The FIDIC State of the World Report 2015 was commissioned by the FIDIC Executive

Committee, comprising: Pablo Bueno, Typsa, Spain (President); Jae-Wan Lee, Sekwang Engineering
Consultants, Korea (President Elect); Alain Bentéjac, Artelia, France (Vice President); Chris Newcomb,
McElhanney Consulting Services, Canada; Kaj Möller, SWECO, Sweden; Exaud Mushi, Norplan,
Tanzania; William Howard, CDM Smith, USA; Moncef Ziani, CID, Morocco; Kiran Kapila, ICT, India.

The Report was compiled by William Howard, from CDM Smith, and co-authors April Gu
(Northeastern University) and Miguel Mondria Garcia from Typsa (Spain). In addition, Dr. Mark
Patterson (Northeastern University) and Ms Emily Izzo (Northeatern University) provided input on
Oceans and the Role of Students, respectively.

FIDIC acknowledges the generous support of CDM Smith and Northeastern University in the
production of this report.

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should not be relied upon in a specific situation or issue.
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FIDIC was founded in 1913 by three national associations of standard for infrastructure,
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interest to their members. Today, FIDIC membership covers more than development banks, by
95 countries from all parts of the globe and encompassing most bilateral aid agencies,
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majority of firms providing technology-based intellectual services for infrastructure projects - from relatively short
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Forward
The FIDIC 2015 State of the World Report on Water is the Environmental Studies, contributed to the section on the Role
third in a series of “State of the World” reports. The first of the Today’s Students and Other Professionals.
was a 2009 report on Infrastructure and the second was a
2012 report on Sustainability. FIDIC produces these reports Much of the material here reflects information produced over
as a service to our 100 member associations and global the last few years in numerous professional journals and
partners to examine some of the world’s most challenging books, periodicals produced for more general audiences,
issues, which the engineering community can help address. and information from various Internet resources.
Water is clearly one of these challenges. Thus, the issuance
of this report is most timely. A significant effort was put forth to balance brevity with
information. This was not a simple task since the amount
As noted in the document, the world now faces a of material available on each of our water challenges is
multi-faceted complex “water” problem. If more well-planned extensive, to say the least. One of the strategies we used to
actions are not taken soon, we will have a water crisis. limit the size of the document was to describe a certain issue
While engineers can and should play a leadership role in in a few paragraphs and intersperse these with descriptions
tackling our water woes, they additionally need to work with of real world projects to clarify some of the issues and point
and actively involve other professionals and stakeholders in us toward possible solutions. Hopefully, this technique has at
the effort. And, we are all stakeholders–as we will all be least been moderately successful.
affected by the results.
Every effort was made to credit the various authors of books
This report consists of an executive summary followed by and journals used to produce this narrative. In the event
various sections about a particular subject and conclusions. a source was omitted or a reference listed incorrectly, we
It was produced under the leadership of the main author apologize.
CDM Smith’s William (Bill) Howard, P.E., BCEE, FACEC,
FASCE (a member of FIDIC’s Executive Committee) with Finally, while producing this report, it quickly became
contributions on many issues from Dr. April Gu, Associate apparent how much attention water is getting. Professional
Professor and Director of Graduate Studies, Department journals and text books are being produced every month on
of Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston the subject. More information on water is appearing in the
Massachusetts, and Dr. Miguel Mondria Garcia, the Chief media as well. Most importantly, many very bright people
Technology Officer of Typsa, Spain. In addition, Dr. Mark are dedicating part or all of their careers on one or more
Patterson, Professor of Marine and Environmental Sciences elements of our water challenges.
at Northeastern University contributed much of the material
on Oceans with some assistance on micro-plastics from Many of them are listed in the Bibliography section at
Ethan Edson, a recent Northeastern University Environmental the end of the document. This is most encouraging news
Sciences graduate. Also, Ms. Emily Izzo, the valedictorian because it is creating global awareness of our water
of Northeastern’s class of 2014 and whose major was problems that will hopefully lead to more action.
International Affairs and Anthropology with a minor in
Acknowledgements
I personally wish to acknowledge and thank Dr. Allegra Ms. Stacey Cohen of CDM Smith for sourcing assistance.
da Silva, P.E., Tom Pedersen and Chris Schultz, P.E., Finally, I especially wish to thank my assistant, Michele
of CDM Smith for commenting on various drafts of this O’Brien of CDM Smith, for her patience and perseverance
document, FIDIC’s Young Professionals Group especially in the document production and final layout of the report
Nader Shokoufi of Tavon Engineers, Iran, and Krill Reztsov and for typing, retyping, and retyping again and again the
a member of GHD, Australia, for their input. In addition, many drafts of this report.
I wish to acknowledge Dr. Matthias Ruth, a professor at
Northeastern University (School of Public Policy and Urban Michele and Daryl improved the document tremendously.
Affairs and the Department of Civil and Environmental So, if you find it readable and enlightening, we have them
Engineering) for providing comments on draft versions of to thank.
the report. I also want to thank Daryl Shepard of CDM
Smith, for his tireless efforts in editing the document and Bill Howard

Authors
ƒ William S. Howard, PE, BCEE, FACEC, FASCE, Member FIDIC Executive Committee
ƒ Dr. April Gu, Associate Professor, Director of Graduate Studies, Civil Environmental Engineering Department,
Northeastern University, Boston Massachusetts
ƒ Dr. Miguel Mondria Garcia, Chief Technology Officer, Grupo Typsa, Madrid, Spain
ƒ Dr. Mark Patterson, Professor of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Marine Science Center, Northeastern
University, Nahant, Massachusetts
ƒ Ms. Emily Izzo, Valedictorian Class of 2014 Northeastern University, Boston Massachusetts
Forward

Executive Summary 1
Global Challenges 1
Energy, Food and Water 1
Quantity and Quality 2
Infrastructure 2
The Role of Government 2
The Role of the Engineer, Students and Other Professionals 2
Growing Awareness, Priorities and Actions 3

Global Water Issues 4

The World’s Water 4
Oceans 4
Climate Change and Sea Level Rise
Wetlands
Pollution
Marshes
Floatables
Coral Reefs
Near Shore Ecosystems
Potential Economic Losses
Fresh Water 8
Quality
Contaminants of Emerging Concern
Scarcity
Virtual Water
Overuse
Total Supply Planning
Capital Programs
Energy-Water-Food Nexus
A Call for Action

Demand Reduction 13
Overview 13
Agricultural Demand Reduction 13
Potable Water Demand Reduction 14
Non Revenue Water and Consumption Reduction
Water Rates
Two South American Country Approaches
Revenue Issues
Direct and Indirect Reuse 16
Regulations and Public Health Considerations

Water as A Resource – A Paradigm Shift 18

Overview 18
Table of Contents

Centralized vs Decentralized Systems 18

Household Source Separation
Satellite Systems
Comprehensive Stormwater Management Systems 19
Overview
Developing Country Stormwater Challenges
Eco Cities and Zero Waste Systems
Valuable Contents of Wastewater 21
Energy Generation
Anaerobic Treatment
Energy Recovery via Heat
Microbial Fuel Cells
Bio Fuel Production from Algae
Nutrient Recovery
Lake Eutrophication
Technologies
Research

Infrastructure 24
Total Water Infrastructure Needs 24
Estimates
Aging Infrastructure 25
Treatment Plants
Pump Stations
Dams
Aging Pipelines
Total System Approach
Asset Management

Sustainability 28
Guidelines 28
Assessment Tools and Methods 28
Risk and Opportunity Analysis
Integrated water resource management 29
Resilience 29
Overview
Planning Tools
Dams and Other Resiliency Installations

Government Role 32
Transboundary Waters 32
Inter-Governmental Agreements
Leadership 33
Big Picture View 33
Innovative Financing and Procurement 33
Human Rights of the Poor 33
Role of The Engineer, Students and Other Professionals 35
Leadership and Communication 35
Trusted Advisors 36
Design 36
Encourage Careers in Engineering 36
Role of Today’s Students and Other Professionals 37
Improving Diversity
Cross Sectorial Engagement
Outreach and Advocacy
Embracing Multiple Participants
The Future 38

Conclusions 39

Bibliography 40
 List of Figures
Figure 1 – Global Physical and Economic Water Scarcity 1
Figure 2 – The World’s Water 4
Figure 3 – Floating Debris in Oceans 6
Figure 4 – Common Millimeter Sized Micro-Plastics Pulled Up in an Open Ocean Net Tow 6
Figure 5 – Map Showing Concentration Trends in Open Ocean Micro-Plastics off the Atlantic Coast 6
Figure 6 – Many Bangladeshi Villages Have Wells With Naturally High Levels of Arsenic 8
Figure 7 – EEA Projected Demand for Fresh Water 10
Figure 8 – Mijares River Basin, Spain 11
Figure 9 – Trends in Global Emissions of CO2 from Fossil Fuels (1900-2008) 12
Figure 10 – Global Water Savings Associated with International Trade in Agricultural Products (1996-2005) 13
Figure 11 – After Advanced Treatment, Water Is Reused Globally for a Variety of Applications 16
Figure 12 – Orange County Ground Water Replenishment District 17
Figure 13 – Household Source Separation 19
Figure 14 – The Master Plan for Dockside Green 19
Figure 15 – Innovative Stormwater Management Program-Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 20
Figure 16 – Rain Barrel Used for Collection and Storage of Stormwater 20
Figure 17 – Eco City, Tianjin, China 21
Figure 18 – Example of Energy Recovery at The Suzhoe Industrial Park in China 21
Figure 19 – Anaerobic Lagoon in Austrailia 22
Figure 20 – Biofuel Production from Algal Cultivation Using Wastewater 22
Figure 21 – The Albufera de Valencia Lagoon, Spain 23
Figure 22 – Aby Treatment Plant in Aarhus, Denmark 23
Figure 23 – 2013 ASCE Report Card 24
Figure 24 – Estimated Needed Investment in USA Drinking Water for 2011-2030 25
Figure 25 – Heightening of Yesa Dam, Spain 26
Figure 26 – Urban System’s Model Relationship Diagram 28
Figure 27 – Netherlands-Flood Control and Wind Power Generation 29
Figure 28 – Marina Barrage in Singapore 29
Figure 29 – Climate Resilience Evaluation and Awareness Tool (CREAT) 30
Figure 30 – Water Contaminant Information Tool (WCIT) 30
Figure 31 – St. Petersburg, Russia-(Satellite View) Flood Control System 30
Figure 32 – St. Petersburg, Russia Flood Control System 31
Figure 33 – Rotterdam, Netherlands-“Water Plazas” 31
Figure 34 – Rotterdam, Netherlands-“Green Roof” 31
Figure 35 – Guadalentin River, A Tributary of the Sequra River, Spain, September 29, 2012 31
Figure 36 – Graduates with Engineering as Their First Degree 36
 List of Tables
Table 1 – Global Sea Level Rise Scenarios 4
Table 2 – Untreated Wastewater Entering Selected Seas 8
Table 3 – Effectiveness of Some Treatment Processes in Removing Selected Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) 9
Table 4 – Selected Water Footprint Values for Various Items 14
Table 5 – Average Global Water Footprints for Energy Production 14
Table 6 – Global Water Footprint for Selected Countries 14
Table 7 – Estimated Annual Water and Wastewater Expenditure Requirements for Selected OECD Countries 25

List of Acronyms
AOPs Advanced Oxidation Processes LPCD Liters Per Capita Per Day
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers m3
Cubic Meters
AWWA American Water Works Association MBR Membrane Bioreactor
BIM Building Information Modelling MDG Millennium Development Goal
BMPs Best Management Practices MF Microfiltration
CAD Computer Aided Design NOAA U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
CECs Contaminants of Emerging Concern Administration
CFD Computerized Fluid Dynamics OCSD Orange County Sanitary District
CHP Combined Heat and Power OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and
CRADA Cooperative Research and Development Agreement Development

CREAT Climate Resilience Evaluation and Awareness Tool O&M Operations and Maintenance
PPCP Pharmaceuticals, Personal-Care Products
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CSO Combined Sewer Overflow PW Present Worth

EDC Endocrine Disrupting Chemical RO Reverse Osmosis

EEA European Environmental Agency RWPF Raw Water Production Facility

EWB Engineers Without Borders SRT Sonar, Seismic Resurgence Testing
FIDIC International Federation of Consulting Engineers SSET Sewer Scanner and Evaluation Technology
FIMS FIDICs Integrity Management System SSOs Sanitary Sewer Overflows
FOG Fats, Oils and Grease STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Math
GHG Greenhouse Gas SWNs Smart Water Networks
Gm3/day Giga Cubic Meters Per Day USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
ha 10,000 Square Meters UNESCOs United Nation’s Educational, Scientific and Cultural
hm 3
Cubic Hectometers Organization

IAM Infrastructure Asset Management UF Ultrafiltration

IFI International Funding Institution UWC Urban Water Cycle
I/I Infiltration and Inflow USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change WCIT Water Contaminant Information Tool
IWA International Water Association WEF Water Environment Federation
IWMI International Water Management Institute WHO World Health Organization
IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management WRF Water Research Foundation
km 3
Cubic Kilometers WSUD Water Sensitive Urban Design
LEED Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design WSSCC Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council
Executive Summary

Global Challenges Energy, Food and Water

It seems that everyone is talking about water, perhaps most Energy and food requirements also have an enormous
people are, considering its importance and the many global impact on water challenges. Thus, we need to recognize
challenges associated with it. Volumes are being written the water-energy-food nexus. Regarding energy and water,
about it in all types of publications. This is good news large amounts of one are generally required to produce and
because the world is heading towards a water crisis and distribute large amounts of the other. Regarding agriculture,
significant preventative actions from the global community 70% of the world’s fresh water demand is associated with
are required to avoid it. food. Growing populations, increased wealth in developing
countries, and the need to provide energy and food to
According to the United Nations, water scarcity affects those without adequate access to them now are resulting in
every continent. Almost 20% of the world’s population live in increasing demands for both.
areas of physical scarcity and 500 million are approaching
this situation. Another 25% face economic water shortage “The spread of prosperity across the world, especially in
(http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml). China and India, is driving an increased demand for meat,
eggs and dairy, boosting pressure to grow more corn and
soybeans to feed more cattle, pigs and chickens. If these
trends continue, an additional problem of population growth
and richer diets will require us to roughly double the amount
of crops we grow by 2050” (Foley, 2014).

Improved drop-per-crop values and better decisions on

what to grow and where to grow it, could lower agriculture
water demands per unit of food. More dialogue about
water footprints and virtual water trade may help the global
community address agricultural water use as the world’s
population and the demand for more food increases,
Little or no water scarcity Physical water scarcity Approaching physical Economic water scarcity Not estimated
especially protein with a generally high water footprint.
water scarcity

Figure 1 – Global Physical and Economic Water Scarcity: World Water Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fossil fuels (a
Development Report 4 – Assessment Program March 2012, significant contributor to climate change and global
http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml. warming) have been increasing for more than a century—
More than 10% of the world’s population still does not have and at a much faster rate in the last 50 years. While
reasonable access to clean water and twice as many don’t energy related CO2 emissions from some areas (e.g., North
have access to basic sanitation. This tragedy contributes America and Europe) may decline, emissions from other
to disease and about 3 million early deaths each year. areas will likely increase as countries in these geographies
One child dies from diarrhea every 17 seconds. This is strive to meet growing energy needs, at least in part by
equivalent to ten jumbo jets crashing every day (Bixler et al., using fossil fuels. Thus, we can expect that the world will
2015). continue to depend on fossil fuels to generate much of its
electricity in the foreseeable future.
Less than 3% of the water on our planet is fresh and most of
that is frozen. Less than 1% is generally available for use. Sea level rise is affecting coastal populations along with
While this percentage may seem low, if the fresh water water, wastewater and stormwater facilities adjacent to
falling to the Earth each year, which does not evaporate or shorelines. The effectiveness of pollution and flood control
freeze was evenly distributed across the planet, there would programs as well as the increased energy costs to pump
be plenty of fresh water for everyone. Of course, this is not water are a few of the problems coastal utilities face as a
the case and never can be. As a result, some parts of the result. Ocean warming and acidification is contributing to
world have too much water (e.g., floods) and others too little more intense storms and impacting aquatic life and food
(e.g., droughts). Climate change and population growth will supplies.
exacerbate this situation.

1
 Quantity and Quality of a challenge simultaneously, thereby reducing overall
Despite advances in treatment technology, contaminated costs and the potential that solving one problem generates
wastewater is still being discharged to receiving waters another one.
in large quantities. Adding to the strain are contaminants Whether planning for new infrastructure or addressing aging
of emerging concern (CECs), which are appearing in facilities, sustainability, resiliency and other non-monetary
waters around the globe. The ability of current treatment factors need to be considered. This compounds the
technologies to remove them are mixed. challenges associated with alternative analyses,
The European Environmental Agency (EEA) has projected which historically were evaluated based on financial
that about 7 trillion cubic meters (m3) of fresh water will be considerations, like present worth. Fortunately, tools are
needed by the global community by 2030—a deficit of being developed to facilitate their consideration thereby
about 3 trillion m3. Overuse of surface and groundwater increasing the probability that the right projects will be
supplies is occurring throughout the world now, which is selected for each specific situation.
unsustainable. Reducing the demand for fresh water and
capital expenditures for new facilities will both be necessary The Role of Government
to close the demand vs. need gap and avoid a worldwide Water knows no boundaries, but waterways often form
water crisis. Reducing the amount of fresh water required them. This has encouraged countries, even those unfriendly
for agriculture, reducing potable water use, addressing the to each other, to have dialogue about water. About 450
pricing of water and reusing water all can contribute to transboundary agreements have been reached between
lowering demand. governments since 1820. In addition to working with these
We must also recognize fresh water in all forms (e.g., water, agreements and developing new ones, when appropriate,
wastewater, stormwater) as a valuable resource that needs governments can help address water issues by developing
to be effectively used and reused. This requires a shift in fit-for-purpose treatment regulations, streamlining procurement
thinking. More localized systems to distribute clean water, and permitting, and by working with non-governmental
treat wastewater, capture stormwater and recharge aquifers organizations and International Funding Institutions (IFIs) to
are needed. Piping wastewater even when treated or develop innovative financing approaches and to address
stormwater to oceans should be minimized. the special needs of the poor. Perhaps most importantly,
governments need to show leadership in encouraging
Valuable constituents within wastewater, including potential investment in water infrastructure.
energy, biosolids and nutrients, can be harnessed,
recovered and used. The good news is that significant The Role of Engineer, Students
progress is being made in all of these areas. Wastewater and other Professionals
plants are becoming net energy generators, not users;
biosolids are being captured to produce heat, electricity More engineers will be needed to address the world’s water
or fertilizer; and more technologies to recover nutrients and challenges and they will need more diverse skills such as
other valuable constituents are being developed. leadership and communication to do so effectively. Technical
knowledge alone will not be adequate. Engineers will need
Stormwater is increasingly being captured locally to build to function as trusted advisors to their clients as well as
wetlands and recharge aquifers. In addition, more high technical and non-technical stakeholders, helping to ensure
sustainability scoring decentralized or hybrid systems are that the right projects are selected and that they are done
being developed for water, wastewater and stormwater, right.
often reducing the need for costly pipelines.
Engineers must also advocate for increased infrastructure
Infrastructure investments and for better use of the funds made available
via more effective up-front planning. It is in the preliminary
Significant new water infrastructure is needed in developing planning phase when the best engineering is often done.
countries. The water infrastructure in developed countries is The right projects do not always involve expensive capital
suffering from age; design life’s are being exceeded and programs. Good engineering during the planning stage
investments to address this problem are inadequate. Thus, often reduces the cost and extent of capital programs
every year the situation deteriorates. It is estimated that and sometimes eliminates them altogether. To execute
$17.5 trillion is required to meet all water infrastructure increasingly complex projects faster and cheaper, engineers
needs (maintenance and new) by 2030. While this is a and scientists will need to become more adept at working
staggering number, it is less than 2% of the World’s GDP on in teams, remotely and with more and more sophisticated
an annualized basis. technical tools like building information modelling (BIM).
New technologies and approaches can lower this cost. Addressing the world’s water challenges will require
Cost-effective new technologies are being researched enormous effort from the entire global community — not
and new approaches are being implemented throughout just those with science, technology, engineering and math
the world. One very promising relatively new approach, (STEM) careers.
integrated resource management, addresses many elements

2
Others, including students and non-STEM professionals be able to reach out to many governments and institutions in
interested in water issues, must be welcomed by water an effort to keep water challenges on the agenda. Smaller
professionals and be encouraged to get involved so their local firms might consider how best to address issues that
diverse skills can be used effectively. they are tasked with resolving in ways that meet local needs
and also help their neighbors and/or the global community.
The following statement, credited to UNESCO’s International Sharing lessons learned via presenting papers at universities
Program, highlights this point: “It is recognized that water and at professional organizational conferences should be
problems cannot be solved by quick technical solutions. encouraged by all firms, as this is one of the best ways to
Solutions to water problems require the consideration transfer knowledge and avoid repetitive problems. All firms
of cultural, educational, communication and scientific can support professional organizations in their efforts to
aspects. Given the increasing political recognition of draw attention to critical issues and educate their members
the importance of water, it is in the area of sustainable and other stakeholders.
fresh water management that a major contribution to
avoid/solve water related problems including future Experienced engineers can volunteer to help groups such
conflict can be found” (http://www.ukessays.com/ as FIDIC’s Young Professionals, Engineers Without Borders
essays/environmental-sciences/what- threatens-water- or Water For People. Younger engineers and students
management-strategies-environmental-sciences-essay. interested in water should be encouraged to join and
php#ixzz3hQMhHGax). participate with such groups. Professional engineering firms
should consider how their senior people can, as trusted
Growing Awareness, Priorities advisers, influence decision makers to spend the time and
and Actions money to plan projects properly and execute them well.
Considering the magnitude of the estimated required
It is encouraging that more people are aware of the water
investments for water infrastructure, this planning should be
challenges the world is facing. For example, in 2015, the
broad (sometimes going beyond governmental boundaries)
World Economic Forum included “water crises” in their
and address as many issues as possible to increase the
top 10 global risks (Cann, 2015). In addition, the Water
probability that resolving one series of challenges does not
Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC)
create others. Also, in this era of limited funds, firms should
has established a “Vision 21“, which calls for “A clean
support initiatives that encourage innovative research, “fit for
and healthy world: A world in which every person has
purpose” treatment options, reuse and programs associated
safe and adequate water and sanitation and lives in a
with considering all elements of water as a resource to be
hygienic environment“ (http//:www.thewaterpage.com/
used and reused.
basic needs). This increased awareness may well turn out
to be the most important contributor to addressing the water All firms also should consider working with clients and
challenges we face. potential clients to strengthen integrity programs while
simultaneously streamlining procurement times and selecting
In addition, not only do non-STEM professionals (e.g., firms for assignments based on their qualifications and
policy experts, community engagement specialists and approach, and not on cost. Finally, everyone in the water
policymakers) show strong interest, but also there is more engineering profession must encourage other professionals
dialogue occurring among younger adults—especially in and students to get involved in addressing our water
social media. This is creating keen interest among arguably challenges. Using everyone’s skills in a collaborative
the most educated and connected generation to date. They environment will dramatically increase the probability of
are already motivated since they will inherit and live with the success.
consequences of the water problems we don’t solve.
There is ample reason to be optimistic. The seriousness of
In the process of addressing water challenges, it is not our water issues, the growing awareness of the challenges
difficult to be overwhelmed by their number and complexity. we all face, the general acceptance by many that diverse
Thus, it is beneficial to consider the most important water skills are needed to succeed, and the fact that there is a
challenges. FIDIC suggests these four: large population of highly motivated and trained citizens
ƒ Providing everyone access to clean water and basic ready and able to help should take us to where we need to
sanitation go—to a world where everyone has access to clean water
and basic sanitation and where sustainability is accepted as
ƒ Closing the demand gap a way of life. Working together, we will address our water
ƒ Planning for climate change issues successfully.

ƒ Adequately investing in infrastructure (aging and new)

Consulting engineering firms practicing in the water field
should consider what role they can play in addressing these
challenges. All firms should strive to build on the growing
awareness of the world’s water issues and help direct the
world community toward solutions. Large global firms may

3
 Global Water Issues

The World’s Water Oceans

Many books, reports and scientific papers have been Climate Change and Sea Level Rise
written about the water challenges the world is now and
will be soon facing. Many believe that water will be a Sea levels have been rising due to warming of ocean
major issue in the 21st century. At any given time, some temperature and ice melt. While the amount and rate of
geographies will have too much and others too little. future sea level rise is unknown, we do know from the
Some areas will experience both phenomena at different U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
times (e.g. Texas, USA). A number of countries in all (NOAA) that ocean levels have been observed to be
continents now have water shortages as well as, in some rising since 1880 after being relatively stable for about
cases, deterioration of the quality of the supplies they do 2,000 years. Recently, the rate of rise has been more
have. Climate change is exacerbating this situation via accurately measured by NOAA at about 3mm per year.
more intensive weather events, sea level rise and global Under various scenarios, NOAA projects a range of
warming. additional rise by 2100 of 0.2m to 2.0m. It should
be noted that the extent of sea level rise, as well as the
In July 2010, the United Nations General Assembly impact to adjacent land, is expected to vary throughout
recognized the right of every human being to have the globe. Table 1, shows global sea level rise scenarios
access to sufficient, safe and affordable water for for the U.S. National Climate assessment.
personal and domestic uses. While progress is being
made (the world has met the Millennium Development
Goal (MDG) for drinking water) more needs to be done.
The MDG goal for sanitation will likely not be met and High 20
some parts of the world including the sub Saharan region In ermedia e i h 12
of Africa did not do as well in achieving clean water
goals as others. 05
e 02
About 96.5% of the world’s water is in the oceans, about
1.7% is frozen in glaciers, ice caps and permanent Table 1 – Global Sea Level Rise Scenarios. US National Oceanic and
snow, and about another 1.7% is in the ground over half Atmospheric Administration. Global Sea Level Rise Scenarios for the United
States National Climate Change Assessment Dec. 6 2012 (NOAA, USGS,
of which is saline. The amount of fresh water in lakes and SERD, USACE)
rivers is about 0.0072% of the world’s total water volume
(Shiklomanov, 1993). While nobody is predicting it, ocean levels would rise
by more than 65m if all of the world’s ice melted (Folger,
1.7% 0.0072%
1.7%
2013).

It is indeed fortunate that we are a long way from a

total global ice melt, as such a disaster would submerge
lands along coasts populated by millions of people and
totally submerge some countries and large portions of
others. However, even under much lower sea level rise
scenarios, coastal cities, like Venice, Italy, are at risk of
96.5% Oceans
being claimed by the ocean.
Currently Frozen
Groundwater The impact of sea level rise is far reaching. Many coastal
Lakes & Rivers (Fresh Water) communities, which are already struggling financially,
Figure 2 - The World’s Water. Developed from Igor Shiklomanov’s chapter
are concerned about increased electrical costs to pump
“World Freshwater Resources“ in Peter Gleik’s 1993 Edition Water in Crisis: A wastewater and stormwater against higher heads,
Guide to the World’s Fresh Water Resources (Oxford University Press, New minimizing property damage due to flooding and even
York). percentages are approximate.
population disruptions. Currently, water and wastewater

4
pumping is the single largest municipal electrical demand to evaluate how changes in the hydro-period and the
in some cities. In the United States, it is estimated that frequency of extreme events impact natural, maintained
2% to 4% of electric usage is for water and wastewater or restored areas.
treatment and pumping (Dyballa and Hoffman, 2015).
Pollution
Extraordinary property damage is occuring already due
to intense storms and population displacement, which The problems associated with some of the world’s largest
currently appears to be happening in some parts of cities still discharging untreated or inadequately treated
Bangladesh and is being considered as a long-term sewage into waterways and oceans remain daunting
planning action in the Maldives. More than 2 million due to the serious impact to downstream users and
people in Florida, USA, where a Dutch development aquatic food supplies. Coastal eutrophication has grown
company is considering a floating village (i.e. units can exponentially over the last 40 years, with virtually no
rise and fall with the water levels), live within 4 feet of coastal areas (with the exception of Antarctica) spared.
current high tide elevations (Parker, 2015). The floating Much of the coastal eutrophication can be traced to the
village concept has already been implemented in the success of fertilizer applications to farmland (often far
Netherlands where floating houses have been built on from the ocean) in increasing crop yields. The double
a lake in East Amsterdam (Folger, 2013). The flooding impact of crop production and nitrogen inputs from cities
problems associated with coastal communities with land by the sea, with significant inputs into coastal areas from
subsidence issues such as Manila, Calcutta, Dhaka and car and truck emissions, make reduction of the extent and
Ho Chi Minh City are even more challenging (Folger, duration of dead zones an international priority.
2013).
Even success stories, such as the Deer Island wastewater
It is also feared that rising sea levels will, in some treatment facility in Winthrop, Massachusetts, USA,
instances, exacerbate the already alarming problem of credited correctly for cleaning up and restoring ecosystem
saltwater intrusion into groundwater. This is a particularly services in the Boston Inner Harbor, required a deep
challenging problem in geographies with porous soils. water effluent diffuser designed to, among other things,
remove nitrate and other nutrients from the shallower
Wetlands harbor.

Damage to wetlands is a growing concern with many The scale of nutrient input to coastal waters is enormous.
coastal communities. It should be a worry for all of us. For example, 1.1 to 3.0 billion liters per day of treated
As the planet warms, wetlands will be directly affected sewage enters the Gulf of Maine, creating a substantial
through sea level rise and changes in the hydrologic nitrogen input.
cycle. The diversity of wetlands (e.g., floodplains,
mangroves, saltmarshes, arctic wetlands, peatlands, Endocrine-disrupting compounds are also introduced
freshwater marshes, forests) makes generalizations into coastal ecosystems through sewage effluent, with
tenuous, with one exception: wetlands constitute 12% unknown concentrations and effects on developing fishes,
of global carbon pools. Whether they will act as sinks birds, marine mammals, and invertebrate larvae. We
or sources for carbon under future warming scenarios is expect greater societal and regulatory focus in these
currently unknown (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate areas in the coming years.
Change (IPCC) 2001, Erwin 2009). In aggregate,
wetlands store 10 times more carbon than temperate Combined sewer overflow (CSO) systems are another
forests and 50 times more carbon than tropical forests. troubling issue in coastal ecosystems. When CSOs dump
Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, this blue carbon (the carbon directly into the coastal zone without benefit of a living
captured by the world’s oceans and coastal ecosystems) shoreline or vegetated bed, bacterial contamination
is stored for centuries in the form of soils. often skyrockets above levels that would permit shellfish
harvesting or beach going. CSO inputs also introduce
Ecosystem services provided by wetlands are enormous organic pollutant contamination that accumulates in the
(Barbier et al., 2011). Their role in flood mitigation from food chain and in coastal sediments. Many coastal cities
storms, nursery habitats for commercially and ecological have developed plans for CSO mitigation with newer
important species, and filtration and sequestration of designs incorporating holding facilities to dampen out
harmful substances produced by society will only increase flow peaks rather than bypassing the treatment plants and
in importance. As noted in IPCC 2014: “Magnitudes directly discharging to a sensitive coastal ecosystem.
and rates of climate change associated with medium- to
high-emission scenarios pose an increased risk of abrupt Marshes
and irreversible regional-scale change in the composition,
structure and function of marine, terrestrial and freshwater Recent work has shown that the collapse of coastal
ecosystems, including wetlands (medium confidence).” saltmarshes is often attributable to excess nitrogen, and
Planners using wetlands for the societal needs will need that the nitrogen is entering from the coastal ocean

5
 waters, not from the land side (Deegan et al. 2012).
The saltmarsh cordgrass becomes “top-heavy” through
excessive growth of above ground shoots relative to
rooting systems. This leads to toppling of plants in
chunks along waterways, reducing the effectiveness of
the wetland to provide storm protection and ecosystem
services. For wetlands located near urban areas, CSOs
are likely the major source of episodic nutrient pulses
contributing to this problem.

Along many coasts, tide gates manage flows into

wetlands. Improper operation of these gray infrastructures
in a green system can lead to manifold problems
affecting coastal resilience. These include invasion of
Figure 4 – Common Millimeter Sized Micro-Plastics Pulled Up in an Open Net
a freshwater tolerant grass (Phragmites australis) that Tow. Sea Education Association
increases fire risk during dry seasons, compromise of
ecosystem services of the marsh through inadequate
exchange with the nearshore area, and flooding
of property adjacent to the wetland during extreme
events if closure of the gate is not properly managed.
Sensorization of tide gates, and smart systems to manage
them, will be needed near-term as sea-level rise will
increase the rate at which these structures are added to
wetlands for flood control during extreme events.

Floatables
Floating plastic debris in oceans is being increasingly
recognized as a problem. As plastics are broken down
through mechanical action and ultraviolet (UV) light
exposure, the plastic particles become small enough
to be ingested by a host of marine organisms, such as
copepods, filter feeding fishes and whales, bivalves,
pelagic tunicates, salps, jellyfish, and corals.

Figure 5 – Map Showing Concentration Trends in Open Ocean Micro-Plastics

off the Atlantic Coast. Law, K. L., S. Moret Ferguson, N.A. Maximenko, G.
Proskurowski, E.E. , Peacock, J. Hafner, And Reddy, C.M., Reddy 2010 Plastic
Accumulation In The North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. Science 329:1185 -
1188

Reportedly, Albatrosses lose as much as half their

offspring in the Pacific Ocean near Midway Island after
they inadvertently feed them plastics thinking it is food
(Dyson, 2014).
Figure 3 - Floating Debris in Oceans. http://marinedebris.noaa.gov
Coral Reefs
These so-called microplastics (< 5 mm size) are an
emerging environmental contamination issue. Most of the Coral reefs are being damaged throughout the world due
plastic compounds adsorb organic contaminants present, to ocean warming and acidification caused by increased
concentrating them many-fold (often many orders of CO2 absorption—the “other CO2 problem.” Local
magnitude) above concentrations in the water. Thus once economies depend on these reefs for food, recreation
ingested by a marine organism, depending on its trophic and coastal protection. Their economic value has been
level, they can further biomagnify up the food chain, estimated to be $30 billion per year and they directly
posing direct health threats to top predators, including impact about 500 million people (Walsh, 2014).
humans.

6
Coral reefs are the first major ecosystem directly consequences for the development and persistence
imperiled by the global changes we are experiencing. of oxygen minimum zones, which occur naturally and
Some experts are projecting reef extinction within the unnaturally in overly eutrophied areas nearshore. Coastal
next century as calcification becomes physic-chemically upwelling zones dependent on the location of lower
difficult, and reefs suffer annual episodes of bleaching pressure areas and prevailing winds may be negatively
(induction of loss of the symbiotic algae living in corals or positively affected by climactic shifts.
that facilitate their growth).
Much of the high value fisheries occur in upwelling areas
Reefs are a source of protein for many people, serve as near coastlines. In addition, changes to near shore ocean
the focus of the tourism industry in a number of tropical waters may deleteriously effect shoreline facilities such as
locations, provide protection from coastal erosion of desalination plants and cooling systems.
shorelines, and mitigate impacts of tropical cyclones on
shores. Sea level rise threatens the existence of low-lying
island nation states such as Kiribati, Tuvalu and the
‘‘SEA LEVEL RISE AND OCEAN WARMING
Maldives built atop coral atolls. INCLUDE DELETERIOUS IMPACTS TO
POWER PLANT OCEAN WATER COOLING
The Caribbean basin coral reefs have severely degraded SYSTEMS AND INCREASED ALGAL BLOOM
over the last 30 years from a combination of coral FREQUENCY THAT MAY DECREASE
bleaching, overfishing and disease outbreaks. These CAPACITY OF SEAWATER DESALINATION
trends are expected to expand globally.
PLANTS’’ (URICH ET AL.).
Near Shore Ecosystems
Potential Economic Losses
Near-shore ecosystems in temperate and arctic latitudes
will experience range-shifts and extinctions of many plant According to the United Nations, “Globally, the market
and animal species, given the speed of warming, which value of marine and coastal resources and industries
is faster by an order of magnitude than anything in life’s is estimated at $3 trillion per year or about 5% of the
geologically recent past. Calcifying organisms other than world’s GDP, and an estimated 63% of global ecosystem
corals will be affected by the projected 30% increase in services are provided by marine and coastal systems“
free hydrogen ion availability in seawater over the next (http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/
century. Much of the nearshore secondary production ourwork/environmentandenergy/focusareas).
occurs through bivalve and gastropod population
turnover. These organisms are primary food sources Due in part to projected sea level rise, the potential
for many economically and ecologically important fish economic losses in 2050 if an extreme weather event
and crustacean species. As calcification becomes more overwhelmed protective structures around some coastal
difficult, loss of key species may occur with unknown cities could range from $95 billion in Ho Chi Minh City
consequences for nearshore food-webs. The timing of to $250 million in Guangzhou, China, to more than
reproduction for key species may shift as well, as was $275 billion in Miami, Florida, USA (Hallegatte et al.,
observed during an unprecedented warming of the Gulf 2013). Also, by 2050, without upgrading protective
of Maine during summer 2012, which appears to have systems, damages to coastal communities due to flooding
impacted some aquatic life in the area. and storms could approach $1 trillion (Hallegatte et
al., 2013). In the United States, the Federal Emergency
While it is difficult to associate aquatic life changes Management Agency (FEMA) expects the number of
to ocean warming alone due to other impacts like flood insurance policies to increase in the future as well
overfishing, there are indications that changes are as the loss per policy (Journal AWWA April, 2014).
occurring. For example, the cod population off the The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
shores of Maine appear to be moving north and Development (OECD) estimates that by 2070, 150
east while some shell fish such as the blue crab are million people and $35 trillion in property will be at
appearing for the first time in waters north of Cape Cod risk of coastal flooding (Folger, 2013). “In the coming
(Massachusetts, USA). Also, during the 2012 warming decades, the World Bank predicts rising seas could
event in the Gulf of Maine, the lobster crop was robust. invade major river deltas, poisoning them with salt water
and destroying some of the world’s richest agricultural
If phytoplankton or forage species reproduce out of
land” (Parker, 2015).
phase with their consumers as warming increases, there
is the potential for a chronic mismatch in trophic transfer There are likely other impacts associated with sea level
in marine food webs. rise and ocean warming, about which we have yet to
learn.
Increased warming will lead to increased stratification
of the water column at all latitudes. This will have

7
 After all, as Mr. Dan Dastel, director of the Ocean Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs)
Genome Legacy Project at Northeastern University, has
stated, “Life started in the oceans. It has been only the Since the mid-1990s, there has been an increasing
last 15% of the history of life that things crawled up on concern raised from the recognition that a large number
the land.” of unregulated yet widely used chemicals pose risk to our
aquatic ecosystem and water supplies. Such chemicals
FRESH WATER are referred to as CECs.

Quality These CECs include both new emerging pollutants, such

as nano-materials and antibiotic-resistant genes, and
Fresh water issues are equally challenging and are existing chemicals with recently recognized health impacts,
perhaps even more important to the wellbeing of the including pharmaceuticals, personal-care products (PPCPs)
global community. and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs).

Depending on location, water quality problems can Their harmful effects on human, animal and aquatic
include untreated or inadequately treated wastewater; lives have already become manifest and it is possible
combined sewer overflows; deterioration of watersheds that additional unknown harmful impacts are occurring
due to development, deforestation and natural disasters because of them.
like fires and floods; the emergence of contaminants of
emerging concern (CECs), some of which are difficult to There is a large and ever-increasing number of CECs
treat; and naturally occurring constituents such as salinity (i.e., more than 87,000 CEC candidates have been
and metals including arsenic. identified by the USEPA), making the conventional labor-
and resource-intensive methods of monitoring water
It is estimated that 2 million tons of untreated sewage, quality neither feasible nor economical. Although great
industrial waste and agricultural runoff is discharged to progress has been made toward better understanding of
the world’s waterways annually. This problem contributes the occurrence, sources and potential environmental and
to 2.2 million deaths from diarrhea each year, mostly health effects from these CECs, one remaining challenge
with children under five and millions of cases of trachoma that remains is the lack of a realistic method for assessing
caused blindness (http://www.the waterpage.com/ and quantifying the harmful effects and risks exerted
basic_needs.htm). by these pollutants in water. This greatly hampers the
development and implementation of effective regulations,
In 2006, the UNEP estimated that 80% or perhaps strategies and technologies to control and eliminate their
even 90% of sewage entering the sea from developing harmful effects.
countries was untreated and that governments should be
investing $56 billion each year to address the problem. While they compound the many health issues in
developing countries, they are also presenting developed
Estimated er enta e o countries with challenges. This is due to the limited
Re ion ntreated Wastewater effectiveness of existing treatment processes in removing
Enterin t e ea them from wastewater streams. Traditional water and
Ca pian Sea 0 wastewater treatment processes are not designed to
a in eliminate most of the CECs, especially at the trace
America Cari ean levels often present in drinking water and the aquatic
a A ia environment.

S h a aci ic 3
e and Cen ra A rica 0
edi erranean 53
Table 2 – Untreated Wastewater Entering Selected Seas. http://www.scidev.
net/global/pollution/news/un-agency-issues-warning-over-untreated-sewage.html

Arsenic is a particularly troubling natural contaminant in

developing countries that use groundwater for drinking.
It affects millions of people who cannot afford the cost to
adequately treat the water to remove this toxin. Recently,
the University of Florida conducted successful bench scale
tests on the effectiveness of iron impregnated wood char Figure 6 – Many Bangladeshi Villages Have Wells With Naturally High Levels
of Arsenic. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/waterissuesindevelopingcountries
to remove arsenic at low cost. The technology may also
be effective in nutrient removal and CO2 sequestration Various treatment technologies have been explored
(Landers, February 2015). and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), such as
8
 CEC ltra iltration BR R /R BR/R

Ace amin phen 0 0 5 100

A ra ine 15 0
Car ama epine 1 0
ic enac 3 7 5 2 20 0
i an in 5 3 0
radi 0 27 0
r ne 0 7 7 15 0
Ga a ide 4
ydr c d ne 14 7 0
I pr en 5 100 32 0
I pr mide 5 5 0 3 0
epr ama e 10 100 100 1 0
apr en 13 4 5 100 20 17
y en ne 4 0 3
r e er ne 5
S ame h a e 2 47
C 5 5 5
e er ne
ric an 0 7 53 0
rime h prim 1 0
23 50
Table 3 – Effectiveness of Some Treatment Processes in Removing Selected Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs). April Gu, Northeastern University

photocatalysis, ozonation, chlorine dioxide, Fenton-based water. The December 2013 Journal AWWA notes that the
processes and other strong oxidants, have been reported University of Bath in the UK is looking at using sea shells
as promising for effective degradation of CECs. In to polish wastewater effluent and remove undesirable
consideration of the energy and cost, and within the substances, such as hormones, pharmaceuticals and
economically reasonable range of doses and reaction fertilizers.
time commonly applied, the mineralization rates (i.e.
TOC removal) by AOPs are generally low, generating Scarcity
byproducts often with higher polarity and solubility than
the parent compounds. In some cases, the resulting The world’s population is expected to grow from today’s
consequence of this is that, although the targeted parent slightly more than 7 billion to 9 billion, eventually
chemical treated may be reduced, the generated peaking around 9.4 billion by 2070 and then decline
transformation products with higher solubility and polarity to around 9 billion by 2100, according to population
in the water may exert toxicity higher than the removed projections from IIASA researchers, published in a
parent chemical. book, World Population and Human Capital in the 21st
Century. Alternative scenarios included in the projections
CEC removal is an active area of global research and range from 7 billion to almost 13 billion by 2100
development. Great scientific and engineering challenges (http://phys.org/news/2014-10-world-population-peak.
exist in addressing the water quality problems associated html).
with CECs in terms of understanding their harmful impact
and risk, and developing cost-effective remediation Much of this growth will occur in cities that are already
technologies. struggling to meet the needs of their current populations.
Even now, access to water is limited in many areas and
Two of the six AWWA Water Research Foundation’s the infrastructure we rely on to deliver it and provide for
(WRF) priorities are associated with some CECs sanitation is deteriorating.
(endocrine disruptors and pharmaceuticals). The other
four being the water energy nexus, Cr+6, water system The European Environmental Agency (EEA) has projected
infrastructure assessment and advancing the science of that the demand for fresh water could approach 7

9
 trillion cubic meters by 2030–a deficit of about 3 trillion mitigate some of the consequences of uneven distribution.
cubic meters (m3). In 2009, the 2030 Water Resources These concepts can encourage individuals to conserve
Group made a similar estimation of 4.5 trillion m3 in and countries, industries and the agricultural community to
2009 to 6.9 trillion m3 in 2030 (Charting Our Water consider the global impacts of their water use decisions.
Future). Most of the growth in demand is likely to be For example, countries with arid climates may be
in developing countries and associated with more and encouraged to import water intensive foods and products
wealthier people in these geographies. from countries with wetter climates.
Billion m3
8 000 In some developed countries, water demand could
7 000 actually decrease (at least from a per capita standpoint)
6 000
5 000
Deficit
in 2030
due to a focus on conservation and the overall attention
4 000 being paid globally to water footprints and sustainability.
3 000 According to the United States Geological Survey
2 000
(USGS), total potable water demand has in fact declined
1 000
0 in the United States since 2005 by 13% and per capita
Existing available Existing Projected abstractions
supplies abstractions in 2030 demand has declined to 337 liters per capita per day
Surface Water Agriculture Domestic and municipal (LPCD) from 379 LPCD (Journal AWWA, January 2015).
Groundwater Industry Deficit
Dyballa and Hoffman report a reduction of public and
Figure 7 – EEA Projected Demand For Fresh Water. http://www.eea.europa. self-supplied domestic use in the United States of about
eu/data-and-maps/figures/forecast-of-global-water-demand
16%, since 1990. However, unless more substantial fresh
According to the United Nations, water scarcity affects water demand reduction strategies are implemented,
every continent: 1.2 billion people live in areas of especially those related to agriculture, population growth
physical water scarcity and 500 million are approaching and increased wealth in developing countries will likely
this situation. overwhelm efforts to reduce water consumption, resulting
in a continued increase in the global demand for fresh
About 1.6 billion face economic water scarcity (http:// water.
www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml). In
addition, “in a growing number of countries, water has Overuse
become the single most important constraint to increased
food production” (Seckler, 1998). In an effort to define The International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
water scarcity, a study by Falkenmark, Lundqvist, and reports that in some parts of the world, including the
Widstrand, indicated that 1,700 m3 per capita per year semi-arid regions of Asia and the Middle East, the
of available water supply or more is the level above groundwater table is falling at an alarming rate (Seckler,
which shortages will be local and rare; below 1,000 1998). IWMI believes there is an urgent need to focus
m3 per capita per year, water supply begins to hamper the attention of both professionals and policy makers
health, economic development, and human well-being; on the problems of groundwater depletion wherever it
and at less than 500 m3 per capita per year, water is occurring. Reportedly, more than 40% of the world’s
availability is a primary constraint to life.” The UN has current population live in countries that are over pumping
listed the minimum water needed for personal and aquifers. Some of this over pumping is from “fossil
domestic uses as 50 to 100 liters per person per day. aquifers” that do not have a significant, if any, recharge
mechanism (Brown, 2013). A continuation of this trend
Also, according to the Seckler report, about 108,000 could negatively impact food supplies at a time when
cubic kilometers (km3) of water precipitates annually on substantial increases are predicted to be needed.
the earth’s surface. About 60 % (61,000 km3) evaporates
directly back into the atmosphere. If the remaining The severe drought in California is resulting in increased
47,000 km3 were evenly distributed, which, of course, groundwater extraction that is causing concern about
is far from the case, it would equate to approximately recharge, declining groundwater tables, reduced
6,700 m3 per person per year, which would be more groundwater quality and sinking land (Hasselgrove,
than enough. 2014). Consistent with sustainability principals, we
should not be consuming more water than can be
Virtual Water replenished for future generations. The mining of
groundwater supplies and excessive withdrawals
While fresh water cannot be evenly distributed across from surface supplies must stop, unless a compelling
the globe, emerging concepts like “water footprints” (i.e., sustainable case can be made for continuance. Falling
a measure of the amount of water used to produce the groundwater tables not only reduce available supplies
goods and services an individual, community, business, for future users, but also can cause lowering of ground
or nation utilizes), “virtual water” (i.e., the amount of surfaces, and, in concert with rising sea levels, can
water that is embedded in the production of food or other exacerbate salt water intrusion problems along some
products) and “virtual water trade” have the potential to coastlines.

10
Similarly, safe yields of reservoirs should not be exceeded Users manage resources in such a way that supply
and the impacts of climate change must be considered. problems even in periods of severe drought are minimal.
Rivers need minimum flow and should not be allowed
to run dry due to human causes. To achieve these Capital Programs
objectives, we need to consider the big picture and take
well planned aggressive action. Serving the needs of those without clean water now,
projected increases in water demand, deteriorating
Total Supply Planning quality, more stringent regulations and excessive
withdrawals all are driving the need for capital programs
On a rational level, the need to consider groundwater to increase the sustainable supply of clean water. Basic
aquifers as a component of a hydraulic resource water treatment will be required for those in need and
system is accepted. However, sometimes this element advanced treatment, such as desalinization, will be
of water resource management is not given adequate needed where raw water quality has become brackish,
consideration. Groundwater is everywhere, which often has other wise deteriorated or where oceans need
means it can be the cheapest and most convenient to be used to supply arid coastal areas. Reservoirs,
component. However, it still seems that more thorough wells, dams, pipelines and ancillary facilities will all be
studies into the benefits of integrating groundwater into required as well.
a given water resource system are required, providing
that such integration does not lead to the over pumping In addition, basic sanitation needs to be provided
problems noted above. to all who need it as soon as possible. Wastewater
conveyance and treatment systems will also be required
to address population growth and ongoing pollution
issues associated with inadequately treated wastewater
polluting receiving waters or contaminating groundwater
aquifers.

Membranes are particularly attractive for meeting

future treatment needs due to improvements in process
technology and effectiveness. Some of the world’s largest
desalinization plants are in the Middle East - Jubail Saudi
Arabia (800,000m3 per day) and Jebel Ali in the United
Arab Emirates (2.13 billion liters per day). Membrane
systems, effective in desalination, are also cost effective
in treating brackish water and, as we have seen, in
Figure 8 – Mijares River Basin, Spain. Millars (Wikimedia Commons) treating some CECs.
The Mijares River Basin on Spain’s Mediterranean
As drinking water regulations become more challenging
coast is an excellent example of the combined alternate
and more sophisticated—and expensive treatment
use of surface and underground resources. The system
processes are developed to meet them—we should
has three reservoirs with a net capacity of 178 cubic
rethink the need to treat to potable water standards the
hectometers (hm3). Two have serious leaks, with average
water that is not used for drinking, bathing or cleaning.
losses of about 45 hm3 a year, but those leaks contribute
to the recharge of the Plana de Castellón groundwater More direct and indirect reuse options will be part of
aquifer. Approximately one third of the 35,000 ha the solution to our water challenges as will conservation
area uses surface water for irrigation; another third uses programs aimed at reducing waste and per capita
groundwater for urban and industrial demands; and the potable water consumption.
remaining third uses sources alternately, depending on
the availability of surface water. Traditional irrigation As the cost to transport and treat wastewater increases
using surface water generates return flows that also and the global community’s ability to properly fund these
recharge the aquifer. efforts declines, we must consider less costly local or
decentralized options.
Consequently, surplus water levels protect the aquifer
from salt water intrusion. In years of heavy rain, as the Energy-Water-Food Nexus
availability of surface water increases, reservoir and
river losses also increase, enhancing aquifer recharge. It Most of us have heard of the energy–water nexus. Simply
has been estimated that variations in the aquifer volume put, large amounts of one are usually required to produce
can exceed 700 hm3, which is more than three times and distribute large amounts of the other. Recently food
the storage capacity of the reservoirs (Sahuquillo et al., has been added to the nexus since about 70% of global
2010). fresh water use is associated with agriculture.

11
 Currently, it is estimated that more than 1.5 billion people development, which is creating regulatory challenges.
do not have reasonable access to electricity. Addressing Recently, the USEPA issued an advance notice of
this need, along with the expected increased demand rulemaking related to hydraulic fracturing, which is
from those that do, will result in energy being a major proposed to apply to government land in the United
global issue in this century. Meeting this demand will States.
likely further stress fresh water supplies.
A major reason for the new regulations on hydraulic
The vast majority of the world’s energy, in the vicinity of fracturing is the concern about possible impacts to
80%, is produced from fossil fuels, which are a major groundwater quality. A similar concern has been
source of CO2 emissions—a major contributor to global expressed about certain types of CO2 sequestration.
warming as well as the rising and acidification of our seas.
Despite the increasing use of alternative energy generation, The challenges associated with agriculture are quite
the world will likely remain dependent on fossil fuel for much significant as well. The demand for agricultural water
of its energy for the foreseeable future. According to the could also increase as the global population grows and
USEPA, CO2 makes up 77% of the greenhouse gases in the more middle classes emerge, along with their desire
world’s atmosphere, with about 75% of that emanating from for richer diets. The developing world’s demand for
fossil fuels. Methane and nitrous oxide make up almost all meat has tripled in the last four decades, while egg
of the remainder. CO2 emissions have been increasing over consumption has increased seven fold (Foley, 2014).
the past century – more rapidly in the last half. The developing world’s demand for meat will put more
pressure on the agricultural community to produce food
in sustainable ways. Consideration
35 000 of “what to grow and where
to grow it” will become more
30 000 prevalent. Such decisions, which
Carbon Dioxide Emissions

are already politically and

25 000
economically difficult, will likely
(Teragrams CO2)

20 000 become even more complex as

our climate changes. Thus, the
15 000 need for advances in techniques
to use fresh water more effectively
10 000 for agriculture, which is already
critical and will become even more
5 000
so in the future.
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 A Call For Action
Growing populations, increasing
Figure 9 – Source of data: Boden, T.A., G. Marland, and R.J. Andres (2010). Global, Regional, and National
Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S.
wealth and providing basic needs
Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn., U.S.A. doi 10.3334/CDIAC/00001_V2010.
to the poor will place even more
pressure on already stressed and
While this trend is alarming, there is significant global overly used fresh water supplies. The world needs to
activity that might result in a reduction of CO2 emissions, address this from every direction possible. This should
or at least a dampening of the rate of increase in the include more focus on reducing fresh water demand;
future. Countries all over the world are taking action to rethinking how we supply fresh water; changing how
reduce CO2 emissions through more use of renewable we treat, distribute and collect water, wastewater and
energy and people are becoming more aware of the stormwater; and ensuring that reasonable climate change
need to use global resources more sustainably. Also, mitigation strategies are implemented. Potable and
technologies are evolving, such as sequestration to agricultural fresh water demand reduction, localized
capture CO2 before it discharges to the atmosphere. facilities, considering all elements of water as a
resource, addressing infrastructure needs, sustainability
A somewhat recent challenging issue in some countries considerations and better big picture planning will all
is the emergence of more sophisticated and effective have a role in effectively addressing our water challenges
hydraulic fracturing techniques for oil and gas before they become our water crisis.

12
Demand Reduction

Overview Water footprints and virtual water trade are particularly

germane to agriculture fresh water use issues. If one
While large capital programs will be necessary to country exports a water intensive product to another
address our global water challenges, their number and country, it exports water in virtual form. In this way some
cost can be minimized through fresh water demand countries support other countries in their water needs.“
reduction. Techniques to do this are less agricultural use, (Zimmer, 2013). Water scarce and water rich countries
potable water demand reduction, including addressing could both benefit by trading water-intensive products
the cost of water, and reuse. and in so doing improve water use efficiency, water
supply security and reduce global fresh water demand.
Agricultural Demand Reduction
A significant amount of research is being conducted
Improvements to irrigation efficiency, crop management on virtual water trade. While the details are beyond
(especially what to grow and where to grow it) along the scope of this document, Figure 10 provides some
with more reuse should all play a role in agricultural fresh graphic indication of the amount of fresh water (blue
water demand reduction. - surface or groundwater, green - rainwater, and grey
- fresh water required for pollution assimulation) that
According to IWMI Report 19, “There is a wide range could be involved in virtual water trade associated with
of irrigation practices and technologies available to agriculture.
increase irrigation water productivity, ranging from the
conjunctive use of aquifers and better management The “numbers” are significant and indicate the potential
of water in canal systems, to the use of sophisticated of virtual water trade concepts to help governments
basin-level sprinkler and drip irrigation systems” (Seckler, address the agricultural element of fresh water demand
1998). reduction.

Figure 10 – Global Water Savings Associated with International Trade in Agricultural Products (1996-2005). The United Nations World Development Report 4.
“Managing Water Under Uncertainty and Risk” Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2011, p. 24. Note: Only the biggest water savings >5 Gm3 per year are shown.

13
 Dialogue about water footprints and virtual water There are a number of articles written about virtual water,
are evolving and figures related to the water used to footprints and virtual water trade. Many are mentioned in
produce a product are best estimates and contain myriad the bibliography. Readers interested in learning more are
assumptions. Values of water footprints can also vary by encouraged to peruse the referenced articles and authors
geography, but regardless of location, the magnitude of as a starting point.
water footprint values is, in some cases, startling. Tables 4,
5 and 6 list the water footprint for a variety of goods, for Potable Water Demand Reduction
energy production, and for countries, respectively.
In water distribution systems, demand reduction can
be subdivided into two major elements: minimizing
non-revenue water and reducing consumption. Two
other strategies to reduce potable water demand are
establishing appropriate water rate structures and reuse.

Non Revenue Water and Consumption Reduction

The World Bank has estimated non-revenue water to
range from 15 to 40%, reaching as high as 60 to 70%
in some developing countries (Cahn, 2014). Sources
Table 4 – Selected Water of non-revenue water include inaccuracy or absence
Footprint Values for Various of meters and unauthorized use, leakage and system
Items.
http://waterfootprint. maintenance, such as flushing.
org/en/resources/
interactive-tools/ Well planned metering and operations and maintenance
product-gallery/
(O&M) programs can be effective in reducing non-revenue
water. To assist utilities in this endeavor, the International
Water Association (IWA) and AWWA have developed a
Table 5 – Average Water Audit Method - M36 (Jernigan, 2014).
Global Water Footprints
for Energy Production Some utilities are implementing smart water networks
http://temp.waterfootprint.
org./?page=files/Water_ (SWNs) to reduce demand and to manage other elements
energy of their systems, including water quality and energy usage,
which can be as much as 30% of a utility’s cost. Many
SWNs use remote sensing to detect meter inaccuracy
and leaks thereby allowing them to rectify problems early.
SWNs also often use automated pressure regulation
systems to lower energy costs and reduce leakage volume.
It is estimated that SWNs could save U.S. customers
$12.5 billion per year (Cahn, 2014).

At the residential level, a Water Smart Software system

developed by Peter Meyer, founder of Water Demand
Management, has reportedly been used to create
individualized water scores for households, creating peer
pressure to reduce consumption. In addition to providing
a water score, advice can be provided to homeowners
regarding consumption reduction techniques (Hasselgrove,
2014).

Another common demand reduction strategy is to reduce

outside use. Rules prohibiting the use of potable water for
plant and lawn watering except on designated days are
becoming more common. Incremental water rate structures
that charge a premium for external household usage also
has the potential to reduce consumption by encouraging
consumers to more efficiently irrigate, reduce areas that
need it and limit car washing activities. In an effort to
Table 6 - Global Water Footprint for Selected Countries.
www.waterfootprint.org. help consumers maximize the efficiency of their irrigation

14
systems, Atkinson (2015) reports that hydrogels are Actual average expenditures in developed countries are
potentially attractive as soil additives. often well below the 2.5% figure.

‘‘HYDROGELS ... HELP RETAIN WATER “IN INDONESIA, A REGULATION ADOPTED

(AND CAN) ABSORB 400 TIMES THEIR IN 2006, PRESCRIBES THAT DOMESTIC
WEIGHT IN WATER AND NUTRIENTS, AND EXPENSES FOR THE FULFILLMENT OF
THEN RELEASE 96% BACK INTO THE ROOT THE STANDARD OF BASIC NEEDS FOR
SYSTEM’’ (ATKINSON). DRINKING WATER SHOULD NOT EXCEED
4% OF THE INCOME OF THE USER…”
(SMETS, 2009).
Society’s growing awareness of the need to be less
wasteful, is by itself, contributing to domestic potable
water demand reduction. One utility’s consumer rebate Historically, many utilities have established declining
program to encourage the use of water efficient rate structures where unit charges decrease as usage
appliances resulted in reduced overall consumption just increases. In California, that trend has reversed and
due to increased awareness. In short, customers realized more utilities, in an effort to reduce consumption, have
that “if the utility is paying us to conserve water, the need implemented inclining rate structures. At some time in the
to do so must be very important” (Pushard and Michael, future, if this trend continues, affordability may well be an
2014). issue in this state (Gaur et al., 2015).
In addition, the severity of the drought in California has It is encouraging that, in addition to the UN General
resulted in government driven consumption reduction Assembly, many countries have policies establishing
mandates, which appear to be getting the desired results. everyone’s right to clean water at an affordable price.
Except for the extremely poor, consumers should pay for
Water Rates the actual cost of water, including maintenance. This is
consistent with the most basic of sustainability principals.
Most people who work in the water and wastewater
field agree that, with the exception of the poorest among To encourage conservation, utilities should consider
us, water is generally underpriced. This encourages protecting and perhaps even subsidizing for the very
overuse. At the September 2013 Singapore International poor the water rates for basic indoor needs (washing,
Water Week, Water Utility Leaders Forum, one topic of bathing, cooking, and laundry) with more “optional”
discussion was the need to communicate to stakeholders outdoor uses such as lawn irrigation charged at rates
that the cost of not sufficiently investing in a water service above the cost of service (Day et al., 2014).
is far greater than the cost of the service itself.
Two South American Country Approaches
Consumer understanding of the need to increase our Two countries in South America have notable approaches
investment in water and wastewater systems is an to water rates, considering household income. The
important element in attacking the underpricing problem. Colombian system divides users into residential (by
If people were better informed, they would likely be more socio economic strata) and non-residential (industrial,
supportive of increased rates and fees for water service. commercial, official and special) categories.

“ACCORDING TO THE WORLD BANK, THE The users in the middle stratum pay an equilibrium tariff
AVERAGE (MEAN) GLOBAL WATER TARIFF (neither paying nor receiving a subsidy) while the richest
stratum pays surcharges to benefit the poorest stratum.
IS $0.53 PER CUBIC METER. IN DEVELOPED There is a first basic block of 20 m3 per account per
COUNTRIES THE AVERAGE IS $1.04, month, for the three subsidized residential strata, and a
WHILE IT IS ONLY $0.11 IN THE POOREST second non-basic block for use that exceeds 20 m3.
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.”
Chile’s subsidies for the poor, funded by the central
government, are administered by municipalities who
When discussing the price of water, affordability inform drinking water and sanitation companies of
should be considered for all customers, not just the most selected users’ incomes. The amount to be paid by
needy. In the United States, the USEPA has suggested the user and the amount to be paid directly by the
affordability rates of 2.0% to 2.5% of median household municipality are shown separately on the invoice. The
income for water and wastewater service. The United percentage subsidized varies between 25% and 85% of
Nations has suggested 3%. The actual costs could be the total consumption value (CEPAL-UN, 2013).
7% or higher for some poorer consumers.“ (Smets,2009).

15
 Revenue Issues concepts are being implemented worldwide for a variety
of purposes. See Figure 11.
It should be noted that water revenue shortages can be
exacerbated by successful demand reduction programs. Local systems with various available and emerging
Without increasing water rates, reduced usage translates membrane treatment processes, including microfiltration,
into reduced revenue—at a time when increased revenue ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis systems, are advancing
is needed to meet maintenance and capital needs. reuse because of their superior reliability and improving
This issue is likely a particular concern in cities whose cost-effectiveness. The automated nature of such systems
demographics and economies have changed due to makes them amenable to remote monitoring and
population shifts or reduced heavy manufacturing. Some operation which can facilitate the operation of
of these cities are dealing with stranded or excess decentralized systems. An increasing number of local
capacity water assets, which are much larger than what waste treatment systems are separating gray water from
is currently needed, but must be maintained or otherwise black water and reusing it at the same location in a
dealt with. variety of ways, such as toilet flushing, nutrient capture,
and creation of building materials from solids. Other
This is a particularly challenging issue in southeast conventional reuse systems are recreational
Michigan, USA. The region’s water distribution and impoundments, golf course irrigation, crop irrigation,
wastewater collection system was designed for a different snow making, street cleaning, boiler cooling,
era when heavy manufacturing was robust. A water groundwater enhancement, and stream flow
master planning study is underway to consider options to augmentation. Innovative approaches to reuse are
reduce the costs associated with managing the systems occurring throughout the world.
for current and future water needs.

“THE DILEMMA FOR WATER UTILITIES

IS THAT THEY ALREADY HAVE THE 6%
INFRASTRUCTURE IN PLACE, WHICH 7%
NEEDS TO BE MAINTAINED AND
8% 32%
UPGRADED IRRESPECTIVE OF THE
AMOUNT OF WATER SOLD TO THEIR
CUSTOMERS” (QURESHI, 2014). 8%

19%
While not complete, the study projects life-cycle savings 20%
in excess of $750 million by reducing total water
treatment capacity to a projected maximum day demand
of about 3.8 million m3/day and from a design value of
about 6.4 million m3/day, repurposing a water treatment
facility to a high lift pump station, converting a raw water Agriculture Irrigation
tunnel to transport finished water, and reducing booster Landscape Irrigation
pump station capacity. Non-revenue water will be Industrial Reuse
reduced from 30 % to 15 % through improved production Environmental Enhancements
and customer metering, retirement of under-utilized Non-Potable Reuse
distribution mains, and an accelerated program for water Recreational Reuse
distribution main replacement. Other

Direct and Indirect Reuse

Figure 11 - After Advanced Treatment, Water Is Reused Globally For a Variety
Reuse is a particularly attractive strategy for potable of Applications. GWI, and Lautze et al., 2014
water demand reduction. Wastewater is reused directly
after advanced treatment, or indirectly after discharge The Orange County, California Groundwater
to local surface water bodies or groundwater aquifers, Replenishment District (USA) treats wastewater treatment
and then recycled back into the water supply. Currently, plant effluent to better than drinking water standards. The
indirect reuse is more prevalent than direct reuse. Beyond treated water is used for two purposes: a well injection
demand reduction, reuse helps utilities reduce the system that serves as a barrier to saltwater intrusion and
expense of removing nutrients at wastewater treatment as a groundwater recharge system.
plants to meet increasingly stringent discharge limits for
nitrogen and phosphorous compounds. Water reuse After receiving treated wastewater from the Orange
County Sanitary District (OCSD), this facility further

16
purifies the water through microfiltration, reverse osmosis While this direct use of wastewater can create public
and UV light with hydrogen peroxide. health issues, the overall concept is beneficial. The
World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes this and
provides guidelines focused on mitigation as opposed to
prohibition. As financial resources permit, these practices
will hopefully evolve into fit-for-use treatment schemes,
resulting in the agricultural community still receiving
nutrients but from treated wastewater to mitigate health
issues (Lautze et al., 2012).
Regulations and Public Health Considerations

The major barriers for widely implementing water reuse

are more related to regulation, policy, cost and public
concerns about health – not technical feasibility. These
barriers must be addressed before closed urban water
systems will be more widely accepted by the public.

Regarding public health, in addition to the conventional

water contaminants such as pathogens, heavy metals and
priority pollutants, another concern is the accumulation
of CECs, which can enter the urban water cycle from
a variety of sources, including sewage discharge,
compounds leached from landfills, industrial wastes,
agricultural and stormwater run-off, CSOs and sanitary
sewer overflows (SSOs).

As noted previously, currently there is limited information

regarding their toxicological effect and significance,
Figure 12 - Orange County Ground Water Replenishment District. http://
gwrsystem.com/images/stories/About GWRS/GWRS%20Technical%20
and their discharge limits for water or wastewater
Brochure.pdf effluent have not yet been fully established by regulatory
agencies. These uncertainties complicate communication
Approximately 113,000 m3 of the final product water with the public and hinder acceptance of direct or
is conveyed by a barrier pump station to injection wells indirect wastewater reuse.
along the seawater intrusion barrier. The remaining final
product water is pumped to recharge basins. While public acceptance of reuse (especially direct
reuse) remains a challenge, the trend is toward
At a raw water production facility (RWPF) in Big Springs, acceptance due to increasing need and technical
Texas, USA, filtered effluent from the city’s conventional research results. Regarding the latter, reportedly one third
wastewater plant is treated with advanced technologies, of the water used in the United States can be recycled
delivered to the raw water pipeline system and then sent back into water supplies (Miller, 2015).
to five conventional water treatment plants (Salveson et
al., 2014). There is tremendous and diverse activity throughout
the world on water reuse. More information can be
The reuse program in the Murcia region of Spain is found in the USEPA 2012 Cooperative Research and
especially effective, 90% of all wastewater in this area is Development Agreement (CRADA) project report, titled
treated and reused for irrigation. “Reuse Guidelines.”
Driven by its dry climate and population growth, the city It is indeed encouraging to see so much global reuse
of Windhoek, the capital of Namibia, has been using activity because of its potential to close the need vs.
direct reuse for over 30 years (Nagel, 2015). Having availability gap. Reuse is also becoming a broader
served its design life, their plant was recently replaced consideration as more water professionals are looking
with more unit processes to enhance water quality. A at water in all forms as a valuable resource to be used
key element of their program since inception has been and reused and not wasted. This is the subject of the next
public outreach (http://sheffy6marketing.com/index. section.
php?page=namibia).

In the developing world, untreated wastewater is often

directly reused as fertilizer by the agricultural community
because of the high nutrient value of domestic waste.

17
 Water as a resource
A paradigm shift

Overview at selected locations. Purely centralized systems are

often used by larger communities with high population
Water stress, the demand for basic sanitation facilities, densities, while fully decentralized systems are more
and clean water for everyone not only pose great suitable for more distributed communities. Even for larger
challenges for the technical community, but also are urban areas, where centralized systems have been the
becoming more strategic issues for regulatory agencies, norm, trends toward hybrid approaches are emerging.
planners and other elements of government. To address
the challenges in an environment of limited financial Advantages of traditional centralized wastewater systems
resources, climate change and population growth, we include the potential for large-scale biosolids processing,
need a paradigm shift in our vision of water infrastructure treatment and bio-energy recovery, as well as peak flow/
and to consider all elements of it as a resource. demand attenuation.

Global stakeholders must come together and adapt to In addition, basic treatment can be provided more
changing circumstances to ensure the widest possible cost-effectively at a central treatment plant but more
access to basic sanitation in the least damaging way. advanced treatment (when necessary) can often be
Thus, when thinking of water as a resource, we must provided more cost-effectively at the local level.
address environmental and public health issues for both
the wealthy and the poor. Addressing these problems will Hybrid systems combined with reuse and resource
require engineers to work closely with social, ecological, recovery have multiple advantages. They offer the
legal, and financial experts and with all levels of potential for increased water system security, resource
government. recovery and sustainability. These are achieved by
providing significant reuse opportunities, reducing
conveyance costs, optimizing resource consumption
WEF HAS CHANGED THE TERM
through customizable and targeted treatment to meet
WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITIES TO local needs (instead of treating all water to the same high
WATER RESOURCE RECOVERY FACILITIES potable standards), and improving system security by
IN ALL ITS PUBLICATIONS (GUNDERSON, reducing the impact of an event to a local area.
2015).
In addition, hybrid integrated urban water management
systems can be phased in over time as areas within a
There are many technical aspects to this paradigm shift, specified urban area are developed and re-developed.
including centralized, decentralized and hybrid systems;
domestic wastewater source separation; stormwater Household Source Separation
catchment; and using wastewater for energy generation
and nutrient recovery. Perhaps the ultimate decentralized system is source
Centralized vs Decentralized separation at the household level. Instead of discharging
all household used water to sewers, technology is
Systems currently available to separate household wastes into
Urban water management systems can be classified as three streams: yellow water (urine), black water (other
centralized, decentralized or hybrid. In a centralized toilet wastes) and grey water (water from bathing and
system, potable water is produced and wastewater is clothes washing). Each stream has significantly different
collected for treatment at a central location before being characteristics and volumes, and separation of these
distributed to users or discharged to the environment. By streams allows them to be treated more economically
contrast, a decentralized system supplies water and treats for resource recovery and reuse. A good example of
wastewater locally. Hybrid systems incorporate elements household separation is shown in Figure 13.
of both by providing a centralized water and wastewater
system backbone, connected with decentralized systems Urine waste has a very small volume compared to the

18
two other streams, but it contains the majority of the plant. Such systems can save energy, reduce conveyance
nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, and many costs, and reuse rainwater, groundwater and black water.
CECs, such as some pharmaceuticals. Urine waste can One example of a satellite system is the Dockside Green
be stored to allow for self-sterilization and degradation Development in Victoria, British Columbia Canada. The
of CECs and then processed to produce fertilizer. Black master plan for Dockside Green, a mixed development,
water contains most of the degradable organic matter calls for treating all of its wastewater onsite.
and therefore can be anaerobically treated to produce
biogas, which in turn, might be used for hot water
heating. Grey water, which has the greatest volume but
contains less contaminants, can be economically treated
for non-potable reuses such as landscape and garden
irrigation and toilet flushing. Household source separation
scores high in sustainability as it is compatible with
potable water demand reduction, using waste water as a
resource, and treatment cost reduction.

GTZ House1 Figure 14 - The Master Plan for Dockside Green. http:www.terrain.org/
Eschborn, Germany unsprawl/25, graphiccourtesyVancity/DocksideGreen
Drinking
water Urine separation toilets
and waterless urinals This community historically discharged primary treated
wastewater into the adjacent Straits of Juan de Fuca. A
MAP
Kitchenettes and Urine
precipitation, sustainable development program, including Leadership
ammonia
sanitary sinks storage
stripping MAP+
ammonia
in Energy & Environmental Design (LEED) certification,
Urine Agricultural
reuse treated wastewater reuse, green infrastructure, water
Process Water
Excess sludge
efficient appliances and stormwater capture/recharge
Activated sludge reactor + Treated effluent: was developed. The plan includes using plant effluent
Re-use as service water,
membrane filtration
irrigation, infiltration or
direct discharge
after membrane treatment for toilet flushing, irrigation and
industrial use. The development also includes many water
Grey water
efficient appliances.

A large amount of stormwater is also captured locally

Figure 13 – Household Source Separation. Novotny, Vladimir, et al., 2010
via permeable paving systems, terraced ponds and
Toilets that separately collect urine and fecal matter are greenways.
now available, and approaches for incorporating them
into overall wastewater management systems are being Comprehensive Stormwater
evaluated. For developing countries and rural areas in Management Systems
developed countries where new sewer systems are being
contemplated, the infrastructure to support waste source Overview
separation and decentralized or hybrid wastewater
management systems should be considered. Stormwater transports a variety of contaminants, such
as particulates, nutrients, heavy metals, degradable
These types of systems are particularly suited for organic matter, toxic organic pollutants and pathogens
communities in very cold climates such as Alaska. The to receiving waters. Piped stormwater systems are
Alaska Department of Conservation (ADEC) has initiated increasingly seen as costly and performing somewhat
an “Alaska Challenge” to encourage and accelerate poorly from a sustainability viewpoint. Consequently,
research to provide household treatment systems to alternative measures to reduce runoff and associated
villages without centralized or decentralized treatment pollutant loads entering pipelines as well as to collect
systems. Given the arctic conditions and fiscal constraints, stormwater for supplemental water supply in drought
ADEC believes there is a “potentially enormous demand stricken areas have been increasingly discussed.
for a decentralized technology to provide indoor water These discussions hinge around the concept of making
and sewer service, which will function reliably under stormwater a resource.
harsh conditions and which has minimal operating and
capital costs.” Best management practices (BMPs) for stormwater
management provide opportunities for improving social,
Satellite Systems educational and environmental conditions in urbanized
and surrounding areas. Recent low-impact stormwater
Hybrid or satellite/local treatment systems are especially management approaches incorporate various BMPs to
attractive for new developments located a significant harvest rain water then treat it for use as a local water
distance from a central conveyance system and treatment resource for groundwater recharge.

19
 Comprehensive stormwater management systems of the way to free local authorities from the costly obligation of
future will likely combine source control and end-of-pipe maintaining their stormwater infrastructure.
measures and include both structural and non-structural
components. Many will be multifunctional: reducing
flood risk, improving stormwater quality, enhancing
groundwater supplies and providing urban green-spaces
for recreation and wildlife. The use of source control in
stormwater management aims to reduce the excessive
runoff and the pollutant loads entering into the drainage
system. These systems could include non-structural
approaches such as alternative layouts of roads and
buildings, minimizing imperviousness and maximizing Figure 16 - Rain barrel Used For Collection and Storage of Stormwater.
http://phillywatersheds.org/what_were_doing/green_infrastructure/tools
the use of soils and vegetation, contaminant reduction,
and educational programs to reduce stormwater pollution A good example of the advances being made in
or structural measures, such as constructed wetlands, stormwater management is Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
swales, rain barrels and similar stormwater capture USA. The city of Philadelphia is implementing a
facilities. The contribution of science and research to comprehensive approach to urban wet weather
the areas of stormwater quantity and quality monitoring, management, including stormwater management and
collection and treatment technologies are continuously control of combined sewer overflows in a sustainable
enabling a better understanding of stormwater manner with minimization of structural solutions.
characteristics and their effects on ecosystems and water
resources. The plan incorporates BMPs for vacant properties,
city schools, recreation centers and other public
properties. The program includes conceptual design of
a low-discharge stormwater management system for a
housing project redevelopment site. These BMPs have
included seepage trenches, sand filters, bio-retention
basins, porous pavement, swales, and subsurface
storage and rain barrels, which can collect and store
stormwater runoff from rooftops. The collected rain water
can be used for irrigation to water lawns, gardens,
window boxes or street trees.

Developing Country Stormwater Challenges

Although sustainability is currently a driving force in the
evolution of water policy in developed countries, the
more specific challenges of flooding and public health
hazards are still the major issues in developing countries.
Climate change, sea level rise and, in some cases,
lower ground surface elevations are posing increasing
Figure 15 - Innovative challenges in stormwater management and policy
Stormwater Management making.
Program - Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania. Philadelphia
Water Department - CDM These issues are complex and will require investment
Smith and time for developing economies to address. One of
the many strategies which should be considered is the
concept of eco cities for planning urban areas in the
developing world.

Eco-Cities and Zero-Waste Systems

The concept of the “eco-city” was proposed by an
While decentralized stormwater management systems
organization founded by Richard Register in Berkeley,
score high on sustainability scales, the extent of
California, in 1975. The concept is applicable to
decentralization needs to be balanced considering
developed and developing economies. The ultimate goal
ecological as well as flooding factors. This requires
of eco-cities is to eliminate all carbon waste, to produce
comprehensive planning and dialogue among all
energy entirely through renewable sources, and to
stakeholders. Decentralization should not be a convenient
incorporate the environment into the community.

20
Eco-cities offer various benefits, including stimulating organic matter can be combusted or converted into
economic growth, reducing poverty, organizing cities biogas and used for heat and electricity production
to have higher efficiency, and improving health. Water through combined heat and power (CHP) systems. New
infrastructure and management is a crucial element of the technologies like microbial fuel cells can convert the
eco-city. energy value of organic matter into electricity. Heat can
also be extracted directly from the wastewater stream
and upgraded for a variety of uses using heat pump
technology. Many other technologies are evolving to
recover nutrients, generate energy and extract other
valuable constituents from municipal wastewater.

Energy Generation
Urban water and wastewater management systems have
the potential to be energy-neutral or even net energy
producers, considering the potential energy contained
in the wastewater. Energy use for a typical urban water
management system (drinking water and wastewater) in
Figure 17 - Eco City, Tianjin, China the United States is around 15 to 20 watts/person, while
the energy available in the organic matter and nitrogen
An array of technologies and BMPs are included in the contained in the wastewater stream is on the order of 35
eco-city concept such as rainwater harvesting, smart to 40 watts/person (Daigger, 2009).
irrigation (xeriscaping), and sustainable urban drainage
and sewer systems. These help to reduce the amount of Nearly half of the energy consumption related to drinking
water needed for irrigation and to minimize the energy water and wastewater systems is for water conveyance
and resources required to deliver water supply and to and collection. Proper planning and the prudent use of
minimize pollution. new technology can greatly reduce conveyance energy
requirements, generate energy and capture heat. In so
THE ULTIMATE GOAL OF ECO-CITIES doing, it is possible to create energy-neutral systems
IS TO ELIMINATE ALL CARBON WASTE, (Daigger, 2009) via energy recovery from wastewater by
TO PRODUCE ENERGY ENTIRELY biogas production, heat recovery, microbial fuel cells and
THROUGH RENEWABLE SOURCES, AND TO other emerging technologies.
INCORPORATE THE ENVIRONMENT INTO Through innovation and optimization, the 23,700
THE COMMUNITY. m3/d Strass treatment plant east of Innsbrook, Austria,
actually produces more energy (8,650 kW-h/d) than
There are about 170 eco-cities currently in the world, it consumes (7,870kW-h/d). (Wilson and Whitlock,
including Tianjin, China, Freiburg, Germany, and 2014). A sludge plant at the Suzhou industrial park in
Stockholm, Sweden. China operated by the Sino French Water Development
Company Ltd. produces 10GWh of excess energy from
Improvements to the concept of eco-cities have been sludge, the ash from the sludge is used by the cement
made over time. Currently, one hears a good deal industry and much of its wastewater stream is recycled.
about “Smart Cities“, which utilize our ability to manage A description of this facility was contained in materials
“big data“ of all kinds and in all sorts of ways along prepared for the Singapore Water Week-Water Utility
with technological advancements and lessons learned Leaders Forum event in September 2013.
over the years to create “Cities of Tomorrow“. Much
more information is available in many documents
including FIDIC’s “Rethink Cities“ published in 2013.
Some communities who are actively exploring smart Wastewater
Steam
38 GW/h Excess Energy
city concepts include the Songdo International Business 80 Mm3

SIP
Sludge Drying
Process Dried
10 GW/h
Dongwu
District on the waterfront of Inchon, South Korea, Rio de Wastewater
Treatment
Sludge
70,000 t
Innadry 2E
operated
Sludge
25,000 t
Cogeneration
Plant
Ashes to
Cement
Sino French Water
Janeiro, Brazil and Santander, Spain (Reid, 2015).
Plants
Development Co. Ltd 9,000 t
Recycled Hot Water
Water 0,03 Mm3
3,8 Mm3

Valuable Contents of Wastewater

In addition to organic matter, wastewater contains Figure 18 – Example of Energy Recovery at the Suzhoe Industrial Park in
nutrients (e.g., phosphorus and nitrogen) and other China. Page 12 of the document “Pushing The Water Management Envelope”
valuable substances. When concentrated sufficiently, – Insights From the Singapore International Water Week Water Utility Leaders
Forum held in Singapore on September 18 and 19, 2013.

21
 Anaerobic Treatment Bacteria extract electrons from organic matter and
nitrogen and transfer them to oxygen, producing water.
Anaerobic treatment is commonly used to treat more Extensive laboratory-scale research has been completed
concentrated waste streams, such as industrial wastes, with this technology, and the scale-up to practical
or to stabilize biosolids. Research projects on anaerobic application is on-going.
treatment technologies are providing new approaches
in the co-digestion of other types of organic matter, Biofuel Production From Algae
including fats, oils, and grease (FOG); food waste;
and industrial waste, with the aim to increase biogas Biofuels derived from microalgae is considered to
production. Produced biogas can be used, after be a promising emerging technology. Coupling
appropriate cleaning, in CHP systems, or further cleaned algal cultivation with wastewater treatment is an
to remove CO2, moisture and other undesirable impurities environmentally friendly way to produce biofuel. The
to produce natural gas. Recently, the application of large quantities of freshwater and nutrients required for
anaerobic treatment processes involving granular sludge algae growth can be provided by various wastewater
or anaerobic membrane bioreactors for direct treatment streams (e.g., agricultural run-off, industrial and municipal
of wastewater have been demonstrated. wastewater), while at the same time remediating
wastewater.
An anaerobic lagoon at a beef processing plant in
Queensland, Australia, is reducing its dependence on
natural gas and improving its carbon footprint. The plant
is expected to pay for itself in 5 years. See Figure 19.

Precipitation Precipitation

GAS GAS

Figure 20 - Biofuel Production from Algal Cultivation Using Wastewater.

GAS
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/04/150402132800.htm E.
Siemann/Rice University

Moreover, the algal cultivation can be used for

carbon-neutral fuel production if combined with other
Figure 19 - Anaerobic Lagoon in Australia.
CO2 sources (e.g. power plant or other emissions),
Journal AWWA, May 2014, Pg. 97. thereby providing an effective carbon recycle and
sequestration system to generate carbon credits and
Energy Recovery Via Heat reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. An integrated
algal cultivation and wastewater treatment system
Because a significant amount of energy is available with can provide both biofuel production and wastewater
only a modest change in water temperature, heat can be treatment for biochemical oxygen demand, nitrogen and
directly extracted from a flowing wastewater stream for phosphorous removal and recovery.
a variety of purposes, including district heating systems.
Organic matter removed from the wastewater can also However, before advanced wastewater-based algal
be treated in thermal processes to produce excess heat biofuel production technologies can be widely
energy for direct use or for electricity production. Thermal implemented, more research is needed to improve
processes can also be used to gasify these solids, with system tolerance and stability, develop more efficient
the gas subsequently used for energy production. In and cost-effective algae harvesting and conversion
the process, heat is removed by heat exchange and technologies, and design economical integrated
converted into more useful forms using heat pumps. bio-refinery processes.
Although applications are currently limited, use of these
technologies is increasing. Nutrient Recovery

Microbial Fuel Cells Recovery of nutrients, particularly phosphorus, from

wastewater has been of interest because of the
Microbial fuel cells are a developing concept for deleterious effect nutrient enriched wastewater and
converting organic matter and nitrogen contained in runoff has on receiving waters, potentially leading to
wastewater into electrical energy (Logan et al., 2006). eutrophication, especially in lakes, and its value as

22
a fertilizer. Phosphorus is also a limited resource with exchange or adsorption via polymers and nanomaterials.
demand expected to exceed the supply in the future. Integrated algal biofuel cultivation with wastewater
It is estimated that about 15 to 20% of world demand treatment presents another alternative for recovering
for phosphate rock could be satisfied by recovering nutrients from wastewater.
phosphorus from wastewater streams.
Research
Lake Eutrophication
Research continues on techniques to cost effectively
Lake Eutrophication is presenting challenges throughout remove and recover nutrients from wastewater via new
the world. It is considered to be one of the most and enhanced treatment processes before discharge to
wide-spread environmental problems in the world’s receiving waters. One example is the Aby treatment plant
inland waters. As an example, the Albufera de Valencia in Aarhus, Denmark’s second largest city. Sponsored by
lagoon in Spain was clear to the bottom in the 1960s. the Danish Ministry for the Environment, the project will
In the 1980s, the lake became one of the most test technologies to extract phosphorus from wastewater.
eutrophic ecosystems in the world, reaching chlorophyll
concentration peaks of 800 mg/l. A restoration program
has been underway since 1991. Another example
of nutrient related problems is the 2014 water ban in
Toledo, Ohio, USA, caused by a blue green algae
induced microcystin outbreak (Hunter, 2014).

Figure 22 - Aby Treatment Plant in Aarhus, Denmark. Straton Childers 2014

The economics of nutrient recovery and energy

generation are not always favorable, although
fertilizer costs have recently been increasing faster than
Figure 21 – The Albufera de Valencia Lagoon, Spain. construction costs, so this part of the picture is changing.
Carlos Oltra The economics plus the quantity of biosolids actually
Technologies reused along with their nutrient content are all driving the
need for more research.
Nutrients can be recovered by a variety of technologies
and from various wastewater treatment processes. Nutrients enter waterways from point sources (e.g.,
discharges from wastewater resource recovery facilities)
Options include recovery from biosolids incineration and non-point sources (e.g., runoff containing natural and
ash using conventional mining technologies, extraction synthetic fertilizers).
from sludge, or processing solids recycle streams by
precipitation for struvite or calcium phosphate. Struvite Non-point sources are often the major contributor of
is a high-quality, slow release fertilizer, and calcium nutrients entering a particular water body. Since removing
phosphate is similar to phosphate ore. Ammonia-nitrogen nutrients from these sources is desirable, but often
can be stripped from these streams and adsorbed into challenging, research is being conducted on in-stream
sulfuric acid to form ammonium sulfate, which can be mitigation techniques. In this connection, a recent study
used as a fertilizer. by the USGS and NOAA on the Chesapeake Bay in the
United States has demonstrated that shellfish, especially
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the USA has been producing oysters, are effective for in situ nutrient removal (Stratton
a fertilizer (Milorganite) at their central plant for close Childers, 2014).
to 100 years. In addition, Edmonton, Alberta, is
constructing what will become Canada’s largest nutrient Another emerging area of research concerned with
recovery facility (10,000kg/day) (Knapschaefer, 2015). recovering valuable constituents from wastewater is
being conducted at Arizona State University where some
The promotion of decentralized wastewater systems valuable metals including gold, copper and silver have
with source separation has led to the emergence been found in biosolids from a number of treatment
of technologies for concentrating and recovering facilities in sufficient concentrations to warrant additional
phosphorous from human urine, such as hybrid anion research (Straton Childers, 2015).

23
 Infrastructure

Total Water Infrastructure Needs Partnership, the Pacific Institute and other organizations
have addressed global water challenges. FIDIC has
Global infrastructure investment is woefully inadequate consistently stated that the global investment in the world’s
and devastating consequences are expected if this matter infrastructure including water is insufficient. FIDIC often
is not addressed. Global expenditures in the trillions of uses as a benchmark the ratio of infrastructure investment
dollars will be required just to maintain the status quo. to GDP. The 2009 FIDIC State of the World Report on
Infrastructure contains more information on country total
Consistent with their obligation to protect public health infrastructure spending. A major finding in that report
and safety, professional engineers must inform the global remains true today - while infrastucture spending as a
community about the world’s water challenges and percentage of GDP varies from country to country, it is
advocate for increased infrastructure investment in the not enough to meet the global community’s needs.
world’s water infrastructure. Professional engineering
organizations have been taking action in this regard. Estimates
In the United States, the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) produces a report card on the nation’s The actual annual amount of required expenditure is
infrastructure. The latest report card gave drinking water, difficult to accurately estimate due to the variety of
wastewater and dams a “D.” The U.S.-based American variables that need to be considered. These include
Water Works Association (AWWA), Water Environment the actual extent of population growth, emerging
Federation (WEF), USEPA, American Public Works middle classes, sea level rise, innovative and
Association (APWA) and others have, in a variety of cost-saving developments, effective public-private
ways, stated the need for more investment to address partnerships, regulatory agency actions related to
water issues. streamlining, permitting and fit-for-purpose guidelines,
intergovernmental cooperation, public acceptance of
Aviation D reuse, currency swings, smarter integrated projects that
Bridges C+ address multiple needs, and climate change. Many
Dams D of these variables affect all new as well as aging
Drinking Water D infrastructure needs not just water.
Energy D+
Despite the difficulty of producing investment estimates,
Parks and Recreation C- some have been made. The numbers are alarming.
Ports C McKinsey recently estimated that US $57 trillion would
Rail C+ need to be expended by 2030 to address global
Roads D transportation, energy and water needs (Matthews,
Schools D 2013). The Organization for Economic Cooperation
Solid Waste B- and Development (OECD) has estimated that the global
Levees D- community needs to invest $17.5 trillion by 2030 to
Transit D address the world’s new and aging water infrastructure
Wastewater D needs.(Wyman, 2012). While this is a large number,
Inland Waterways D- when annualized, it equates to only about 1.5% of the
Hazardous Waste D World’s GDP. Barrie Stevens (Stevens, 2010) estimated
the annual water and wastewater investment requirements
for selected OECD countries in 2025 shown in Table 7.
Figure 23 - 2013 ASCE Report Card ASCE

On a global scale, the IWA, the United Nations,

Engineers Without Borders (EWB), the IWMI,
Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council
(WSSCC), Water for People (WFP), the Global Water

24
 Estimated Water and Wastewater The rest of this section presents some thoughts on the
Countries Annual Expenditure Requirement unique challenges related to each major element of
$B/yr the world’s aging water, wastewater and stormwater
USA $170 infrastructure (treatment plants, pumping stations, dams,
France $30 pipelines and associated facilities).
Germany $40
Japan $60 Aging Infrastructure
China $245
Treatment plants
India $110
Treatment plants often represent the largest individual
Table 7 – Estimated Annual Water and Wastewater Expenditure Requirements
for Selected OECD Countries. Barrie Stevens, “Global Infrastructure Needs and
investment a utility faces. Accordingly, when they are
Financing into the Future.” close to serving their useful life and a rehabilitation
program is in order, utilities are well advised to work with
In the article “Engaging the Private Sector in Water their engineer to develop a comprehensive rehabilitation
Infrastructure Investment,” OECD estimated that a $72 program that should consider:
billion expenditure would halve the number of people
without access to safe drinking water and adequate ƒ The appropriate, sustainable and cost-effective
sanitation. The same article also included water processes to meet current and expected regulatory
infrastructure repair and replace requirements for Russia needs.
at $459 billion and Egypt at $13 billion.
ƒ The potential for onsite renewable power
generation (e.g., solar, hydraulic, bio fuels for
The USEPA has estimated that $775 billion will be
wastewater plants).
required for the U.S. water and wastewater system over
20 years (Lafferty, 2014). A breakdown of the estimate ƒ The location and condition of the existing structures.
for drinking water is shown in Figure 24. The AWWA
estimated a need for $1 trillion for U.S. water mains over ƒ The maximum hydraulic and structural capacity of
the next 25 years (Lafferty, 2014). existing facilities, using sophisticated modeling
techniques, to minimize the requirement for new
A similar estimate for Latin America is $60 to $70 billion facilities.
(Anderson, 2006).
ƒ The correct balance between capital and
operation and maintenance (O&M) expenditures.
5%,
$20.50 1%,... ƒ Fit-for-purpose treatment opportunities for
wastewater plants (e.g., reuse).
ƒ More hybrid or decentralization of facilities.
19%,
$72.50 ƒ The potential for resource recovery (e.g., nutrients,
pharmaceuticals, process chemicals) especially for
wastewater plants.
10%, 65%,
$39.50 $247.50
Transmission & Distribution ƒ Demand/flow reduction strategies.
Storage
Treatment ƒ The potential for multiuse of facilities (e.g.,
Water Source laboratories, maintenance shops for the entire
Other community etc.).
ƒ Appropriate odor control (primarily for wastewater).
Figure 24 - Estimated Needed Investment in USA Drinking Water for
2011-2030. (Values are in Billions of Dollars) USEPA ƒ Impacts of climate change including sea level rise,
if appropriate.
While the magnitude of the various available cost
estimates vary, considering the condition of the world’s
water infrastructure and the many issues mentioned
Pump Stations
previously, the message is clear. The global community
With the exception of process and resource recovery
needs to do more to address water infrastructure needs.
opportunities, the same above considerations apply to
Required actions include investing more money and
pump stations. In addition, pump station rehabilitation
ensuring that the right projects are done right. Engineers,
projects should include consideration of:
as trusted advisors, are best suited to lead the latter
action.

25
 ƒ Options to improve or reduce energy usage via
more efficient pumps. This is particularly critical
for water utilities since most energy consumed by
water utilities is used for pumping. The average
wire to water efficiency of pumping systems
is currently around 55% in the USA. New
installations are targeting 76% to 82% (Bigelow
2014).
ƒ Effective operation of tanks for peak demand
dampening.
ƒ Variable frequency drives.
ƒ Pressure reduction for drinking water systems and
onsite power generation. Figure 25 - Heightening of Yesa Dam, Spain. TYPSA

ƒ For wastewater pump stations, the need for However, the primary reason for improving the world’s
special devices to properly handle non dispersible dams is safety. Analyzing the condition of aging dams
contaminants such as flushable wipes and similar using state of the art analytical tools (e.g., structural,
potential obstructions. hydrological and geological techniques have all
improved dramatically) and investing in effective
ƒ For wastewater and stormwater pumping stations, maintenance to maximize functional life is essential. Risk
the maximum capacity of existing wet wells using, assessment can provide valuable information on structural
if appropriate, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and non-structural risk reduction options (Bowles et al.,
modelling and the incorporation of appropriate 1999) to address both natural and anthropic threats.
hydraulic standards to prevent problems such as
vortexing. Aging Pipelines

Dams The developed world’s distribution and collection system

pipelines are feeling their age. Potable water pipeline
The main challenges related to dams (Spanish Committee systems are experiencing capacity reductions and the
on Large Dams, 2013) are: energy costs to deliver water have been increasing due
to diameter reductions from tuberculation or sediment
ƒ Structural condition (i.e., more than half the world’s
build up. These older pipelines are also exhibiting signs
dams are more than 50 years old).
of increased leakage, and service interruptions due to
ƒ Function vs original design intent. main breaks.

ƒ Increased environmental requirements. The deterioration of wastewater collection systems

are also leading to serious issues, such as SSOs that
ƒ Ability to respond to important climate change threaten the environment, public health and safety.
challenges, such as more severe and frequent Structural failures result in approximately 75% of the U.S.
droughts and floods. piping system functioning at 50% or less of capacity
ƒ Challenges associated operation of some existing (ASCE, 1994). SSOs and exfiltration occur when there
structures beyond their originally planned life. is a high level of Infiltration and Inflow (I/I) that enter
the sewer systems via direct connections (e.g., roof
ƒ Social demand for higher safety levels and risk leaders, drains) or underground passages (e.g., pipe
reduction. joints, defective pipes, manhole walls). A deteriorating
sewer network can exacerbate I/I problems by surging
Most well-designed and well-built dams with good downstream piping and wastewater treatment plants and
foundations can be heightened (Giron et al., 2010) pumping stations. This may lead to sewer overflows in
to provide greater regulating capacity, improve residential neighborhoods which, in turn, can pollute the
hydroelectric power production, increase downstream groundwater and surface water supplies.
safety and flood protection, and offer better protection
against wave action or dam body settlement. In Spain, Stormwater collection systems have similar issues.
the height of Yesa dam was increased 38% from 78m Leakage and pipe failures cause pollution, albeit to a
to 108m, doubling the surface area of the reservoir and lesser degree than wastewater. Stormwater piping failures
tripling its capacity. See Figure 25. may cause streets to collapse, thus forcing road closures
for repairs and creating traffic problems. And, of course,
increased flooding is a major potential problem.

26
Regardless of what a pipeline is carrying, rehabilitation Total System Approach.
is significantly more complicated than the original
installation due to the communities and roads that have Given the magnitude and complexity of addressing the
been built over them. This makes replacement much aging infrastructure problems, all levels of government
more expensive and complex. Fortunately, trenchless and the private sector must work together to develop
technologies are available as an alternative to expensive sustainable effective, efficient and economic solutions.
pipeline replacement programs. Some of the most More advanced and cost-effective methods and
common methods are cleaning and cement mortar technologies are needed to properly rehabilitate aging
lining of unlined cast or ductile iron pipes, pipe bursting, systems. Programs must also focus on improvements in
pipe splitting, slip lining and cured-in-place lining and management and O&M practice as well as system asset
cleaning lines with poly pigs. All have proven effective evaluation on a life-cycle cost basis.
in extending the life of existing pipelines, minimizing
structural problems and reducing infiltration and leakage. Asset Management
Trenchless technologies generally score high from a
sustainability standpoint, as well. Carbon output can be Many utilities are implementing infrastructure asset
as much as 90% lower than pipe replacement (Corum, management (IAM) programs to address the complexities
2014). of their infrastructure challenges. IAM includes a
set of processes that utilities establish to ensure their
In some instances, pipeline rehabilitation projects offer infrastructure performance meets expectations, that risks
the opportunity to generate electricity via in line turbines are adequately managed, and that corresponding
(Landers, March 2015). life-cycle costs are as low as possible.
New technologies are also emerging for collection Sustainable management of these systems should be
system maintenance, deterioration detection and geared to extending the service life of existing assets
rehabilitation, including sewer scanner and evaluation instead of more expensive new facilities when feasible.
technology (SSET), sonar, seismic resurgence testing (SRT),
acoustic testing; infrared thermographic investigations
and electrochemical impedance or polarization decay
for monitoring corrosion. Robots capable of locating
and unsealing house and other connections have been
developed and are being used more frequently resulting
in a further reduction in excavation requirements.

Like any technology, it is important for owners to obtain

quality advice from their engineer regarding the option
or technique that best meets their needs. In providing this
advice, engineers need to consider hydraulic factors,
especially with slip lining that reduces pipe diameters,
but also provides smoother pipe walls; the layout of the
pipe to be rehabilitated; the need for bypass piping; and
traffic disruptions.

27
 Sustainability

Guidelines CDM Smith has developed an Urban Systems Model

to simulate the performance of a city’s water, energy,
Whether one is dealing with new or aging facilities, transportation, solid waste, urban form and other sectors;
sustainability must be considered if we are to provide the relationships between these sectors; and the impacts
the public with clean and safe water and sanitation now related to land resources, greenhouse gas emissions and
and in the future. An increasing number of planning and financial analyses. The urban systems model provides
regulatory agencies provide guidelines and roadmaps to analytical capabilities for decision makers to consider a
help water and wastewater utilities sustainably plan and wide array of factors when evaluating alternatives.
manage their water infrastructure and adopt innovative
practices following green infrastructure or eco-city
concepts. For example, in the United States, the USEPA
has worked with states, industry and other stakeholders WATER ENERGY TRANSPORTATION

to release the “Clean Water and Safe Drinking Water

Infrastructure Sustainability Policy” and “Planning for
Sustainability: A Handbook for Water and Wastewater URBAN ECOLOGY
BUILDINGS AND
SOLID WASTE
Utilities,” which describes USEPA’s overall vision and URBAN FORM

priorities for ensuring the long-term sustainability of water

infrastructure and communities. The handbook describes Figure 26 - Urban Systems Model Relationship Diagram. CDM Smith
a number of steps utilities can undertake to enhance
their existing planning processes and ensure that water The Envision Rating System by the Institute for Sustainable
infrastructure lifecycle investments are cost-effective, Infrastructure, is another tool that provides planning and
resource efficient and support other relevant community design guidance, performance evaluation and award
goals (USEPA, 2010). recognition to infrastructure projects that contribute to a
sustainable future. The Envision Rating System is rapidly
Assessment Tools and Methods gaining acceptance throughout the water industry in
North America and around the world (Nelson, 2014).
To be sustainable, a system must be socially acceptable,
economically affordable and use environmental Risk and Opportunity Analysis
resources at rates that do not exceed their regeneration
or replacement frequency. These principals are often These tools can be effective when used in evaluating
referred to as the triple bottom line. Sustainability risk and opportunities associated with innovative
concepts do add complexity to the task of evaluating technologies. They allow the inherent uncertainties in
alternatives. The common approach of using Present less developed technologies and approaches to be
Worth (PW) to evaluate options is no longer sufficient rationally addressed, thereby overcoming the bias that
because it is a financial tool that does not consider often prevents their selection. With the key risks and
sustainability and other factors. Tools that consider both opportunities identified, an implementation approach
the capital and life-cycle O&M costs of options on an can be developed incorporating the identified mitigation
equivalent basis with non-monetary factors are needed to measures.
help decision makers select the most sustainable option.
Identification of risks and opportunities also provides a
Fortunately, such tools are being developed. FIDIC’s rational basis for assigning them to the party best able
2012 State of the World Report on Sustainable to manage them (e.g. the owner, technology provider,
Infrastructure includes discussion of decision support and contractor, engineer), thereby maximizing the likelihood
rating/certification tools and guidelines. Others have of successful implementation. It is especially important for
developed sophisticated computer models for helping all stakeholders to be aware of the inherent risks involved
decision makers evaluate alternatives in sustainable with any new technology or approach. The engineer,
ways. operating as trusted advisor, can play a crucial role in
this important aspect of alternative analysis.

28
Integrated Water thousands of people from all over the world visit the site
Resource Management to exercise, socialize and, most importantly, to learn a bit
about water at the education center.
The recognition of water, wastewater and stormwater
as a resource; sustainability considerations; and cost
pressures have created significant changes in water
management and project planning. Consistent with
this change is the concept of Integrated water resource
management (IWRM), which scores quite high on
sustainability scales due to its potential to address
multiple issues simultaneously, which, in turn, dramatically
increases the probability of the development of cost
effective programs.

According to the Global Water Partnership, “Countries

are experiencing water-related problems that are proving
intractable to conventional, single-sector approaches.
Some possible examples include drought, flooding,
groundwater overdraft, water-borne diseases, land and
water degradation, on-going damage to ecosystems, Figure 28 - Marina Barrage in Singapore. CDM Smith
chronic poverty in rural areas, and escalating conflicts
over water. The solutions to such problems may fall Resilience
outside of the normal purview of the agencies tasked
with addressing them, and usually require cooperation Overview
from multiple sectors. In such cases, an IWRM approach
makes identifying and implementing effective solutions Climate change, the associated impacts of sea level rise,
much easier. It also avoids the all too common situation decreasing reliability of historical precipitation records
where solving one problem creates another.” Ideally, and more intensive storms, along with threats due to
such integrated systems would be river basin-wide and accidents, vandalism and terrorism, have all added
possibly include multiple political jurisdictions or nations. significant challenges to water resource engineers. This
Without IWRM at a broad enough scale, the risk of has resulted in the addition of “resilience” and more risk
poorly conceived projects that do not address the big management into projects. “…Risks (of climate change) to
picture increases. infrastructure from extreme weather events, degradation
of water quality and water supply and adaptation and
Even when executed at the local level, IWRM can reduce mitigation of future impact...” are three of the 12 key
cost by addressing multiple issues under one project. findings of the US Global Change Research Program on
For example, the Netherlands have integrated power National Climate Assessment (Wilcox, 2014).
generation and flood control in many of their projects.
Historically, water resource engineers used simulations
of precipitation events based on past records as one
of their tools in designing flood protection facilities.
Climate change has seriously reduced the value of these
simulations because of the probability of more severe and
perhaps more frequent weather events in the future.

Since historical records are becoming less reliable for

prediction of future storm frequencies, water resource
engineers are being challenged to establish reasonable
design criteria in a more uncertain environment. This
is making scenario based planning, risk management
and sustainability considerations even more important.
Just one example of the challenges associated with
establishing design criteria for flood control is London,
England. Considering its 1.25 million population and
Figure 27 - Netherlands-Flood Control and Wind Power Generation. property values of about $300 billion, London’s flood
https://www.google.com/?gws_rd=ssl#q=netherlands+flood+control control systems are using a 1 in 5,000-year event.
However, sea level rise could increase this frequency to 1
The Marina Barrage Project in Singapore is also good
in 100 years (Landers, March 2015, pg.21).
example, as it addresses flooding, water supply,
recreation, aesthetic and education needs. Every year,

29
 Planning Tools
To help utilities become better prepared for climate
change related events and other threats, the USEPA has
been developing tools and programs to assist utilities.
Two of these include the CREAT (Climate Resilience
Evaluation and Awareness Tool) and the Water
Contaminant Information Tool (WCIT) tools. CREAT was
developed under USEPA’s Climate Ready Water Utilities
initiative that assists drinking water, wastewater, and
stormwater utility owners and operators in assessing
risks to their assets and operations. Extreme weather
events, sea-level rise, shifting precipitation patterns,
and temperature changes will affect water quality and
availability. CREAT provides access to the most current
scientific understanding of climate change and guides
users through a process of identifying threats, vulnerable
assets, and adaptation options to help reduce risk, while
comparing the performance of adaptation in mulitiple
Figure 30 - Water Contaminant Information Tool (WCIT).
time periods across climate scenarios. http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity, Nov 2010

Dams and Other Resiliency Installations

Dams are critical in the flood control and mitigation
element of resilience.

To address sea level rise and flooding due to more severe

storms, coastal communities have been constructing
levees, dikes, seawalls, massive tide gates and other
similar low-elevation dams throughout the world. This
trend will likely accelerate as the threat from sea level
rise and climate change intensifies. London, Rotterdam,
St. Petersburg, New Orleans and Shanghai have all built
levees and stormwater barriers in the past few decades
(Folger, 2013).

St. Petersburg, Russia, has constructed a multi-purpose

flood control system to provide protection from flooding
from the Baltic Sea up to 5.4 meters above sea level.
See Figures 31 and 32.

Figure 29 - Climate Resilience Evaluation and Awareness Tool (CREAT).

http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity, Nov 2010

The WCIT tool is designed to help utilities plan for

potential contamination incidents, whether man-made
or natural. It includes information on governmental and
regulatory officials to contact as well as emergency
responders. It is a secure online database with
comprehensive information about chemical, biological
and radiochemical contaminants of concern for the
water sector. This tool compiles drinking water and
wastewater-specific data in a one-stop, easy to use
manner. WCIT’s functionality and content were shaped
and validated by water utility professionals, scientists and Figure 31: St. Petersburg, Russia (Satellite View)
http:\\water technology.net/projects/stpetersburgwater/
public health experts. Summaries of these tools are shown
in Figures 29 and 30.

30
The multi-billion dollar project, which comprises flood million liters of stormwater in times of heavy rainfall, while
gates, sluices, embankments and appurtenances, providing 1,150 parking spaces for use during normal
includes a portion of the city’s ring road and some times.
pollution control facilities.
See Figures 33 and 34.

Figure 32 - St. Petersburg, Russia Flood Control System http://www.

transmost.ru/en/projects/integratedprojects/ artificial_structures_of_the_ Figure 34 - Rotterdam, Netherlands – “Green Roof”
stpetersburg_floodprotection_barrier http://nationalmallunderground.org/examples-precedents/

With its highest land elevation about 3 meters above Larger and higher dams will also have an even more
sea level and with 80 % of its land below one meter, important flood control resiliency role in the future.
the Maldives are particularly vulnerable to sea level The analysis of 50 actual cases in Europe (European
rise. In addition to constructing resilient structures (a Working Group on Dams and Floods, 2010) concluded
sea wall surrounds its capital, Malé), the government is that the impact of dams on reducing peak flood flow
considering population migration to another location as a values range from 12% to 100%, the average being
mitigation strategy. 54%.

For New York City and environs, nearly US$1 billion This analysis showed that, in general, dams and
has been allocated for six resiliency projects including reservoirs benefit flood mitigation when they are well
a sustainable “living breakwater” project near Staten designed, properly maintained and operated. Of course,
Island. The breakwater will have pore spaces for fish, all dams are designed for a particular flood level and,
accessibility for divers, and the project will include therefore, may not provide total protection in the case of
constructed tide pools and habitats for aquatic life very extreme floods.
(Cardno, 2014).
However, their effectiveness can be greatly improved via
structural and non-structural measures, such as elevation
increases and improved forecasting and alert systems.

A flood control plan for the Guadalentin River, a Tributary

of Segura River in Spain, which has experienced severe
flooding since the Middle Ages is particularly efficient.
On September 29, 2012, torrential rain fell in the basin
headwaters at a maximum rate of 179 l/m2 in about 8
hours. As a result, the Valdelinfierno dam (one of the 13
dams in the watershed) recorded a peak flow of 4,570
m3/s, which the dam successfully retained.
Figure 33 - Rotterdam, Netherlands – “Water Plazas”
http://nationalmallunderground.org/examples-precedents/ Subsequent studies (Berga, 2013) showed that without
the plan, downstream flow rates would have been
Other strategies that are evolving include “floating approximately 3,000 m3/s. The works of the plan
architecture” as mentioned previously, and multi-use reduced this to about 125 m3/s.
facilities such as underground garages that also serve
as reservoirs for flood waters. In the Netherlands, the
City of Rotterdam is taking what it considers a “holistic”
approach to combating the challenges of flooding by
developing dual-purpose stormwater collection facilities,
including neighborhood, “water plazas” which are able Figure 35 -
The Guadalentin
to retain stormwater and reduce flooding, and green River, A Tributary
roofs that can absorb rain water and reduce runoff. of the Segura
River, Spain,
The innovative dual-purpose Rotterdam Museum-park is September 29,
both a parking garage for the city’s museum district and 2012 – Diario
a stormwater reservoir, which is capable of storing 10 Información

31
 Government Role
Governmental entities have been involved with water of these organizations will be well served by obtaining
issues throughout history, since water ways often form quality advice from the engineering community.
political boundaries between countries as well as states
and communities within them. Governments also have Inter-Governmental Agreements
primary regulatory and security roles for their citizens.
About 450 international agreements have been
Transboundary Waters established for transboundary waters since 1820
(http://www.unwater.org/statistics/en/?page=98),
As population and associated water demands increase, but there is still work to be done. Sixty percent of the
the pressure on governments to provide their citizens with surface transboundary basins do not have agreements.
adequate supplies will intensify, as will the pressure from One hundred and forty eight countries share at least a
adjacent jurisdictions to provide environmental flows river basin with neighbors (http://www.unwater.org/
to transboundary waterways. This could lead to more statistics/statistics-detail/en/c/211758/) and, in
disputes over ownership of water resources. In the worst general, transboundary sub-surface aquifer agreements
case scenario, wars could be fought at least in part over are lagging those for surface water. Considering the
water supply. According to the United Nations, there groundwater overuse problems mentioned previously,
are 276 transboundary river basins in the world – 64 in more focus is needed on this element.
Africa, 46 in North America, 60 in Asia, 68 in Europe
and 38 in South America (UN Water.org). Approximately While there is still work to be done, there have been
40% of the world’s population relies on water from many effective transboundary agreements reached, a few
international river basins (Gleik, 2014). of which are mentioned herein.

“POTENTIALLY EXPLOSIVE In Africa, the agreement between Lesotho, Botswana and

INTERNATIONAL GROUNDWATER South Africa (the Lesotho Highlands project) addresses
SITUATIONS ARE ESCALATING FROM the water and energy needs of these countries. Also in
PLACES AS DIVERSE AS INDIA AND Africa, the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) promotes dialogue
and action plans for cost-effective sustainable uses of
BANGLADESH, THROUGHOUT THE MIDDLE water by the 10 countries in the basin. The Nile River
EAST, MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES, is the longest in the world (about 6,700 kilometers). Of
AND LIBYA AND EGYPT” (HAYTON AND special interest is the diversity of the member countries: in
UTTON, 1989). general the downstream countries have more developed
water infrastructure and more technical capacity than the
The existing 276 transboundary basins cover nearly upstream members. An NBI goal is to develop projects
one half of the Earth’s land surface and account for an with “win-win” scenarios among these diverse countries.
estimated 60% of global freshwater flow (Journal AWWA
January 2014 pg.84). There are just as many if not more The European Water Framework Directive of 2000
transboundary subsurface aquifers (Brooks, 2013). involves even more countries and numerous watersheds.
This directive promotes sustainability as well as the full
As awareness increases about how local decisions recovery of costs, including opportunity costs from those
have global impact, perhaps there will be increased that directly benefit from a use or service.
support for global organizations, such as the United
Nations, International Financial Institutions (IFI), and the The United Nations has been addressing transboundary
World Health Organizations (WHO), to have more water issues in a variety of ways, including the UN
involvement in that local decision making. In fact, the Watercourses Convention. The convention encourages
United Nations General Assembly declared 2013 as the the reasonable, equitable and sustainable use of
United Nations International Year of Water Cooperation transboundary waters and dedicates resources to
(Resolution A/RES/65/154) (http://www.unwater.org/ identify challenges associated with transboundary water
water-cooperation-2013/water-cooperation/en/). All management (www.unwatercoursesconvention.org).

32
The water resource engineering community must support degree necessary–and not more—by incorporating a
these intergovernmental discussions and encourage fit-for-purpose philosophy to treatment requirements for all
countries to look beyond their borders and think globally projects.
about water issues.
In China, the Ministry of Water Resources has selected
Leadership 45 cities across 28 provinces to pilot “water ecological
civilization” principles, which emphasize the balance
Leadership is a critical component of any successful between the environment and economic development.
government initiative. Providing basic sanitation to those The first “ecological civilization” master plan has
in need is no exception. India’s “Toilet for Every Home been completed by the firm GHD for Yangzhou, a
Initiative,” led by Prime Minister Narenda Modi, is a city of 4 million people. As part of the planning, the
good example of the personal leadership from a head principle of water sensitive urban design (WSUD)
of government, which the world needs. He has set this was introduced, which is widely used in Australia, but
goal for his country by 2019—the 150th anniversary of is a somewhat new concept in China. According to
Mahatma Ghandi’s birth. Xiaoming Shi, GHD’s project director, “Depending on
the circumstances of each city, there are opportunities
Achieving this will take financial investment and to use stormwater to reduce environmental degradation,
education to change cultural views regarding public improve the appearance of urban areas and provide
health. But most of all it will take visible leadership. To recreation space.” The Yangzhou Master Plan has
symbolize the importance of this initiative, Mr. Modi been commended by experts from the China Academy
took a broom and started sweeping a street in New of Engineering, Yangzhou municipal government and
Delhi. In so doing he demonstrated his commitment Ministry of Water Resources.
to “sweep away” India’s reputation for poor public
hygiene and rudimentary sanitation (www.dawn.com/ An additional example of a big picture focus and
news/1135755). fit-for-purpose philosophy is the city of Los Angeles
(California, USA) “Blue Green City” initiative. The
Another example of leadership is Ho Chi Minh City’s initiative is taking an organized “one water” approach
commitment to work with the World Bank to address to reduce the need for imported water and meet an
their polluted canals, control flooding and improve the array of sustainability objectives, ranging from flood
living environment for its citizens. One of the program’s reduction, groundwater recharge and pollution control,
initial successes has been the cleanup of the Nhieu to education, efficient irrigation, and the revitalization of
Loc-Thi Nghe (NLTN) Canal, which was a highly polluted urban areas (Hagekhalil et al., 2014).
waterway traversing businesses and residential districts.
Untreated wastewater from a combined sewer system; Innovative Financing
overflows from an aged and undersized drainage
system; waste from residences, businesses and factories;
and Procurement
and a build-up of solid waste, sludge, debris and Government should explore ways to stretch available
sediments had turned the canal into a public health funds through innovative financing, such as public-private
and environmental hazard. Today, the canal has been partnerships, to fund more water related projects and
transformed into a clean waterway with landscaped close the “need vs. revenue” gap.
banks and waterside parks. The World Bank recently
recognized the NLTN project as one of its top three Public agencies and other funding institutions should
featured projects worldwide. also work with the engineering community to streamline
permitting and procurement programs while maintaining
Big Picture View integrity and transparency. Permitting needs to be done
properly, as well as expeditiously. It should not be used
Governments, especially their regulatory agencies, must as a mechanism to delay or cancel necessary projects.
have a big picture focus, and encourage integrated Procurement of engineering services for some assignments
planning by the full spectrum of agricultural, energy and can last more than 1 year, which is time consuming
water stakeholders. and wasteful for all involved. All stakeholders need to
find ways to streamline procurement while maintaining
They should proactively engage water utilities in transparency and integrity.
addressing performance expectations and other critical
issues. Through such dialogue planning efficiency
would be improved. Regulatory agencies can support
Human Rights of the Poor
innovation through research and development programs Government and regulatory agencies must play a
and by judiciously establishing guidelines for direct supportive role in addressing the special needs of
and indirect reuse. In this connection, governments the poor. As the economic and social contexts vary
and their regulatory agencies can lead initiatives to significantly between those living above and below
clean up polluted water by treating wastewater to the the poverty line, we may expect different sustainable

33
 solutions for each group. While many of those living human rights come into play. If we can reach a basic
above the poverty line are already enjoying relatively level of public health protection for all, then the challenge
healthier water supplies and a relatively clean, albeit will be to increase the level of service as the standard
significantly threatened, environment, a great portion of living for these individuals improves. We need to
of world’s population has limited access to even basic recognize that not all segments of society are able to
drinking water. afford the same level of service, but all deserve the same
degree of public health protection.
The development of sustainable water supply and
wastewater management systems for this segment of the GOVERNMENTS, WHO HAVE NOT DONE SO
population should, at a minimum, maintain and, when ALREADY, NEED TO CLEARLY ESTABLISH
possible, enhance their living standards. THE RIGHT OF ALL OF THEIR CITIZENS TO
There are two concepts that may be useful when thinking CLEAN WATER AND BASIC SANITATION.
about government’s role in serving the poor. The first
involves developing improved water and wastewater Providing clean water and basic sanitation to those who
approaches that they can implement themselves. This do not have it now is our most important challenge.
would allow poorer communities to enjoy greater health Sanjay Wijesekra, global head of UNICEF’s water,
and improved productivity and economic development sanitation and hygiene program, stated, “This is an
faster. It is very important that governments provide the emergency no less horrifying than a massive earthquake
resources necessary to allow for proper operation and or tsunami. Every day hundreds of children are dying.
maintenance of whatever facilities or approaches are We can and must act in the face of this colossal daily
incorporated locally. This has been a problem in the human tragedy” (Landers May, 2014).
past with a number of projects which have failed due to
lack of O&M, which, in turn, can cause frustration for all Engineers need to work with governmental organizations
stakeholders. Second, when the water supply to maintain to ensure that proper actions are taken. This will create
basic life becomes limited by economics and resources, special challenges for engineers and require them to
work differently in the future.

34
Role Of The Engineer,
Students And Other
Professionals

Leadership and Communication The U.S. National Academy of Engineering has made
a number of suggestions about engineering education,
Engineers need to take a leadership role in helping including:
the world community address global water challenges.
They must have a clear and influential voice as trusted ƒ Strongly encourage engineers to earn advanced
advisors, especially with policy makers. If the engineering degrees beyond a bachelor’s degree.
community does not do this well, others will or may try–
ƒ University engineering education should produce
possibly without the unique technical expertise engineers
engineers who can both define and solve
bring to water sector issues.
problems.
A few years ago, the ASCE produced a Vision 2025 ƒ Institutions must teach students to be lifelong
Report: “Civil Engineers: Trusted Leaders for a Modern learners.
World.” In a 2009 document, titled “Achieving the Vision
for Civil Engineers in 2025,” ASCE envisioned that ƒ Engineering undergraduate programs should
civil engineers will be “Entrusted by society to create a introduce interdisciplinary learning and use case
sustainable world and enhance the global quality of life, studies of both engineering successes and failures
civil engineers (will) serve competently, collaboratively as a learning tool.
and ethically as master:
The most successful water engineers of the future will be
ƒ Planners, designers, constructors and operators of those who influence policy makers and clients in their
society’s economic and social engine – the built efforts to address the myriad global water challenges
environment, they will face. Thus, all engineers are well advised to
ƒ Stewards of the natural environment and its hone their leadership skills and broaden their education.
resources, Firms are encouraged to offer leadership training to their
best and brightest. Likewise, engineering universities
ƒ Innovators and integrators of ideas and technology need to include leadership and experiential education
across the public, private and academic sectors, (e.g., internships, cooperative education programs) in
their curriculums.
ƒ Managers of risk and uncertainty caused by natural
events, accidents, and other threats, The Engineers Without Borders program has been
effective in helping communities in developing countries
ƒ Leaders in discussions and decisions shaping
implement sustainable water and sanitation facilities,
public environmental and infrastructure policy.’’
while providing young people–not just engineers–with
opportunities to explore parts of the world and gain
Education of younger engineers will be one of the keys to
hands-on experience at an early stage of their careers.
achieving this vision.
For example, in 2013 members of the Northeastern
University Chapter travelled 212 kilometers and spent 52
THE COMPLEX CHALLENGES FACING days in other countries.
21ST CENTURY SOCIETY WILL REQUIRE
PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERS (PEs) TO To lead, one must communicate effectively. As a
ADVANCE THEIR TECHNICAL EXCELLENCE profession, engineers are generally highly respected
AND PROFESSIONAL LEADERSHIP. and trusted. However, they also are sometimes criticized
for communicating primarily amongst themselves. More
The “Raise the Bar Initiative” in the United States aimed at professional engineers need to go beyond their comfort
requiring more education beyond the bachelor’s degree zone and seek forums to communicate outside of the
for engineering licensure is consistent with encouraging profession to create a more acute global awareness
engineers to assume more influential roles with policy and about our water challenges.
decision makers.

35
 Professional organizations can play a role in training 99%. It has been said that some of the most “expensive”
younger engineers to be better leaders, communicators engineering is the engineering that was not done during
and networkers. FIDIC’s Young Professionals Program is the planning phase. The cost of corrective engineering
an excellent example of what professional organizations and construction can be hundreds of times greater than
can do to help meet this challenge. money “saved” during the planning phase via price
based competition for engineering services.
Trusted Advisors
Design
In representing the communities they serve, clients
make many decisions related to their particular water As design tools improve and as pressure to do more
issues. In doing so, they need to conceive the right with less mounts, the tolerance for design errors and
projects and they need to ensure that these projects are omissions will decline. As such, there is an ongoing trend
done right. The right projects do not always need to toward improving the quality of engineering design tools.
involve capital intensive construction. While advising Computer aided design (CAD), 3D design and BIM is
clients, engineers need to ensure that nonstructural the norm for many clients. Adding other pertinent items,
measures are considered. These include, among other such as cost, schedule and equipment, is advancing
items, environmental conservation, integrated resource these tools to 4D and beyond. Successful engineers
planning, sustainability, innovation, and effective O&M. of the future in the design field will be those that not
only practice within their area of expertise and deliver
Consideration of non-structural measures is important. If what they promise in accordance with FIDIC’s Integrity
the engineering community is to effectively address the Management System (FIMS) guidelines, but also stay
global water challenges the world is facing, they need current with evolving design tools.
to demonstrate that proper engineering is much more
than building something. The best engineering should, Today’s complex designs require quality engineering
and often does take place in the planning stage where and multidisciplinary teams to address them. Beyond
problems are framed, alternatives considered and sustainability, other issues that must be addressed
solutions developed. are safety, analysis of construction phases, detailed
risk assessment, lifecycle cost optimization and
Including the need for conservation and efficiency maintainability. As technology changes, so do the ways
improvements in the infrastructure message helps with in which design teams interact. BIM has been evolving
the credibility of advocating for more concrete and in parallel with the increasing need to collaborate and
steel, when large capital investments are needed. When share project information, while focusing on infrastructure
done right, investment in concrete and steel projects will lifecycle cost optimization. The challenge of BIM
support performance of the non-structural approaches. implementation has more to do with rethinking processes
than about learning how to use new software. The
Clients require experienced assistance to develop the technological challenge is to provide the tools that allow
right projects in the planning stage and execute them engineers around the world to work together as if they
correctly. Professional engineers skilled in leadership and were in the same room.
communication can provide it. While, legal, finance,
purchasing and other entities have extremely important Encourage Careers in Engineering
roles in infrastructure projects, it is the professional
engineer who has the proper technical training to advise The water challenges the world is facing are diverse,
clients. severe and daunting. The world will need more engineers
to help the global community address them.
With such a key role as trusted advisor, it is important for
clients to choose the best engineer they can. Accordingly,
clients are well advised to select engineers based on their
qualifications and approach, and not on price. When
price is considered, the engineer is forced to develop
the least costly engineering approach to meet a client’s
needs, while potentially driving up the cost for the client
in the long run, or for society at large.

When engineers compete for assignments based on

qualifications and approach, the clients benefit by getting
the best thinking from the best engineers about what is
best for them. This dramatically increases the chances
of getting the right project done right. Engineering
reflects only 1 to 2% of the life-cycle cost of a project,
but it has enormous influence on the remaining 98 to Figure 36 - Graduates with Engineering as Their First Degree. US National
Science Foundation Science and Engineering Indicators 2014 Digest

36
Some countries are doing better than others in attracting and tap every potential resource available. The first
their best and brightest to science and engineering. See move to that end is to generate open dialogue between
Figure 36. STEM professionals in this sector and policymakers,
stakeholders, businesses, educators and writers—the
In addition to encouraging more students to earn holders of soft power who will influence or determine
engineering degrees, we need to find ways to keep where future resources are committed. Only through such
more of them in the profession. Continuous education a dialogue can we hope to not only brainstorm the most
opportunities, recognition programs and clear paths effective technical solutions, but to engage entire cultures
to economic and professional advancement are all and populations in their own long-term survival. Public
appropriate strategies to meet this need. awareness, funding and forward-thinking policies can
generate progress towards securing significant water-use
While efforts to encourage more young people to pursue reductions and help us bridge the gap between a culture
STEM careers are important, there is an equal need to of waste and dependency to one where the human right
open up dialogue between STEM professionals and the to safe water is realized through established innovations.
rest of the global population.
Outreach and Advocacy
Role of Today’s Student
and Other Professionals No matter what part of the world or socio-economic
background one hails from, water management needs
Improving Diversity to be a common concern for every living human.
Understandably though, we are far more inclined
With the global population ballooning to nearly 9 billion to embrace changes of any kind, particularly those
in the next several decades, it is more important than ever requiring massive investments, when we have a greater
that young people with diverse skills be encouraged to understanding of what’s at stake. This is a critical gap
pursue careers in the water sector. The United Nation’s in our current system, and it separates those with the
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization technological solutions, from those with the resources for
(UNESCO’s) statement that “Solutions to water problems implementation or the power to ensure these solutions
require the consideration of cultural, educational, are executed. The often large costs of funding and
communication and scientific aspects,” speaks to the implementing solutions serves as a deterrent for action,
magnitude of the global challenge in this area, which will but the more difficult to calculate costs of inaction
only increase with the higher stresses of a larger, more may far outweigh investment needs today. Engaging
affluent population. policymakers, educators and business people in water/
energy decisions will open up vast opportunities for the
There is a great opportunity to develop the upcoming STEM community to see their designs made reality and
generation of STEM professionals as the most diversely create lasting, sustainable, solutions that improve the
trained, widely engaged group yet. The ability to quality of life and the environment within which humanity
mainstream newly proven ideas is key to the ultimate must operate.
success of water innovations, hence the popular trend of
“interdisciplinary learning” at the university level. Here Embracing Multiple Participants
are three ways this can be achieved.
The water challenges the world faces presents a textbook
Cross-Sectoral Engagement opportunity to engage experts in numerous fields,
applying the lessons of the lab to real-world situations
In an increasingly transparent and interconnected world, where stakeholders and policymakers can easily relate.
engineers and scientists cannot implement meaningful Even with the rise of the most highly-educated generation
change unassisted. There is much that can also be to date, it is unrealistic to expect engineers and other
accomplished outside of the immediate STEM family, scientists to be experts in all areas. Likewise, it would be
particularly addressing the needs for organizing, shortsighted to neglect the abundant resources of writers,
financing, researching, coordinating projects and policy experts, community engagement professionals and
stakeholder outreach. In these areas, there exists a critical educators who are likely better-positioned to catalyze
shortcoming in the water resources sector. Namely, effective cross-sector collaboration, which can enable
that the industry primarily self-selects only from the pool engineers to more knowledgeably and ethically serve
of engineers, chemists, biologists and other STEM greater populations in need.
professionals. This imposes severe limitations not only
on other students and young professionals interested in In the larger picture, STEM professionals are more likely
furthering sustainable development, but on the water to influence modern socio-economic development and
industry itself, which could benefit immensely from greater sustainability with the public’s understanding and even
inclusion. participation on their side. The scientist of the modern
era must be comfortable engaging experts in every field
It is vital that those working in the water field understand who can respond to questions, negotiate regulatory

37
 boundaries, reconcile conflicting interests, leverage highest potential to be the most inclusive generation in
financial commitments, and clearly see the big-picture history. As a result, more of those in the engineering
socio-economic implications of any given resource community will develop broader approaches by looking
project. In short, they must have an awareness of the “beyond the technical” and recognize the benefit of
broader world beyond their area of expertise. involving all stakeholders regardless of their background
in developing solutions to problems.
Students and young people are the natural heirs to this
task. Millennials comprise a generation more adept at A few years ago, in responding to a question about civil
communication across diverse fields. They are a huge engineers, the author David McCullough said he would
segment of society that has been enabled by their like to see more “civil” civil engineers. He went on to
general comfort with information technologies to interact describe John A. Roebling, the designer of the Brooklyn
constantly and with candor. And, as a well-traveled (and many other) bridges. Mr. Roebling also was an
group with more diverse demographics than any accomplished musician and wrote about science and
generation heretofore, they possess the most personal, philosophy. His skills and interests went well beyond
prescient understanding of the transnational implications engineering.
of even isolated water resource mismanagement.
The engineering community would be well served by
The Future taking David’s advice: develop great technical engineers
who are also broad thinkers and who realize the
While our water issues are extraordinarily challenging, importance of including the entire global community in
there is reason for optimism. Awareness is growing and addressing our water problems. After all, everyone on
we are educating a larger population with perhaps the Earth has a stake in the outcome.

38
Conclusions

The state of the world’s water is not good. People are it from all directions to avoid a water crisis. Infrastructure
suffering from preventable diseases and are dying at to provide basic sanitation and clean water to those
alarming rates due to lack of basic sanitation or clean currently without them need to be provided with a
water. Sea levels are rising and our oceans are getting sense of extreme urgency. We must do all we can do
warmer, more acidic and more polluted. Marshes, to stop the deaths and debilitating diseases caused by
wetlands, coral reefs and other aquatic life are being poor sanitation and lack of clean water. Facilities to
damaged or unbalanced. Flooding due to storms of treat wastewater to reasonable limits before discharge
increasing severity are putting more coastal properties at to receiving waters must be provided in all locations
risk. Extraordinary economic loss and population shifts requiring them. We need to reduce fresh water demand
could well be in our future because of these trends. by addressing agricultural requirements (which makes up
about 70% of fresh water usage), lowering potable use
Fresh water continues to be deleteriously affected and reusing water as much as possible. Better decisions
by pollution from untreated or inadequately treated need to be made on what to grow, where to grow it and
wastewater and nutrients from a variety of sources, how to grow it.
including agricultural runoff, CECs, and overuse. More
than half of the world’s groundwater aquifers are being All elements of water should be considered a resource to
over pumped—an especially disturbing problem for some be used and reused. Discharging fresh water in any form
“fossil” aquifers that are essentially being mined. to oceans should be avoided when reasonably feasible.
Wastewater contains potential energy that should be
Compounding these issues is the global community’s lack tapped and nutrients should be captured.
of investment in our water infrastructure. This is reflected
in the ongoing tragedy faced by those without access to Stormwater should be used to recharge groundwater
basic sanitation and clean water; continuing discharge aquifers, wherever desirable and feasible. Decentralized
of inadequately or untreated wastewater entering our or hybrid distribution and collection systems should
receiving waters; and deteriorating or outright failure of be considered wherever possible. Flood protection,
aging infrastructure in developed countries. including floating structures, early warning systems,
dams of all sizes, and perhaps even population shifts
The global population is projected to grow to more than need to be considered. We must also obtain a better
9 billion people and more of them will be demanding understanding of the impact of CECs on all elements of
“middle class level” goods and services, such as our environment. And, we need to seriously address our
adequate water supply and wastewater disposal, aging infrastructure.
electricity, and more protein-enhanced diets that demand
higher water footprints. The world’s demand for fresh However, the good news is that society has most, if not
water is expected to increase creating demand versus all, of what it will take to address these and other water
availability gaps in the trillions of cubic meters. This will challenges. What is needed more than anything is the
compound the problems we have with water scarcity will to act. For this to happen, the global community
now. needs to insist on action. There is good news here
as well. More people are becoming aware of our
Despite numerous advances in alternative and renewable water challenges. Hopefully, what will follow will be a
energy generation, it is likely that fossil fuels, a major willingness to invest more financial and other resources
CO2 emission generator, will be used to generate the in addressing the problems. Government, engineers,
majority of the world’s electricity for the foreseeable students and other professionals have the ability to create
future. This will further add to our water challenges much of this willingness.
especially those related to global warming.
That willingness will produce much needed solutions
Due to these and other factors, it is not hard to see that to our water challenges. These include transboundary
the world has a water problem—now. We need to do agreements focusing on what’s best for the watershed,
a lot more than what we are currently doing and attack not the countries themselves; fit-for-purpose treatment

39
 as a tool to stretch limited funds; integrated resource right projects through smarter planning; more effective
management geared toward ensuring that the right use of resources, such as innovative financing; and
projects are identified, and that solving one problem streamlined permitting and procurement. All of this will
does not result in causing another; and sustainability take leadership and communication among the entire
considerations that take into account future as well as global community, not just technical skills.
present needs.
While the tasks at hand are difficult, the skills and tools
Engineers have the technical skills to solve our water are available to succeed. With proper willingness and
issues, but they must not attempt this by themselves. They understanding, there hopefully will come a day when
need to proactively include other professionals, especially every world citizen has clean water and basic sanitation,
younger professionals and students who will inherit the where we have enough water for everyone’s needs,
results, to use their special skills to implement the technical where climate change is addressed, and where our
solutions. This global inclusivity has the potential to help infrastructure requirements are met. With confidence, trust
society understand and support the urgent needs. In turn, and teamwork, the world can get there.
this will hopefully result in more funds available for the

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