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Gis Tools and Functionalities

The document discusses a module on performing GIS tools and functionalities. The module is worth 5 credits and aims to teach students to identify GIS components, perform GIS data integration and display, perform editing, overlay and analysis of GIS data, perform spatial data analysis and map making, and apply fundamental GIS applications. It covers key topics like the definition of a GIS, the history of GIS development, important GIS functions including data capture, storage, querying, and input, and GIS data types like vector and raster data.

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
284 views64 pages

Gis Tools and Functionalities

The document discusses a module on performing GIS tools and functionalities. The module is worth 5 credits and aims to teach students to identify GIS components, perform GIS data integration and display, perform editing, overlay and analysis of GIS data, perform spatial data analysis and map making, and apply fundamental GIS applications. It covers key topics like the definition of a GIS, the history of GIS development, important GIS functions including data capture, storage, querying, and input, and GIS data types like vector and raster data.

Uploaded by

Paul
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Module name and code: GIS TOOLS AND

FUNCTIONALITIES (LSVAG601)

Competence: Perform GIS Tools and Functionalities

Credits: 5

Elements of competence Performance criteria


By the end of the module, the
trainee will be able to:

1. Perform GIS functions 1.2 Proper identification of various functions of GIS


according to the applications

1.2 Relevant identification of use GIS

1.3 Proper identification of key functionalities of GIS

2. Identify GIS components 2.1. Proper clarification of basic GIS components


according to GIS evolution

2.2 Adequate identification of function of GIS


components

2.3 Relevant differentiation of GIS users according to


their categories

3. Perform GIS data 3.1. Adequate conversion GIS data into suitable
integration format according to the software to be used

3.2 Adequate arrangement of GIS data in appropriate


file according to data type

3.3 Methodical way to check type of data depending to


their sources

4. Perform display of spatial 4.1 Suitable selection of object representation


elements in GIS according to the feature type

4.2 Systematic collection of objects into typical feature


class according to spatial proximity

4.3 Appropriate categorization of object feature classes


into their appropriate GIS data format

4.5 Appropriate selection of scale in line with the work


extend

4.6 Proper display of spatial data according


cartographic principles

5. Perform GIS data editing, 5.1 Proper identification of tool options for the
overlay and analysis. software to be used

5.2 Relevant identification of ArcGIS applications

5.3 Right use of GIS applications into the software

6. Perform spatial data 6.1 Proper working with a projection within GIS data
analysis and map making
6.2 Adequate modification of attributes

6.3 Proper way of performing querying and measuring


operation

6.4 Suitable operation and procedures of making maps

7. Apply Fundamental 7.1 Proper identification of main GIS applications


applications of GIS
7.2 Suitable application of GIS technology in land use
planning

7.3 Correct application of GIS technology in land


management

LEARNING UNIT 1 –PERFORM GIS FUNCTIONS


Learning Outcome 1.1: Identify various functions of GIS

Topic 1: Definition of GIS

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing,


checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earth’s surface.

A GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures to facilitate the management,


manipulation, analysis, modelling, representation and display of georeferenced data to
solve complex problems regarding planning and management of resources (NCGIA,
1990)

Geographic information systems have emerged in the last decade as an essential tool for
urban and resource planning and management. Their capacity to store, retrieve, analyze,
model and map large areas with huge volumes of spatial data has led to an extraordinary
proliferation of applications. Geographic information systems are now used for land use
planning, utilities management, ecosystems modelling, landscape assessment and
planning, transportation and infrastructure planning, market analysis, visual impact
analysis, facilities management, tax assessment, real estate analysis and many other
applications.

History of GIS development

Possibly the earliest use of the geographic method, in 1854 John Snow depicted a cholera
outbreak in London using points to represent the locations of some individual cases. His study of
the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water pump within the
heart of the cholera outbreak. While the basic elements of topology and theme existed previously
in cartography, the John Snow map was unique, using cartographic methods, not only to depict
but also to analyze, clusters of geographically dependent phenomena for the first time.

The early 20th century saw the development of "photo lithography" where maps were separated
into layers. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to general-
purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s. In the year 1962, the world's first
true operational GIS was developed by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural
Development in Ottawa, Canada by Dr. Roger Tomlinson. It was called the "Canada Geographic
Information System" (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for
the Canada Land Inventory (CLI). It is an initiative to determine the land capability for rural
Canada by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, forestry, and land
use at a scale of 1: 50,000.

CGIS was the world's first "system" and was an improvement over "mapping" applications as it
provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing or scanning. It supported a
national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as "arcs" having a true
embedded topology, and it stored the attribute and location specific information in a separate file.
Dr. Tomlinson is known as the "father of GIS," for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial
analysis of convergent geographic data.

In 1964, Howard T Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at
the Harvard Graduate School of Design, where a number of important theoretical concepts in
spatial data handling were developed.

By the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph), Environmental Systems Research
Institute (ESRI) and CARIS emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully
incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first generation approach to separation
of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to organizing attribute
data into database structures. More functions for user interaction were developed mainly in a
graphical way by a user friendly interface (Graphical User Interface), which gave to the user the
ability to sort, select, extract, reclassify, reproject and display data on the basis of complex
geographical, topological and statistical criteria.

Topic 2: GIS functions

GIS functions: The Functions of GIS describe the steps that have to be taken to implement a GIS.
These steps have to be followed in order to obtain a systematic and efficient system.
1) Data Capture; Data used in GIS often come from many sources. Data sources are mainly
obtained from Manual Digitization and Scanning of aerial photographs, paper maps, and
existing digital data sets. Remote- sensing satellite imagery and GPS are promising data
input sources for GIS. Digitization; A conversion process which converts paper maps into
numerical digits that can be stored in the computer. Digitizing simplifies map data into
sets of points, lines, or cells that can be stored in the GIS computer. In this stage
Digitization is carried out. There are two basic methods of Digitization: Manual
Digitizing & Scanning.

2) Storing data

There are two basic data models for geographic data storage: vector and raster.

A GIS should be able to store geographic data in both models.


 Vector data

• In the vector format, positions are stored in the form of coordinates. (X Y and sometimes Z). A
point is described by a single x, y coordinate pair and by its name or label.

Although a line is actually an infinite set of points, in practice a line is described by straight-line
segments, each segment described by a set of coordinate pairs and of course the name or label.

 Raster data

The grid-based format generalizes map features as cells or pixels in a grid matrix.

The space is defined by a matrix of points or cells organized into rows and columns.

3) Querying data

A GIS must provide utilities for finding specific features based on location or attribute value.

When exploring a spatial data set, the first thing one usually wants is to select certain features, to
(temporarily) restrict the exploration. Such selections can be made on geometric/spatial grounds,
or on the basis of attribute data associated with the spatial features. We discuss both techniques
below

4) Data input

•Data input covers all aspects of capturing spatial data and converting the data into a form that
can be processed using the computer.

•We need to encode the data and write them to the database.

•There are two aspects of the data that need to be considered separately in geographical
information systems.

•1. Positional or geographical data necessary to define where the graphic or cartographic features
occur-which means that we need to know the coordinates

•2. Associated attributes that record what the cartographic features represent –these are any other
relevant data related to a feature

Data errors:
•Errors can arise during the encoding and input of spatial and non-spatial data. These errors can
be grouped as follows:

•incomplete spatial data,

•spatial data are in the wrong place or at the wrong scale,

•spatial data are distorted,

•spatial data are linked to the wrong non-spatial data,

•incomplete non-spatial data.

5) Analyzing data

A GIS must be able to answer questions regarding the interaction of spatial relationships between
multiple datasets. The heart of GIS is the analytical capabilities of the system. What distinguish
the GIS system from other information system are its spatial analysis functions. Although the
data input is, in general, the most time consuming part, it is for data analysis that GIS is used.
The analysis functions use the spatial and non-spatial attributes in the database to answer
questions about the real world. Geographic analysis facilitates the study of real-world processes
by developing and applying models. Such models illuminate the underlying trends in geographic
data and thus make new information available. Results of geographic analysis can be
communicated with the help of maps, or both.

6) Displaying data

A GIS must have tools for visualizing geographic features using a variety of symbology.

7) Output

A GIS must be able to display results in a variety of formats, such as maps, reports, and graphs.
IV) Manipulation:  Once data are stored in a GIS, many manipulation options are available to
users. These functions are often available in the form of "Toolkits." A toolkit is a set of generic
functions that a GIS user can employ to manipulate and analyze geographic data. Toolkits
provide processing functions such as data retrieval measuring area and perimeter, overlaying
maps, performing map algebra, and reclassifying map data.  Data manipulation tools include
Coordinate change, Projections, and Edge matching, which allow a GIS to reconcile
irregularities between map layers or adjacent map sheets called Tiles.
Learning outcome 1.2 Identify use of GIS

Topic 1. Use of GIS

 Urban and Regional Planning

Planning seems simple enough: design the ideal community and ensure regulations support
design goals. Reality is far more complex. Today, city, community, and regional planning means
dealing with constant change. Planning professionals have the technical expertise, political
savvy, and fiscal understanding to translate a vision of tomorrow into a strategic action plan for
today

Front Counter Service and Current Planning

GIS promotes a good public image of a planning department. Equipped with GIS tools from
ESRI, staff members can quickly access information on parcel maps, such as environmentally
sensitive areas, and all matters concerning the implementation of zoning, permit status, and other
planning information.

Comprehensive Planning

Planners use GIS to prepare plans, which set the standard for policy decisions regarding long-
range changes to a community’s physical environment. Planners make use of GIS to smooth the
progress of citizen participation and community input as they develop a vision for the
community that enhances the quality of life for all citizens. ESRI GIS tools help planners analyze
problems more quickly and thoroughly, formulate solutions, and monitor progress toward long-
term goals for the community.

Planning Agencies

GIS is also used at planning agencies to conduct environmental review of projects; development
review, analysis, and compliance; historic preservation; and redevelopment, as well as regional
planning, as more planning agencies seek to coordinate planning efforts to minimize negative
impacts on neighboring communities. In many cases, planning agencies are also using GIS Web
services to coordinate planning and economic development initiatives.

Learning outcome 1.3 Identify key functionalities of GIS

GIS functionality refers to the set of functions that a GIS can perform. The GIS provides the
following set of capabilities for spatially referenced land related data and information: data input,
data storage and retrieval, data manipulation and analysis, and data output and reporting.

Data Input:

This function involves the identification and collection of data necessary for processing in the
GIS as obtained from the various sources given in Section 2.3. These data are entered and
verified using scanners, digitizers, and graphic displays driven by appropriate software. Part of
the data input may also include format conversion, error detection, and topology construction.

1.3.1. Keyboard
Attributes data are commonly entered by keyboard during manual digitizing or as a separate
operation in which the attributes are entered with a code to indicate the spatial element they
describe. The attribute file is subsequently linked to the spatial data. Manual digitizing is the
most widely used method for entering spatial data from maps.

1.3.2. Manual Digitizing

In manual digitizing, the map is affixed to a digitizing table and a pointing device is used to trace
the map features. To digitize, data are registered on the digitizing table, then input into the GIS,
transformed to standardized world coordinates, and finally, the various features are assigned
attributes. The steps followed are:

(a) Preparing the map sheets. The features to include are marked in pencil.

(b) Digitize the coverage by moving the digitizer as accurately as possible along features.

(c) Identifying and correcting errors in digitizing.

(d) Define features and build topology by ensuring no overlap in features.

(e) Assign attributes to coverage features such as river names, vegetation types, and location
information.

1.3.3. Scanning

A scan of a digital image of the map is produced by moving an electronic detector across the
map surface.

1.3.4. Import of Existing Digital Files

This involves converting information using a computer text editor to create flat files that list a
series of data coordinates. To produce a land use map, for example, classified remotely sensed
imagery is used together with digitized topographic detail and point data from a flat file. Import
of digital files allows one to combine classified data for a particular geographical area with other
geographic referenced data sets for the same area.

Data Storage:
The purpose of data storage and retrieval is to organize the data in a topographically structured
form so that it can easily be retrieved for subsequent manipulation, analysis, and display. In
addition to supporting multiple users and databases, security and data integrity are ensured.

Spatial Data Analysis and Manipulation:

This functional component performs a number of tasks, mainly geometric calculations, map-
overlay computations, network analysis, and production of estimates of parameters for transfer to
external analytical models; all through user-defined rules (see Analysis and Utility of Monitoring
Data). Through various operations, this function enables the use of spatial and non-spatial data
contained in the GIS database to answer questions about the real world. Stored map layers in the
database need to be updated, edited, and manipulated for desired results. Analysis may involve
overlaying several map layers, and selecting, retrieving, and extracting certain measurements
from the data. These functions are performed by GIS system software commands. By conducting
a series of GIS processing operations, it becomes possible to answer queries for a GIS system.
For example, the area most prone to erosion when changes in vegetation cover are made within a
watershed can be identified, and how much agricultural land or forest area will be lost when
building a road by selecting alternative routes can be quantified. These queries and their answers
form the basis for geographical data modeling in GIS.

Spatial Data Output

Output for all or selected portions of the spatial database are displayed using standard or
cartographic formats (see Regional and Global Geoinformation Systems). Various hardware
devices, such as plotters, displays, and printers, may be used for output presentation of maps,
tables, and figures. Information is thus presented in a form suitable to the user, usually in either
hard copy, “softcopy,” or using electronic files or format.

Hardcopy outputs are permanent means of display. The information is printed on paper,
photographic film, or similar material. Maps and tables are commonly output in this format.
“Softcopy” output refers to viewing on a computer monitor. It may be text or graphic and in
monochrome or color. Softcopy outputs are used to preview data before final hardcopy output.

Output in electronic formats consists of computer-compatible files used to transfer data among
computer systems either for additional analysis or to produce a hardcopy output at a remote
location. It is generally accepted that the output function of GIS must include dissemination of
output information to users. Users must understand the GIS application tools and relationships
between the available data and the required information. The user, the system, and the experts
who advise on models and data involved in problem solutions constitute the GIS applications.

Learning Unit: 2 Identify GIS components

Learning outcome 2.1Clarify GIS components

Topic 1: GIS components

• Five components of GIS

 Hardware, software, data, people and organization, processes

Learning outcome 2.2 Identify function of GIS basic components

Topic1: Basic components


 People

This is the most important component in a GIS.

People must develop the procedures and define the tasks of the GIS.

People can often overcome shortcomings in other components of the GIS, but the best software
and computers in the world cannot compensate for the incompetence of people;

 Data

Spatial data or geographic data .All data in GIS can be linked to a point line or area on the
ground line or area on the ground of which the geographical location is known.

• Data are facts about reality that have been observed or measured.

• Data stringed together forms information

• E.g. Easiest school route look at distance gradient, traffic, all together make information

• The availability and the accuracy of data affect the result of any query or the analysis.

 Hardware

 Computer hardware

 Central processing unit

 Monitor

 Keyboard and drivers

 Scanner and digitizer


 Software

 Computer programme specially designed to control the input of data.

 This includes not only actual GIS software but also various databases, drawing,
statistical, imaging, or other software.

 Procedures

Procedures are well-defined and consistent methods to produce accurate, reproducible results.

Learning outcome 2.3 Differentiate GIS users categories


Learning Unit: 3 Perform GIS data integration

Learning outcome 3.1 Convert GIS data into suitable format

Topic 1: Digital map format

Digital mapping is the process of producing and reproducing maps from digital spatial data. A
digital mapping system enables data capture; limited data processing (scale change,
coordinatetransformation etc.), data visualization and data output. It is an automated map making
system that lacks the data analysis and modeling capabilities of GIS.

Advantages of Digital Mapping

a) Quick data retrieval to enable map production at different scales, on different projections etc;

b) Quick and easy data addition or deletion thus speeding up map revision;

c) Ability to merge data sets;

d) Data storage over time without distortion (stretching, shrinking associated with paper maps);

e) Selective browsing, magnification or highlighting of features;

f) Great data compaction in digital storage;

g) Ability to easily produce maps that are difficult to make by hands e.g. 3D maps

Topic 2: Vector file format

In the vector format, locational data consists of Cartesian coordinates in some frame of reference
e.g. UTM projection. A point feature is represented by one pair of coordinates, a line feature is
represented by a series of coordinates, a polygon is represented by a series of coordinates closing
back on itself and a surface is represented by a set of 3D coordinates.
Characteristics of Vector data structures:

Vector data format give a precise location information about geographical entities and requires
less storage space.

There are several data structures:

Whole polygons

Dime structure

Arc-node structure

Rational structure one some of the structures.

Topic 3: Raster file format

In the raster format, the data space is subdivided into an array of pixels or cells. Locational data
then consists of the row and column numbers of such pixels. A point is represented by an
isolated pixel that is surrounded by pixels whose values are different from the pixel in question.

A line is represented by a series of contiguous pixels of the same value while a polygon is
represented by a 2D extent of pixels of equal value. A surface is represented by a 2D extent of
pixels of equal value plus a height value at each pixel.

The positional accuracy can be no better than the pixel size.


Topic 3: Software file format

GIS has different application software (licensed ones and open source ones):

In this module most of demonstrations will be done by using ArcGIS (Esri product, licensed
software) but there are also other GIS software (licensed and open source) such as QGIS, Erdas
Imagine, etc.

 QGIS (known as "Quantum GIS") is a cross-platform free and open source desktop
geographic information system (GIS) application that provides data viewing, editing, and
analysis capabilities.

GENERIC QUESTIONS THAT GIS ANSWER

There are five (5) generic questions that a GIS can answer:

Location: What is existing at a particular location?

Condition: Where can we find a location satisfying certain conditions?

Trends: What has changed at a particular location over time? Where can we find
locations with given changes in conditions? GIS seeks to find the differences within an
area over time.

Patterns: What are the spatial patterns that exist? How many schools are there within
certain radius of a town?

Modelling: What happens if some change takes place? Eg. A new road is added to a
highway or a dam is located across a catchment area.

Learning outcome 3.2 Arrange GIS data in appropriate file

Topic 1: GIS data types

 Spatial data: Geographic position (spatial data) specifies the location of a feature or
phenomenon by using a coordinate system.

 Non-spatial data: The attributes refer to the properties of spatial entities such as
identity (e.g., maize, granite, lake), ordinal (e.g., ranking such as class 1, class 2, class
3), and scale (e.g., value such as water depth, elevation, erosion rate). They are often
referred to as non-spatial data since they do not in themselves represent location
information.

Learning outcome 3.3 Check the type of data sources

 Sources of data

 Primary data (direct measurement): - Primary data sources are captured specifically by
direct measurement.

Primary Data Sources

Digital and analog format


Raster - Digital remote sensing images/ digital aerial photographs
Vector - GPS measurements/ Survey measurements

 Secondary data (indirect derivation): Secondary sources are reused or obtained from
other systems.

Secondary sources

Digital and analog format


Raster - scanned maps/ photographs/ DEMs from maps
Vector - USGS Topographic maps/ Tautonymy (place-name) data sets from atlases

 Sources of spatial data

 Sources non-spatial data


Learning Unit: 4 Perform displays of spatial elements in GIS

Learning outcome 4.1. GIS operation

 Six groups

 Spatial data input

 Attribute data management

 Data display

 Data exploration

 Data analysis

 GIS modeling

1. Spatial data input

The most expensive part of a GIS project is data acquisition

Two basic options for data acquisition are

 Use existing data

 Create new data

 New digital spatial data can be created from satellite images, GPS data, field surveys,
street addresses, and text files with x-, y-coordinates.

1. Data entry: use existing data, create new data

2. Data editing
3. Geometric transformation

4. Projection and reprojection

2. Attribute Data Management

 To complete a GIS database, we must enter and verify attribute data through digitizing
and editing

 Attribute data reside as tables in a GIS

 An attribute table is organized by row and column

In attribute Data Management they are:

1. Data entry and verification

2. Database management

3. Attribute data manipulation

3. Data Display

 Maps are most effective in communicating spatial information

 Mapmaking is a routine GIS operations

 Maps are derived from data query and analysis

In Data Display we have:

1. Cartographic symbolization

2. Map design

4. Data Exploration

 Involves the activities of exploring the general trends in the data, taking a close look at
data subsets, and focusing on possible relationships between data sets

In Data Exploration we have:

1. Attribute data query


2. Spatial data query

3. Geographic visualization

5. Data Analysis

 Data analysis can be classified into seven groups:

1. Vector data analysis – buffering, overlay, distance measurement, spatial statistics, map
manipulation

2. Raster data analysis – local, neighborhood, zonal, global, raster data manipulation

3. Terrain mapping and analysis

4. View shed and watershed

5. Spatial interpolation

6. Geocoding and dynamic segmentation

7. Path analysis and network applications

6. GIS Modeling

 GIS technology provides the capability of spatial data and network system for
representation of real data in producing different kinds of maps. The capability of the
selected model is to solve the problem of finding the fastest routes between the
distribution center and the hypermarkets as destinations.

 Why are model used in GIS?

Geographic data models are used to represent real world objects (e. g., buildings, roads, land
parcels, rainfall, soil types, hills and valleys, etc.) within a geographic information system. These
data models are used by the GIS to perform interactive queries, execute analyses, and produce
cartographic maps.

1. Binary models

2. Index models

3. Regression models
4. Process models

Topic 2: Types of boundaries

 Crisp: Spatial objects that are represented in a conventional GIS are generally considered
to be crisp, i.e. they have determined boundaries. For example, land parcels in cadastral
systems are differentiated and identified by sharp boundaries. The basic assumption is
that the classification of landscape units is crisp and spatial objects within these classes
can be clearly determined. A second assumption is that objects are internally
homogeneous and can be differentiated by crisp boundaries. Under the first assumption
the threshold values or criteria for classification are sharply defined. Classes do not
overlap, so that each object will be assigned to only one class. Under the second
assumption the spatial extent of each object can be defined unambiguously and it will not
contain unidentified inclusions of areas not belonging to the object. The determination of
the spatial extent of geo-objects is then generally approached through the boundaries, or,
more precisely, through the position of the boundary points. The analysis of the
geometric uncertainty of the objects is therefore often based on accuracy models for the
coordinates of these points

 Fuzzy: The fuzzy boundary method offers a means of generalizing polygon maps
through a process of logical fusion, based on fuzzy boundary membership grades. A
most commonly-used generalization method in commercial GIs software is polygon
merging, in which some polygons are fused by dissolving boundaries between them.

Learning outcome 4.2 Collect objects into typical feature class

Topic 1: Object characteristics

 Shape: Geographic objects have an endless variety of shapes; however, they can
all be represented as one of three geometrical forms: a polygon, a line, or a point.

Polygons represent objects that are large enough to have boundaries, such as countries, lakes,
and tracts of land. Lines represent objects that are relatively too narrow to be polygons, such as
rivers, roads, and pipelines. Points are used for objects that are relatively too small to be
polygons, such as cities, schools, and fire hydrants. The same object may be represented by a
polygon in one layer and a line or a point in a different layer, depending on the scale of the layer.
Polygons, lines, and points, collectively, are called vector data

 Location: Reference maps show the location of geographic boundaries, physical


features of Earth, or cultural features such as places, cities, and roads. Political
maps, physical maps, road maps, topographic maps, time zone maps, geologic
maps, and zip code maps are all examples of reference maps. A variety of
reference maps have been created for almost every country of the world.

 Orientation: The orientation of a map is the relationship between the directions


on the map and the corresponding compass directions in reality. The word
"orient" is derived from Latin oriens, meaning east. ... The most common
cartographic convention is that north is at the top of a map.

 Size: Features can be displayed at different sizes

 On a GIS map, you can zoom in to see features at a closer range. As you do, the scale of
the map changes. Scale, commonly expressed as a ratio, is the relationship between the
size of the features on a map and the size of the corresponding places in the world. If the
scale of a map is 1:1,000,000, it means that features on the map are 1/1,000,000th of, or
1 million times smaller than, their true size.

Topic 2: Feature classes

Definition of feature class

A feature class is a collection of geographic features that share the same geometry type (such as
point, line, or polygon) and the same attribute fields for a common area. Streets, well points,
parcels, soil types, and census tracts are examples of feature classes.

Difference between feature class and feature data set


In the geodatabase, feature classes can be standalone or they can be organized into larger units
called feature datasets. A feature dataset stores feature classes that have the same coordinate
system and the same spatial extent, meaning they occupy the same geographic area.

Types of feature classes in the geodatabase

Vector features (geographic objects with vector geometry) are versatile and frequently used
geographic data types, well suited for representing features with discrete boundaries, such as
wells, streets, rivers, states, and parcels. A feature is simply an object that stores its geographic
representation, which is typically a point, line, or polygon, as one of its properties (or fields) in
the row. In ArcGIS, feature classes are homogeneous collections of features with a common
spatial representation and set of attributes stored in a database table. For example, a line features
class for representing road centreline.

Generally, feature classes are thematic collections of points, lines, or polygons, but there are
seven feature class types:

 Polygon: A set of many-sided area features that represent the shape and location
of homogeneous feature types such as states, counties, parcels, soil types, and
land-use zones.

 Line: Represent the shape and location of geographic objects, such as street
centerlines and streams, too narrow to depict as areas. Lines are also used to
represent features that have length but no area such as contour lines and
boundaries.

 Point: Features that is too small to represent as lines or polygons as well as point
locations (such as GPS observations).

 Annotation: Map text including properties for how the text is rendered. For
example, in addition to the text string of each annotation, other properties are
included such as the shape points for placing the text, its font and point size, and
other display properties. Annotation can also be feature-linked and can contain
subclasses.
In the illustration below, these are used to represent four datasets for the same area: (1) manhole
cover locations as points, (2) sewer lines, (3) parcel polygons, and (4) street name annotation.

 Dimensions— A special kind of annotation that shows specific lengths or


distances, for example, to indicate the length of a side of a building, a land parcel,
or the distance between two features. Dimensions are heavily used in design,
engineering, and facilities applications for GIS.
1. Multipoints— Features that are composed of more than one point. Multipoints are often
used to manage arrays of very large point collections such as LiDAR point clusters which
can contain literally billions of points. Using a single row for such point geometry is not
feasible. Clustering these into multipoint rows enables the geodatabase to handle massive
point sets.

2. Multipatches— A 3D geometry used to represent the outer surface, or shell, of features


that occupy a discrete area or volume in three-dimensional space. Multipatches comprise
planar 3D rings and triangles that are used in combination to model a three-dimensional
shell. Multipatches can be used to represent anything from simple objects, such as
spheres and cubes, or complex objects, such as iso-surfaces and buildings.

Learning outcome 4.3 Categorize object feature classes

Topic1: Vector data representation

One way of representing geographic phenomena is with points, lines, and polygons. This kind of
representation of the world is generically called a vector data model. Vector models are
particularly useful for representing and storing discrete features such as buildings, pipes, or
parcel boundaries.

 Line: Lines are sets of coordinates that define a shape.

 Point: Points are pairs of x, y coordinates.

 Polygon: Polygons are sets of coordinates defining boundaries that enclose areas.
Topic 2: Raster data representation

Raster models are useful for storing and analyzing data that is continuous across an area. Each
cell contains a value that can represent membership in a class or category, a measurement, or an
interpreted value.

 Grid: Grids represent derived data and are often used for analysis and modelling. They
can be created from sample points, such as for a surface of chemical concentrations in
the soil, or based on classification of an image, such as for a land cover grid. Grids can
also be created by converting vector data.

 Pixel size:

 Resolution:

Learning outcome 4.4. Select scale and display of spatial data

 Types of scale:

 Scale: the ratio between the distance on a map and the corresponding distance in reality
(On the earth surface).

 large-scale versus small-scale maps

 verbally: “one-cm-to-the-km”

 in a representative fraction: 1:50,000


 by a graphic representation: a scale bar:

 Spatial data content

 Data creation

 Data model

 Data structure

 Data display

Learning Unit: 5 Perform GIS data editing, overlay and analysis

Learning outcome 5.1. Identify toolbars options for the software

Editor tools

Editing is the ability to create and change vector and tabular (table) data within Arc Map. Data
does not always exist or may not always correct, and the only way to make or fix it is with
editing.

Start Editing Begins an editing session. Once in an editing session, modifications to existing
can be made. (Even with digitizing new data, it is still a modification to existing data since you
created a new feature class before editing, then plan to populate it with editing.

Stop Editing Stops the editing session.


 Stopping editing does not automatically save edits, but should provide you with a prompt
to save or discard your edits.

 Tools which are locked during editing will become available when editing is stopped.

Save Edits Note: Unlike some software, ArcGIS ‘undo’ will only go back to the last save
not the beginning of the software session.

Standard tools

The Main menu and Standard toolbar


Adding a command to a toolbar or the main menu

You can modify the contents of any toolbar or menu by adding, moving, and removing
commands. After modifying a core toolbar, you can always return it to its original contents; you
might want to do this if you accidentally remove a command from the toolbar.

1. Make sure the target toolbar is visible.

2. Click the Customize menu and click Customize Mode.

3. Click the Commands tab.

4. Click the category that contains the command you want to add.

5. Click the command you want to add.

6. Drag the command you want to add to any location on the target toolbar.

You can also drag the command over a menu button on the main menu. Once the menu opens,
drop the command at the desired location within that menu.

7. Repeat steps 5 through 7 until all the commands you want are added.

8. Click Close on the Customize dialog box.

Geo-referencing tools

Data is geo-refenced when coordinates from a geographic space have been associated with it.

Geo-referencing is establishing the relationship between digital map elements and real word
geographic coordinate location systems.

I. Real-world coordinates = an x, y coordinate system used to represent geographic


locations.

If a digital map to geo-reference has spatial grid, the geo-referencing is done based on
junction of XY coordinates in spatial grid;
If there is no spatial grid, the geo-referencing is done based on visible features similar on
both digital map to geo-reference and the base map

(ortho-photo, satellite image, etc.);

If there is no base map; the geo-referencing can also be done by identifying features on map
which can also be identified on field. In that case, the GIS user has to go to the site with GPS
receiver and take XY coordinates.

The Georeferencing toolbar displays in this way:

Layout tools

When ArcMap is switched from Data View to Layout View, a new toolbar appears. This toolbar
includes options to adjust the view of the whole page, not the data within. For example, if you
are working on a corner of your layout, attempting to line up the legend and credits in a neat,
clean way, you could zoom in to that corner, using the page zoom in tool. When you are ready to
move to another section, you can use the page pan tool.

 If the layout toolbar is missing, add it from: Customize Menu > Toolbars > Layout

 In order to pan and zoom the data within a data frame, it is necessary to use the pan and
zoom tools found in the Tools toolbar

Page Zoom In

Use the Page Zoom in tool to draw a box and zoom to a portion of the layout

Page Zoom Out

Use the Page Zoom Out tool to draw a box and zoom out from a portion of the layout

Page Pan

Use the Page Pan tool to move the entire page around in layout view

Zoom Whole Page


Use Zoom Whole Page to center the entire page at a zoom level where the entire page is shown.
*Use this button when you’ve “lost” you work. This button is the layout version of “Full Extent”,
found in the Tools Toolbar

Zoom to 100%

This tool will set the zoom level to 100%, regardless if the whole page can be seen or not.

Page Fixed Zoom In

Use this button to zoom in a stepped manner.

Page Fixed Zoom Out

Use this button to zoom out in a stepped manner

Page Last Extent

This button will move through the last zoom levels, similar to using the “back” button in a web
browser.

Page Next Extent


This button will move through the next zoom levels, similar to the using the “next” button in a
web browser.

Zoom Level (Percentage)

Analyst tools

Draw tools

1. Turn on the Draw toolbar. To do so, please click on the menu of Customize -> Toolbars -
>Draw

2. Add Marker. Click on and select Marker. Then browse and point to the location you
want to add the marker (South Campus Hall in this case) and click. A marker will be added to the
location.
Learning outcome 5.2. Identify ArcGIS applications

Topic 1 ArcGIS applications

 Arc MAP

Arc Map is where you display and explore GIS datasets for your study area, where you assign
symbols, and where you create map layouts for printing or publication. Arc Map is also the
application you use to create and edit datasets.

 Arc Catalog

The Arc Catalog application provides a catalog window that is used to organize and manage
various types of geographic information for ArcGIS for Desktop. The kinds of information that
can be organized and managed in Arc Catalog include:

 Geodatabase

 Raster files

 Map documents, globe documents, 3D scene documents, and layer files

 Geoprocessing toolboxes, models, and Python scripts

 GIS services published using ArcGIS for Server

 Standards-based metadata for these GIS information items

 And much more

 Arc Catalog organizes these contents into a tree view that you can work with to organize
your GIS datasets and ArcGIS documents, search and find information items, and to
manage them.

 ArcCatalog presents this information in a tree view and allows you to select a GIS item,
view its properties, and to access tools to operate on the selected item(s).
ArcCatalog is used to:

 Organize your GIS contents

 Manage geodatabase schemas

 Search for and add content to ArcGIS applications

 Document your contents

 Manage GIS servers

 Manage standards-based metadata

 Arc Toolbox

 What is Arc Toolbox?

Arc Toolbox is a collection of Geoprocessing tools for analyzing, editing, and converting data.
3D Analyst Tools

3D Analyst Tools provides tools to work in 3D. For example, you can work with City Engine,
LAS and multipath features. Here are some examples for what you can do with 3D analysis
tools:

 Analyse 3D features using tools like buffers, intersect and union.

 Recognize visibility like line-of-sight, view sheds and skylines.

 Measure 3D surfaces, volumes and slopes

As part of the 3D analyst extension, you can use the line-of-sight tool. Then, if you use a digital
elevation model, you can determine obstructed (red) and unobstructed (green) sections from a
line.

Analysis Tools

The analysis tools perform the most fundamental spatial analysis operations. For example, it has
your basic extract, overlay, and proximity tools. But it also solves basic statistics like finding the
mean, counts, and standard deviation.

 Perform overlay operations like intersect, union and spatial join.

 Find proximity using the buffer tool and near tables.


 Extract features by selecting, clipping and splitting features.

The buffer is an example of a tool in the analysis tools. When you set a value, it generates a
polygon around features at a set distance.

Cartography Tools

Cartography tools refine data for the production of maps. For example, you can create graticules
and grids. You can also generalize features for display at different map scales.

 Generate graticules as references for maps.

 Generalize features by smoothing, simplifying and thinning.

 Produce grid indexes and strip maps for data driven pages.

In this example, you can generate strip map grids along a line. Then later, you can create a
mapbook using these grids as the reference index.

Conversion Tools

Conversion tools alter data types between different GIS file formats. For example, you can
convert tables, vector and raster data. You can also work with web, 3D, and CAD files too.

 Excel  Raster  COLLADA

 GPS  JSON  Geodatabase

 KML  Web  Shapefile

 PDF  CAD  Geopackage


Editing Tools

Editing tools provide a way to bulk edit a set of features. So, instead of just editing a single
feature as you would do with the Editor Toolbar. You can apply edits to multiple features using
tools. If you don’t want to edit all features, you can make a selection from your features.

 Generalize, densify, extend, snap and erase a set of features.

 Conflate two datasets by aligning features at boundary lines.

For example, the “extend” tool ensures that all lines stretch and snap to a boundary. By running
this tool, you ensure that all lines extend given a tolerance value.

Learning outcome 5.3.Perform ArcGIS applications

 ArcMap

 Arc Catalog

 Arc Toolbox

Learning Unit: 6 Perform spatial data analysis and map making

Learning outcome 6.1. Work with a projection within GIS data

Topic 1: Working with Projections

One of the very first things that you should do after adding data is to set the map and display
units. It is also a good idea to set the projection (if desired) at this stage as well. Projections are
probably the trickiest part of working with spatial data. The stakes are high because if data are
not projected properly, you might not even get your map layers to draw together.

In most cases, you will want to convert unprojected map layers—those with a geographic
coordinate system—to projected map layers. Any of the files you download from the US census
website or Esri TIGEr files site will be in this “unprojected” format. There are two steps
involved in this process. First, you must create a. proj file by “defining” the map layer as
unprojected; then you can “project” the map layer using the projection of your choice. You can
access the tools for doing this by clicking on the Arc Toolbox icon inside Arc Map. Click on
“data management tools” and then “projections and transformations.”

 Projecting shape files

Projecting a shape file changes, the projection system. You can only do this if you have defined
(registered) the existing projection. You can project map layers that are unprojected (geographic
coordinate system) or change the projection on layers that already have a projected coordinate
system. In order to project the map layer, click on the “Project” wizard. If you are projecting a
shape file, use the “Project” wizard listed under “Features.” If you are projecting a raster image,
use the “project” wizard listed under “raster.”

As with the “define” wizard, you will be asked to specify the map layer. Next, because you will
be changing the original layer, you are asked to name the new layer that will be created.
For the case of Rwanda, the following is a conventional coordinate system to be set
and used by any GIS user:

Projected Coordinate System: ITRF_2005

Projection: Transverse Mercator

False Easting: 500000

False Northing: 5000000

Central Meridian: 30

Scale Factor: 0.9999

Latitude of Origin: 0

Linear Unit: Meter

Geographic Coordinate System: GCS_ITRF_2005

Datum: ITRF_2005

Spheroid: GRS_1980
Topic 2: Georectifying Images

Learning outcome 6.2. Modify attributes

You may find it easier to edit your attribute tables outside of Arcview, but Arcview has fairly
sophisticated tools for calculating values. In Arcview, you can edit values in an existing field or
create a new field and calculate new values. Keep in mind that you cannot change the format
(text, integer, long integer) of an existing column, so if you need to transform the format of a
column, you will need to create a new field.

Creating a new Field

To create a new field, open your table in Arc Map (you can also add fields from Arc catalog).
This can be a free-standing table or one that is associated with a map layer, but only .dbf tables
can be edited. Click on the Table Options menu (top left corner of the attribute table) and go to
“Add Field.” If this option is grayed out, you do not have permission to edit the table. Most
likely, this is because your table is in .xlsformat. If this is the case, export the table (an option
within that same menu) and save it as a .dbf. Add the .dbf version back in and try again.

From “Add Field,” give your field a name. Do not use?,&,$,#,@,*,!,~ or spaces and keep your
field name to 10 or fewer characters. From the dropdown menu, choose the type of field.
Different field types allow different types of values:

Short integer: numeric, no decimal place, up to 19 characters

Long integer: numeric, no decimal place, up to 19 characters

Float: numeric, with decimal places, (default 1 before decimal and 11 after)

Double: numeric, with decimal place (default 7 before decimal and 11 after)

Calculating values outside an Edit Session

To calculate the value of your new field (or an old field), right click on its name and go to
“calculate values.” ArcMap will ask you if you are sure that you want to calculate values outside
an edit session, warning that you will not be able to undo your results. Say “yes.”

ArcMap will bring up the Field calculator. If your value is a constant, you can simply type the
value in the box at the bottom. More likely, your new value will be based on values in other
fields, so you will need to use the calculator. You can create an expression by double clicking on
the field names. For example, to calculate the percent of the population 65 and up, click on the
field name with the total 65 and up, click on the “/” button, and click on the field name with the
total population. If any of the records in your table are highlighted, ArcMap will only perform
calculations on the highlighted records. You can also calculate values from Arc Toolbox (under
“Data Management Tools”, then “calculate Field”).

Calculating Area

Usually there will be a field called “area” in a shape file when you receive it that indicates the
area of each polygon map feature. If your shape file is missing this field or if you have edited the
shape and size of the map features, you will need to calculate area, yourself. Area can be
especially helpful when you are trying to normalize values and create densities (calculating
persons per square mile, for example).

Create a new field called “area” and format it as a double. Right click on your new field and go
to “calculate Geometry.” From the “Property” menu, choose “Area.” note the projection and
map units. You can change the units as long as the projection is defined (known).
 Creating XY Coordinates

 Joining Tables

 Adding Hyperlinks

Learning outcome 6.3. Perform querying and measuring operation

 Querying by Attribute

You highlight a feature on the map by clicking on a row in the table (you need to click in the
gray area on the far left). This way, you can find a specific place on your map. You can change
the selection color from “options…” in the Selection menu. It is also possible to use different
selection colors for each layer.

To unselect records (and get rid of the blue highlight), you can do one of several things:
1. Open the attribute table (right click on the name in the Table of contents and go to “Open
Attribute Table”) and then click on the “clear Selected Features” button at the top;

2. with the attribute table open, click on the “Table Options” button on the top left and go to
“clear Selection” ;

3. From the Selection menu in ArcMap, choose “clear Selected Features;

4. From the Table of contents, click on the “list by Selection” button to see which map layer has
selected features, then right click on the one with selected features and go to “clear Selected
Features.”

 Querying by Location

You can also use the select features tool to identify attributes, either by clicking on a particular
map feature or by drawing a rectangle, polygon, circle, line or using the lasso selection tool. The
selected features should become highlighted with a blue outline. Right click on the map layer
that contains the feature(s) that you wish to investigate and go to “open attribute table.” This
table includes all the attributes of all the features in that layer. In order to view just the selected
feature(s), click on the “Show Selected Features” button at the bottom of the table. Notice that
there will be an indication of how many records out of the total have been selected.
 Measuring

 Creating Buffers

Learning outcome 6.4. Perform map making

 Symbolizing Area Data

The various symbology options are listed on the left side of this window (Features, Categories,
Quantities, Charts, and Multiple Attributes).
 Features: The feature symbol is used when you draw all features using the same symbol
click on the symbology tab

 Categories: is used when Assign symbology based on unique values (ex. state names)

Displaying Categorical Data: If you have data that includes distinct categories, such as codes for
land use, grade level, type of building, etc. you can display those individual categories on the
map.

1. Right on the data layer in the table of contents window and select Properties.

2. Click on the Symbology Tab.

3. Click on Categories. There are different ways to display categorical data. The first
option under Categories is unique values, which will assign a different color to each of
the different categories in your data.

1. Select your variable of interest in the Value Field drop down menu.

2. Click Add All Values at the bottom of the box.


3. Click Ok.

Change the colors by selecting a different color ramp from the color ramp drop down box or
double click on the individual color boxes for each category and assign a specific color to each
category.

 Creating New Categories


You can combine the categories from up to 3 fields to create new categories by clicking onthe
next option under Categories: Unique value, many fields. For example, if you have a column that
specifies the color of a house and a category that specifies the type of house, this tool will create
a category for every color and type combination, such as blue, cape; blue, colonial; red, cape;
etc.

1. Select up to 3 different variables under Value Fields.

2. Click “Add All Values” or “Add Values...” to select specific values. The values from all
variables will be combined to create new categories.

3. Change the colors as appropriate. In this example, the variables, flood zone and floodway
were combined to create 3 new categories that will be displayed on the map.

Other things you can do in the Categories box:

Uncheck the box next to <all other values> to not display values that do not fall into a category.

Right click on a category to remove it.

Add values one by one, by clicking on “Add Values...”


Click Advanced to:

o Change the transparency of symbols

o Change the drawing order of the symbols (which are drawn on top vs. the bottom)oJoin
or merge overlapping symbols

 Quantity: is used if you to get graduated colors, graduated/proportional symbols, and


dot maps

o Graduated Colors

To change the display to different colors:

1. Right click on the layer and select “Properties” and then the Symbology tab.

2. Select “Quantities” from the menu on the left and “Graduated Colors.”

3. Choose your variable of interest from the “Value” drop down menu.

4. By default, your data will be broken into 5 categories.


 Labeling Features

The labels are an important feature of a map. By marking some property up on the map, for
stance, the name of the marked location, labels can make your map more useful, informative, and
visually appealing.

To add labels to your map, please right-click on the layer that you want to add marks on
(school_dec06) and select Properties (Figure 12). Then follow the steps below:

1. Select the Labels tab and check on (off by default) “Label features in this layer”.

2. Choose the attribute you want to display (NAME) on the map in the drop box of Label Field
(Figure 17).

3. Change Font (10 pt size and Bold), so that it is clearly shown on the map.

4. You can click on the Apply button to see the effect until it is satisfactory. Then click OK to
save your setting and exit.

Figure 17. Label Setting Window

To ensure a clear label, the option of mask can be used Symbol, which locates to the right of
Font options as a Symbol button (Figure 17). Please click it and then click the Edit Symbol
button, since label is a kind of symbol (text symbol) too. Navigate to the Mask tab shown in the
figure below. Change the option of Style to Halo (Figure 18).

Figure 18. Change Mask Option for Clearer Labels

 Annotations

Annotations look like labels. The key difference is that annotation can be any text you want to
add on the map, regardless to whether the information has been included in the geospatial data.

For instance, if you want to add a point at the entrance of UW, which is not in the geospatial
data, please follow the steps below (Please note that annotations can only be edited under the
data view):

 Designing Map Layouts

When you open ArcMap, you are in “Data view” and use the Tools toolbar to navigate your map.
When you switch to the layout view, you have access to a different range of tools and use the
layout toolbar to navigate. To switch to “layout view,” click on the icon at the bottom of your
map display that looks like a piece of paper (next to the globe icon) or, from the view menu, go
to layout view.
 Making Inset Layouts

Setup the layout page


If you don't need to use printer setting, desactivate "Use Printer Paper Settings'"

For example, set paper size at "A4" and Orientation at "Landscape"


 Exporting Maps

When you are satisfied with everything in the map and are ready to deliver, you can export your
map by the menu of File -> Export Map
You can export a map from Arc Map when you are in Data view or layout view. However, if you
want your exported map to include titles, legends, scale bars, north arrows, and anything else you
added to the layout, you’ll want to export from layout view. From the File menu, go to “Export
Map.” There are many options for export formats in the “Save as type” drop down menu.

.PDF: The .pdf format allows you to open the map directly (without inserting it into PowerPoint
or MS word) as long as you have Acrobat reader. This is probably the best option if you need to
send someone a map or post a map on the Internet.

.JPG: The .jpg format will compromise the quality of your image, so be sure to click on the
“options’ button when you export and increase the resolution to at least 200 dpi (300 dpi will be
as good as you need for most things). The .jpg format is good because it stores your map in a
fairly small file.

.TIF and .EPS: The .tif and .eps formats work well if you are going to open your maps in a
graphics software package, but they result in larger files.
Other than export map to other file formats, you can directly print out hardcopies of your map by
File -> Print. You can preview the result via File -> Print Preview to ensure satisfactory result

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