiation
Accessory Structures of The Skin
 • Produced by epithelial cells at the hair papilla .
• Made of keratinized cells .
• Consists two regions: hair root (in the hair follicle , embedded
in the dermis layer), and hair shaft (protruded through the
Hair epidermis to the outside).
• Hair pigment (melanin) is produced by melanocytes in hair
papilla .
• Hair growth is affected by nutrition and hormones (i.e.
Testosterone).
 Nails

• Nails protect the tips of fingers and

toes from mechanical injury.
• Fingernails give the fingers greater
ability to pick up small objects.
• It serves as a protective plate and
enhances sensation of the
fingertip.
• The fingertip has many nerve
endings in it allowing us to receive
volumes of information about
objects we touch.
• The nail acts as a counterforce to
the fingertip providing even more
sensory input when an object is
touched.
Sudoriferous Gland (Sweat Gland)

• Sweat gland that secretes sweat

to promote evaporation.
• Found all over the body except
the lips, nipples, and external
genitalia.
• Referred to as "tubular gland"
where it is a long tubule coiled
in the dermis layer and uses a
long duct to release sweat onto
skin surface through a pore.
 • Oil gland that is made of modified cuboidal
epithelium.
• Occurs all over the body except in the palm and sole.
Sebaceous • Attached to each hair follicle, so that sebum can be
Gland secreted into the hair root and diffuse upward .
• Sebum helps the skin and hair to be waterproof, and
retards bacterial growth on skin surface (due to its
acidity).
 Anatomy of the
Integumentary system
Epidermis

• The most superficial layer of the skin that covers almost the
entire body surface.
• The epidermis rests upon and protects the deeper and
thicker dermis layer of the skin.
• The epidermis is an avascular region of the body, meaning
that it does not contain any blood or blood vessels.
• The cells of the epidermis receive all their nutrients via
diffusion of fluids from the dermis.
 Dermis

• made of fibrous connective tissue that contains arterioles for

supplying nutrients (i.e. oxygen , glucose , water , and ions ) to its
structures and to the epidermis .
• also contains pili arrector muscles (made of skeletal muscle, under
involuntary control) to wrinkle the skin and erect the hairs .
• contains nerves and nerve receptors to detect the sensations of heat,
cold, pressure, touch, and pain .
• also contains hair follicles to develop the hair .
• contains sebaceous gland to secrete sebum onto skin surface, and
sudoriferous glands to secrete sweat.
Hypodermis

• Made of adipose tissue and loose connective tissue.

• Collagen and elastic fibers in the loose connective tissue are
continuous with the fibers in the dermis layer.
• Adipose tissue serves as a heat insulator against cold climate and
as a fat storage.
• Loose connective tissue allows the skin to be bound with
underlying muscles.
• Also contains large blood vessels (arteries and veins).
Physiology of Touch
Sensation
 Physiology of Touch Sensation

• Skin receptors: at various depths under the skin are the mechanoreceptors, which start the
process of analyzing skin sensations by responding to indentation or pressure on the skin.

• In order of depth, nearest to surface to deepest:

a) Meissner Corpuscles: give strongest response to transient stimulation such as a finger
rubbing over a surface.

b) Merkel Disks: give strongest response to steady pressure by small object.

c) Ruffini Endings: give greatest response to strong, steady pressure. Are also quite sensitive
to movements which result in stretching of skin.

d) Pacinian Corpuscles: respond best to initiation and termination of diffused pressure against
skin.
• Nerve Fibers: afferent fibers travelling from skin receptors to spin and (for some) eventually
brain. These fibers are of four distinct categories.

a) Slowly Adapting: fibers which carry messages about steady pressure on skin.

Not surprisingly these fibers are connected to Merkel disks and Ruffini Endings in skin.

b) Rapidly Adapting: carry message about transient pressure changes on skin.

Connected to Meissner and Pacinian Corpuscles.

c) Punctate fibers: ones with distinct receptive fields (connect to Meissner & Merkel)

d) Diffuse fibers: ones with less distinct receptive fields. (connect to Ruffini & Pacinian).
 The Ability to Sense Touch

• Sense of touch is controlled by a huge network of nerve endings and touch receptors in
the skin.

• Known as the somatosensory system, which is responsible for all the sensation like cold,
hot, smooth, rough, pressure, tickle, itch, pain, vibrations and more.

• Touch: The skin-based receptor system. The entire surface of the body on which there is
living tissue (skin) is a potential receptive surface for the touch system.

• Sensation is the activation of sensory receptor cells at the level of the stimulus.
 The Somatosensory System

• Receptors are the cells or structures that detect sensations. A receptor cell is changed
directly by a stimulus.

• One type of touch receptor responds to a light brushing contact with the skin, another to
firmer touch, others to hard pressure and to vibration. There are at least six different
thermoreceptors, each tuned to its own temperature range, from cold to warm to hot.

• The somatosensory system also includes receptors and neurons that convey information
about body position and movement to the brain. These proprioceptors are housed in
muscle, bone, and tendons and respond to stretch and contraction, tension and release.
Touch pathways
• Touch pathway runs up dorsal (back) of spinal column.
Some connect with interneurons and motor neurons
and mediate reflexive arcs.
• 2 main pathways:
i. Lemniscus (red; newer) more sophisticated
aspects of touch
ii. Spinothalamic (older; blue) pain and
temperature.
 Pain Perception

• Pain serves an important adaptive

function – it alerts the organism to
potential tissue damage and
compels withdraw of affected area
from pain source.
• Chronic pain, however, often makes
life miserable for those afflicted.
• Nociceptors: free nerve endings that
signal pain.
• Two locations:
• Skin surface – temperature,
subcutaneous
• Fat layer - punctures
Physiology of Reflex Action
 DEFINITION
❖ A reflex action is a way for the body to
automatically and rapidly respond to a
stimulus to minimize any further damage
to the body.
REFLEX ACTIONS

• an immediate response to a specific stimulus without

conscious control
• e.g. knee jerk, with drawl of hand from hot object
• simplest form of response
• classified under
-spinal reflex actions (control by spinal cord)
• cranial reflexes (controlled by brain but not will in head
region)
 Reflex Arc Stimulus

Receptor

• A reflex action follows Sensory Neuron

this general sequence
and does not involve the
Relay Neuron
conscious part of the
brain, which makes it
much quicker. Motor Neuron

Effector

Response
The nerve pathway followed by a reflex
action is called a reflex arc:-
 REFLEX ARC

• Specific nerve impulse

pathway
• Have 5 component of the
reflex arc
o Receptor
o Sensory neuron
o Integrating center
o Motor neuron
o Effector
 TYPE OF REFLEX ACTION

❑The autonomic reflex arc, (affecting inner organs)

❑The somatic reflex arc, (affecting in the muscle)
REFLEX ACTION
Component reflex:-
• Receptor in the skin detects a stimulus
(the change in temperature).
• Sensory neurons sends electrical impulses to relay
neuron, which are in the spinal cord. They connect
sensory neurons to motor neurons.
• Motor neurons sends electrical impulses to an effector.
• Effector produces a response (muscle contracts to move
hand away).
• Reflex center (spinal cord or brain)
 3 BASIC SPINAL REFLEXES

• 1) Stretch reflex → produced by activating muscle spindles-

contributes to maintaining postural stability, countering
sudden loads

• 2) Autogenic inhibition → produced by activating Golgi tendon

organs – aids in regulating muscle tension, prevents damage
to tendon, bone

• 3) Flexion reflex → produced by activating cutaneous , pain

afferent- avoid obstacle or painful stimulus (stepping on nail)
STRUCTURE OF SPINAL CORD
GENERAL

▪ Sweating is a bodily function that helps regulate your body temperature

▪ Sweating also called perspiration that means the release of a salt-based
fluid from your sweat glands
▪ Sweating is from the exocrine secretions that occur in the skin
▪ Changes in your body temperature or your emotional state can cause
sweating
▪ A person can produce up to several liters of sweat per hour and ten liter
per day

The main structures that produce exocrine

secretions:

➢ sebaceous glands
➢ sweat glands.
• Location: attached to hair follicle
• Also known as oil glands
• Holocrine glands that discharge an oily lipid secretion into hair follicles
• Sebaceous glands communicate with a single follicle, share a duct and
classified as simple branched alveolar glands
• Secrete sebum which coat the hair shaft and surrounding epidermal
surfaces.
• Sebum lubricates and keeps the hair shaft from becoming dry and brittle
• Secrete into skin surface
• Located on the face, back, chest, nipples, and external
genitalia
• Sweat glands produce a watery solution, flush the epidermal
surface and perform other special functions
• Human have up four million sweat glands which three million
from it are eccrine sweat glands
• Sweat glands can be divided into three which are Merocrine
Sweat Glands, Apocrine Sweat Glands and Apoeccrine Sweat
Glands
❑ Major sweat glands
❑ Also known as Eroccrine Sweat Glands
❑ Found in most areas of the skin(soles of feet, the forehead, the palms,
the cheeks and other else)
❑ Discharge the secretions directly onto the surface of the skin
❑ The secretion will go through the secretory coil then to reabsorption
sweat duct, intraepidermal sweat duct and to sweat pore on the skin
❑ Produce watery secretions containing electrolytes
❑ Merocrine secretion mechanism
❑ Controlled primarily by nervous system
❑ Important in the thermoregulation and excretion
❑ Some antibacterial action
 Found in limited areas such as axillae, groin,nipples and perineum regions
 Larger in size than Merocrine Sweat Glands
 Discharge the secretion into hair follicles
 The secretion will go through the glomerulus of secretory tubule then to
excretory duct and to hair follicles
 Produce a sticky, cloudy, thick and odorous secretion.
 Undergo the bacterial decomposition that leads to substance with odors
 Actively after puberty especially for non-human species that is important in
mating, parenting and other interaction
 Strongly influenced by hormones
 Include ceruminious glands of the external ear and mammary glands that
produce milk
❖ Combination of Merocrine and Apocrine
❖ Playing large role in axillary sweating (in armpit)
❖ Secrete more sweat than both merocrine and apocrine glands
❖ Develop from merocrine glands located in axillary region
❖ Produce copious salt-water secretions directly onto skin surface