Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, pp.

191–213, 2001
© 2003 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum.
All rights reserved. Printed in Canada.
0964-1823/00 $17.00 + .00

Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits:

An Overview with New Metallogenic and Exploration Data
from the Cloncurry District, Northwest Queensland
PATRICK J. WILLIAMS and PETER J. POLLARD
Economic Geology Research Unit, School of Earth Sciences, James Cook University
Townsville, Queensland, Australia

Received December 10, 2001; accepted June 17, 2002.

Abstract — Enigmatic hydrothermal vein/breccia/replacement Cu-Au deposits with magnetite

and/or hematite are well-represented in Australian 1850 Ma to 1500 Ma terrains and associated with
different-aged synorogenic intrusions in the Tennant Creek Block (ca. 1850 Ma); the Gawler-Cur-
namona region (1640 Ma to 1590 Ma); and the Cloncurry district (Mount Isa Eastern Fold Belt, 1540
Ma to 1500 Ma with a possible earlier event at ca. 1600 Ma). No deposits are known to be coeval
with various 1780 Ma to 1610 Ma anorogenic intrusions. Deposits are hosted by many different
rock-types with varying metamorphic grade including granites and various supracrustal rocks. Depth
of mineralization varied from many kilometers in semiductile crust (e.g., Cloncurry deposits) to very
shallow (e.g., Olympic Dam). Ore deposition near Cloncurry occurred in brittle-ductile shear zones
from geochemically variable and complex, CO2-rich, 300°C to 500°C, high salinity fluids with mag-
matic stable isotopic signatures. Recently published studies of a giant granitoid-hosted magnetite
vein complex at the Lightning Creek prospect (>1000 Mt magnetite) suggest it is a product of inter-
nal differentiation and endogenous Fe and Cu-rich hydrous-carbonic fluid phase generation within a
quartz monzodiorite-monzogranite intrusion. Coupled with other field relationships, this points to a
possible genetic relationship with intermediate (55 to 65 wt% SiO2) members of an alkaline and
partly shoshonitic granitoid supersuite which appears to have both mantle and crustal source com-
ponents from εNd evidence. In constrast, main-phase mineralization at Olympic Dam in the Gawler
Craton is distinguished by hematite-phyllosilicate alteration and chalcopyrite-bornite-chalcocite
zoning, reflecting fluid mixing in a high level (<250°C) system with a probable large component of
meteoric water. Early high-temperature parageneses and fluid inclusions imply that the extensive
hematitic breccias overprinted an older magnetite system which may have had similarities with those
at Lightning Creek and Ernest Henry in the Cloncurry district.
Deposits of this family are inherently difficult to find and evaluate as even within a single district,
there is no reliable relationship between the location of ore and any specific combination of geo-
physical characteristics. Diverse alteration assemblages, geochemistry and physical characteristics
suggest the deposits reflect the interaction of multi-sourced fluids with different host rocks in a wide
range of geological environments. Recent discoveries and research in the Cloncurry district have
extended the range of deposit models available and aid the development of a rudimentary classifica-
tion in which economic and exploration characteristics can be linked to variations in the mechanisms
and environments of ore formation. © 2003 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petro-
leum. All rights reserved.

Introduction very large ore systems. In the last three districts mentioned
at least, these new discoveries have radically changed atti-
The existence of of a distinct family of hydrothermal tudes toward prospectivity.
vein/breccia/replacement Fe-Cu-Au deposits characterized These deposits formed in a range of different tectonic set-
by an iron oxide (magnetite and/or hematite) association has tings settings (Hitzman, 2000) and display associations vari-
only really been recognized relatively recently (e.g., Hitz- ously with subduction-related magmatism, anorogenic mag-
man et al., 1992). Examples such as those of the Tennant matism, or magmatism related to the apparently ensialic style
Creek gold field in Australia’s Northern Territory have been of orogeny that characterizes the Proterozoic evolution of sev-
known for a long time. However, it has taken a series of eral Australian cratons (e.g., Etheridge et al., 1987). Both Pre-
recent discoveries including Olympic Dam, South Australia cambrian and Phanerozoic examples may be linked in some
(1975), La Candelaria, Chile (1987), and several deposits in way to “Kiruna-type” apatite-rich iron deposits and some dis-
the Cloncurry district of northwestern Queensland (1980- tricts contain examples of both types of iron oxide-rich ore
1991) to establish a growing body of opinion that this is systems. Some authors (e.g., Hitzman et al., 1992; Barton and
indeed a distinct deposit class which includes some large to Johnson, 1996) have proposed a close genetic relationship

191
192 Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, 2001

Kiruna
Aitik Wernecke
Bergslagen
Great Bear

Bafq Iron Springs SE Missouri

Durango

Salobo

Tennant Ck Cloncurry Mantos Blancos

Manto Verde
Vergenoeg Manxman Candelaria
Olympic Dam El Romeral

Precambrian Phanerozoic
Magnetite ± Apatite
Magnetite - Cu - Au
Hematite - Sericite - Cu

Fig. 2. Summary of the late Paleoproterozoic and early Mesopro-

terozoic tectonic, magmatic and metallogenic history of Australia.
Early
Early Proterozoic
(s.(s.l.)
Proterozoic l.) Explanation (relating to metallogenic provinces): PCI – Pine Creek
Inlier; GTI — Granites-Tanami Inlier; TCI — Tennant Creek
Basin Mount Isa Block Inlier; GC — Gawler Craton; CC — Curnamona Province; MIB —
Block Warrego Gecko
Ernest Henry
Mount Isa Block. Data from Wyborn (1988) and many other
Peko/Juno
Tennant Creek Inlier Starra
Eloise sources cited in the text.
- Mt ElliottOsborne

Curnamona Province
regarded as essential for future exploration. This contribu-
Manxman/ tion reviews the Proterozoic Fe-Cu-Au deposits of Australia
Prominent Hill North Portia
Olympic Dam Cu Blow to illustrate the variation in geological settings and physical
Gawler Craton Moonta character of the deposits of that continent. These occur in
Archean Major Deposit three (arguably four) quite distinct geological systems and
Other Deposit
Basin include almost all of the Proterozoic examples of such
Gneiss complex deposits worldwide with Cu-Au resources that have proven
Block
to be economic by contemporary standards. The results of
recent research on a diverse group of deposits in the Clon-
Fig. 1. (a) Location of examples of Fe oxide (-Cu-Au) districts and
curry district, including much material synthesized from
deposits around the world; (b) Precambrian blocks with significant unpublished research reports and theses, are used to provide
Fe-oxide-Cu-Au deposits in Australia (adapted from Wyborn, an insight into metallogenic processes and their relationship
1988). to exploration characteristics.

and common hydrothermal origin, whereas, others (e.g., Nys-

tröm and Henriquez, 1994) concluded that the apatite-iron Geological Settings
ores crystallized directly from melts. Among Precambrian
iron oxide Cu-Au deposits, there is a strong concentration in The Proterozoic history of Australia between the Barra-
late Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic rocks (1.9 Ga mundi (1870 Ma to 1840 Ma) and Isan (1550 Ma to 1500
to 1.4 Ga; cf. Hitzman et al., 1992), particularly in Australia Ma) orogenies was punctuated by the development of an
(Figs. 1 and 2). Phanerozoic examples formed in destructive extraordinary inventory of metalliferous mineral resources
plate margin settings and range in age from early Cambrian to (Fig. 2). In addition to the Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits dis-
late Tertiary (e.g., Kesler, 1997). Deposits of this class world- cussed here, there are globally significant resources of Zn,
wide display rather diverse geological characteristics and Ag, Pb, and U as well as an unusual abundance of Au-only
major contributions of fluid components from both magmatic deposits for rocks of this age. The main known Proterozoic
(e.g., Gow et al., 1994; Rotherham et al., 1998; Pollard, 2000, Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits occur in three geological domains.
2001) and amagmatic (e.g., Barton and Johnson, 1996, 2000) These all have complex thermal histories but each appears to
sources have been proposed. be distinguished by its own dominant Cu-Au metallogenic
Most of the recent discoveries were made beneath sed- phase (Figs. 2 and 3).
imentary cover using geophysical techniques. However,
many exploration histories are typified variously by extraor-
dinary difficulties and major roles for good fortune (e.g., Tennant Creek Block
Reeve et al., 1990; Anderson and Logan, 1992; Webb and
Rowston, 1995). The development of a good understanding The Tennant Creek Block in the Northern Territory is
of the geological controls of the distribution of ore can be largely composed of deformed but barely metamorphosed
 Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: An Overview • P.J. WILLIAMS AND P.J. POLLARD 193

Fig. 3. Cartoon illustration of geological environments of Australian Proterozoic Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits. Mag — magnetite; Hem —
hematite.

Paleoproterozoic (≈1860 Ma) graywackes and felsic vol- which is some 300 m beneath the current land surface
canic rocks, e.g., Ferenczi and Ahmad (1998). Deformation, (Reeve et al., 1990). Archean rocks are quite extensively
mineralization and granitoid emplacement occurred shortly exposed in the west and north of the Gawler Craton with the
after sedimentation during the Barramundi orogeny, and remainder of these regions being composed of various crys-
may form part of the same tectonic system as the Wopmay talline Paleo- and Mesoproterozoic rocks that were largely
orogen and Great Bear Magmatic zone in northwestern undisturbed by Precambrian tectonic processes after about
Canada that are also characterized by Fe-oxide-Cu-Au 1450 Ma (e.g., Parker et al., 1993a). Nutman and Ehlers
deposits (Johnson and Hattori, 1994; Compston, 1995). The (1998a) have recently provided evidence that Archean crust
deformed sequence is unconformably overlain by slightly exists as far east as Broken Hill. Major banded iron forma-
younger supracrustal rocks which were not significantly tion containing abundant magnetite occurs locally within the
affected by the tectonic events that were contemporaneous older parts of the Palaeoproterozoic sequence (Parker et al.,
with mineralization in the other two major Australian Fe 1993b).
oxide-Cu-Au districts. A second major set of granitoids Granitoid emplacement in the Gawler Craton and Cur-
intruded the block at 1700 Ma to 1650 Ma. namona Province occurred at a number of times including at
around 1850 Ma (cf. Tennant Creek), 1740 Ma, 1690 Ma,
and 1660 Ma (Parker et al., 1993b; Daly et al., 1998; Nut-
Gawler Craton and Curnamona Province man and Ehlers, 1998b). Three compressional deformation
events occurred in the southern part of the Gawler Craton
The Gawler Craton and Curnamona Province occupy a from 1845 Ma to ≈1700 Ma in what is referred to as the
large part of southern Australia (Figs. 1 and 4). They are sep- Kimban orogeny (e.g., Daly et al., 1998). High-grade meta-
arated by an extensive area of Neoproterozoic continental morphism is deduced to have occurred at least locally in
supracrustal rocks that were deformed in the early Palaeo- association with the 1690 Ma magmatic event in the Curna-
zoic Adelaide Fold Belt. Large areas of the cratonic base- mona Province (Nutman and Ehlers, 1998b). However, it
ment are concealed by Neoproterozoic and younger cover. appears that the Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits are discretely
In places, this cover is sufficiently thin to allow geophysical associated with the Hiltaba suite granitoids emplaced at
exploration of the basement as at the Olympic Dam deposit around 1590 Ma, a timing relationship that is tightly con-
194 Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, 2001

Fig. 4. (a) Geology and selected mineral occurrences of the Gawler Craton; (b) Curnamona Province (adapted from Newton, 1996).

strained at the granite-hosted Olympic Dam deposit (John- Mount Isa Eastern Fold Belt (Cloncurry District)
son and Cross, 1995). Regional metamorphism ranging up
to granulite facies occurred in the Curnamona Province at The Cloncurry mining district geologically occupies the
about the same time during an event which has been termed eastern part (Eastern Fold Belt) of the Mount Isa inlier in north-
the Olarian orogeny and perhaps slightly later in the north- west Queensland (Figs. 1 and 5). Xenocrystic zircons and Sm-
ern part of the Gawler Craton (later part of the Kararan Nd isotopic evidence imply there are Archean to early Protero-
orogeny of Daly et al., 1998; cf. Fig. 2). The recently rein- zoic rocks at depth though dated elements of pre-Barramundi
terpreted ca. 1595 Ma age for the Wernecke breccias in the basement exposed along the eastern margin of the belt were
Yukon Territory suggest that as with the apparent link formed at 1900 Ma to 1850 Ma (Pollard and McNaughton,
between the Barramundi and Wopmay orogenic systems, the 1997; Page and Sun, 1998). Younger supracrustal rocks near
ca. 1600 Ma Fe oxide-Cu-Au systems in Australia may have Cloncurry belong to two main sequences which are generally
analogues in northern North America (Torkelson et al., observed in faulted contact with each other. The older 1780 Ma
2001). to 1720 Ma sequence is a diverse package of metamorphosed
A major feature that distinguishes the Gawler Craton basic to felsic volcanic rocks, carbonates, evaporites and silici-
from the other Australian Fe oxide-Cu-Au districts is the clastic sediments which is dominated by a lithostratigraphic
extensive development of a sequence of volcanic rocks unit known as the Mary Kathleen Group (Fig. 5). The younger
(Gawler Range Volcanics, Fig. 4) that is coeval with the late Palaeoproterozoic sequence, at present informally termed
granitoids associated with mineralization. These dominate the Maronan supergroup (Beardsmore et al., 1988), consists of
the cratonic associations near Olympic Dam and host addi- metasiliclastic rocks and subordinate metabasic rocks that were
tional Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits such as Acropolis and deposited after 1670 Ma to 1660 Ma (Page and Sun, 1998).
Wirrda Well (Blissett et al., 1993; Cross, 1993). This sug- This sequence contains thin, laterally extensive magnetite-
gests the depth of erosion into the critical rock associations quartz “BIF” horizons.
over large areas of the craton is shallow compared to the Early granitoid emplacement occurred at a number of
other districts discussed here and means that surface-derived times including at around 1840 Ma west of the belt, (Blake,
waters are likely to have played a greater role in alteration 1987, i.e., at a similar time to the key magmatic event at
and mineralization. Tennant Creek), 1740 Ma and 1660 Ma (Fig. 6). Significant
 Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: An Overview • P.J. WILLIAMS AND P.J. POLLARD 195

Fig. 5. Location and geological setting of Fe-Cu-Au deposits in the Cloncurry district, NW Queensland. Adapted from Blake (1987) with
updated information from various sources as described in Williams (1998).

deformation (D1) and at least local metamorphism occurred

at around 1590 Ma (Diamantinan orogeny) though plutonic
rocks of this age are not known in the region (Page and Sun,
1998; MacCready et al., 1998). The distribution of meta-
morphism of this age is presently not well constrained
though what data exist suggest it may have been concen-
trated in high-grade rocks around the southeastern margin of
the district near the Osborne and Cannington mines Fig. 6. Summary of U-Pb SHRIMP dates with uncertainties better
(Adshead, 1995; Page and Sun, 1998; Gauthier et al., 2001). than ±12 Ma from granitoids in the Cloncurry district (Pollard and
Twyerould (1997) has also reported ca. 1610 Ma amphibole McNaughton, 1997; Page and Sun, 1998).
40Ar/39Ar ages from the vicinity of the Ernest Henry mine.

Major deformation and metamorphism throughout the dis- Page and Sun, 1998; Wyborn, 1998). Intrusion of the
trict occurred during the Isan orogeny between 1550 Ma and younger granites was associated with the development of
1500 Ma and a dominant steep N-trending structural grain widespread sodic(±calcic) alteration in both intrusions and
was imposed in this period. Rocks hosting the significant country rocks (Williams, 1994; De Jong and Williams,
Cu-Au deposits range in metamorphic grade from mid- 1995; Mark, 1998; Mark et al., 1999). Detailed studies of
greenschist to upper amphibolite facies. the 1530 Ma to 1500 Ma granitoids have shown they are
Localized trondhjemite and granodiorite emplacement metaluminous magnetite series (I-type)1 rocks which were
occurred more or less synchronously with the Isan meta-
morphism at 1550 Ma to 1530 Ma and was followed by
1 The term “A-type” which might be applied on some geochemical
batholithic granitoids from about 1530 Ma to 1500 Ma grounds is not used in order to avoid misleading tectonic setting connota-
(Williams-Naraku granites, Pollard and McNaughton, 1997; tions.
196 Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, 2001

mostly emplaced at 15 km to 10 km depth (Pollard et al.,

1998; Perring et al., 2001). They can be differentiated into
two supersuites based on geochemical criteria (Pollard et al.,
1998, Fig. 7), namely, (1) the mildly alkaline “Eureka
Supersuite” which ranges from diorite to syenogranite and is
for a large part potassic (shoshonite series) but also includes
Na-rich rocks (see also Perring et al., 2001); and (2) the
“Cloncurry Supersuite” which is potassic but less alkaline
than the Eureka Supersuite. Compared with modern grani-
toids, these rocks lack depletions of Y and HREE that might
imply derivation from a garnet-bearing (deep) source (Pol-
lard et al., 1998). Most have negative εNd in the range -2.4 to
-3.9 though a dolerite and a single Eureka Supersuite diorite
gave εNd of +2.8 and +3.5, respectively (Pollard and
McNaughton, 1997; Page and Sun, 1998; Mark, 2001).
Depleted mantle Nd model ages for the granitoids with neg-
ative εNd range from 2204 Ma to 2272 Ma. These data are
interpreted to imply the existence of subordinate mantle and
dominant older crustal source components. A direct genetic
connection has been proposed between the sodic granitoids
and fluids responsible for the regional Na-Ca alteration of
both intrusions and country rocks (Mark et al., 1999; Mark
and Foster, 2000; Perring et al., 2000).

Ore Deposit Geology Fig. 7. SiO2-total alkalis and SiO2-TiO2 variations in post 1540 Ma
granitoids from the Cloncurry district. Data sources: Pollard et al.
The economic Fe oxide Cu-Au deposits in Australian (1998); Perring et al. (2000); Wang and Williams (2001).
Proterozoic terrains are extremely variable in character
ranging from very large (Olympic Dam) to small, high- varies from magnetite-dominated (e.g., Ernest Henry) to
grade deposits such as those near Tennant Creek, and Eloise hematite-dominated (e.g., Olympic Dam). The Fe sulfides
in the Cloncurry district (Table 1). The Fe oxide association are either pyrite (e.g., Olympic Dam, Ernest Henry, Starra),

Table 1. Examples of Australian Proterozic Fe oxide-(Cu-Au) deposits with economic data drawn from public domain company reports and press releases

Deposit District Discovered 2002 Status Resource Minor Elements

Eloise Cloncurry 1988 Mine 3.1 Mt: 5.5% Cu; 1.4 g/t Au Co, Ni, Ag (18 g/t)
Ernest Henry Cloncurry 1991 Mine 166 Mt: 1.1% Cu; 0.5 g/t Au F, Co (0.05%), As, Mo (0.02%), Ba, REE
Greenmount Cloncurry 1988 Prospect 3.6 Mt: 1.5% Cu; 0.8 g/t Au Co, As
Monakoff Cloncurry Pre-1908 Mine (inactive) 1 Mt: 1.5% Cu; 0.5 g/t Au F, Co, Zn, As, Ag, Ba, LREE, Pb, U
Osborne Cloncurry 1988 Mine 15.2 Mt: 3.00% Cu; 1.05 g/t Au Co, Mo
Mount Elliott Cloncurry ca. 1900 Mine 3.3 Mt: 3.6% Cu; 1.8 g/t Au Co, Ni
Mount Margaret Cloncurry 1999 Prospect 17 Mt: 0.83% Cu; 0.22 g/t Au (no data)
Starra Cloncurry 1980 Closed mine; 6.9 Mt: 1.7% Cu; 4.8 g/t Au (no data)
under feasibility
for large open cut
operation
Olympic Dam Gawler 1975 Mine 605 Mt: 1.8% Cu; 0.5 g/t Au F, Co (0.02%) Ag (6 g/t), Ba, LREE,
(2320 Mt @ 1.3% Cu; 0.5 g/t Au) (≈0.5%), U (0.8 kg/t U308)
Prominent Hill Gawler 2001 Prospect n/a: Best intercept 568 m F, Ag (2.4 g/t), LREE (0.56%), U
@ 1.31% Cu; 0.78 g/t Au
Manxman Gawler 1986 Prospect n/a: Best intercept 289 m Au, F, P, Co, LREE
@ 0.23% Cu (ca. 35% Fe)
Moonta-Wallaroo Gawler 1861 Worked out 375 000 t Cu, 2.5 t Au F, As, Mo, LREE
(Group) (production)
Kalkaroo Curnamona 1992 Prospect 30 Mt: 0.28% Cu; 0.14 g/t Au
North Portia Curnamona 1997 Prospect n/a: Best intercept 76 m Mo (0.02%)
@ 1.1% Cu, 1.2 g/t Au
Gecko Tennant Creek 1967 Worked out 4.7 Mt: 3.8% Cu; 0.7 g/t Au Bi (0.2%); Ag (14 g/t)
Peko Tennant Creek pre-1949 Worked out 3.5 Mt: 4.0% Cu; 3.5 g/t Au
Warrego Tennant Creek 1962 Worked out 5 Mt: 2.6% Cu; 7 g/t Au Bi (0.3%)
 Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: An Overview • P.J. WILLIAMS AND P.J. POLLARD 197

pyrrhotite (e.g., Eloise), or both (e.g., Mount Elliott, Mount Woods Inlier near Coober Pedy contains several very
Osborne). Most contain chalcopyrite as the only significant large magnetite bodies with Cu-Au-U-REE mineralization
Cu-phase but some, such as White Devil, Olympic Dam and such as those in the Manxman A and Joes Dam areas (New-
Starra, have hypogene bornite and chalcocite (Reeve et al., ton, 1996; Hampton, 1997; Davies, 2001). Significant Cu-
1990, Huston et al., 1993; Rotherham, 1997). Cu:Au ratios Au-(U) intersections have been obtained in hematitic brec-
vary substantially between deposits and there is no single cias at the the nearby Prominent Hill prospect (Table 1;
consistent minor element association (Table 1). However, as Minotaur Resources Ltd. press announcements 2001, 2002).
previously noted by Hitzman et al. (1992), there is a distinc- The magnetite bodies in the Mount Woods area are hosted by
tive, if not ubiquitous association with F, Ba, LREE, and U. granitoids and high-grade metamorphic rocks and character-
Co and Mo are commonly present at near-economic levels ized by early sodic-calcic alteration assemblages (plagio-
(e.g., Ernest Henry, Ryan, 1998) while Bi shows a specific clase-diopside) reminiscent of associations in the Cloncurry
and extreme enrichment in the deposits near Tennant Creek district (see below). The historically significant Cu-Au
(Wedekind et al., 1989). Some deposits contain amounts of deposits of the Moonta-Wallaroo area at the northern end of
As that can become a concern in beneficiation and smelting. the Yorke Peninsula are characterized by various styles of
chalcopyrite ± magnetite ± pyrite ± pyrrhotite ± hematite
deposit (Conor, 1996; Daly et al., 1998).
Tennant Creek Deposits Further east, the Curnamona Province (Fig. 4) contains
many Cu and Au occurrences, some of which at least, are
The Tennant Creek Inlier is known to contain about 650 members of the Fe oxide-associated family (Williams and
structurally controlled metasomatic magnetite-hematite Skirrow, 2000; Teale and Fanning, 2000). Notable examples
lenses (locally termed “ironstones”) with chloritic alteration are the Copper Blow deposit near Broken Hill (Burton,
halos. These are concentrated at specific stratigraphic posi- 1994) and the recently discovered North Portia prospect
tions and commonly localized in parasitic anticlines (Teale and Fanning, 2000). 40Ar/39Ar geochronology in the
(Wedekind et al., 1989; Rattenbury, 1992; Huston et al., Curnamona Province has revealed a protracted thermal his-
1993; Skirrow, 2000). They range in size from a few 100 t tory and it has been suggested that much of the epigenetic
up to more than 15 Mt (Wedekind et al., 1989). Approxi- mineralization in the region occurred during the Early
mately 200 of the known ironstones were selectively Palaeozoic Delamarian Orogeny (Harrison and McDougall,
affected by a second hydrothermal phase of Cu-Au-Bi-(S) 1981; Bierlein et al., 1996). However, nine new Re-Os ages
mineralization and in many cases the ironstones are much from the Kalkaroo, White Dam, Waukaloo and North Portia
larger than the orebodies they host. The ores on the whole areas are in the range 1632 Ma to 1612 Ma (Skirrow et al.,
have higher Au:Cu ratios than deposits in the other Aus- 2000) while SHRIMP dating of monazite associated with
tralian districts. Five mines had intial reserves of 2 Mt to 5 Cu-Au parageneses at North Portia gave an age of ca. 1605
Mt and a number of smaller, high-grade deposits have also Ma (Teale and Fanning, 2000). Consequently, there is now
been exploited though reserves are now mostly worked-out compelling evidence that the major phase of Cu-Au miner-
(Huston et al., 1993; Davidson and Large, 1994). Compston alization in the Curnamona Province occurred during late
and McDougall (1994) established that ironstone formation Palaeoproterozoic times.
and mineralization occurred over a short time interval and
have a minimum age of 1830 Ma to 1825 Ma. Coupled with
structural constraints, this establishes a close temporal link Olympic Dam
with the ca. 1850 Ma granitoid magmatism.
The Olympic Dam mine (Fig. 8 ) with a global resource
of the order of 2300 Mt containing 1.3% Cu (Reynolds,
Deposits of the Gawler Craton and Curnamona Province 2000) is one of the world’s largest Cu deposits and a signif-
icant producer of U and Au. It is apparently fault-controlled
General Features and occurs in a ca. 7 km by 5 km zone of brecciated and and
altered rocks cored by what is interpreted as a diatreme
The mineral resource inventory of the Gawler Craton complex. These features are developed entirely within the
and Curnamona Province (Table 1; Fig. 4) is dominated by 1588 ± 4 Ma Roxby Downs granite (Johnson and Cross,
the giant deposit at Olympic Dam (e.g., Reeve et al., 1990) 1995). The breccias contain large blocks of rocks with inter-
though the region also contains a number of other significant preted sedimentary textures and are believed to have formed
occurrences and is fairly immature from an exploration per- within a few 100 m of the palaeosurface (Oreskes and Ein-
spective. A number of large Cu, Au, and U-bearing magnetite audi, 1990). The breccias are intruded by many ultramafic,
and/or hematite bodies have been discovered in the basement mafic and felsic dikes which are temporally related to the
to the Stuart Shelf south of Olympic Dam including Acropo- supposed diatreme. A post-ore dike has been dated at 1592
lis, Wirrda Well, Oak Dam East and Emmie Bluff (Cross, ± 8 Ma (Johnson and Cross, 1995) implying that the deposit
1993; Gow et al., 1994; Newton, 1996). To the northwest, the formed soon after emplacement of the granite.
198 Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, 2001

cate alteration, and is concentrated in deeper parts of the

system. Barite and fluorite are abundant and La and Ce are
present in high concentrations as bastnaesite, florencite and
monazite (Oreskes and Einaudi, 1990). Uranium is closely
associated with Cu and occurs mostly as fine-grained to
amorphous uraninite (“pitchblende,” Reeve et al., 1990).
The Cu-U-Au ore occurs in hematite-rich zones near the
center of the complex. Mineralization was synchronous with
multiple brecciation events and produced a marked hypo-
gene zonation from barren hematite at the top, and in the
core of the deposit, through chalcocite, bornite, chalcopyrite
to pyrite with minor chalcopyrite and magnetite (Reeve et
al., 1990; Haynes et al., 1995). Economic grades occur close
to, and mainly above the bornite-chalcopyrite interface (Fig.
8) and the mine-dedicated smelter at Olympic Dam is con-
sequently designed to process low sulfur concentrates.

Cloncurry District (Mount Isa Eastern Fold Belt)

The deposits in the Cloncurry district are particularly

diverse in style, setting and geochemical associations (Table
2; Fig. 9) and there are many more small deposits than there
is space to discuss here (Raymond, 1992; Williams, 1998).
Despite the differences, all the significant Cu-Au deposits dis-
play strong structural controls being localized by a range of
brittle-ductile and brittle shear zones (e.g., Laing, 1998). An
almost ubiquitous feature is the presence of early sodic-calcic
alteration, similar in style to, but commonly more localized
than that developed throughout large parts of the district.
Fig. 8. (a) Simplified geological plan at about 400 m below surface; Ernest Henry is an exception in that the ore-related Fe- and
(b) section of the Olympic Dam deposit (adapted from Reeve et al., K-rich alteration system is enveloped by a large area of rocks
1990). with strong sodic-calcic alteration (Mark et al., 2000).

The dominant alteration assemblages at Olympic Dam

consist of sericite-hematite ± chlorite ± quartz ± siderite and Ernest Henry
it appears that several 100 Mt of Fe were added to the altered
granite in the breccia complex. Magnetite is comparatively The Ernest Henry mine, about 40 km northeast of Clon-
minor, paragenetically earlier than the hematite-phyllosili- curry, is the outstanding Cu-Au deposit in the district. It is a

Table 2. Fe oxide-(Cu-Au) deposits of the Cloncurry district with sources for metallogenic and exploration data

Deposit Style References

Eloise Sulfide-replaced biotite-hornblade alteration Brescianini et al. (1992); Baker (1998);
Baker and Laing (1998); Baker et al. (2001)
Ernest Henry Breccia with magnetite-sulfide matrix Fairall (1994); Craske (1995); Webb and Rowston (1995);
Twyerould (1997); Ryan (1998); Mark and Crookes (1999);
Mark et al. (2000, 2001)
Great Australia Carbonate-sulfide vein stockwork in matabasites Cannell and Davidson (1998)
Greenmount Microcline-sulfide stockwork in carbonaceous pelites Krcmarov (1995); Krcmarov and Stewart (1998)
Lighting Creek Very large granitoid-hosted magnetite vein system Perring et al. (2000, 2001)
Monakoff Magnetite-barite-siderite-sulfide replaced shear zone Davidson and Davis (1997); Davidson (1998)
Mount Dore Quartz-sulfide stockwork and breccia in carbonaceous pelites Beardsmore (1992)
Mount Elliott Clinopyroxene-magnetite skarn Fortowski and McCraken (1998); Wang and Williams (2001)
Osborne Quartz-magnetite-sulfide-replacement bodies Anderson and Logan (1992); Adshead (1995);
Adshead et al. (1998); Gauthier et al. (2001);
Rubenach et al. (2001)
Starra Sulfide-hematite replaced magnetite ironstones Collins (1987); Davidson et al. (1989); Rotherham (1997);
Adshead-Bell (1998); Rotherham et al. (1998);
Williams et al. (2001)
 Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: An Overview • P.J. WILLIAMS AND P.J. POLLARD 199

Greenmount
"BIF"

Mt Elliott
iott

Starra
Osborne
Eloise Ernest
Henry
Lightning
Creek

Cover Calc-silicates Granitoids Shear zones

Pelites Volcanics Na Alteration

(syn-granite)
Sulphides Fig. 10. Interpreted geological plan of the Ernest Henry deposit,
Carbonaceous pelites Basement K Alteration Magnetite Cloncurry district. Simplified from Twyerould (1997) with
geochronological data from Pollard and McNaughton (1997) and
Fig. 9. Cartoon illustration (notional cross-section to illustrate atti- Gunton (1999). Coordinate scheme is Australian Mapping Grid
tudes of features) of geological environments of Cloncurry Fe-Cu- (UTM).
Au deposits drawn to emphasize the different modes of magnetite
occurrence and their relationships to ore.

blind deposit some 12 km from the nearest Proterozoic base-

ment outcrop that was discovered by Western Mining Cor-
poration in 1991 by drilling coincident magnetic and elec-
trical anomalies beneath loosely consolidated Mesozoic to
Recent sedimentary cover (Webb and Rowston, 1995). The
identified resource is 166 Mt at 1.1% Cu and 0.54 g/t Au,
though the deposit is open at depth and displays no reduc-
tion in thickness at the termination of the portion that has
been explored (Ryan, 1998). Given that some of the deposit
was lost by erosion prior to deposition of the Mesozoic
cover, this means its original total size may have been sub- Fig. 11. Section of the Ernest Henry deposit as interpreted from
drilling data (adapted from Craske, 1995).
stantially larger than the delineated resource.
The dominant structural and geophysical grain at Ernest
Henry trends NE and the main fabrics exhibit moderate dip acterized by strong fabrics and intense biotite-magnetite-
to the SE (Webb and Rowston, 1995; Twyerould, 1997). (garnet) alteration (Craske, 1995; Twyerould, 1997). Ryan
This constitutes an anomalous structural domain in the (1998) has suggested that the distribution of strain in the
regional context. The host rocks to the ore are part of a hangingwall and footwall may be more complex than origi-
sequence of strongly altered basic to felsic metavolcanic nally thought, and questioned the previous identification of
rocks which may correlate with outcrops further west dated discrete shear zones. A zone of calcite and dolomite-rich
at about 1745 Ma (Page and Sun, 1998). Drilling and geo- (“marble matrix”) breccias is associated with the deformed
physical data have delineated extensive dioritic intrusions, footwall rocks (Twyerould, 1997). Textures and structures in
examples of which are as close as 500 m south of the ore- these carbonate-rich breccias suggest they developed in a
body (Twyerould, 1997; Ryan, 1998; Mark et al., 2000). partly ductile deformation regime (Ryan, 1998).
SHRIMP dating suggests these were emplaced at around The ore breccias consist of matrix (infill and replace-
1660 Ma (Figs. 6 and 10; Pollard and McNaughton, 1997). ment) mineralization with fragments of pervasively Ba-rich
The original character of the metavolcanic rocks near K-feldspathized metavolcanic rocks (Twyerould, 1997;
the deposit is obscured by the widespread fine-grained mag- Mark and Crookes, 1999; Mark et al., 2000). They display a
netite-biotite alteration, though rocks with porphyritic, range of textures from incipient crackling grading to matrix-
amygdaloidal and flow banded textures can be recognized dominated breccias characterized by the highest ore grades.
locally (Twyerould, 1997; Ryan, 1998; Mark and Crookes, Some breccias have stretched and flattened fragments
1999; Mark et al., 2000). This fine-grained magnetite alter- implying they developed in a brittle-ductile deformation
ation predates a coarser type of magnetite that occurs with regime. The mineralized matrix in the primary zone consists
sulfides in the ore (Ryan, 1998). The ore zone (Fig. 11) is a of chalcopyrite, pyrite and magnetite which are associated
large breccia body localized between two shear zones char- with calcite, quartz, biotite and chlorite along with minor
200 Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, 2001

amounts of epidote, allanite, tourmaline, fluorite, REE fluo- and Logan, 1992). Between 1985 and 1987, 74 reverse cir-
rcarbonates, monazite, barite, apatite, scheelite, arsenopy- culation holes (totalling 7816 m) and 23 diamond drill holes
rite, cobaltite, galena, molybdenite, coffinite, uraninite, and (2564 m) were drilled on this property without encountering
brannerite (Fairall, 1994; Twyerould, 1997; Ryan, 1998). a potentially economic intersection. This was largely due to
40Ar-39Ar dating of biotites suggests the ore was emplaced the lack of geophysical expression of ore grade sulfides and
by about 1505 Ma (Twyerould, 1997). A SHRIMP U-Pb complex magnetization phenomena that obscured the loca-
date of rutile from Ernest Henry ore of 1538 ± 37 Ma pro- tion of magnetite “ironstones” (Anderson and Logan, 1992).
vides a comparitively robust indication that mineralization The discovery of the deposit can be attributed to the 29th
probably occurred during the Isan orogeny and was not diamond hole drilled in 1988. Subsequent drilling delin-
related to the nearby diorites (Gunton, 1999). eated a net resource of 36 Mt with 2% Cu and 1 g/t includ-
The average magnetite-content is 20% to 25% while ing an initial exploitable reserve of 11.20 Mt with 3.51% Cu
sulfides constitute about 9% of the primary ore at Ernest and 1.49 g/t Au (Adshead et al., 1998). Additional reserves
Henry (Ryan, 1998). Chalcopyrite is on the whole rather were discovered after mining commenced and the total has
more abundant than pyrite and the pyrite:chalcopyrite ratio been updated to at least 15.2 Mt with 3.00% Cu and 1.05 g/t
displays a negative correlation with ore grade with a pyritic Au (Rubenach et al., 2001). The increased Cu:Au ratio in
halo extending approximately 50 m into the surrounding the bulk reserve reflects a growing contribution from more
rocks (Twyerould, 1997; Ryan, 1998). Cu and Au are recently discovered, deeper and relatively Cu-rich
strongly correlated with each other in the hypogene zone pyrrhotitic portions of the deposit (F. Tullemans, pers.
(Twyerould, 1997; Ryan, 1998). The primary mineralization comm., 2000).
is anomalous in As (350 ppm), Co (500 ppm), Mo (180 The deposit is hosted by upper amphibolite facies
ppm), and U (50 ppm) but has insignificant amounts of Pb metamorphic rocks and pegmatites (Fig. 12). Of the Cu-Au
(31 ppm) and Zn (120 ppm) (1995 Environmental Impact occurrences in the district for which geochronological data
Statement; Ryan, 1998). Much of the As and Co occur in are available, it is the only one that lies in the southeastern
solid solution in pyrite and these elements show a much high-grade part where the effects of D1 (Diamantinan)
stronger correlation with each other than with Cu (Ryan, deformation and metamorphism appear to be strongest.
1998). The host rocks are dominated by Na-rich feldspathic psam-
mites with lesser amphibolites and incorporate a discrete
30 m thick body of metaperidotite which seems to have no
Monakoff analogue anywhere else in the Mount Isa Block (Adshead,
1995). “Ironstones” predominantly composed of magnetite
Monakoff is the nearest significant occurrence to Ernest and quartz with minor apatite are an additional important
Henry in the exposed Proterozoic basement and like its lithology. These commonly have a distinct compositional
much larger neighbor, has a complex Cu-Au-(F-Co-As-Ba- layering but are far less differentiated than typical Protero-
REE-U) geochemical association (Davidson, 1998). It is zoic “banded iron formations.” The ironstones are signifi-
hosted by metasediments (quartz-muscovite-plagioclase cantly mineralized at the deposit, but typically at sub-
schists) and consists of foliation-parallel massive siderite- economic grades. The deposit is also associated with a
fluorite-barite-magneite-quartz-sulfide lenses that formed number of minor distinctive metamorphic rock types
by replacement of rocks with intensified deformational fab- including quartz-anthophyllite rocks, albite-anthophyllite
rics in a ductile shear zone (Davidson and Davis, 1997; rocks, cummingtonite schists, and actinolite schists
Laing, 1998). The deposit is localized at a stratigraphic posi- (Adshead, 1995).
tion close to a regionally extensive magnetite-iron formation The deposit area is divided into two discrete geolog-
unit that displays a more complex deformation history than ical domains. The western domain contains two substan-
the ore (Ryburn et al., 1988; Davidson and Davis, 1997). tial “ironstone” units that individually exceed 50 m in
40Ar-39Ar dating of a hydrothermal biotite from the deposit thickness. These strike ESE, dip quite steeply to the north
gave an age of 1508 ± 10 Ma similar to those of alteration and exhibit complex branching (folded?) geometries. The
biotites at Ernest Henry (Pollard and Perkins, 1997; cf. eastern domain lacks “ironstones” but has a compara-
Twyerould, 1997). tively large proportion of pegmatite intrusions, some of
which are quite thick, and also contains the metaperi-
dotite. Both domains contain ore zones associated with
Osborne intense postmetamorphic quartz veining and/or quartz
replacement producing a rock referred to as “silica flood-
Osborne (previously known as Trough Tank) lies ing” by mine geologists (Fig. 13). Ore is selectively
155 km south of Cloncurry and is a blind deposit concealed developed in, and close to, the “ironstones” in the west
by 30 m to 40 m of indurated Mesozoic sedimentary cover. and interpreted to have formed during dilation associated
It was discovered by drill testing a regionally significant with faulting sub-parallel to major contacts (Adshead,
aeromagnetic anomaly first identified in 1974 (Anderson 1995). The western domain contains pyrite-chalcopyrite
 Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: An Overview • P.J. WILLIAMS AND P.J. POLLARD 201

Fig. 13. Cross-section (21360 mN) of the Osborne deposit drawn

with simplified geology to emphasize the relationship between
high ore grades and “silica flooding” (adapted from Adshead,
1995; Adshead et al., 1998; cf. Fig. 12). Ore zones: (W) — West-
ern Domain; (EHG) — Eastern High Grade.

in the district (Perkins and Wyborn, 1998). More recent

U-Pb studies of titanite in the alteration envelope and Re-
Os studies of molybdenite from the ore have given ages
of ca. 1595 Ma (Gauthier et al., 2001; Rubenach et al.,
2001) suggesting that the Osborne deposit may in fact be
similar in age to Olympic Dam.
Fig. 12. Geological plan [aligned to mine grid at 1200 m RL (rela-
tive elevation), that is approximately 70 m below surface] of the
Osborne deposit, Cloncurry district (adapted from Adshead, 1995;
Adshead et al., 1998). Starra

The Starra orebodies occur in magnetite-hematite iron-

with a second generation of magnetite and locally devel- stones and display some parallels with occurrences at Ten-
oped hematite. In the initial reseource, eastern domain nant Creek. Starra was initially interpreted to be a deformed
ore was mostly represented by a discrete body referred to cupriferous sedimentary iron formation (Davidson et al.,
as the Eastern High-grade Lode which consists of 1989) though subsequent microstructural and paragenetic
pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite-magnetite-pyrite-(quartz). The studies suggested that albitization followed by magnetite
ores are geochemically complex being enriched in Co- “ironstone” lens formation and magnetite-biotite alteration
Mo-Ag-Sn-W-Bi-Hg-Se-Te contained in a variety of occurred by replacement of schist and calc-silicate host
accessory ore minerals including cobaltian pyrite and rocks (Rotherham, 1997; Rotherham et al., 1998). This is
pyrrhotite, bravoite, molybdenite, wolframite, argentian interpreted to have occurred late in the deformation history
native gold, and a variety of bismuth sulfides, selenides, of the region during fabric intensification in a steeply dip-
and tellurides (Adshead, 1995; Adshead et al., 1998). ping shear zone (Adshead-Bell, 1998). Au-Cu ore is domi-
Alteration directly related to lode development does not nantly confined to the ironstones and occurs in seven dis-
appear to have extended far into the host rocks. Thin (few crete zones over 5.5 km of strike. Pyrite, chalcopyrite,
meters) bodies of massive coarse-grained biotite-rich anhydrite, barite, calcite, and gold, locally with hypogene
rock are locally developed adjacent to the lodes in pelitic bornite and chalcocite, were precipitated from late oxidizing
host rocks (Adshead et al., 1998). 40Ar/39Ar dating of pre- fluids in association with brecciation and hematization of
to synmineralization actinolitic hornblende and biotite the magnetite host (Rotherham 1997). A 40Ar-39Ar date at
gave ages close to 1540 Ma which suggested that ≈1503 Ma for alteration biotite was obtained by Perkins and
Osborne could be significantly older than other deposits Wyborn (1998).
202 Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, 2001

Eloise Mount Dore Fault Zone (Laing, 1998; Fig. 5). The Green-
mount deposit occurs at a faulted contact with an oxidized
The Eloise deposit is also localized by a steep shear calc-silicate sequence distinguished by magnetite alteration
zone and distinguished by a pronounced mineral zoning (Krcmarov and Stewart, 1998). The Cu-Au-Co resource
with the economic lodes separated from the main concen- itself occurs in brecciated metapelites with extensive K
trations of magnetite by several hundred meters (Brescianini feldspar alteration but lacking magnetite. Mount Dore is
et al., 1992; Baker, 1998; Baker and Laing, 1998). The lodes hosted by a fault-bounded slice of graphitic mica schists
are hosted by amphibolite facies meta-arkoses and charac- sandwiched between calcareous and calc-silicate rocks of
terized by early albitization overprinted by distinctive high the Staveley Formation (Mary Kathleen Group) to the west,
temperature hornblende-biotite ± quartz alteration which and the Mount Dore Granite to the east (Beardsmore, 1992).
was selectively replaced by pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite dur- Sulfides without magnetite are localized by tabular dila-
ing mineralization (Baker, 1998). Ore emplacement was tional breccia bodies that were formed during post meta-
accompanied by the development of a lower temperature morphic (and post granite-emplacement) hydrothermal
alteration paragenesis containing actinolite, chlorite, mus- activity associated with movement on the fault system
covite and carbonate. The ore is characterized by high levels (Beardsmore, 1992).
of Ni and Co plus anomalous Zn (Baker, 1998). Baker et al. Mount Elliott is a diopside (-minor andradite garnet)
(2001) interpreted 40Ar-39Ar results from Eloise to indicate skarn deposit containing both magnetite-pyrite, and
that mineralization occurred at around 1530 Ma. pyrrhotite-rich chalcopyrite ore types (Fortowski and
McCraken, 1998; Wang and Williams, 2001). The Ca-Mg-
Fe-bearing skarn alteration appears to be superimposed
Carbonaceous Metasediment-hosted Deposits largely on the non-calcareous pelites. The ore has high lev-
els of Ni and Co and is locally enriched in light rare earth
Greenmount, Mount Dore and Mount Elliott are among elements (Wang and Williams, 2001). Mount Elliott is the
the more significant of many loosely “stratabound” deposits only significant deposit in the district where intra-ore intru-
in the district hosted by graphitic pelitic schists. These three sions have been identified. These are trachyandesite dikes
examples are all associated with the regionally extensive which cut the skarn altered zones and are affected by subse-

Fig. 14. Schematic (interpreted) cross-section of the Lightning Creek prospect (C.S. Perring, unpubl., 1997) drawn to illustrate observed
space-time relationships observed in drill holes that were too widely spaced to allow direct correlations and construction of true sections.
The surface geology is largely obscured by alluvial deposits (cf. Perring et al., 2001).
 Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: An Overview • P.J. WILLIAMS AND P.J. POLLARD 203

quent sulfide mineralization (Drabsch, 1998; Wang and

Williams, 2001).

Lightning Creek Magnetite Deposit

The granitoid-hosted Lightning Creek prospect (Figs.

5, 9 and 14) has so far failed to produce significant Cu-Au
assays but is included here because it may have major met-
allogenic significance. The prospect is associated with a
9000 nT magnetic dipole anomaly occupying some 6 km2
that is essentially due to an extensive magnetite-rich vein
system (BHP unpublished report, 1983; Perring et al.,
2000). Modelling suggests that the mass of hydrothermal
magnetite contributing to the anomaly is probably in
excess of 1000 Mt and that this is concentrated in a body
of rock with steeply dipping tabular geometry (M. Cooper,
pers. comm., 1999). The host rocks consist largely of
quartz monzodiorite and monzogranite, both of which con-
tain diorite enclaves. These rocks are cut by a set of sub-
Re-Os U-Pb
horizontal texturally complex quartz-plagioclase-rich sills
and associated magnetite veins that display a range of
magmatic to hydrothermal textures (Perring et al., 2000).
The igneous rocks are sodic members of the Eureka Super-
suite and petrochemically form a coherent group with the
sills apparently reflecting the most fractionated magmas
Fig. 15. Summary of 40Ar/39Ar, Re-Os, and U-Pb dates of meta-
(cf. Fig. 7). The host rocks are partly altered to a plagio- morphic and hydrothermal minerals from Cloncurry Cu-Au ore
clase-diopside assemblage that retains a typical magmatic deposits. The “other deposits” include Greenmount, Monakoff, and
oxygen isotope composition and the whole package is Starra. Only 40Ar/39Ar determinations that gave extensive plateau
believed to reflect magmatic differentiation and fluid evo- segments in their age spectra have been included. Hydrothermal
ages from the Osborne deposit suggest a ca. 1600 Ma (syn D1)
lution processes. Coexisting hypersaline brine and CO2
mineralization; in this case, though, the 40Ar/39Ar data from this
inclusions have been found in high-temperature vein deposit appear to record a complex history of cooling and reheat-
quartz, and proton microprobe analyses show the former ing associated with D2 at 1550 Ma to 1540 Ma. 40Ar/39Ar data from
are characterized by very high concentrations of Fe (ca. all the other deposits suggest these formed from around 1530 Ma.
10 wt%) and Cu (ca. 1 wt%) (Williams et al., 1999; Perring Dating of several different hydrothermal minerals from Eloise sug-
gests that the mica data could have been reset during cooling,
et al., 2000, 2001).
though note that a metamorphic biotite from this location gave an
older, ca. D2 age. Sources of data: 1 — Adshead (1995); 2 —
Perkins and Wyborn (1998); 3 — Twyerould (1997); 4 — Baker et
Metallogenesis al. (2001); 5 — Pollard and Perkins (1997); 6 — Wang and
Williams (2001); 7 — Gauthier et al. (2001); 8 — Gunton (1999).
Cloncurry Deposits
involving meteroric waters of fairly extreme high latitude
With the exception of the Osborne deposit, broadly con- derivation.
temporaneous, and protracted granitoid emplacement and The varying bulk composition of the altered rocks in the
mineralization at ca. 1530 Ma to 1500 Ma are indicated near different Cloncurry ore systems suggests that the chemistry
Cloncurry from a combination of U-Pb and 40Ar/39Ar of fluids at the sites of mineralization may have been vari-
geochronology (Figs. 6 and 15). O and H stable isotopic able from case to case. This impression is strengthened from
studies of alteration minerals and Fe oxides from several consideration of the minor element associations which are
deposits suggest most ore fluids had typical magmatic com- also extremely variable (Fig. 18). Cobalt is the only element
positions with δ18O in the range 6 to 10 per mil and δD -40 that has been found to show consistent strong enrichment
to -80 per mil (Figs. 16 and 17). Some higher δ18O values along with copper and gold. In contrast, the ratios of the
could reflect isotopic exchange with the metasedimentary potentially economic coproduct silver, to copper and gold
host rocks. The δD-depletion trend seen in the Mount Elliott seem to vary considerably. Some deposits such as Ernest
data (Fig. 17) could be a signature of a magmatic source Henry and Monakoff display extraordinary geochemical
reflecting progressive or incremental degassing of magmas complexity with marked enrichments of a wide range of
(e.g., Taylor, 1997). Alternatively, it might reflect mixing lithophile and chalcophile elements. The Eloise and Mount
204 Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, 2001

Elliott deposits both display distinct enrichments of a mafic hypersaline inclusions range from 100°C to 550°C (mostly
suite of elements including Ca and Mg (+Fe) in the silicate > 300°C in examples paragenetically related to sulfides),
alteration assemblages plus Ni in the sulfides (ore samples and density estimates of CO2 inclusions from Ernest Henry,
commonly assay in the range 500 to 1000 ppm for the latter Starra and Osborne suggest entrapment at pressures in
element). This could point to a contribution from fluids excess of 1.5 kbar. Phase behavior, proton probe analyses
evolved from primitive magmas though the host rock and daughter salt assemblages indicate there was consider-
sequences at both locations contain abundant amphibolites, able compositional variability in the brines which range
which at Mount Elliott can be shown to have been depleted between complex very high salinity (up to around 40 wt%
in all these elements during pre-ore albitization (Wang and Cl) Na-K-Ca-Fe-Mn±Ba, and lower salinity Na-Ca brines.
Williams, 2001). Ore deposition occurred from both oxidized (hematite-sta-
Detailed fluid inclusion studies have been undertaken ble, H2O-CO2) and reduced (pyrrhotite-stable, H2O-
at Eloise, Ernest Henry, Greenmount, Lightning Creek, CH4±CO2) fluids. Br/Cl ratios of the very high salinity
Osborne, Mount Dore, Starra, Great Australia, and a small inclusions are below 0.0025, consistent with a large mag-
Cu-Au-magnetite occurrence called Brumby which is about matic component and considerably less than the Br/Cl of
5 km south of Lightning Creek (Adshead, 1995; Foster, basinal fluids that formed the giant Cu deposit at Mount Isa
1995; Krcmarov, 1995; Baker, 1998; Cannell and David- which is similar in age and lies some 100 km to the west
son, 1998; Rotherham et al., 1998; Williams et al., 1999; (cf. Heinrich et al., 1993; Williams et al., 1999). The fluid
2001; Perring et al., 2000; Mark et al., 2001). Hypersaline inclusion data support the idea that these ore systems
fluid inclusions that were entrapped prior to, or contempo- involved fluids with differing compositions derived from
raneously with, Cu-Au mineralization have been observed multiple sources and/or varying interactions with the coun-
in each case and these typically coexist with CO2±CH4 try rocks.
vapor inclusions. Homogenization temperatures of the Taken together, the geological settings and metallo-
genic data are consistent with a magmatic-hydrothermal
origin for the Cloncurry deposits but also allow for the
involvement of multiple fluid types, some of which may
not have been magmatic. General support for the role of
magmas in Fe oxide-Cu-Au genesis comes from the asso-
ciation of the metals with a single dominant, but different,
age of granitoids in each of the three main Australian dis-
tricts which suggests that specialized magma-types may be
implicated. It is notable that both the Lightning Creek
granitoids [known from the work of Perring et al. (2000) to
have produced Fe and Cu-rich fluids from extreme differ-
entiates] and the intra-ore dikes at Mount Elliott both
belong to the alkaline Eureka supersuite (Fig. 7). The
Mount Elliott trachyandesites have a similar composition

Fig. 16. Calculated δ18O compositions of fluids in Cloncurry Fe

oxide-Cu-Au systems based on analyses of magnetite and
hematite.

Epidote (epithermal vein)

Cloncurry Fault
Metamorphic Waters
C GREENMOUNT muscovite
2
STARRA biotite (pre-ore)
! OSBORNE amphibole
ELOISE amphibole and
biotite (pre- to syn-ore)
! 8 C
8 BRUMBY amphibole
Magmatic Waters Mt ELLIOTT amphibole
2 Mt DORE biotite
Actinolites (7)
Regional Na-Ca alteration
Actinolites (5)
Na-Ca alteration Ernest Henry

Fig. 18. Empirical representation of element enrichments in

δ18O (per mil) selected Cloncurry district Cu-Au deposits. Data from Davidson et
al. (1989); Kary and Harley (1990); Milner (1993); Adshead
Fig. 17. Calculated fluid O-H isotope compositions of minerals (1995); Krcmarov (1995); Baker (1996, 1998); Davidson and
from Cloncurry ore systems compared with fields for Na-Ca alter- Davis (1997); Adshead et al. (1998); Ryan (1998); Mark et al.
ation assemblages (Pollard et al., 1997a, 1997b). (2000); Wang and Williams (2001).
 Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: An Overview • P.J. WILLIAMS AND P.J. POLLARD 205

to the primitive diorite enclaves at Lightning Creek though

they are more potassic. The common occurrence of car- Host Rock Sulfides
bonate gangue and CO2 inclusions point to what may have
been a critical role for this gas phase. CO2-rich magmas are
susceptible to fluid phase separation at significantly
greater depths than is typical of well understood mag-
matic-hydrothermal ore systems such as Cu-Mo-Au por-
phyries, and this may help explain the relatively deep-
seated character of the Cloncurry deposits (Pollard, 2000, Mineralization Stage Sulfides
2001).
Studies of the sulfur isotopic composition of the Clon-
curry Cu-Au-(Fe) ores indicate that δ34Ssulfide varies in the
range -10 to +16 per mil (Fig. 19). However, sulfides in sev-
eral of the large orebodies, including Ernest Henry,
Osborne, Starra and Eloise, display much more restricted
ranges and mean values close to 0. Low δ34Ssulfide (-10 to -4
per mil) characterizes the Lightning Creek and nearby
Brumby prospects and also the ore at the Mount Elliott
mine, which are notably the cases where there are the clos-
est known relationships with intrusive rocks. These more
negative values compared to typical igneous compositions
close to 0 per mil could reflect a magmatic source coupled
with high oxygen fugacities and temperatures of formation
(Pollard et al., 1997a). High δ34Ssulfide characterizes some
deposits hosted by graphitic metapelites including Green-
mount. At Ernest Henry, sulfides from the main part of the
orebody display a smaller range of δ34S than characterizes
those in the periphery (Twyerould, 1997). Pollard et al. Fig. 19. Means and ranges of sulfur isotope determinations for sul-
(1997a) suggested the S isotope geochemistry reflects a pre- fides in Cloncurry ore systems and host rocks. Sources of data: 1
dominantly magmatic source (i.e., sulfur from a magmatic — Davidson and Dixon (1992); 2 — Krcmarov (1995); 3 —
Beardsmore (1992); 4 — Twyerould (1997); 5 — Pollard et al.
fluid phase or leached from igneous rocks) coupled with (1997a); 6 — Rotherham et al. (1998); 7 — Baker et al. (2001); 8
deposit-to-deposit variations induced by differing tempera- — Garrett (1992); 9 — Perring et al. (2001).
tures, pH, oxygen fugacity, and mixing with metasedimen-
tary sulfur.
Fluid inclusion determinations and calculated stable proposed for Proterozoic Cu-Au-(Fe) systems elsewhere
isotope equilibrium temperatures suggest that the Clon- (Huston et al., 1993; Ettner et al., 1994). CO2-brine phase
curry deposits formed in different temperature regimes, separation and the concommitant increased pH of the aque-
e.g., 350°C to 450°C at Ernest Henry (Twyerould, 1997; ous phase could also have been a powerful sulfide-deposi-
Mark et al., 2001) as opposed to 200°C to 350°C at Starra tional mechanism and has been suggested to have played a
(Rotherham et al., 1998). Various distinct, and combined role in several of the Cloncurry deposits (Beardsmore,
depositional mechanisms have been proposed including 1992; Adshead, 1995; Xu and Pollard, 1999). Most
cooling, a number of types of wall rock reactions, fluid recently, direct studies of fluid inclusion chemistry coupled
mixing, and fluid unmixing. Twyerould (1997) suggested with considerations from the chemical behavior of Ba have
that magnetite-chalcopyrite-pyrite deposition at Ernest been used to suggest that fluid mixing may have been a sig-
Henry was accompanied by a reaction that buffered aHF by nificant process at Ernest Henry and Starra (Mark et al.,
part consumption of pre-existing K feldspar to produce new 2001; Williams et al., 2001).
mica with a fluorphlogopite component. It was suggested The varying Cu:Au ratios of the ores appear to be
that the observed coherent depletions of “immobile” ele- related to conditions of mineralization as manifested in the
ments in the ore reflect their complete dissolution from the nature of the Fe-phases present (Fig. 20). The highest Cu:Au
host rock and not dilution by hydrothermal precipitates ratios are displayed by pyrrhotitic ores and provide a direct
accompanying a volume increase. Good evidence suggests contrast with the Au-rich Starra deposit which is the only
that other wall-rock reaction mechanisms contributed to ore large resource in the district in which hematite is a major
deposition in Cloncurry systems, such as fluid reduction by phase. Mineralization at Ernest Henry can be deduced to
carbonaceous matter (Beardsmore, 1992) or magnetite have occurred at conditions buffered by the assemblage
(Rotherham, 1997), and sulfidation of Fe silicates (Baker, magnetite+pyrite and this large deposit has an intermediate
1998). Such wall-rock reaction mechanisms have also been Cu:Au ratio.
206 Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, 2001

Comparison with Other Districts fluids in various Cloncurry Cu-Au deposits. Main phase
mineralization was from cooler fluids with variable salin-
It is considered likely based on the available data that ity and low δ18O ranging from -2 to +6 per mil (Oreskes
the metallogenesis of Cloncurry ore systems involved the and Einaudi, 1992). These data and other features of the
evolution of sulfur-poor, metal-charged, aqueocarbonic deposit such as Cu-mineral zoning are consistent with ore
brines from oxidized alkaline-intermediate mesozonal intru- deposition by mixing of a cool surficial fluid with a
sions. The regional granitoids crystallized from melts that warmer, more saline, deep-seated fluid whose origin is a
were generated in a compressional tectonic setting during matter of conjecture (Haynes et al., 1995). Johnson and
the later stages of orogenesis. Whatever their ultimate McCulloch (1995) showed that Nd isotope data imply a
source(s), the aqueocarbonic ore fluids were channeled by mantle source of REE, and therefore possibly for other
ductile-brittle shear zones, underwent interactions with var- ore components at Olympic Dam. They suggested there is
ious different types of rocks, and formed orebodies where a genetic link with the abundant intra-ore alkaline mafic
the presence of sufficient dilation and changes in physico- and ultramafic dikes.
chemical conditions, perhaps coupled to mixing of several Fluid inclusion studies of the Tennant Creek Cu-Au
fluids of different origin, allowed precipitation of ore miner- deposits suggest that the host ironstones formed from low
als in economic quantities. The next question that arises is temperature (ca. 250°C), moderate salinity fluids. Later
whether any of these variously inferred and documented Au-Cu mineralization was from warmer (ca. 350°C) and
processes may have operated to form the deposits located in higher salinity fluids with both oxidized and reduced car-
the other terrains? bonic components that resemble the Cloncurry ore fluids
The giant Olympic Dam deposit is clearly a product (Huston et al., 1993; Khin Zaw et al., 1994). The Tennant
of a very different geological environment to those of the Creek fluids also contained nitrogen and traces of a num-
Cloncurry ore systems. However, Oreskes and Einaudi ber of more complex hydrocarbon species. Khin Zhaw et
(1992) noted that fluid inclusions associated with parage- al. (1994) felt these characteristics reflect an origin as
netically early magnetite, pyrite and siderite were heated basinal brines but did not exclude a magmatic con-
entrapped at significantly higher temperatures than those tribution in accord with the suggestion of Huston et al.
of main phase mineralization. Magnetite-quartz oxygen (1993) that the compositional variation results from vary-
isotope pairs suggest temperatures of 400°C to 500°C and ing proportions of oxidized magmatic and reduced basinal
fluid δ18O of 7 to 10 per mil similar to typical ore fluids brines. Skirrow (1999, 2000) described a positive correla-
in the Cloncurry district. Conan-Davies (1987) described tion of εNd and Cu-Au grade in ores from the West Peko
other high-temperature inclusions with very high salini- deposit with the higher εNd values of around -2 interpreted
ties (40 to 70 wt% salts), complex Fe-bearing daughter to reflect input of REE from mafic rocks. He also sug-
salt assemblages, homogenization temperatures up to gested that mixing of oxidized and reduced fluids may
580°C, and phase behavior suggesting entrapment at have operated in conjuction with fluid-ironstone reactions
pressures of 0.5 to 1 kbar. The latter coexist with CO2- to precipitate ore metals.
rich inclusions and therefore allow close comparison of Barton and Johnson (1996) have previously sug-
early high-temperature fluids at Olympic Dam with the gested that the implied high Cl/S ratio of ore fluids in Fe
oxide-Cu-Au deposits may be attributable to fluid inter-
action with evaporite sequences and implied that direct
input from magmas may not be required to form this sort
of ore deposit. This is a different perspective to that
reached during recent studies of Australian Proterozoic
examples and the distinction between these models is
very important in the identification of prospective ter-
rains around the world. The data synthesized here and in
Pollard (2000) suggest that in some settings at least, that
intrusions could be important sources of fluid compo-
nents. This accords with the preferred interpretations
reached in independent studies of the large and economi-
cally significant Cretaceous Fe oxide-Cu-Au resources of
the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district in Chile. Recent
studies in this latter district have led to the suggestion
that the ore fluids there contained a large component of
Fig. 20. Correspondence of Cu:Au ratios of Cloncurry district
resources with variations in the assemblages of Fe phases that magmatic water which mixed with other, potentially
coexist with chalcopyrite in the ore. The distinct mineral associa- evaporite-sourced fluids during mineralization (Marschik
tions of the Osborne western domain (W) and eastern high-grade et al., 2000; Ullrich et al., 2001; Marschik and Fontboté,
(E) ore zones have been represented separately (cf. Fig. 13). 2001; Mathur et al., 2002).
 Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: An Overview • P.J. WILLIAMS AND P.J. POLLARD 207

Exploration Characteristics complication for geophysical exploration in such cases is

that copper sulfides are confined to extensive naturally con-
As pointed out by Haynes (2000), these Cu-Au deposits ductive (graphitic) rock units. In principle, the pattern of
occur in regions of larger crustal blocks distinguished by conductivity may be modified as a consequence of the pres-
complex aeromagnetic signatures that are largely due to the ence of sulfides and oxidation of graphite with or without
development of hydrothermal magnetite. Within these dis- carbonate formation, though it is not clear whether these
tricts, geophysics (especially magnetics) has also been the observed petrological effects can be discriminated geophys-
major tool used to generate targets for Cu-Au exploration. ically. Some of the graphitic metasediment-hosted deposits
Near Cloncurry, the significant blind deposits at Eloise, contain pyrrhotite (e.g., Greenmount) though others (e.g.,
Ernest Henry, and Osborne were all found in the vicinity of Mt. Dore) do not.
major magnetic anomalies. However, the regional case his- Mount Elliott, like Eloise, is another deposit in which
tories also serve to emphasize the problematical nature of the Cu-Au-bearing sulfides are an integral component of a
geophysical prospecting in these types of systems as each zoning pattern involving the minerals that create geophysi-
important deposit is characterized by rather different physi- cal responses. However, the relationships at Mount Elliott
cal property relationships in detail (illustrated schematically are rather different. The host rocks are graphitic but the orig-
in Figs. 9 and 21). Furthermore, the Cloncurry district pro- inal free carbon was largely destroyed in the ore zones dur-
vides a good illustration of the absence of a tight relation- ing alteration and mineralization. Magnetite is present and
ship between ore metals and Fe oxide distribution. This is very abundant in direct association with pyrite and chal-
seen in the existence of the Cu-Au-poor Lightning Creek copyrite in some parts of the deposit but entirely absent from
occurrence as the largest accumulation of hydrothermal other economic zones which have pyrrhotite.
magnetite in the district and also from the presence of many Osborne (like Ernest Henry) is a system characterized
barren magnetite ironstones and magnetite-enriched zones by more than one generation of magnetite. The intensely
within the regional alteration systems (e.g., Williams, 1994). magnetic character of this system made geophysical model-
Significant separation of Cu and Au from magnetite at ling very problematical during early exploration and is dom-
deposit scale is particularly well illustrated at Eloise where inated by the contribution from the ironstones (Anderson
the orebodies contain pyrrhotite and only small amounts of and Logan, 1992). The economic mineralization occurs in
magnetite. They create a subdued magnetic ridge several siliceous rock bodies which, although spatially associated
hundreds of meters away from the peak of an intense mag- with the ironstones, are largely physically separated from
netic anomaly which is caused by a magnetite-rich compo-
nent of the alteration system to the south (Brescianini et al.,
1992). The situation is further complicated by the fact that a
largely barren pyrrhotite-zone persists for a considerable
distance north of the orebodies.
At Ernest Henry, there is a strong correlation between
sulfide, Cu, Au, and magnetite in the matrix of the ore brec-
cia (cf. Fig. 11). However, the deposit is associated with
extensive development of distinct, essentially barren forms
of magnetite alteration (Fairall, 1994; Ryan, 1998). The
peak anomaly at the deposit is about 9000 nT and other
anomalies of similar magnitude are associated with barren
magnetite zones in the surrounding area (Fairall, 1994).
Remanence and demagnetitization reduce the anomaly asso-
ciated with the mineralized zones but have no significant
Fig. 21. Schematic representation of the spatial relationships of
effects on the response from fine-grained magnetite alter- Cu-Au ore with magnetite, iron sulfides, and graphite in Cloncurry
ation to the northeast (Fairall, 1994). It is possible that the Cu-Au deposits. The diagram is entirely stylized with features
deposit might not have been found at all using routine geo- drawn to roughly represent general relationships such as varying
physical techniques were it not for the native copper in the mineral abundance within a system (e.g., magnetite at Eloise); and
supergene zone which was responsible for the discrete TEM the degree of spatial overlap (e.g., Cu-Au ore at Osborne is associ-
ated with pyrrhotite, pyrite and a second paragenetic generation of
anomaly that was initially drilled (Webb and Rowston, magnetite, whereas, not all ore contains pyrrhotite, and not all
1995). pyrite-rich rocks are ore). The vertical dimension is used to repre-
Magnetite is absent from some graphitic schist-hosted sent situations where one feature is enveloped by another, e.g.,
deposits such as Mount Dore, whereas, at Greenmount, it magnetite-bearing zones at Mt. Elliott are for the most part sur-
displays an antipathetic relationship to Cu-Au being con- rounded by rocks in which primary graphite has been destroyed;
rocks with the second (ore-related) generation of magnetite at
centrated in barren alteration zones in the more oxidized Ernest Henry are surrounded by rocks containing an earlier (bar-
components of the rock association such as calcareous rocks ren) generation of magnetite. The relationships in each individual
and microdiorite (Krcmarov and Stewart, 1998). A further system are discussed in more detail in the text.
208 Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, 2001

them and extend hundreds of meters away in the eastern part 2000). Sulfur-poor Cu-Au-(Co) mineralization from car-
of the deposit (Adshead, 1995). A second type of magnetite bonic brines either overlapped with this Fe±K stage or
forms part of the ore-related assemblage which locally also with later carbonate deposition. Some major differences
contains pyrrhotite, especially in the ore zones that are fur- between deposits include: substantial bulk chemical varia-
thest from the ironstones. Pyrite is more widespread and is tions in the Fe±K stage; the relative timing and tempera-
quite abundant in substantial volumes of sub-economic to ture of Cu-Au deposition; presence of more and less com-
barren material as well as occurring within the orebodies. plex paragenetic histories; and the variable degrees of
The exploration case history shows that the geophysical complexity of ore-stage element enrichments (in respect to
character of Osborne orebodies (including conductivity) is F, Ni, Zn, As, Mo, Ag, Sn, Ba, LREE, W, Hg, and U).
masked by the abundant barren to weakly Cu-mineralized Cu:Au ratios also vary and show a distinct relationship to
magnetite bodies (Anderson and Logan, 1992). the nature of the stable Fe-phases during mineralization
Cu-Au ore at Starra is restricted to magnetite-rich iron- (i.e., T-fO2-fS2 conditions). These features are consistent
stones and their immediate host rocks (within a few meters). with the view that the deposits are linked by fundamental
The magnetitic response in the deposit area is dominated by genetic processes but indicate that there are variations
the widespread dispersed magnetite in schistose host rocks reflecting different fluid inputs, host rock interactions, and
rather than the small massive ironstones that have economic mechanisms of metal precipitation.
grades (Collins, 1987; Kary and Harley, 1990). Much of the The picture is even more complicated when examples
magnetite rock in the mine area is barren or only sub- from other parts of Australia are also considered. The
economically mineralized with Cu and the oxidative ore- deposits may be roughly divided into sub-classes that reflect
forming process resulted in extensive but variable hematiza- the dominance of different ore-forming processes and explo-
tion of magnetite in the orebodies (e.g., Rotherham, 1997). ration characteristics. This may have practical applications
Ore grades are to a certain extent independent of sulfide- in exploration but takes no account of potentially funda-
content and some of the most Au-rich hypogene ore occurs mental differences in geotectonic setting and sources of ore
in rocks with very low S contents and high proportions of components.
hematite relative to magnetite (Rotherham, 1997). Two-stage Au rich deposits (e.g., Starra, several exam-
In summary, the diverse characteristics and exploration ples at Tennant Creek) formed where highly oxidized and
histories of these deposits from the Cloncurry district typically cool, second-stage fluids preferentially deposited
demonstrate that there is no simple geophysical model that Au (cf. Cu). A redox reaction occurred with pre-existing
can be relied on when exploring Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits at magnetite bodies which themselves were hematized as a
regional to prospect scale. Consequently, a key factor, par- result (e.g., Huston et al., 1993; Rotherham, 1997). Pyrite
ticularly in prospect evaluation, must be the development of may be present but there is no pyrrhotite. In principle, simi-
a good understanding of the geological characteristics of the lar deposits could also form where an oxidized Au-bearing
particular system under investigation. Alteration mineralogy fluid reacted with other reduced rocks such as graphitic
and physical properties (e.g., susceptibility, remanence and schists. Au-rich deposits of this type will generally be small
conductivity) should be properly documented and mapped, because they require interaction of second-stage structures
and particular attention must be paid to the structural envi- with favorable host rock. An exception to this rule could
ronment. apply if appropriate fluids have affected large pre-existing
iron concentrations such as large Precambrian iron forma-
tions or Kiruna-scale apatite iron ores. In ironstone settings,
Discussion: Toward a Classification of the Au (+Cu) will be tightly constrained to the
Cu-Au-(Fe Oxide) Deposits as Exploration Targets magnetite+hematite bodies but barren magnetite ironstones
(not accessed by second-stage structures) are also likely to
Most Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits reflect interaction of be present.
the ore depositional environment with a fluid or fluids Two-stage Cu-Au deposits (e.g., Gecko at Tennant
sourced some distance away from the orebodies. Near Creek, Eloise orebodies) formed where relatively reduced
Cloncurry, mineralization broadly corresponded with com- fluids deposited Cu and Au by sulfidation of a pre-existing
pressional deformation, regional metamorphism and gran- Fe-rich body (Huston et al., 1993; Baker, 1998). In this sit-
itoid emplacement, and the ores are associated with uation, ore-forming process may have produced pyrrhotite.
regionally metasomatized rocks displaying multiphase This type of deposit will also be generally small.
sodic and sodic-calcic alteration. The Fe-oxide-Cu-Au Poorly zoned (with respect to Cu-Fe species) Cu-Au-
deposits are in brittle-ductile structural settings and display magnetite deposits (e.g., Ernest Henry) formed in which
close time-space relationships with distinct alteration mineralization was probably dominated by processes such
styles. Common features in the the ore systems themselves as CO2-phase separation, fluid cooling, wall-rock reactions
include one or more phases of early sodic+/-calcic alter- that buffered pH, or fluid mixing constrained by the struc-
ation succeeded by 300°C to 500°C Fe±K metasomatism tural environment at the time of mineralization. Such
in the immediate ore envrionments (Williams and Skirrow, deposits can be subject to quantity of fluid and availability
 Australian Proterozoic Iron Oxide-Cu-Au Deposits: An Overview • P.J. WILLIAMS AND P.J. POLLARD 209

of S and metals, and their homogeneity may in itself reflect References

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