Reimagining Golf Course Design and Operations

Through the Lens of Integrative Design

I. I NTRODUCTION
Golf courses provide a valuable source of recreation for
people of all ages. The sport of golf has been a staple in
American culture for a long time, and serves as a connection
to the outdoors for many. Due to golf’s popularity, golf courses
take up over 2 million acres of land in the United States, larger
than the state of Delaware [1].
However, inefficient and unsustainable course management
practices have spurred significant negative public discourse
regarding golf courses, and threaten the future of the sport.
We will look at a number of solutions to make golf courses
more sustainable and efficient. While some solutions, such as
shortening or eliminating holes, would increase sustainability,
this paper will only pursue solutions that do not require
compromise of the user experience. The solutions presented
focus primarily on three different areas: reducing the water
intensity of golf course maintenance, limiting the use of
pesticides and other hazardous chemicals, and reducing the
energy intensity of golf course operations.

II. WATER U SE
Under current practices, golf course maintenance is highly
water intensive, with golf courses in the United States using Fig. 1. Water use by end-use in California [3].
1,859,021 acre-feet of water in 2013 [2]. Table 1 shows the
change in water use from 2005-2013 for various regions of the
The vast majority of water at golf courses is used to irrigate
United States. While it is clear that efforts have been made to
the playing surface, known as the turfgrass. The most common
reduce the water intensity of golf course maintenance, further
turfgrass species used on golf courses in the United States
action is needed as the parts of the United States face extreme
are Bermuda and Bentgrass. These species provide desirable
drought.
qualities for different types of surfaces on a golf course (i.e.
Region 2013 % Change, 2005-2013 fairway, green, and rough). However, selecting a species that
North Central 198,041 -25.7 is heat, drought and salinity resistant in the summer while
Northeast 94,194 -19.4
Pacific 107,185 -0.58
maintaining its green color naturally in the winter season may
Southeast 548,524 -39.3 have minimal impact on the playing quality and provide a
Southwest 532,149 0.18 significant reduction in water intensity [4]. Careful selection
Transition 181,379 -25.4
West/Mountain 197,548 -5.38
of the species of turfgrass, ideally using a robust native species
United States 1,859,021 -21.8 that requires little to no supplementary irrigation, can greatly
TABLE I reduce water use.
C HANGE IN GOLF COURSE WATER USE IN THE U NITED S TATES BY
REGION , IN ACRE - FEET / YEAR [2].
Another way to reduce the water intensity of golf courses
is to reduce the surface area that requires irrigation. Many
courses maintain and irrigate areas that are not essential for
As seen in Figure 1, golf courses are the largest non- play, such as the landing area of driving ranges, the lawns
agricultural user of water in California. surrounding the clubhouse, and grassy areas between holes.
There is an push to increase the use of ”natural areas” in golf
courses, defined as the combined total of forests and woodland,
native or undisturbed grasslands, shrublands, deserts, riparian
areas, buffer strips, beaches, alkaline areas, and garden or
landscaped areas. In 2015, natural areas made up 26% of
United States golf courses, with 46% of courses reporting an
increase in natural areas over the last 10 years [1]. Not only do
natural areas require no irrigation, they also provide habitat for
various animals, enhancing the ecological systems surrounding
the course. The resulting increased biodiversity would also
be visually appealing, attracting players and improving their
connection with nature. Increasing the use of natural areas to
occupy nearly all land other than the playing surface would
greatly reduce water intensity.
After implementing the above steps, any irrigation needs
that persist can be met through sustainable and efficient irri-
gation practices. The implementation of properly distributed
high-efficiency sprinkler systems that can provide selective
coverage of areas of need in combination with soil moisture
sensors that can accurately measure and identify areas of
need can prevent unneeded irrigation [2]. Another crucial
Fig. 2. Golf course energy use in 2015 [7].
practice is using lower-grade non-potable water for irrigation.
Additionally, many courses are beginning to recycle the wa-
ter used, closing the loop and reducing overall water use. mowers and many other miscellaneous equipment in between,
Thoughtful implementation of all steps discussed should be these machines run for hours each day, using significant
able to significantly reduce water use in golf courses without amounts of energy. While many courses have gradually transi-
compromising on the quality of the course. tioned to an electric fleet of golf carts, mandating that switch
would increase efficiency, provide a quieter, more enjoyable
III. C HEMICAL U SE
experience for the user, and reduce fuel costs for the course.
In order to maintain the turfgrass, many golf courses use Better yet, designing courses to be more walkable and offering
pesticides and fertilizers. These hazardous chemicals are of caddies (assistants who carry your bags for you) for those who
significant concern to governments, environmental groups, and need them would help reduce or eliminate the need for golf
concerned citizens, as the runoff of these chemicals can pollute carts altogether.
waterways and harm wildlife [5]. Maintaining the 2 million acres of land requires the use of
The use of native turfgrass species and the increase of many machines, including various mowers, greens rollers, sand
natural areas, as mentioned above, can also reduce the need trap rakers, aerators, and more. Transitioning more land to nat-
for pesticides and fertilizers. For any turfgrass management ural areas that require no upkeep, as mentioned above, would
needs that remain, natural eco-friendly solutions should be reduce the amount of machinery required. For maintenance
implemented. These include salt spray and orange citrus spray, needs that remain, nearly all equipment currently runs on gas.
or composted fertilizers such as those used at Vineyard Golf However, there is increased development and implementation
Club in Edgartown, MA and Chambers Bay in University of highly efficient electric mowers, and this technology could
Place, WA [6]. be easily implemented in the various other equipment on a golf
course. Electric machinery would not only save costs for the
IV. O PERATION AND M AINTENANCE
course and be increase efficiency, but the reduced noise would
Regardless of the water and fertilization practices imple- be beneficial for players and neighbors, as much of golf course
mented above, operations and maintenance processes that exist maintenance takes place in the early morning between 5 am
on golf courses can be made more efficient. As shown below and 9 am.
in Figure 2, only half of golf course energy use in 2015
was electricity. Electrifying as much as possible and providing B. Clubhouse
electricity through renewable sources can reduce golf course The typical golf course clubhouse contains a pro-shop
emissions. which houses golf equipment for sale, locker rooms, and
a bar/restaurant to provide food for golfers before, during,
A. Equipment and after their rounds. The efficiency and enjoyment of the
If you’ve ever played golf or driven past a golf course, clubhouse can be improved by using innovative building
you’ve witnessed the amount of machinery that is used in the design techniques. Taking advantage of daylight can reduce
operation and maintenance of a course. From golf carts to lighting needs while also providing views of the course, and
remaining lighting needs can be met through efficient LED solutions and composted fertilizers in place of pesticides can
lighting. Improving the insulation of the building can reduce meet any remaining needs after the steps described above.
heating and cooling needs and improve occupant comfort. Improvements to the operations and maintenance efficiency
Space heating needs that remain can be met through electric of golf courses can provide immense savings as well. Tran-
heat pumps, allowing the entire clubhouse to run on electricity. sitioning to electric golf carts, mowers, and other equipment
As mentioned above, one of the main functions of the can save costs and energy. Using efficient lighting and heat-
clubhouse is providing food to golfers, typically fare such as ing/cooling techniques in the clubhouse and sustainably sourc-
burgers and hot dogs. Additionally, making the kitchen more ing food can provide further benefits. Lastly, re-imagining golf
efficient through energy star rated equipment and unplugging courses to provide be inclusive of and provide benefits to all
appliances not in use can reduce electricity load. Providing community members, not just golfers, can reduce the overall
more vegetarian food options, and locally sourcing all food land-use impact of the course and increase public acceptance.
whether vegetarian or not, would reduce the water intensity Golf courses are a controversial topic amongst environmen-
and environmental impact of the food at the course. tal advocates, and for good reason. Implementing some of the
To meet the electricity needs of the course equipment and practices described above, however, will make golf courses
clubhouse, solar panels can be positioned on the roof of the significantly more efficient and sustainable, and will allow an
clubhouse and in other areas (i.e. solar covered parking, solar important part of American recreation and culture to thrive.
panel covering on tee boxes at driving range, etc.), such as
R EFERENCES
the system implemented by Northport Creek Golf Course in
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since it doubles as a park and community area.

VI. C ONCLUSION
While golf has a storied history and plays an important
role in United States recreation, there are ways to make
golf courses more efficient and enjoyable without compro-
mising on the golfers’ experience. Starting downstream by
proper turfgrass species selection and increased natural areas
can compound savings downstream when using efficient and
intelligent sprinkler systems and recycling water, providing
significant water savings overall. Similarly, using eco-friendly