Unit Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Syllabus Microwave frequency bands, Physical concept of radiation, Near and far-field regions, Fields and Power Radiated by an Antenna, Antenna Pattern Characteristics, Antenna Gain and Efficiency, Aperture Efficiency and Effective Area, Antenna Noise Temperature and G/T, Impedance matching, Frits transmission equation, Link budget and link margin, Noise Characterization of a microwave receiver Contents 1.1. Microwave Frequency Bands 1.2. Physical Concepts of Radiation 1.3. Introduction to Antenna 1.4. Definitions of Antenna 1.5. Isotropic Radiator 1.6 Basic Antenna Parameters. May-11,12,14,15,16,18,19, Dec.-11,12,13,16,18, - «+: - Marks 13 1.7 Radio Communication Link - Frifs Transmission Formula May-15,18, Dec.-17,19,-- -- Marks 8 1.8 Link Budget 1.9. Link Margin 1.10 Microwave Transmitters and Receivers 1.11 Two Marks Questions with AnswersAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-2 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas rowave Frequency Bands Frequency (Hz) it axi axie 3x10 gui 3x10 3x10 3x1 3x10? 3x10 iioad i 7 Begs Microwaves = ois B13} Bo we «Ww 1 at 0? we wa? Wavelength (m) Typical Frequencies Approximate Band Designations AM Broadeast Band 535-1605 kHz L-band 1-2.GHz Shortwave Radio 3-30 MHz S-band 2-4. GHz FM Broadcast Band 88 - 108 MHz C-band 4-8 GHz VHF TY (2-4) 54 - 72 MHz X-band 8-12 GHz, VHF TY 6-6) 76 - 88 MHz Ku - band 12-18 GHz UHF TV (7 - 13) 174-216MHz K-band 18 - 26 GHz UHF TV (14 - 83) 470 1 890 MHz_—Ka - band 26 - 40 GHz Microwave Ovens 2.45 GHz U- band 40 = 60 GHz 4.4.4 The electromagnetic spectrum EE) Physical Concepts of Radiation * For wireless communication systems, the antenna is one of the most critical components. A good design of the antenna can—relax system — 1__- requirements and improve overall system performance. A. typical example is TV for which the overall Fig. 12.4 broadcast reception can be improved by utilizing a high performance antenna. * An antenna is the system component that is designed to radiate or receive electromagnetic waves. In other words, the antenna is the electromagnetic TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-3 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas transducer which within a transmis is used to convert, in the transmitting mode, guided waves ‘ion line to radiate free-space waves or to convert, in the receiving mode, free-space waves to guided waves. * Ina modern wireless system, the antenna must also act as a directional device to optimize or accentuate the transmitted or received energy in some directions while suppressing it in others. The antenna serves to a communication system the same purpose that eyes and eyeglasses serve to a human. EE] Fundamental Equation of EM Radiation Consider a current ‘I’ be flowing in an extremely thin wire. From the fundamental equation of current 1-4 t where q is the charge moved through the length | of the wire in time t. 1 = pyv where p; is the linear charge density and v is the drift velocity of charge. Differentiating the above equation with respect to time a dv Be pia, eT Pig Pt Here a is the acceleration of charge it dt or Ippa ee(1.2.1) This equation is the basic relation between current and charge and is known as fundamental equation of electromagnetic radiation. Radiation from Single Wire The conducting wire can radiate electromagnetic energy if there is : © Oscillating current in wire © Steady current in curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated or truncated wire as shown in Fig. 1.2.2. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-4 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Oscilatng current —1—- ‘Swalght wie Discontinuous wire —1—- i Curved wire — Ground Bent wire —_— '— Truncated Fig. 1.22 + Consid Ise s s ‘onsider a pulse Source Is Acceleration Retardation applied to the end of the wire and the other end is connected to the ground via toad load as shown in Fig. 1.2.3. © The free electrons. are Ground accelerated from the source Fig, 1.2.3 end and are retarded at the load end due to the build-up of the electrons there. The electromagnetic radiations are produced at the ends and along the length of the wire. Since the magnitude of acceleration or retardation is not uniform throughout, as a result there is a broad frequency spectrum (frequency is proportional to acceleration or retardation of electric charge). The band width depends upon the pulse width * For AC current, ideally there is single frequency of radiation. The moving charge through curved or bent wire experiences centripetal acceleration, which also products radiation. For discontinuous wire impedance change rapidly at the point of discontinuity which is also responsible for radiation. Radiation from Two Wires * Consider two straight conducting wires connected through generator or transmitter as shown in Fig, 1.24. The AC current in the two wires is same but their directions are opposite. If the separation between the conductors is very small as compared to the wavelength, then the electromagnetic fields of both the wires TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-5 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas cancel each other and as a result there is no net radiation. However when the open end of the wires are tapered which results in the increased separation between the wires, secondly the directions of currents in the two wires now are not exactly opposite which results in no net canceling of electromagnetic fields and the structure starts radiating, 1 een ——_:__. Transmiter Guided (TEM) wave One-dimensional wave “Transtion region Froe-space wave ‘oranterna radiating in Fig. 1.2.4 E23 Radiation from Dipole + If the transition region of the two conductor wires is bent through 90° as shown below in Fig. 1.2.5, the two currents become exactly parallel to each other. * In the next quarter period, the original field line travels additional distance of ¥/ and the total distance becomes 4/, simultaneously the charge on the dipode becomes zero. This can be through of as being neutralized by the appearance of opposite charges. The field lines by this opposite charges are shown dashed {anticlockwise sense). Since there is no net charge on the dipole and the existence of such-line is only possible when they form closed loops. These closed loops propagate away resulting in electromagnetic radiation. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-6 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 1. Length of dipole Generator or Transmitter Fig. 1.2.5 Current Distribution on Thin Wire Antenna * Consider two wire transmission line which is open at load side. The source sends traveling current wave in the wires. The current at the each end reflects back with phase changes of 180°. The incident and reflected current combine to produce a standing wave pattern of sinusoidal form as shown in Fig, 1.2.6. Zp—= Open circuit * If the separation between the lines is very small as compared to wavelength, there will not be any radiation. If the open and region is bent to 90°, the currents in the two vertical sections become in the same direction. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-7 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Introduction to Antenna * Antenna is an important device which has become an integral part of our day to day life * We find antenna everywhere; at homes, workplaces, on cars, vehicles, aircrafts, ships and not only that we carry antenna alongwith us in mobiles. There are number of types of antennas but all operate with the basic principles of electromagnetics. * First radio antenna was assembled in 1886 by Heinrich Hertz. He developed a circuit resembling a radio system with end loaded dipoles as a transmitting antenna while resonant square loop antenna as a receiving antenna operating at one meter wavelength * The laboratory work done by Hertz was further completed by Guglielmo Macroni and in 1901, he demonstrated world communication of signal over long distances Thus Hertz and Macroni are the pioneers of antenna. ions of Antenna * The basic definition of an antenna is a metallic device in the form of either wire or rod used for radiating or receiving radio waves. An antenna serves as a structure providing a transition between a guiding device and free space and vice versa. * According to IEEE standard definitions of terms for antennas, an antenna or aerial is a means for radiating, or receiving radio waves * Antenna can be defined as source or radiator of electromagnetic waves. * An antenna can be used to sense an electromagnetic wave. Hence it can be defined as sensor of electromagnetic waves. * An antenna can also be defined as a transducer which converts radio frequency electrical current into an electromagnetic wave of the same frequency as that of an electrical current. * An antenna acts as a coupling device between a generator or transmitter and free space. In other words, an antenna is an impedance matching device between free space and transmission line. Basic Antenna Elements * The basic antenna elements are as follows : i) Alternating current element (Hertzian dipole) : It is the basic short linear antenna. It is assumed that the current along the length of linear antenna is constant. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-8 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas ii) Short dipole : It is a linear antenna with a length less than 4/4. The current distribution of short dipole is assumed to be triangular. i) Short monopole : It is also a linear antenna with a length less than 4/8 with a current distribution assumed to be triangular. iv)Half wave dipole : It is a linear antenna with a length equal to 2/2. This antenna is generally a centerfed and its current distribution is sinusoidal. v) Quarter wave monopole : It is a linear antenna with a length equal to 4/4 Such antenna is fed at one end with respect to ground or earth with sinusoidal current distribution. Important Properties of Antenna + Regardless of antennas of any kind, the properties listed below are same for all of them whether they are used as either transmitting antenna or receiving antenna. The properties of antenna are as follows. i) An antenna has identical impedance inspite of being used for transmitting or receiving purposes. This property is called equality of impedances. ii) An antenna exhibits identical directional characteristics and patterns whether it is used for transmitting or receiving purposes. This property is known as equality of directional patterns. iii)An antenna has same effective length inspite of being used for transmitting or receiving purposes. This property is called equality of effective lengths. * All the three properties mentioned above can be verified using Reciprocity theorem for antenna (to be discussed later). Classification of Antennas * The essential element in all communication systems and radar systems is antenna. * An antenna acts as transducer, (converts electrical energy into electromagnetic wave), impedance matching unit (coupling between transmitter and free space and between free space and receiver), radiator and receiver of electromagnetic waves There are variety of antennas available. So the selection of antenna depends on operations, polarization and gain requirements and applications. The classification of antenna can be done in many different ways as given below. A] Isotropic, Directional and Omnidirectional Radiators + An isotropic radiator is a hypothetical radiator which radiates equal amount in all directions. The example of an isotropic radiator is a point source. It is used as a reference antenna to determine directive properties of all practical antennas. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-9 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas « A directional radiator is an antenna which radiates or receives the electromagnetic radiations more effectively in one particular direction than other directions. e.g, Dipoles, Horn, Paraboloid etc. ‘* An omnidirectional radiator is an antenna which as a non-directional pattern in azimuth direction but directional pattern in elevation plane perpendicular to previous one. It is a special case of directional pattem. e.g. circular loop antanna, vertical Hertz antenna, Macroni antenna etc. B] Resonant and Non-resonant Antennas + The resonant antennas are the antennas with a length in exact multiples of 4/2. Such antennas are open at both ends and none of the ends is terminated in any resistance. They operate at fixed frequency. In these antennas, reflected waves and standing waves exist. The voltage and current along the length are not in phase. The radiation pattern of such antennas is multidirectional. Such antennas are known as periodic antennas. «The non-resonant antennas are travelling wave antennas with a length other than in multiples of 4/2. Such antennas are excited at one end while other end is terminated into characteristic impedance. These antennas operate over wideband of frequencies. There are no reflected waves and hence no standing waves. The radiation pattern is unidirectional. These antennas are also called directional antennas. Non-resonant antennas are known as aperiodic antennas. C] Classification Based on Frequency Range ‘© On the basis of frequency range over which antenna is used, the antennas can be classified as LF, HF, VHF, UHF and mirowave frequency antennas. A typical frequency ranges and applications over those ranges are listed as follows. Sr.No. Name of frequency band Frequency range Applications 1 VLE (Very Low Frequency) 3 - 30 kHz Telegraphy 2 LF (Low Frequency) 30 - 300 kHz. ‘Navigational and marine aids a MF (Medium Frequency) 300 kHz-3MHz AM broadcasting, navigational 4 HE (High Frequency) 3-30 MHz Short wave broadcasting 5. VHF (Very High Frequency) 20 - 300 MHz FM broadcast, Television, Radar 6 UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 300 MHz -3 GHz _ Short distance communication 7. Microwave Frequency 3-30 GHz Radar, Satellite communication Table 1.4.1 Frequency ranges and typical applications TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-10 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Functions of Antenna + Some of the important functions of an antenna are as follow. i) Antenna acts as a transducer. It converts electrical energy into an electromagnetic energy at the transmitting end, while it converts an electromagnetic energy back into the form of an electrical energy at the receiving end of the communication link. ii) Antenna acts as an impedance matching device. At the transmitting end, it matches the impedancees between transmitter and free space while at receiving end it matches the impedance between the free space and receiver. Hence antenna functions as a coupler between transmitter and free space and free space and receiver. iii) Antenna functions as a device which can direct radiated energy is most desired direction supressing energy in undesired directions. iv)Antenna acts as transitional structure at the region where transition between guided wave and free space wave and vice versa. v) It functions as remote sensing temperature measuring device. EEE Types of Antenna * Antenna can be used as transmitting antenna or receiving antenna. It has directional properties. It is the important component of a wireless comunication system. * Some of the important types of antennas are wire antennas, travelling wave antennas, slots and aperature antennas, reflectors and lenses, integrated circuit type antennas. * The typical antennas are as shown in the Fig. 1.4.1. * The most commonly used antenna is the dipole antenna as shown in the Fig. 1.4.1 (a). It is made up of two straight wires or conductors laying along the same axis. The exciting source is kept at the centre. With a exciting source at the centre, a symmetric dipole is produced. In general, the dipole antenna is excited by a voltage obtained from a transmission line, wave guide or directly from generator. + The loop antenna as shown in the Fig. 1.4.1 (b) consists a single turn or many turns of wire forming a loop. It is generally excited by a generator directly. The field produced by a loop antenna is very much similar to that produced by a small dipole. * The antenna with a wire in the form a helix backed by a ground plane is called helical antenna. The helical antenna is as shown in the Fig. 1.4.1 (c). TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-11 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 4 a = LL) = (a) Dipole (b) Loop (c) Helical 1 4 | 6 : —_ 4 4 | 4 | l U | (a) Rhombic (e) Dielectric 10. ] uy Coaxial S Reflectors feed Radiating dipole ( Pyramidal horn () Parabolic dish reflector (h) Microstrip patch antenna () Coptanar strip horn Fig. 1.4.1 Typical antennas TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-12 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * All the three types of antenna mentioned above are wire antennas which are extensively used in aircrafts, ships, automobiles etc. * In case of a travelling wave antenna, the antenna is designed in such a way that a travelling wave in one direction is obtained. The velocity of this wave equals the velocity of light and it excites the waves in the space in the same direction strongly. Thus the maximum directivity can be achieved. * The rhombic antenna shown in the Fig.14.1 (d) is the common example of a travelling wave antenna. + When only one half of the antenna is utilized, the antenna is called V-antenna. + The travelling wave antenna in which the travelling wave is guided by a dielectric is called dielectric antenna. In dielectric antenna, near cut-off, the phase velocity equals the velocity of light. The fields produced extend outside a dielectric guide These outward fields excite the desired radiation in space. Such travelling wave antennas are useful for broadband signals. * In general, a field across an aperature excites radiation in space. If an aperature is small, it must be resonant to excite large amount of power. But if an aperature is large, it need not be resonant. * The common example of aperature antenna with larger aperature is horn antenna as shown in the Fig. 14.1 (f). The horn antenna is tapered at one end which provides a transition between guiding system and surroundings. It is also commonly known as electromagnetic horn. The aperature antenna is also useful for the broadband signals. * For the microwave radiation, the parabolic reflectors are most common used. The parabolic reflector illustrated in the Fig. 14.1 (g) is based on the principle that the electromagnetic waves are reflected by a conducting sheet. The dish of the parabolic reflector acts as a mirror and it reflects the radiation from a dipole or horn placed at the focal point. Then the exactly parallel beams are resulted. This type of antenna is most suitable in radars, communications, astronomy etc. * The antenna to be used with microwave integrated circuit may be placed on a dielectric substrate. The Fig. 1.4.1 (h) shows an integrated circuit type antenna in microstrip form, The Fig. 14.1 (i) shows a horn type antenna used with an integrated circuit. As antenna is placed on a dielectric substrate, the integrated circuit type antenna is also called patch antenna. ROCA sia 1. Write different definitions of autenna. 2. List and explain briefly about basic antenna elements. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-13 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Explain important properties of antenna. Aw Explain various functions of antenna Write detail note on antenna types. Draw neat diagrams wherever necessary. Give classification of antenna in detail. Isotropic Radiator * In general, isotropic radiator is a hypothetical or fictitious radiator. * The isotropic radiator is defined as a radiator which radiates energy in all directions uniformly. It is also called isotropic source. As it radiates uniformly in all directions, it is also called omnidirectional radiator or unipole. * Basically isotropic radiator is a lossless ideal radiator or antenna. * Generally all the practical antennas are compared with the characteristics of the isotropic radiator. The isotropic antenna or radiator is used as reference antenna. * Practically all the antennas show directional properties ie. directivity property. That means none of the antennas radiate energy in all directions uniformly. Hence practically isotropic radiator can not exist. * Consider that an isotropic radiator is placed at the centre of sphere of radius r as shown in Fig. 1.5.1. Then all the power radiated by the isotropic radiator passes over the surface area of the sphere given by 4nr, assuming zero absorption of Fig- 1.5.1 Isotropic radiator placed at centre of sphere with radius r the power. + Then at any point on the surface, the poynting vector P gives the power radiated per unit area in any direction. But radiated power travels in the radial direction. + Thus the magnitude of the poynting vector P will be equal to radial component as the components in 0 and 9-directions are zero i.e. Py =P, =0. Hence we can write, IP] = P, (1.5.1) The total power radiated is given by, Pra = ff Peds = [Peds =P. [fds . Now this radial component P, is the average power density component which can be denoted as Pyyy Prod = Payg(4r?) Py =Pp =0 where [ds = Surface area = 4nr? TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-14 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas ev ro (1.5.2) where, Total power radiated in watts Radial component of average power density in W/m? r = Radius of sphere in meters Review Question 1. Write an explainatory note on : sotropic radiator. Basic Antenna Parameters 5,16,19, Dec.-11,12,13,16,18 * An antenna is the basic fundamental component of the communication system. * The characteristics of the communication system are mainly dependent on the characteristics of the antennas used in the system. Antennas used in different systems are of different types. In some systems, the operational characteristics of the system are designed around the directional properties of an antenna. Or in some other type of system, the antennas are used only to radiate energy in all directions equally i.e. omnidirectional property. Now the applications of antennas are different in different systems. * But irrespective of antenna types and applications, all the antennas possess certain fundamental properties as listed below 1) Radiation pattern - i) Field radiation pattern, ii) Power radiation pattern 2) Radiation intensity 3) Directive gain and directivity 4) Power gain 5) Antenna beamwidth 6) Antenna bandwidth 7) Antenna input impedance 8) Effective length 9) Effective aperture 10) Antenna temperature 11) Antenna polari: * Consider a transmitting antenna which launches a guided wave via a transmission tion line to free space as shown in the Fig. 1.6.1 * The antenna acts as a terminal resistance to the transmission line which is commonly called radiation resistance denoted by Ryag- * Basically radiation resistance is not an actual resistance but it is the resistance interfaced from antenna with its surrounding at the terminals. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-15 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Transmission | line a4 aA SS etwaves aunched Transmitter or inttec space generator antenna impedance at terminal Fig. 1.6.1 Antenna fundamental The transmitting antenna radiates power in the free space which is absorbed by various objects like tree, building, hill, ground and also other antennas. ‘Thus any antenna is characterised by its radiation pattern. It is nothing but the graphical representation of antenna radiation represented as a function of direction. The receiving antenna receives two types of radiations namely active radiations from other antennas while passive radiations which are the reflections from the distinct objects. These radiations increases the apparent temperature T, of the radiation resistance. Thus radiation resistance and antenna temperature are important parameters which are both single valued scalar quantities. But the radiation pattern is 3-D represented as a function of spherical co-ordinates as 0 and 6 EEE Radiation Pattern Practically any antenna can not radiate energy with same strength uniformly, in all directions. It is found that the radiation is large in one direction while zero or minimum in other directions. The radiation from the antenna in any direction is measured in terms of field strength at a point located at a particular distance from an antenna. The field strength can be calculated by measuring voltages at two points on an electric lines of force and then dividing by distance between two points. Hence unit of the radiation pattern is volt per meter. Generally the field strength is expressed in millivolts per meter. The radiation pattern of an antenna is the important characteristic of antenna because it indicates the distribution of the energy radiated by an antenna in the space. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-16 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * In general, the radiation pattern is nothing but a graph which shows the variation of actual field strength of electromagnetic field at all the points equidistant from the antenna. Hence it is a three dimensional graph. * There are two basic radiation patterns. * If the radiation of the antenna is represented graphically as a function of direction it is called radiation pattern. But if the radiation of the antenna is expressed in terms of the field strength E(in V/m), then the graphical representation is called Field Strength Pattern or Field Radiation Pattern. * Similarly if the radiation of the antenna is expressed in terms of the power per unit solid angle, then the graphical representation is called Power Radiation Pattern or simply Power Pattern. Directional and Omnidirectional Patterns * An antenna with a property of radiating or receiving the electromagnetic waves more effectively in some directions than in others is called directional antenna. The radiation pattern of such antenna is called directional pattern. When antenna has maximum directivity greater than that of a half wave dipole is known as directional antenna. * The pattern discussed above is called directional pattern because the pattern is directional in elevation plane but non-directional in azimuth plane. Such a pattern is generally called omnidirectional pattem. * The omnidirectional pattern is defined as a pattern which is non-directional in given plane while directional in any orthogonal plane. So omnidirectional pattern is a special case of a directional pattern. * So practically any antenna which radiates more in a particular direction and less in any other direction is called directional antenna. The radiation pattern of any typical directional antenna is as shown in the Fig. 1.6.2. * The typical radiation pattern can z be explained with the help of lobes which are classified as major lobe, minor lobe side lobe Major lobe Minor lobes and back lobe. Null + The major lobe is the main lobe directions containing = the. =~ maximum. radiation. The minor lobe is any lobe other than major lobe. The . side lobe is adjacent to the main Fig. 1.6.2 Radiation pattern of a directional antenna lobe and generally occupies the“ . TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-17 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas hemisphere in the direction same as that of main lobe. The back lobe is the minor lobe which occupies a hemisphere in the direction exactly opposite (approximately 180°) to the direction of major lobe. * The radiation pattern of an omnidirectional antenna is as shown in the Fig, 1.6.3. + From the Fig. 1.63 it is clear that an omnidirectional z z antenna in x-y plane radiates equally in all directions while it radiates differently in 7 ¥ different directions in a plane 7 7 perpendicular to the xy @ oy plane, Fig, 1.6.3 Omnidirectional pattern with and without Field Radiation Pattern minor lobes * In general, the complete field radiation pattern is a 3-dimension pattern. * Itrequires three dimensional representation to represent the radiation for all angles of @ and 0. * A complete three dimensional field radiation pattern for maximum radiation of an antenna is as shown in the Fig. 1.6.4. ‘eld in (0, @)direction Main lobe Fig. 1.6.4 Thre dimensional representation of field radiation pattern of an antenna TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-18 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * To represent field radiation pattern, a spherical co-ordinate system is most suitable. In the Fig. 1.6.4, r indicates the distance from antenna located at origin to the distant point P. The field intensity at point P is proportional to the distance r. * From the Fig. 1.64 it is clear that the field pattern consists main lobe in z-direction where @ = 0 (which represents maximum radiation in that direction), then minor lobes on the sides (which are also called side lobes) and nulls between different lobes indicating minimum or zero radiation. * The pattem consists a small lobe exactly opposite to the main lobe which is called back lobe. * The field radiation pattern can be described completely with respect to the field intensity and polarization using following three important factors : i) Eo (0,0) The O-component of the electric field as a function of angles 0 and $. (expressed in V/m). ii) Ey (0,6) > The $-component of the electric field as a function of angles 0 and . (expressed in V/m). iii) 59(0,0) or 5y(0,6) + The phase angles of both the field components (expressed either in degree or radian) * In general, the field pattern is expressed mathematically in terms of relative field pattern which is commonly called normalized field pattern. * The normalized field pattern is defined as the ratio of the field component to its maximum value. Basically normalized field pattem is a dimensionless quantity with maximum value equal to one (unity). * These normalized field patterns for 0 and @ components of the electric field are given as follows _ —Fol@,0) Eqn @,0) = Fo,0)max (1.6.1) Similarly, E9(0,0) Eon 0,0) = Pe ww (1.6.2) * When the magnitude the normalized field strength is plotted versus @ with constant @, the pattern is called E-plane pattern or vertical pattern. The E-plane pattern for the Hertzian dipole is as shown in the Fig. 1.6.5 (a). TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-19 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * When the normalized field strength is plotted versus @ for , the pattern is nia called H-plane pattern or horizontal pattern. The H-plane pattern for the Hertzian dipole is as shown in the Fig. 1.6.5. (a) E - plane pattern (b) H- plane pattern 1.6.5 E-plane pattern and H-plane pattern for the hertzian dipole + The radiation pattern gets changed if the length of the dipole is increased. For a centre-fed half wave vertical dipole the radiation pattern is as shown in the Fig. 1.6.6 (a) (a) Half wavelength (b) One wavelength Fig. 1.6.6 iation patterns for vertical dipoles of half and one wavelength * Similarly the radiation pattern for a one wavelength long vertical dipole is as shown in the Fig. 1.6.7 (b). * The field radiation patterns for the uy wavelength and 2 wavelength vertical dipoles are as shown in the Fig. 1.6.7 (a) and (b) respectively Hs \ Ks : 1 (2) 4 2 wavelength (b) Two wavelength Fig. 1.6.7 Field radiation patterns for vertical dipoles of one and half wavelength and two wavelength TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-20 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Power Radiation Pattern * When the radiation in a given direction is expressed in terms of power per unit solid angle, the pattern is called power radiation pattern. * The power density P3 (0,0) is defined as power flow per unit area and is a function of the direction (0,0). The power density can be expressed in terms of the magnitude of the electric field intensity as, =i ft" 21 2 1.63) Pad) = 5 Pamir watt/m (1.6.3) E}(0,0)+ E,(0,6)7 Intrinsic impedance of free space where, |E(0,6)| and no 120 nQ + The direction in which E(@,$) is maximum, the power density P4@,) is also maximum and it is denoted by P3(0,0) max * Now similar to the field radiation pattern, mathematically the power radiation pattern is represented in terms of its normalized value denoted as Pj, (0,6) and is given by, _ _Pa,¢) [BOOP _ 9a = (L64 FinO9) = F00mn EO)ma °° ue * Here P,,(0,0) is the normalized power radiation pattern and it is also independent of distant r measured from origin to the distant point P since Py(8,6) and P,(,0)max both vary inversely with r. The power radiation pattern is plotted similar to the field radiation pattern. * For example, if the field radiation pattern is given by, £(0,6) = sinO then the power radiation pattern is given by, P40.) = £@,0) = sin?0 Key Point : In general, for an antenna, the radiation pattern can be described with the help of 3-d field vectors. But it can be explained even with the single valued| scalar quantities like Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW), Beam area (Q 4), Directivity (D), Gain (G), Effective aperture A, ete. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-24 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Radian, Steradian and Beam Solid Angle (2) * The basic difference between radian and steradian is that the radian is the measure of a plane angle; while the steradian is the measure of a solid angle. * One radian is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at the centre of BOX arc or of ne the circle a circle with radius ‘r” that is subtended by an arc whose length is also x, It is represented as unit rad * Refer Fig. 168. The — total circumference C of circle with Fig. 1.68 Representation of 1 radian plane ‘angle radius r is given by, C = 2nr Thus over a complete circle there are 2n radians. * In the similar way, the measure of a solid angle is defined as steradian. One steradian is defined as a solid angle with its vertex at the centre of the sphere with radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of a square with each side equal to r. The angle in steradian is expressed in Sr. Equivalent area ' Area =] ¢ — ‘2: Solid angle subtended by area A Fig. 1.6.9 Representation of 1 steradian solid angle * Refer Fig. 1.6.9. The area of a complete sphere with radius r is given by, A = 4nr? wa. (1.6.5) Thus over a closed sphere with radius r, the solid angle subtended by it is 4x steradian. * Now we can write, 1 steradian = 1 Sr _ Solid angle of sphere aa (1.6.6) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-22 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 1Sr =1rad? . 2 (1.67) (2) (deg)? = 3282.81 Square degrees The infinitesimal area ds on the surface of a sphere with radius r is given by, ds = 1? sin dodo m? Hence the element of solid angle dQ of a sphere is given by, ds in@ d@ do steradian Beam Solid Angle (or Beam Area) 2 a * Generally in the antenna pattern the beam area or beam solid angle is expressed in steradian. * It is defined as the integral of normalized power pattern over a sphere. It is denoted by 2, and is given by Qe on Qa = J J Pan(®,0) sin do do o=00=0 But dQ = sind de do Hence beam area is given by, on x Qy = f J Pyn (8,0) dQ steradian »- (1.6.8) * Many times, the beam area Q is described in terms of the angles subtended by half power points of the main lobe as shown in the Fig. 1.6.10. —Ezuivalent solid angle 2, Pattern of beam area Half power beam width 4p Fig. 1.6.10 Representation of equivalent solid angle TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-23 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas + Thus beam area can be written as, Beam area = Q, =~ OypOyp_ steradian - (1.6.8 (a)) Where, Opp and 6yp are half power beamwidths neglecting, minor lobes. Note that above relationship is approximate relationship. Radiation Intensity [U (0, 0) ] The radiation intensity of an antenna does not depend on the distance from the radiator or antenna. It is denoted by U. * The radiation intensity is defined as power per unit solid angle. It is expressed in W/Sr (ic. watts/steradian). + The radiation intensity of an antenna is defined as, U@o) = 1 Px@,) Then the total power radiated can be expressed in terms of the radiation intensity as, P, f Py (0,0) ds s rad Pa (6,0) [r? sino de do] 5 = f j [Paco =? ] sino do ao 0 be the differential solid angle in steradian (Sr). Then we can 2m 2 Pai = J J U@o)a2 9=00=0 + Thus the radiation intensity U (0,0) is expressed in watts per steradian (W/Sr) and it is defined as time average power per unit solid angle. The average value of the radiation intensity is given by, = Prd Use = Gn * Using radiation intensity U(0,6) we can also calculate normalized power pattern as the ratio of radiation intensity U(0,0) it is maximum value U@,)max and is given by, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-24 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Uo) Pan 0,0) = TOO)mae . (1.6.9) * An isotropic antenna is the omnidirectional antenna, The meaning of the omnidirectional antenna is the antenna acting as a point radiator which radiates equally in all directions. But practically an isotropic antenna does not exist in practice. Practically antenna does not radiate equally in all directions. ctive Gain [Gp (0,0)] and Directivity [D] * If the antenna were isotropic ic. if it were to radiate uniformly in all directions, then the power density at all the points on the surface of a sphere will be same. * The average power can be expressed in terms of the radiated power as, = Prod 2 Pavg = he W/m ws. (1.6.10) * The directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power density Pyig,,) to the average power radiated. For isotropic antenna, the value of the directive gain is unity. Gp (oa) = Pe@®) Pal) 4nr Rearranging the terms, P3 (0,0): 1? Prad 4m + The numerator in the above ratio is the radiation intensity while the denominator is the average value of the radiation intensity. Gp@o) = * Hence the directive gain can be written as, U@,0) _ 42U(0,9) Vavg Prad Gp@o) = (1.6.11) Thus the directive gain can be defined as a measure of the concentration of the radiated power in a particular direction (0,6). * The ratio of the maximum power density to the average power radiated is called maximum directive gain or directivity of the antenna. It is denoted by Gp max OF D. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-25 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas (1.6.12) * The directivity can alternatively defined as, Umax _40U, eee Dmax avg Prag -- (1.6.13) * The directivity of an antenna is dimensionless quantity. * The directivity can also be expressed in terms of the electric field intensity as, 2 4afE, D=Gpmax = am tne a (1.6.14) J J [email protected])/ sino do ag 00 We know that average power density Payg can be defined as, 13 Pg = go ff P(0.)sino dodo 9=00=0 But we know that d@ = sin d0 do, 1 Pavg = aff P(6,o) dQ watt/Sr --. (1.6.15) Thus from equation (1.6.15), putting value of Pyyg, the directivity can be defined as, Dp = Paimx _ (0,6) max Pa 1 (1.6. avg aff P@,o) dQ (1.6.16) Rearranging terms, 1 p PO,o) an ia ll [rose ymax But PO) P@,o)max ~ P, (8,0) = Normalized power pattern TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-26 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas = any = Ae I P,@,6)dQ 2a .. (1.6.17) an Equation (1.6.17) represents the directivity in terms of beam area (or beam solid angle) 2 4. So alternatively we can define the directivity as the ratio of area of a sphere (41) to the beam area Q, of an antenna. Key Point : If the beam area of an antenna is smaller, its directivity is greater. An isotropic radiator has lowest possible directivity of value D = 1. All practical antennas have directivity value D > 1. If the half power beamwidths of an antenna are known, then we can express directivity as, (1.6.18) Where 412531 = Number of square degrees in sphere af 2) square degree 6°yp = HPBW in one principle plane, 0°xp = HPBW in other principle plane * Above equation is obtained by neglecting minor lobes. If we consider minor lobes too, then the approximate formula for directivity is, 400007 Da aw Opp O° np -- (1.6.19) EGE directivity and Resolution * The resolution of an antenna is defined as half of the beamwidth between first nulls. Resolution = a ow (1.6.20) But half the beamwidth between first nulls is approximately equal to the Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) of an antenna. ENBW. 2. HPBW = ie. T TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-27 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Actually in practice for an antenna HPBW is slightly less than mew As we discussed earlier, the antenna beam area is given by the product of two half power beamwidths in two principle planes. Hence we can write, FNBW FNBW 24 = Omer = (EY) (A) 9 > sv» (1.6.21) if there are N number of point sources of radiations distributed uniformly, then antenna resolves those and its expression is given by, 4n N= aa where 2, = Beam area expressed in Sr. ws. (1.6.22) But by definition, the directivity of antenna is defined as, 4n DO v= (1.6.23) Hence we can write, D=N .. (1.6.24) + Thus ideally number of point sources resolved by an antenna is equal to directivity of an antenna. Key Point : The resolution of antenna is also called Rayleigh Resolution. The 4x Qy represents number of point sources resolved by antenna in the sky which is ideally’ equal to directivity of an antenna. EEG Power G: * The practical antenna is made up of a conductor having finite conductivity. Hence expression D = 4 represents number of beam areas of antenna pattern while D = N [Gp (0,6)] and Radiation (or Antenna) Efficiency we must consider the ohmic power loss of the antenna. * If the practical antenna has ohmic losses (I?R) represented by Pigs, then the power radiated P,,q is less than the input power Pj,. Then we can express the Pa in terms of the P,, as Prad = Tr Pin where n, is called radiation efficiency of an antenna. * Thus the radiation efficiency of an antenna can be written as, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-28 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas = Pra MW = pS But the total input power to the antenna can be written as, Pin = Prad +Ploss Hence the radi ffi be written as, Tr, Pra +Piss The power radiated and the ohmic power loss can be expressed interms of r.m.s current as, Prd = Tims Rrad and Ploss = Tims Rioss * Then the radiation efficiency is given by, * The ratio of the power radiated in a particular direction (8,4) to the actual power input to the antenna is called power gain of antenna. The power gain of the antenna is denoted by Gp (0,0) and it is given by, Pu @o) B, Gp) = * The maximum power gain can be defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to the radiation intensity due to isotropic lossless antenna. Maximum radiation intensity ————— os 4 Radiation intensity due to isotropic lossless antenna GSpmax 8 But the maximum radiation intensity is given by, vu... = Pad ‘max tn TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-29 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Substituting value of Umax in the expression for maximum power gain, we get, Pn P, Nr} Gq JEDmax Tr] ge |D Gpmax = P. =F (3) (3) Gpmax = Tr Gomax = Mr D wwe (1.6.25) For many practical antennas, the radiation efficiency n, is 100%. Then the maximum power gain is approximately same as the directivity or the maximum directional gain of the antenna. Generally, both power gain and the directional gain are expressed in decibels (4B). Front to Back Ratio (FBR) It is the ratio of the power radiated in the desired direction to the power radiated in the opposite direction. _ Power radiated in desired direction FBR Power radiated in opposite direction Obviously, the front-to-back ratio value desired is very high as it is expected to have large radiation in the front or desired direction rather than that in the back or opposite direction. The FBR depends on frequency of operation. So when frequency of an antenna changes, the FBR also changes. Similarly the FBR depends on the spacing between the antenna elements. If the spacing between antenna elements increases the FBR decreases The FBR also depends on the electrical length of the parasitic elements of the antenna. The FBR can be raised by divertng the gain of backward direction response of the antenna to the front or forward or desired direction by adjusting the length of the parasitic elements. The method of adjusting the electrical length of the parasitic element is called tuning. Practically the FBR is important in case of the receiving antennas rather than transmitting antennas. At the receiving antenna, adjustments are made in such a way to obtain maximum FBR rather than maximum gain. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-30 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Antenna Beamwidth * Basically antenna beamwidth is the measure of the directivity of the antenna, The antenna beamwidth is an angular width in degrees. It is measured on a radiation pattern on major lobe. + The antenna beamwidth is defined as the angular width in degrees between the two points on a major lobe of a radiation pattern where the radiated power decreases to half of its maximum value. ain lobe axis P Main lob noua PO) ‘Main lobe \P. Half Power Beamuidth (HPBW) Beamwidth between First Nulls (BWFN) Minor lobes Back lobe. {b) Antenna power pattern in (a) Antenna power pattern in rectangular co-ordinat Polar co-ordinates and logarithmic scal Fig. 1.6.11 Measurement of antenna beamwidth * The measurement of the antenna beamwidth is illustrated inthe Fig. 1.6.11 (a) and (b). * In the Fig. 1.6.11 (a), antenna power pattern is represented on linear scale in polar co-ordinates. The same pattern is represented on logarithmic scale in rectangular co-ordinates in the Fig. 1.6.11 (b). * The beamwidth is also called Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) because it is measured between two points on the major lobe where the power is half of its maximum power, From Fig. 1.6.11 (a) it is clear that the power is maximum at point P, while it is half at points P, and P, both. Hence the angular width between points P, and P, is nothing but antenna beamwidth or Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW). The beamwidth is also called 3-dB beamwidth as reduction of power to half of its maximum value corresponds to the reduction of power (expressed in dB) by 3 dB. From Fig. 1.6.11 (b) it is clear that power is maximum at point P, but at points P; and P, the power is 3 dB down the maximum power. * Many times, the antenna radiation pattern is described in terms of the angular width between first nulls or first side lobes. Then such an angular beamwidth is called Beamwidth between First Nulls (BWEN). TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-31 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * The directivity (D) of the antenna is related with beam solid angle Q, or beam area B through expression. 4n _4n Qa (1.6.26) where, B = Beam area a (HPBW) in horizontal plane x (HPBW) in vertical plane. (HPBW) in E-plane x (HPBW) in H-plane " or B u Op xOq, «+ Where Of and 0j1 in radians. 4 OrOy £0, and 0} are radians (1.6.27) We can convert angles expressed in radians into angles in degrees by using relation, Trad = 80° = 57.295" ~ 573° 4757.3)? _ 41257 D=—— =———_ Op Oy 70 On (1.6.28) * Above formula is approximate formula and it is applicable only to the antennas with narrow beamwidth (about 209 with no minor lobes in the radiation pattern. ¢ The beamwidth of the antenna is affected by the shape of the radiation pattern, wavelength and dimensions. EGE Antenna Beam Efficiency (em) * To examine the quality of the transmitting and receiving antennas, the antenna beam efficiency parameter is important, For the antenna with major lobe coincident with z-axis the beam efficiency is defined as, __ Power transmitted (or received) within the cone angle 0; Power transmitted (or received) by antenna BE ws (1.6.29) where, 6; is the half angle of the cone within which the percentage of total power is found. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-32 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * Mathematically, the beam efficiency is given by, an 94 J J U@G, o)sino dod o=0 = w+ (1.6.30) f j U@G, o)sin® dodo 9=0 0=0 * The beam efficiency can be expressed in terms of the mean beam area (Q yy) and total beam area (Q, ). Then the beam efficiency can also be defined as the ratio of the main beam area to the total beam area. It is also denoted by eq (1.6.31) * Note that the total beam area (Q,) is the combination of the main beam area (Qyy) and the minor lobe area (Q.,) ic. Qn = Ou + Qn (1.6.32) Dividing equation (1.6.32) by 2, on both the sides, we get where, SM . Main beamarea _¢ Q, ~ Totalbeamarea = Beam efficiency Minor lobe area ‘A. Totalbeamarea = Stray factor (1.6.33) Thus | €y + EERO Antenna Bandwidth (Ao) * In general, the performance of antenna depends on various characteristics such as antenna gain, side lobe level, standing wave ratio (SWR), antenna impedance, radiation patterns, antenna polarization, front-to-back (FBR) ratio etc. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-33 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * During the operation of antenna these requirements may change. Thus there is no unique definition for antenna bandwidth. * So the antenna bandwidth can be specified in many ways such as i) Bandwidth over which the gain of the antenna is higher than the acceptable value, or ii) Bandwidth over which the standing wave ratio of transmission line feeding antenna is below acceptable value, or iii)Bandwidth over which the FBR is minimum equal to the specified value. * Thus in general we can define the bandwidth of antenna as the band of frequencies over which the antenna maintains required characteristics to the specified value * In general, the antenna bandwidth mainly depends on impedance and pattern of antenna. * At low frequency, generally impedance variation decides the bandwidth as pattern characteristics are frequency insensitive. Under such condition, bandwidth of the antenna is inversely proportional to Q factor of antenna. * Thus bandwidth can be expressed mathematically as, Bandwidth = (B.W.) = Aw =@)-@, = oc © Aw = rg (1.6.34) a eh ae = h-f=o (1.6.35) where, fp is the centre frequency or design frequency or resonant frequency, while Q factor of antenna is given by, Total energy stored by antenna regs ahd pe gee (1.6.36) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-34 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Input Impedance of Antenna * Consider that a practical antenna and transmitter are connected through a transmission line as shown in the Fig. 1.6.12 (a). Zo Antenna ot Zo A Vo A RF © voltage B | 2a B (@) Antenna fed with 8 RE. voltage (©) Equivatent circuit Fig. 1.6.12 A practical antenna fed via transmission line RF. voltage and i equivalent circuit including antenna impedance Z, * With the RF. voltage supplied to antenna, the current distribution establishes on antenna. Once the current distribution is established, the power is radiated in the free space. * At the same time a small part of power inputed is dissipated becauses ohmic losses in antenna. * It is also observed that near antenna reactive field develops. * So we can represent antenna with a complex antenna impedance Z, with real resistive component Ra and reactive component X,. Such impedance is called antenna input impedance and it draws the power same as that antenna draws. from the transmission line. * The equivalent circuit is as shown in the Fig. 1.6.12 (b). * Basically, antenna input impedance is the ratio of voltage applied at antenna terminals to the input current at terminals. * Now consider that antenna with input impedance Z,=R, + j Xa is connected to a source with Thevenin’s equivalent voltage Vg and Thevenin’s equivalent impedance Zc = Rg + j Xg- The maximum power transfer is possible only if the antenna input impedance Z, is complex conjugate of source impedance Zg. The condition for maximum power transfer can be given as, Ry = Rg and X,=-Xo Thus under matching load condition, antenna current is given by, Vo -_Ye Vo RotRa Rat+Rq 2Rg TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-35 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas The real power supplied by the source can be expressed as, 1 [Vel] _1Vel? = on 162 alive el] - et (1.637) * So half of the power supplied is dissipated or lost in source resistance Re, itself while the remain half power is dissipate in antenna resistance Ry. Thus the effective power input to the antenna is, lip [Vol* Py = sIP|Ra= a= g IFT Ra BRa Pg = $RetVel"l = (1.6.38) * Basically, antenna impedance Z., consists real resistive part Ry which gives power radiated by antenna while the reactive part indicates the reactive power stored in the near-field of antenna. + The antenna resistance Ry is a combination of two resistances namely radiation resistance R,,q and loss resistance Riga. Ryad + Rioss +.(1.6.39) ie. Ra The total power inputed to antenna can be written as, Liye FHP Brad + Rioss) 1 HP? Rag = 1 P, WP R, ie. Pin = a ie vie oss (1.6.40) The total power radiated by an antenna is given by, Pra = 3 IH? Raa s( 1641) The power dissipated or lost in antenna due to ohmic losses is given by, Ploss = 5 HID? Rios --(1.6.42) + Thus, from equation (1.640), (1.6.41) and (1.6.42) we can conclude that the total power inputed to the antenna is the combination of power radiated and power dissipated part of the power inputed to antenna is radiated by R,,y and some small part of power is dissipated in Rj... Self and Mutual Impedance of Antenna * In general, any antenna is usually fed with a transmission line. So it is important to know the impedance of the antenna at the terminals where transmission line is connected. Such impedance is very important in the analysis of antenna. ¢ In general, any antenna can be used either as transmitting antenna or as receiving antenna. The transmitter and receiver are used along with transmitting antenna TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-36 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas and receiving antenna respectively. So in order to obtain maximum power available from transmitter or to extract maximum received power from antenna at receiver, the impedance of the antenna must be known. Self Impedance of Antenna + The impedance of antenna measured at the terminals where transmission line carrying RE. power connected is called antenna input impedance. * These terminals are nothing but feed points of the antenna, the impedance is also called feed point impedance or terminal impedance. * As the RF. power carried by the transmission line from the transmitter, excites or drives the antenna, the antenna input impedance can be alternatively called driving point impedance of antenna. * When the antenna is lossless and isolated from ground and other objects, the impedance offered by antenna to the transmission line is represented by two terminal network with impedance Z;, as shown in the Fig. 1.6.13 (b). Antenna 1 Antenna a terminal Transmission? TWanghission line (a) Roprosentation of antenna _(b) Representation of terminals (or feed points) antenna impedance Fig. 1.6.13 Representation of antenna impedance + Note that the notation Z, represents that the antenna impedance acts as load to the transmission line driving antenna. * With a lossless and isolated antenna, the antenna terminal impedance is same as the self impedance of the antenna, which is represented by Zy. The self impedance of the antenna is a complex quantity given by, Zy = RutjXn v= (1.643) The real part of Zy; ie. Ry is called self resistance or radiation resistance of antenna, while the imaginary part of Z11 i.e. X11 is called self reactance of antenna. For half wave dipole, the self impedance is typically given by, Zy = Ry tjXy = 73+) 4245 (1.6.43(a)) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-37 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Key Point : The self impedance of antenna is always positive. The value of self’ impedance is same for antenna used either as transmitting antenna or receiving, antenna. The self impedance of the antenna is nothing but the impedance measured at ‘input terminals of an antenna with all other antennas are isolated from it. F]| Mutual Impedance of Antenna * While considering the self impedance of antenna, we assumed that the antenna is lossless and isolated from the other objects and ground. * But many times in the large antenna systems, any antenna may be placed in the close vicinity of other active antennas. In such cases, the antenna terminal impedance is not simply equal to the self impedance of the antenna but another impedance gets introduced due to the currents flowing in other active antennas placed close to the antenna considered. Such impedance is called mutual impedance of antenna. * Let us consider two antennas kept very closed to each other (such antennas may be called coupled antennas) as shown in the Fig. 1.6.14 (c) and (d). A Vy 48 mM Circuit - 4 Circuit - 2 Circuit - 1 Circuit - 2 fa) (b) 0000 Fig. 1.6.14 Representation of voltage induced in coupled circuits Ay Ag AY © (a) Fig. 1.6.14 Coupled antennas TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-38 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * Exactly on the similar lines to the coupled circuits, the mutual impedance of antenna is given by, v Zy = —— . (1.6.44) And Zip = aoa (1.6.44 (a)) 2 * But according to the reciprocity theorem, we can write the mutual impedance of antenna as, Va _ Ven ~ (1.6.45) 1 2 + The mutual impedance depends on, i) Magnitude of induced voltage, ii) Phase difference between induced voltage and input current, iii) Tuning conditions of coupled antennas EREEH ra * In general, an antenna radiates power into free space in the form of electromagnetic waves. So the power dissipated is given by, ition Resistance (R,aq) Prag = 12-R ww (1.6.46) * Assuming all the power dissipated in the form of electromagnetic waves, then we can write, Prad R = Pra sw (1.6.46 (a) rp * The resistance which relates power radiated by radiating antenna and the current flowing through the antenna is a fictitious resistance. Such resistance is called radiation resistance of antenna and it is denoted by Rjag or Ry or Ro Key Point : The radiation resistance is a fictitious resistance such that when it is connected in series with antenna dissipates same power as the antenna actually radiates. * But practically the energy supplied to the antenna is not completely radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves, but there are certain radiation losses due to the loss resistance denoted by Rioss TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-39 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas + Thus the total power is given by, P = Prag +Phoss = Radiation loss + Ohmic loss be P = I? Ryag +1? Rios P = FP? (Riad +Rioss) .. (1.647) Key Point : The radiation resistance of antenna depends on antenna configuration, ratio of length and diameter of conductor used, location of the antenna with respect to round and other objects. Effective Length or Effective Height Loy * The effective length of an antenna carrying peak current I,, is defined as the length of an imaginary linear antenna with a uniformly distributed current, such that both the antennas have the same far field in 0 =5 plane. It is represented by Lett: * For practical antenna, 12 HBr f 1(z)dz ~» (1.6.48 (a) “12 For practical antenna, variation of current can have any distribution. But for an imaginary antenna, current is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the length. Hence for imaginary antenna, +. (1.6.48 (b)) But practical and imaginary antenna should produce same electric field at far point So equating equations (1.6.48 (a)) and (1.6.48 (b)), we can write, 2 I J 1@az w= (1.6.48 (c)) ™ 1/2 1 Lett = + Equation (1.6.48 (c)) represents the effective length of a transmitting antenna. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-40 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas The effective length of a receiving antenna is defined as the ratio of the open circuit voltage Voc induced at the open terminals of an antenna to the incident electric field intensity E; producing Voc. vi Lee = ne .. (1.6.48 (d)) Key Point : Note that the effective length of an antenna used for transmitting is same as that for the same antenna used for receiving, EEGREM Effective Aperture or Effective Area [Ae] In general, this term is used in relation with the receiving antenna. The effective aperture is the ability of antenna to extract energy from the electromagnetic wave. It is also called effective area. Effective aperture is defined as the ratio of power received in the load to the average power density produced at the point. (1.6.49) Power received by the antenna may be denoted by Pp. It is measured in watts. ‘The power density is measured in watts/m?. Hence effective aperture is measured in m?, In other words we can explain effective aperture as an area which extracts energy from the electromagnetic wave, out of the total area of antenna. Obviously an antenna should have maximum useful area to extract energy. Thus the maximum. effective aperture is obtained when power received is maximum. It is denoted by A em- In general, antenna has certain impedance which is made up of resistive and reactive part. The resistive part of the impedance is nothing but the radiation resistance R,,q- This condition is true because same antenna can be used for transmitting and receivis the load connected to the antenna is complex conjugate of the antenna impedance. g signal. Now the power transfered will be maximum if Key Point : Hence under maximum power transfer condition, the power received is maximum and hence the effective aperture is maximum. Let us calculate effective aperture for the Hertzian dipole. When the Hertzian dipole is used as the receiving antenna, it extracts power from the incident waves TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-41 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Z=RaatiX Yoo! +) 2. =Reaa- Fig. 1.6.15 Equivalent circuit of the rec ing antenna and delivers it to the load, producing voltage in it. The equivalent circuit for the receiving antenna is as shown in the Fig. 1.6.15. The voltage induced in antenna is given by, Voc = |E| aL se (1.6.50) where |E| is the magnitude of the electric field intensity produced at the receiving point and dL is the length of the Hertzian dipole. Then the current flowing the load is given by, Voc a w= (1.651) For the maximum power transfer condition, load is selected as the complex conjugate of the antenna impedance (Z; =Z") . Substituting the values of impedances Z and Z,, the current flowing can be written as, Voc = 7 (1.6.52) (Rrad +) X)+(Rrad JX) 2 Read Then the power delivered to the load is given by, Voc) 2R, = Tas Red =| 24] Rea = PR s Rrad Be d Substituting the value of Vgc from equation (1.6.50), we get, _ [EP at? FR = EES . (1.6.53) The maximum effective apperature is given by, Maximum power received A Average power density TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-42 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas JE |? dL? A = Pam 8Raa _ dl? mo o vg) LEP 4Rrad Substituting values of Rrag and no, we get, z= aL? (120m) _ 37 fy] " (1.6.54) Above equation represents the maximum effective aperture of the Hertzian dipole. But the directivity of the Hertzian dipole is 1.5. Hence we can rewrite the expression for the maximum effective aperture as, 2 Aem = (Gomax) Fz .. (1.6.55) A 183 m paraboloid reflector is to be used at 6 GHz. Calculate the beamwidth betzoeen the first mulls. Also calculate the gain of the antenna and express it in decibels. AU Solution : Given : d = 1.83 m, f = 6 GHz 3x108 ©, 3x10 = 005 m f 6x10? BWEN = 0(3) = 140 [ = 3.825° 4nA y nd? where, Ag = K-A, where A = 77 — Kd? _ 0.651? x (1.83)? = 8584.89 2 (0.05)? G,(4B) = 10log yy -G, = 39.33 dB Relationship between Directive Gain, Radiation Resistance and Effective Length * Consider two antennas as antenna 1 and antenna 2. Let the directivities of these antennas be denoted by D, and D3. Assume that their maximum effective areas TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-43 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas are denoted by (Ae, Jmax aNd (Ae, mae AS We have discussed, the directivity of an antenna is proportional to the maximum effective area. Hence we can write, Dy «= (Ac) max (1.6.56) And Dz = (Ae, Imax (1.6.57) Di _ Aey)max Dr” Badman (1.6.58) * Let antenna 1 be the isotropic radiator for which the directivity is unity. ie. D, = 1. Hence we can write, 1 | Bey)max Dr Bey)max (Mey) max D, = 82m (1.6.59) 2 | Radmae (1659) (Aey)max and (Ae) )max = ty --(1.6.60) * Let us assume that antenna 2 be the test antenna which is a short dipole. As we know for the short dipole antenna, maximum effective aperture is (a)” and the directivity is =. Hence we can write, (1.6.61) Putting value of (A.e, Jmax in the expression for D, we get, (Acy)max _ 4m g)max _ Dy = = 33 eg max (1.6.62) Hence in general we can write, 2 L dma = 5s (1.6.63) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-44 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Hence putting value of (A g)max in the general expression of D given above, we get, An [Lenme | (2 «-(1.6.64) Different Types of Antenna Apertures A. Scattering Aperture (A,) : * The scattering aperture is defined as the ratio of power received by radiation resistance R,,, to the average power density produced at point. It is denoted by A, and is measured in m’, Mathematically, Vs Read _ Vins “Read As “TPvsgl Pag (1.6.65) Using an equivalent circuit of antenna, v, (RL + Ra)? +X. +Xa)? Vz -Rrad .| & =o A (1.6.66) [Ry + Ra)? +1 +Xq)? 1 Pavg For maximum power transfer condition, R, = Ray = Rag assuming Rj = 0 and XL=-Xq, we get, y2 = Ae (As\max = TRa Pag Ae)max (1.6.67) Thus it is observed that under maximum power transfer condition, the maximum scattering aperture (A,)mqx of an antenna is same as maximum effective aperture (Ay)max- * The ratio of scattering aperture of an antenna to its effective aperture is known as scattering ratio. It is denoted by f and its value lies between 0 and «. The mathematical expression for B is, palsy (Do (1.6.68) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-45 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas B. Loss Aperture (A,) * It is aperture of an antenna related to the loss resistance of an antenna. * It is defined as, the ratio of power dissipated by the loss resistance of an antenna to the average power density at a point. * Ibis called loss aperture and is denoted by A\. (1.6.69) Putting value of Img We get alternative expression for A) as, VA -Rioss A ar 2 TRL + Ra)” +X +Xa)TPavg But Rg = Rrad + Rios, hence we get, V2 -Rioss 7 ee (1.6.70) TRL +Rrad + Rioss)* +X, +Xa)*T-Pavg C. Collecting Aperture (A,) + The collecting aperture (A,) is the sum of effective aperture, scattering aperture and loss aperture of an antenna Ac = Apt Ag+ Ay 2 2 2 ice. A. = [| +(e St [ Rioss Pavg Pavg Pavg Tims(Ri +Rrad +Rioss) Pavg (1.6.71) Substituting value of Ijmag the alternative expression for collecting aperture A, is given by, i VA(RL +Rrad +Rioss) , ee ne en (1.6.72) (Rt +Rraa + Riou)? +, +Xa)? Pang (672) D. Physical Aperture (A,) * The physical aperture (A,) is the parameter which deals with the actual physical size or cross-section of an antenna. In case of antennas like horn antennas, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-46 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas reflector antennas etc. which have larger physical sizes or greater cross-sections in terms of wavelength A, the physical aperture is very important parameter. The physical aperture (A,) is defined as the actual physical cross-section of an antenna normal to the direction of propagation of electromagnetic waves towards an antenna which is set for its maximum response. It is observed that the physical aperture A, for large cross-section antennas is greater than their respective effective aperture A,. While in case of antennas like short dipole, the physical aperture is smaller than respective effective aperture. When the losses are assumed to be zero, the physical aperture and effective aperture both are equal in case of an antenna. This is totally an ideal condition, where we can write, A, = Ae ves (4 Losses are 2e70 i.€. Piogs = 0) The ratio of maximum effective aperture to the physical aperture of an antenna is known as absorption ratio. It is denoted by y. It is dimensionless quantity and its value lies between 0 and =. The absorption ratio 7 can be defined mathematically as, (1.6.73) Antenna Temperature [Ta] Any object with physical temperature above absolute zero (ie. above 0 °K or -273 C) radiates energy. The parameter antenna temperature is not the inherent property of the antenna because it is not at all related to the physical temperature of the antenna. But the antenna temperature is related to the temperature of the surrounding coupled to the antenna through radiation resistance, So we can consider the receiving antenna as a remote temperature sensing and measuring device. Consider a simple resistor at temperature T, as shown in the Fig. 1.6.16 (a). By the Nyquist relation, the noise power per unit bandwidth available across the terminals is given by, (1.6.74) = Noise power per unit bandwidth W/Hz Boltzman’s constant = 1.38%10- J/K P k= 7 Absolute temperature of resistor in K TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-47 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * If we replace a resistor by a lossless antenna of the radiation resistor R in an anechoic chamber at temperature T., then under condition T, = T,, the noise power per unit bandwidth remains same as shown in Fig. 1.6.16 (b). Yi 1o— Ts ° LZ Yo R aN Absorber ntenna guy at Antenni pattern temperature 1, Ts ° . 1 sas ‘Antenna chamber (0) Antenna at anechoic (¢) Antenna with @ chamber at temperature T, sky at temperature T., Fig. 1.6.16 * Finally if we remove antenna from anechoic chamber and kept pointing to the sky at temperature T, as shown in the Fig, 1.6.16 (c) then the noise power per unit bandwidth remains unchanged if the temperatures T, and T, are same. This condition is studied under the assumption that the whole radiation pattem is at sky temperature T,. * In this way antenna can be used to measure distinct temperature and it is called passive remote sensing. The antenna used for remote sensing is called radio telescope. * To measure the distant temperature, the antenna noise temperature is compared with that of resistor at temperature T,. For comparison of the two temperatures, the antenna is connected to the receiver and then the resistor is connected to the receiver. When there is no difference in the temperature, we get condition T, = Te, * Thus the noise temperature Ty of a lossess antenna is equal to the sky temperature T, and not equal to the physical temperature. * But this is contradictary to the resistor because it is lossy and hence its noise temperature is equal to the physical temperature. * Hence for a practical antenna used for the remote sensing, the noise power per unit bandwidth is given by, P = kT, W/Hz (1.6.75) * Here T, is the antenna temperature or antenna noise temperature which is equal to the temperature of the radiation resistance of the antenna. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-48 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * The total power available can be obtained by multiplying RHS. of equation (1.6.75) by bandwidth B in Hz, we get, P = kT,B W (1.6.76) where, B Receiver bandwidth in Hz. * Let the effective aperture of antenna be A,. Then the power density per unit bandwidth is produced in the direction of the radiation. This is called flux density and it is denoted by S. Hence power available is given by, P = S-A.B W (1.6.77) Thus the flux density of antenna is given by, S= Ata W/m? Hz .. (1.6.78) From equation (1.6.78), we can write, the antenna temperature from the source as, SA. Kk T, = K (1.6.79) From equation (1.6.78) it is clear that the dimensions of the flux density and the Poynting vector per unit bandwidth are same, hence we can express flux density $ as the measure of the Poynting vector per unit bandwidth. If the size of the source is small compared to the beam solid angle Qq, then the source temperature can be given by, Qa ae Q mak (1.6.80) where, = Beam solid angle in steradian Q, = Source solid angle in steradian Antenna noise temperature in K. * Practically the thermal noise in the components in the receiver system, the receiver itself has certain noise temperature Tp. Hence the total system noise power at the terminals of the receiver is given by, P, = KT, +TpB = Tys BW (1.6.81) where, P, = System noise power Ta +TR = Effective system noise temperature = Tyg TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-49 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas B = Bandwidth Ta = Antenna noise temperature Ta = Receiver noise temperature. * Antenna gain-to-noise-temperature (G/T) is a figure of merit in the characterization of antenna performance, where G is the antenna gain in decibels at the receive frequency, and T is the equivalent noise temperature of the receiving system in kelvins. The receiving system noise temperature is the summation of the antenna noise temperature and the RF chain noise temperature from the antenna terminals to the receiver output. * Antenna temperature (Tjq,) is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a given environment. Antenna noise temperature is not the physical temperature of the antenna but rather an expression of the available noise power at the antenna flange. Moreover, an antenna does not have an intrinsic “antenna temperature” associated with it; rather the temperature depends on its gain pattern and the thermal environment that it is placed in. Antenna temperature is also sometimes referred to as Antenna Noise Temperature. To define the environment, we'll introduce a temperature distribution - this is the temperature in every direction away from the antenna in spherical coordinates. For instance, the night sky is roughly 4 K; the value of the temperature pattem in the direction of the Earth's ground is the physical temperature of the Earth's ground. This temperature distribution will be written as Ts(0,@). Hence, an antenna’s temperature will vary depending on whether it is directional and pointed into space or staring into the sun. * For an antenna with a radiation pattern given by G(@,¢), the noise temperature is mathematically defined as : 1 pane Ta = aah)’ ff GO OTs, 0 sin@) do do * This states that the temperature surrounding the antenna is integrated over the entire sphere, and weighted by the antenna’s radiation pattern. Hence, an isotropic antenna would have a noise temperature that is the average of all temperatures around the antenna; for a perfectly directional antenna (with a pencil beam), the antenna temperature will only depend on the temperature in which the antenna is “looking”. © The noise power Py (in watts) received from an antenna at temperature Ty can be expressed in terms of the bandwidth, B, that the antenna (and its receiver) are operating over : Py = kT, Bel Where k is the Boltzmann constant (1.38064852(79)x10~® J/K) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-50 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * The receiver also has a temperature associated with it, Tp and the total system temperature T (antenna plus receiver) has a combined temperature given by T =T, +Tp. This temperature can be used in the above equation to find the total noise power of the system. These concepts begin to illustrate how antenna engineers must understand receivers and the associated electronics, because the resulting, systems very much depend on each other. * A parameter often encountered in specification sheets for antennas that operate in certain environments is the ratio of gain of the antenna divided by the antenna temperature (or system temperature if a receiver is specified). This parameter is ten as G/T, and has units of dB-K-! GIT Calculation G/T is the figure of merit for a satellite system. Gis the receiver antenna gain. * Tis the system noise temperature. System noise temperature = Antenna noise temperature + Receiver noise temperature (LNA) * Antenna noise temperature is the noise power seen at the receive output of the antenna. (T5LNA) * If we are not measuring with an LNA or receiver then System noise temperature = Antenna noise temperature. * This is not a representative value for calculating G/T since the G/T relates to the receive performance of both antenna and receiver. Equivalent Noise Temperature of Antenna The noise introduced by the antenna can be considered as effective noise temperature denoted by T,. It is defined as the fractional temperature at the input of antenna which accounts for fractional noise at output. The noise figure F is related to the effective noise temperature T, by, (1.6.82) where, T, = Effective noise temperature in K Tp = Room temperature (273° + 17%) = 290 K cy q Noise figure (which is dimensionless) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-51 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Simplifying, F-1=fe 0 ae (F-1)To +++ (1.6.83) From equation (1.6.82), we can express noise figure in decibel as, Gan ESE sss (1.6.84) GEEIIIRRED 1 the noise figure of the antenna at room temperature is 2dB, what is the effective noise temperature. Solution: Ty = 290 K F (dB) = 10logy F 7 2 = 10log 10 (F) ansios{ 2) = 15 Effective noise temperature, T, = (F-1)Tp T. = (158-1) Ty = 0.58 (290) 168.2 K Antenna Polarization * Polarization is nothing but the physical orientation of the electromagnetic wave in the free space. * The antenna polarization in a given direction refers to the polarization of an electromagnetic wave radiated or transmitted by the antenna. * When the direction is not specified, the polarization is then conveniently considered to be the polarization in the direction of maximum gain. The different parts of the antenna pattern may have different polarization because the polarization varies with the distance from the centre of the antenna. * Polarization of an electromagnetic wave describes the time varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric field vector. Thus conventionally, the polarization is described in terms of the electric field vector E. The polarization of the electrie field E can be obtained by observing the field along the direction of propagation. Key Point : Polarization can be defined as the figure traced as a function of time by the tip of the instantaneous electric field vector at fixed location in free space observed along the direction of propagation. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledgeAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1-52 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas * The antenna polarization is expressed in terms of the wave transmitted or received by an antenna in a given direction. * In general, the polarization of the wave, transmitted by the antenna, at a point in the far field is represented by the polarization of the plane wave which represents the radiated wave at a point. * According to the far-field characteristics, the radiated wave at any point in the far field of the antenna can be described as local plane wave having the electric field strength same as that of the wave and the direction of the propagation in the radial direction from the antenna. This is because, when radial distance approaches infinity, the radius of curvature of the phase front of the transmitted wave also approaches infinity. * Hence the transmitted wave in any direction appears locally as a plane wave. * The polarization of an electromagnetic wave incident from specified direction which results in the maximum power at antenna terminals is called polarization of the receiving antenna. * The polarization can be classified as linear polarization, circular polarization or elliptical polarization. * When the electric field vector at any point in the free space is the function of time and if it is directed always along the line, then the polarization is called linear polarization and the field is said to be linearly polarized field. When the electric field vector E lies in the vertical plane, then the wave is said to be vertically polarized wave. Similarly when the electric field vector E lies in the horizontal plane, then the wave is said to be horizontally polarized wave. Note that the direction of antenna and the polarization are always same. That means the vertical antenna produces vertically polarized wave, while the horizontal antenna produces horizontally polarized wave. + When the figure traced by the instantaneous electric field vector is an ellipse, the field is said to be elliptically polarized field and the polarization is called elliptical polarization. * Similarly, when the instantaneous electric field vector traces a circle, the polarization is called circular polarization and the field is said to be circularly polarized field. * Depending upon the direction of the orientation of an electric field vector, two cases are possible. If the electric field vector is oriented in the clockwise direction, then the polarization is called right hand polarization. And if the electric field vector is oriented in anticlockwise or counterclockwise direction, then the polarization is called left hand polarization. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thiust for knowledge