OOTEBOROS

Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendajú KUNOL. VETENSKAPS· octt VITTERHETS·SAMHÃLLES

http://www.etnolinguistica.org HANDLINOAR
F EM T E F O L J DE N. SE R. A. B A N D 5. N:o 1.

MUSICAL
AND OTHER SOUND

INSTRUMENTS
OF THE
SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS
A COMPARATIVE ETHNOGRAPHICAL STUDY

BY

KARL GUSTAV IZIKOWITZ

GÕTEBORG
WETTERGREN & KERBER
GOTEBORG 1935
ELANDERS BOKTRYCKERI AKTIEBOLAG Pris Kr. 15: - .
 GOTEBORGS
KUNGL. VETENSKAPS- octt VITTERHETS~SAMHÃLLES

HANDLINGAR
F EM T E F õ L J D E N. S E R. A. 8 A N D 5. N:o 1.

MUSICAL
AND OTHER SOUND

INSTRUMENTS
OF THE
SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS
A COMPARATIVE ETH NOGRAPHICAL STUDY

BY

KARL GUSTA V IZIKOWITZ

COM MUNICAT ED OCTO BER Sth, 1934

.·

GôTEBORG 1935
. ELANDERS BOKTRYCKERI AKTIEBOLAG
 .PI

[7o f/Íe 9Jlemory oJ

rBr!and ~rdens!ito!d

•
 V

PREFACE.

The subject of the present work was suggested to me by the late

Baron Erland N ordenskiõld, professor at the University of Gothenburg,
who wM,/or many years my teacher. He was of the opinion that, in
addition to detailed studies of the cultures of various tribes and limi-
ted areas, general and comprehensive studies of special classes of
objects and artefacts were necessary. He believed that in this way
the migrations and evolution of the various culture elements in South
America could be traced, and also the history of the South American
cu]tures in pre-Columbian times.
During the years when I enjoyed the advantages of association
with him, his profound knowledge, his enthusiasm and stimulating
influence, and his generous advice and support were an invaluable
aid to me. His premature death while this . study was in progress
meant to me not only the loss of an incomparable teacher, but also
of a personal friend.
For never-failing kindness and assistance I beg to tender my
thanks to the Rector of the University of Gothenburg, Professor
Bernhard Karlgren.
The publication of this book has been made possible by generous
grants from Gõteborgs Kungl. Vetenskaps- och Vitterhets-Samhalle,
the Kungl. och H vitfeldtska Stipendieinrattningen and Theodor och
Hanne Mannheimers Fond in Gothenburg, a.nd also from the late Mrs.
C'h. Mannheimer, from Mr. Knut Mark, and Mr. Herman Lindquist, all
of Gothenburg. Various ·fellowships received from the University of
Gothenburg and from the Gõthilda.-Stiftelsen ha.ve enabled me to
undertake some of the journeys necessa.ry for my investigations in
• various foreign museums.
This work is to a grea.t extent founded on studies of the South
American collections in numerous museums, and pre-eminently those
of the Gothenburg Museum. The following other institutions bave
placed their material at my disposa]: Museum für Võlkerkunde, the
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendajú Museum of Musical Instrumenta (Musical Academy), and Phono-
http://www.etnolinguistica.org gramm-Archiv, Berlin; Museum für Võlkerkunde, Dresden; Stiidt.
VI K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAl\IH. HANDL. SER. A . BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA VII
Võlke1museum, Frankfurt a/M.; Museum für Võlkerkunde, Hamburg: into English of the greater part of my manuscript, and for general
National-Museet, Copenhagen; Museum für Võlkerkunde, Leipzig; clerical assistance, especially in the prepa.ration of my tables. I also
British Museum. London; Museum für Võlkerkunde, München; Pitt- wish to record my gratitude to my sisters Dr. Rakel Izikowitz and
Rivers Museum, Oxford; Statens Etnografiska Museum, and the )lias Margit Izikowitz for painstaking work withnumerous details.
Archive of )fosical Instruments at the ~Iusikhistoriska Museet. Stock- Finally, I wish to express my sincere tha.nks to my friends Mr.
holm; Linden-Museum, Stuttgart; Museum für Võlkerkunde, Wien; Tor Fernbolm and Mr. Kaj Pineus, LL.B., for valuable belp at many
~Iuseo Nacional, Lima The last-mentioned supplied me with a valu- stages of the present work and for the trouble taken by them in read-
able collection of photographs of Peruvian musical instruments, and ing the proofs.
drawings and photographs have been furnished to me by most of the
othcr museums. Ali of these institutions have willingly assisted me
anel have facilitated my work in every possible way.
I am especially indebted to the following directors of museums,
ethnologists and other scientists and field workers: Dr. G. Antze
of Hamburg, Mr. H. Balfour of Oxford, Dr. K. Birket-Smith of
Copenhagen, Mr. A. Digby of L ondon, Professor H. U . Doehring
of München, Mr. H . Fischer of Stuttgart, Mr. R. d'Harcourt of
Paris, Dr. G. G. Heye of Kew York, Dr. M. Heydrich of Dresden.
Professor E . v. Hornbostel formerly of Berlin, Mr. T. A. Joyce of
London, Dr. M. Kolinski formerly of Berlin, Professor F. Krause
of Leipzig, Dr. W. Kaudern of Gothenburg, Professor W. Kricke-
berg of Berlin, Dr. J. Lebmann of Frankfurt a/M., Professor G.
Lindblom of Stockholm, Dr. S. Linné of Stockholm, Dr. S. Lovén
of Gothenburg, Professor R. Lowie of Berkeley, Dr. G. Montell of
Stockholm, Dr. T. Norlind of Stockholm, Professor K. Th. Preuss
of Berlin, Professor F. Rõck of Wien, Professor C. Sachs formerly of
Berlin, Professor C. Skottsberg of Gothenburg, Dr. H. Snethlage of
Berlin, Dr. L. Spier of Yale, Professor G. Thilenius of Hamburg, Mr.
O. Thulin of Gothenburg, Inspector Th. Thomsen of Copenhagen, and
Dr. Luis E. Valcarcel of Lima, and to my friends Mr. S. Rydén
and Mr. H . Wassén of the Gothenburg Museum. I have received
valuable informa.tion from Mr. Antonio Gonzales Bravo of La Paz,
Bolívia, Mr. Curt Nimuendajú of Belém do Para, Brazil, and ~Ir.
Ruben Perez Kantule, San Blas Coast, Panama..
My thanks are also due to the libra.rians and staff of the Gothen-
burg City Library, to Mr. Axel Hjelm of Gothenburg for the prepara-
tion of numerous drawings and diagrams, and to Miss K. Akerblom
of the Stockholm Museum of Musical Histbry.
Mr. M. Nilsson at the Gothenburg Museum, and Mr J. Rubbert
at the Berlin Museum have helped me very much.
I am indebted to Mrs. Florence Ljunggren for the translation
 . rx
y J/I

CONTENTS.

ABBREV I ATIONS USED. Introduction ····················································································

BM Museum für Võlkerkunde, Borlin.

ldiop h ones .............................................................................. 7
BrM British Museum, London. Percussion ldiophones 8
DM
}'M
Museum für Võlkerkunde, Dresdon.
Stãdt. Võlkermuseum, Frankfurt a/M.
. Olapper8 8
Stroke idiophones ............................. . ................................... ........ . . 9
GM Gõteborgs Museum, Gõteborg.
The tor toise-shell drum 9
HM Museum für Võlkerkunde, Hamburg.
KM National -Museum, Copenhagen. Percussion plates ............ . . ...................................... . 9
LM Museum für Võlkerkunde, Leipzig. Flat roots used as signo.! instnaments .......................... :::::::::::::::: 10
l\IM Museum für Võlkerkunde, Müncben. Plank dnams .................................... .. . .......................... . ....... .. 11
RM Statens Etnografiska Museum, Stockholm. The Dyadiko, the dancing Iog of the Uitoto ........................ _...... .. 12
SM Linden-Museum, Stuttgart. The xylophone ............. . ...................................... . . .. ............... . 13
\VM Museum für Võlkerkunde, Vienna. The Catuquinarú drum ...... . .. . .................. . ................................ .. 14
The hollow log drum . ......................... ................................. ... . 16
Slit dnams . ......... . ............ . ................ ... .......................... . . . 17
In the bibliography, the system of abbreviations used in the U niversity of Cali-
The teponaztli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
fornia Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology has beon followed.
T he use of the hollow log drum .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 24
• l Rattling idiophones .............................................. .. . . ....... . ................ . 33
Jingle rattles ........ .. ... .............................................. ............... . 33
Jingle rattles of hoofs ............................ ........ . .... ............... . 34
T he use of th~ hoof rattle .. ......... . ..................................... .. 37
Jingle rattles of fruit shells ............................................... . 48
T he use of the fruit-shell jingle rattle .................................. .. 53
Jingle rattles of shell ....................................................... .. 56
Jingle rattles of metal ....................................................... .. 67
The conic beU ... ........................................................... . 67
1
The pyramidal bell .................................................... .. 70
The Thevetia-formed bcll . .............................................. . 72
The pellet bells ........................................ . .................. . 73
Fruit shells with pellets ........................................ .. 73
The bivalve bell ............................................... . .... .. 74
The hawk bell .................................... . ............... .. 76
Clapper bells . . .................................................................. . 86
How the jingling objecte a re fastened togetb er .... . ................. .. 00
Summary ........................... . ...... . ....................................... . 93
I: Hollow rattles ... . ........ . ..................................... .. ...................... . 96
Group A.
Gourd ~attles ........................... . ....................... . ................ . 97

•
 X K. VET. O. VI'l'TERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BA~D 5. N :O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMER ICA XI
1
a.The gourd rattle which is shaken .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 9i T he shell trumpet .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. . . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. 227
The function of th e gourd rattle .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .... .. .. .. .. .. 108 Bent clay trumpets . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 230
b. Gourd rattles on lon g sticks which are pounded on the Complex trumpets . .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . .. .. . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . 232
ground ............................................ . .. . ............... 117 Trumpets with clay vessels as reeonators .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . 236
Dcrh·ales of the gourd rattle in other materiais .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ll 8 Side-blown trumpets ........................................... .. ............... 237
1
D istribution and origin of the gourd rattles and their derh-afü·es 122 Polyglobular trumpets .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 239
Group B. •Roarers • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Pottery figurines, c ups, veasels, spindle whorls e.nd otber instru- Summnry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 242
menta as rattles .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. 129 Tongue or reed instruments
Hattling metal cups ....... .. .... ................................ .. ............. 133 Oscillating ribbon-reeds 252
Rattling membrana drUIDB ................................................... 133 Slit-valve instrumenta .. . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . . . . .. .. .. . 254
J3ox r attlos ...................... ............................................. . . . . . 134 The clarinet . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . .. . .. . .. .. . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. .. 255
Group C. Idioglot tal clarinets without stops . . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. .. . . 256
Sticks with hollow rattles a nd tubular rnttlos ......... . .............. 135 The sout her n type .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. . 256
Tho •spoar t rattles or rattling •lances• .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. .. . 139 Toré c larinets . . .. . . .. . .. .. . .. . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . .. . . .. . .. .. .. . . 257
Tubular rattles ...... ............................................................ 144 Cla rinete with a clay vessel as a resonator .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . 260
The Sistrum .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 150 Goajiro clarincts . . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . . . . .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. 260
Stamping Tttbes . . . . . .... ... ................... ..... .. ... .. . . .. ... . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . 151 H eteroglottal clarinets .. .. . . •. . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. .. . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . 261
Summary . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . 262
The Notched Stick ........................ ................................................... 160
The oboe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Linguaphones......................... ................. .... ....... ... ...... .. .. .... ......... .. ... 161
í F lutes ................................................................................................ 266
Friction Idiophones .......... ................................... ... ........... ... ..... .. ... 161
I. Flutes in which the air üt prused against the edge through the movements
o/ the instrument itsel/.
M embranophones ..................................................................... 16-1
H umming tops, nuts, and whistling arrows .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . . .. 267
;M:en1brane Drums ........................................................................... 165 H umm.ing tops . .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. 267
Humming nuts .. . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. 269
J(et/le-druma ................... .. ...... ...................... .. ........ .......... . .............. 165
Whistling arrows and darts . . .. . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. . . .. 269
The function of t he kettle-drum.... ... .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. 1 iO
II. Flutes into which an air current ia blown.
T he Arauco.nio.n drum ...... ... .................................................... ..
ltattle drums ............... . ........ ............... '. .............................. . . . ..
174
176
i F lutes without airdmts ............ .... .... .. ...... ........ .. .. ........... ...... .... ........ 270
·>
Globu la r flutes without stops . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 271
Single membrane tubular drums ...... .... .... . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 178
Whistles of h ollow fruits .................................. .................... 271
'l'wo-he.aded drums ........................................................................... 184
Conch shells as whistlcs .................................. . ................... 271
S11m11uiry ................. ...................................................................... 192
Whistles of animal skulls . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. . .. 273
e o r cl o p h o n e s .............................................................................. 201
Whistles of wood ............. . ......................... .. ...................... 274
Transverse fl utes without st-0ps . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. . . . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. . 276
The hand-stop flute .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. . . . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 278
A erophones ................................................................................. 201
The Timbí.ra flute .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . 279
Free Aerophones .............................................................................. 208 Simp le closed pipes ........................................ .. ..... . ............ 281
The bullroarer...................................................... . ................... . 208 The Serére whistle . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. ... .. 282
Fork-sling used as roarer ................. .......................................... . 2 12 The Canella duck wh istle 284
Tho buzz.disc ..................... ............ ......................................... . 212 The buccal whistle . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. 285
1 Globular flutes with stops . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 285
,Valve Instrumenta .......................................................................... . 2 14 F ruit-shell whistles 285
'l'rumpets ...................... ..................... ... · .. · · .......... · .. · .. · .. · .. ·: · .. · · · .... · · 2 15 Conch flutes 287
Simp io t r umpcts ........... ........................................................... . . 2 16 Clay whistles . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. . 287
Simple straight trumpet.a .... .. ............................. . ............... . . . 2 16 Wooden whistles ......................... . ......... .. .. ..... .. .. .. ... .......... 292
i •' Bo.rk trumpets 222 Transverse flu tes with stops .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 297

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Xll K. VET. O. VlTTERH. SAMH. HAN DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l

Flules with o. biow-hole in the septum ......... .. ..... .... ................... 303
End-flu tcs ............ .. .................................... .. . .......... . .............. 305
Simpio end-flutes ................ ............................................... 306
'J'he Quena (the notched flute) ............................................. 312
X ose-blown flutes ..................................................................... 32í
D11ct /lutu (l'lutu with airducts) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 33 l
Duct flutes with deflectors ................. .................. ...................... 332 1 N T R O D U C T 1 O N.
Duct flutes without s_!;ops .. ............... ................................ .. 333
The Ma taco whistle ............ .................................... ...... 333
The flute with o. partly-co,·ered sound orificc .................. 337
Duct flutes with stops .................... ...................... .. ......... .... 342
T h e Mo.taco flute ............ . ............ . .... ............ ...... .. ....... 342 The object of ethnography is, I believe, to make a complete and
Tho Uaupés flute .... . ............... ...................... .. ............. 343 clear exposition of the culture and cultural history of peoples with
1"1utcs with partly-covere<l sound orificos ........................ 344 no written records to rely upon. A number of complementary meth -
Tho p lug-fluto ............................... ..... .............. ..... ........ 347
ods of approach have been devised and have been used by investi-
Summary ................................. ........... . :. ....... .. ............. 355
Duct flutes with a ttached airducts ............................................. 357
gators with varying success in their efforts to attain this goal.
Resonator whistles ................... ................................ .. ........ .. 357 A culture may be regltrded eit her as a sum of component ele-
Of reeds and fruit-shells ................................................ 358 ments or as a dynamic whole. The former attitude can never be
Amorp hous materiais .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 358 more than a working hypothesis which may be used to clarify the
Double whistles with a blow-tap ....................................... 368 characteristics and history of t he various elements found within a
Whistling jars ...... ............. ............................ .'............. .. 369
Flutes with attached airducts ................................................ 372
culture. Attempts to construct a total picture of the culture by
The Aztec flute .................... .. .......... .......................... .. 372 this means only are subject to the danger of giving a lifeless and
Side-blown flutes with attached airducts, tho •axflute• ...... 375 mechanical result. Sociological studies of the economic and social
Summary of flutes with attached airducts .... .. .. .. .............. 375 for ces which give rise to the various institutions, of the psychology
The l'an-pipe .. ....... ............................... .... ...... .... .... .. ........ ............. 378 of the tribe studied, and of the individuals who have moulded its
Materiais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 history, are necessary, before a culture and its history can be fully
Clay .......................................... ....... .. .. ............ . ............... 379
understood. This is indeed a staggering task, which calls for a
Wood ............. .. ............................................. ....... ....... ... . 380
Stone .......... . . . ........ ......... ........................................... ........ 381 detailed and profound knowledge of the culture which is to be
Metal .................. ................... ..................................... .. . .... 382 portrayed, knowledge which must be acquired over a period of years.
R eod-plants ........................... ............................... .............. 382 Comparative ethnographical studies may concern themselves
Tho m.a nner of pla.ying .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 395 either with one single tribe or a Jimited area, and trace the origins
Orehestral playing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
of the various cult ure elements found within this area, or with simi-
Summary . . .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
lar elements and groups of elements, such as basketry, mythology,
Summary o/ Fluiu . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 409
etc. in a number of different culture areas. B oth t hese methods have
Conclusion ....................................................................................... 411 their advantages and disadvantages, but on the whole they are com-
Bibliography .................................................................................... 417 p lementary. Working by the first method, the investigator is never
able to study in detail the origins and changes of each culture element,
as is done by the second method . On the other hand, he can study
influences en bloc, many different kinds of influences from the sarne
quarter. The second method demands considerable knowledge on the
part of the investigator of the inner attibutes of the various culture
areas studied. ThE'. present work is an attempt in the second direction.
2 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 3
The dangers inherent in the method of approach are obvious have spread. To take another example, a sound instrument with
and have been keenly felt by the author. No perfect comparative which supernatural conceptions about a good harvest are associated
stndy of this kind can be made until all the various cultures have may have spread together with the technical ideas regarding the
been thoroughly examined and described. However, it ·would be methods of agriculture itaelf. From this viewpoint, studies of ma-
untrue to say that the study of particular cultures must be completed terial objects form a natural starting point for investigations of
before compara.tive investigations may be begun. Without a back- cultural influences and dissemination. The distribution and ttans-
ground gained through the study of various cultures, absorption in formations of the various culture elements have symptomatic im-
particular cultures may lead to another danger, that of losing sight portance as clues indicating cultural influences. These clues should
of broad trends, general influences, and, above all, of the numerous be followed up in order to find the entire complex of functions con-
new points of view that are revealed when severa! cultures or their nected with the culture element in each tribe, and these complexes
elements are studied together. ln my opinion, both lines of research may then be studied in their entirety. Using a metaphor, culture
should be carried on simultaneously. Together they form what elements may be compared to cells or tissues in a cultural organism.
may be called a method of successive approximation to tbe true Analogous cells and tissues may be found elsewhere, and these ana-
picture of the various cultures. logies when studied carefully may lead to resulta of great value to
A few words may be said at this point concerning the signifi- our science.
cance in ethnographical research of material objects such as musical These principies have lain behind my attempt to give an account
and sound instrumenta. Scientific analysis of material objecta accord- of the history of musical and sound instrumenta in South America.
ing to the laws of the natural sciences can and often does give im- Musical instruments are particularly adapted to a study of this
portant resulta, but may be pushed too far. lt should always be kind, since they are almost always associa.ted with ceremonies and
remembered that an artefact, regarded as a culture element, is al- other complexes of ideas in social life. These investigations may be
ways at bottom the outward forro of a complex of ideas in the minds extended by comparisons with the results of analyses of other kinds
of the human beings by whom it is made and used. It arises through of culture elements, and 1 have at times attempted such compari-
certain wants, desires and ideas, i. e. it fills certain purposes or func- sons, when they have appeared to lead to greater insight into speoial
tions, and its forro also depends on the technical ideas and the skill aspects of the South American oultures.
of its maker. All scientific investigations of material objects should However, in the present fragmentary state of our knowledge it
be made with a view to increasing our knowledge either of the tech- is well not to depart too far from such special features of the instru-
nique, which in its turn is influenced by the environment and the menta themselves as may lead to valuable and perhaps hitherto
natural materiais at hand, or of the functions of the artefact or of unobserved resulta. 1 have therefore rigidly adhered to a general
both. Here we have the criteria by which the usefulness and fruit- classification of the instrumenta according to acoustic principies,
fulness of such investigations may be judged. and have in the main confined myself to a study of their technical
The complex of functions associated with a material object may details for the production and variation of sound, their uses, and
include not only the direct uses to which it is put in social life, but their distribution. The exact data regarding the distribution of each
also religious, ritualistic, and other conceptions. These latter con- instrument are to be found in the tables, and a general description is
ceptions may also inflnence the technique and forro of the artefact. given in the text in each case.
The ornamenta, feathers, and the sacred seeds of the gourd rattle, A special and very important reason for my choice of this general
for instance, are due to religious and other ideas, which together system of exposition has been the imperfection of the material with
with its sound and its uses constitute the reasons for its existence. which 1 have had to work. The numerous museums which 1 have
Taken together, these ideas indica.te the social function of tbe rattle studied have contained much excellent material, but the available
and its position in complexes of culture elements or social institu- information regarding each object is often totally inadequate, not
tions of a higher order, of which it is a part, and with which it may only with regard to the manner of playing and functions but also
4 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l ' IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 5

from other points of view. This is a very unfortunate circumstance, together with the rattling idiophones instead of with the stroke
which, it is to be hoped, may in part be remedied by more rigorously idiophones, due to considerations regarding their origin. Within
scientific methods of collection in the future. Turning to the litera- each homogeneous group, further classifications have been based
ture, we find that some field workers and many travelers have by on the materiais of which the instrumenta are made, and not on
no means been able to describe their observations in a satisfactory their shapes. The shapes as such must be studied in relation to the
way. Many descriptions have had to be rejected by the author, technical, religious and other ideas of which they are the expression,
because the names of European or other instrumenta have been care- and with due regard to the materiais of which the instrumenta are
lessly and erroneously applied. Large flutes are called trumpets; made.
bassoons, which do not occur at all in South America, are frequently Materiais are either natural or amorphous. Fruit shells, reeds,
mentioned, and so forth. Relevant technical details are omitted, conches, etc. are shaped by nature, whereas wood, clay, metais, etc.
and the result is often a vague and practically useless description. may be shaped by man according to his desires. Basketry belongs
It is to be hoped that the present work may be used as.a systematic in a way to the latter group. In many cases when natural materiais
handbook and in this respect be of some value to future investiga- have originally been used, these natural shapes have afterwards
tors. been copied when the sarne instrumenta have later been made of
No monograph on the South American musical and sound amorphous materiais. Changes have later been made according to
instrumenta has hitherto been published. SACHS has, to be sure, the ideas and imagination of the makers who in their turn are often
described the musical instrumenta of the whole world in his work found to have been influenced by religious or other motives. The
on the »Geist und Werden der Musikinstrumente», but many of his innumerable clay whistles from Peru, Chiriqui, etc. are a good in-
conclusions have in my opinion been vitiated by his adherence to the stance of a type of musical instrument which presenta a great variety
so-called Kulturkreis-theory. NoRDENSKIÕLD's valuable general stu- of forms. A special study of these would have led me too far afield.
dies of certain instrumenta and their distribution have been a great So-called »typologicah studies may lead to the construction of
aid to me. Some of his tables have been used in the compilation of typo1ogical series, but as long as adequate excavation recorda and
my own. Mr. and Mrs. D'HARCOURT's careful studies of the Peru- information regarding circumstances of finds and stratigraphy are
vian literature have also been of great use to me. lacking, no dependable relative chronology can be determined in this
The best systematic classification of musical instrumenta for way.
my purpose has been found to be that of SAOHS and VON HoRN- Instead I have analyzed the technical details of the instrumenta,
BOSTEL. BALFOUR'S and NoRLIND'S systems, in principie very and through the study of the distribution of these details or technical
similar to thls, have also contained many va1uable ideas. However, ideas, as well as that of the instrumenta themselves and of groups
minor cha.nges in details have been necessary in order to adapt these of instrumenta, I have attempted to reconstruct their history. In a
systems to South American conditions. The English nomenclature few cases I have attempted comparative studies of their functions
has presented a formidable problem. In apite of excellent help from in different cultures.
BALFOUR's and lú..UDERN's works, it has at times been necessary Severa! important problema have not been comprehensively
for me to attempt to coin suitable terms myself. discussed in this book, especially the question of possible trans-
The basic subdivisions used in this work are tbe traditional Pacific cultural influences. 1'his problem touches particularly the
ones: idiophones, membranophones, cordophones, and aerophones. origina of the panpipe. According to VON HORNBOSTEL's interesting
This is a very general classification, and the instrumenta in these large investigations, the panpipe has in many cases the sarne pitches and
groups are heterogeneous. More detailed subdivisions according to the sarne tone system as the Melanesian and Chlnese instrumenta.
the principies of sound-production finally result in homogeneous In my opinion VON HoRNBOSTEL supports bis hypothesis by too few
groups. In certain instances genetic principies have been followed data. To reach the conclusion that this is probably not a pure
to some extent. The stamping tubes, for example, have been grouped coincidence a much larger basis of fact is required. I have
6 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1

myself measured severa} panpipes from Peru and Amazonas, but

believe that still more measurements are necessary before the pro-
babilities can be fully ascertained. ln bis stop measurements VON
HoRNBOSTEL has found the sarne remarkable similarity. 1 have
also collected a considerable body of data on these, which 1 hope
to be able to publish in the future, together with investigations of 1 D 1 O P H O N E S.
the origins and systems of stops, the tone system of the panpipes, etc.
The origin of orchestral playing is another problem which is as
yet unsolved. Nor is this work a history of instrumental music.
Most of the instrumenta discussed here are hardly musical instru- The materials of which the idiophones are made produce a
menta in our sense of the word. With regard to melodies, rhythm, tone through their stiffness or elasticity without the use of a stretched
etc., extensive field work is imperative before any comprehensive membrane or string (SACHS AND v. HoRNBOSTEL, p. 563). ldiophones
study can be attempted. 1 hope to return to these problema in a are usually classified in different groups according to the various
later work. ways in which the materials are made to vibrate. This may be achieved
The more one attempts to get behind purely technical details either by strokes, friction, or, if the material is very flexible, by
and study the ideas connected with the origin and function of the bending it and then suddenly releasing it. This classification gives
musical instrumenta, the more noticeable becomes their connection us the following groups:1 )
with a tangled skein of ancient and newer ideas, beliefs and fancies I. Percussion idiophones.
in the minds of the Indiana. These notions are sometimes explained II. Friction idophones.
by myths, which may in turn have their origin in other beliefs en- III. Linguaphones.
tirely alien to our ways of thinking. Only field workers steeped in the
life of a culture can reach some degree of true understanding even o_f From the genetic viewpoint these groups have no connection
a single tribe. Faced with these difficulties, it becomes necessary to with each other. Each of them includes very dissimilar and more
resign and to confine oneself to the more obvious aspects of the music- or less independent instruments.
al instrumenta. This the author has done, in the belief that such
studies may be of value in the present stage of our knowledge and
may enable future investigators to come closer to the heart of the
problema.

Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendajú

http://www.etnolinguistica.org 1) See SAOHS .um \". HORNBOSTEL and BALll'OUR (1].
 IZIKOWITZ , MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S . AMERICA 9

((4], p. 1047) mentions it from the Kágaba, where the instrument

was used for the purpose of imitating a certain bird's voice. SwANTON
([2), p. 287) mentions the instrument from the Houma Indiana in
North America.
ln this group should also be included ca,gtanets. Although this
PERCUSSION IDIOPHONES. instrument isso popular in Spain it has never come into u se among
the Indians as far as l know. It is doubtful whether it is used at
The stroke by which vibrations are produced may be made di- all by the South American creoles.
rectly or indirectly. ln the former case, the player himself makes
the stroke movement either with two sounding parts which he strikes B. Stroke ldiophones.
together, clappers, or by striking the instrument with a non-
(Aujschlag-ldiophon, S. & v . H.; Anschlag-l diophon, N.)
sounding implement, stroke idiophones. Similar to the latter from
the acoustio point of view are the stamping tubes, sonorous tubes ln this gr oup are included instruments made of a piece of wood,
pounded against the ground. With the indirectly played idiophones metal, or some other sonorous material which is struck with some
the player himself makes no special movements to produce the sound, sort of external striker, for instance a stick, a club, the foot, or the
which is created instead by the movements of the instruments. A like. The South American Indians make use of the following in-
number of loose parts strike against each other. In this group are struments belonging to this group:
included ali kinds of raUles and also the notched or rasping stick. 1) The tortoise shell drum.
In the latter the sound is produced by scraping a stick or similar 2) Percussion plates.
object against a notched surface. 3) Flat roots used as signal instrumenta.
We accordingly have the following types: 4) The plank drum .
A. Clappers. 5) The dyadiko.
B . Stroke idiophones. 6) The xylophone.
C. Rattling idiophones. 7) The Catuquinarú drum.
D. Stamping tubes. 8) The hollow log drum.
E. Notched sticks. a) The simple hollow log drum.
b) The slit drum (Schlitztrommel) .
l have placed the stamping tubes after the rattling idiophones e) The teponazt!i (Zungentrommel) .
for reasons explained in the text.
T h e t o r t o i s e - s h e l l d r u m.
l\1ARTIUS1 ) portrays a Tikuna woman playing a drum of tortoise-
A. Clappers.
shell. l do not know any instances of such instrumenta occurring
(Gegenschlag-ldiophon, S. & v. H.)
anywhere else in South America, but they have existed in Mexico
ln this connection the word clappers signifies two pieces of and are portrayed in the codices.2 )
wood which are beaten against one another. This instrument is
very rare in South America. Since its principie of construction is so P e r eu s s i o n p la t e s.
simple it is possible that the instrument has not always been ob- Here and there in the archaeological literature we find refer-
served. According to information which ERLAND NoRDENSKIÕLD re- ences to thin stone plates of varying shapes which are used as per-
ceived from PATER KNOFl!'LACH, who lived for some time in Bolívia, 1) N1MUENDAJÚ [2], p. 193; cit. MAllTWS.
the Yanaigua use this instrument at certain ceremonies. PREUSS 2) SELER, [l], II, p. 699.
10 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. A..llERICA 11
<Jussion plates, or resonant stones. G. A. DoRSEY (1), for in- Plank drum .s.
stance, portrays a stone slab made of greyish trachyte which has From the Ara.pai, a Carib tribe living immediately north of the
the appearance of a stone ax. It is 31.5 cm. wide and 49.5 cm. lower Amazon river, SPEISER1 ) mentions a peculiar drum which is
long. ln DoRSEY's opinion this is a resonant stone. used at their mask dances. The Indians dig a pit in the ground in
From an old burial cave at Niquivao at Trujillo, Venezuela., the middle of the open space around the ceremonial house (men's
ERNST (pl. VIII, figs. 5-7) reports percussion plates of ser- lodge) over which they place an arched plank level with the ground.
pentine. They are thin rectangular stone plates which oµ On this plank they dance, and it constitutes the center of the dance
the middle of one side have holes or incisions for suspension. ceremonies. The dancers stamp on it as hard as they possibly can,
REQUENA (p. 157) portrays simi~ar objects from the environs of whereby a dull tone ensues which can be heard far away. W. ROTH
Lago Tacarigua. ((1], p. 468) mentions a similar drum from Waiwai and Parikuta. The
SUAREZ mentions a »resonant stone» from Eouador consisting
plank is here six feet long and three feet in breadth. ln this con-
of a »stone slab of black slate, about one metre in height nection ROTH quotes ÜRÉVAUX and DE GoEJE on the use of this
and some centimetres wide. When this atone was suspended drum among the Oyana, also a Carib tribe. According to DE GoEJE
from one of its ends and struck with another stone or with the pit was covered with a large sheet of bark. »The young men
the hand, a metallic and pleasant sound was produced which stamped rythmically with the right leg, the left keeping the bark
vibrated like that of a bell. »1) SAVILLE did not find any of these rigid and in place. » DE GoEJE informa us that the size of the plank
stones and does not believe much in the use of them as musical was 3 X 0.4 X 0.004 m. and the pit 2 m. deep. It was filled with
instrumenta. bunches of palm leaves and the plank was then covered with earth.
Since all these artefacts are archaeological, very little is known The dancers stamped on the plank with both feet, at the sarne time
of their use, particularly since, as far as I know, neither resonant playing on flutes.
stones nor other percussion plates are mentioned in ethnological The Arawaks of British Guiana use a sounding board or plank
literature. which to some extent resembles the plank drum laid over a pit.
According to RoTH they are used »to keep time » at the Makuari
F la t r o o t s u s e d a s s i (}na l i n s t rum e n t s. death ceremony. He writes ([1), p. 649):
The Cuna Indian, RuBEN PEREZ ÜANTULE, explained to me »Ün the ground in the center of the dancing place lies a ílat
that whenever the Indiana of his tribe went out into thick forests square board of perhaps 2 feet square. Two old women, or ~n
they would signal to one another on the flat roots which are found old man and a woma.n, rarely two young p ersons, squat oppostto
on certain tropical trees. According to TESSl'tIANN ((l], pp. 198, to each other with this board between them. Each is provided
429) this is also the case ·among the Koto. J ebero, and Yagua. with a. rough wooden figure of a. roa.n or sometimes in pla.ce of
this man ea.ch ha.s a bundle of a few stra.ight sticks from 2 to 3
Among the Jebero, the author explains, the hunters and fishermen feet long. Whichever instrument is used it is bea.ten by each
returning home signal with sticks in this manner. FARABEE2 ) player with an accompaniment of rythmic cha.nting. · · •
writes that the Amahuaca Indians in Peru use this system of sig-
ln this case the pit is Inissing and the plank is not stamped on
nalling by removing the bark of a flat root of the Alatea tree, leaving
by the feet. Possibly we have here to do with a variant of the other
the root in place, and pounding it with a heavy club. Quite pos-
plank drums, though whether it is older or younger than these can-
sibly this method of signalling is more common than the reports in-
dica.te since it is a deta.il whioh may easily escape the attention of not be determined.
1) SPEISER, p . 256: tVorher aber hatte man ein Loch mitten auf dem Platze. ums
temporary travellers among the Indians.
Mãnnerhaus gegraben, über das man ein gewõlbtes Brett legte, das sich so auf gl~acher
Hõhe wie der Boden befand. Dieses Brctt, auf dem meistens getanzt wurde, btldete
1
) SAVILLE, [4], I, p. 67, cit. F. G. SUAREZ. den Mittelpunkt der Tanzzeremonien; die Tãnzer mussten mõglichst hart darauf
2
) NonDENSKIÕLD [9], p. 45; cit. FARABEE, p. 106. etampfen, wodurch ein dumpfer, weithin hõrbarer Schall entstand. •
12 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HA...~DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 13

T h e D y adi k o, t h e danei n g-l o g o / t h e U i to to. pit resonator) while the hollowing principle connects it with the
This strange instrument has been described and discussed by hollow log drums.
PREUSS {[3), p. 137), TESSMA...~ {[1), p. 323), SACHS ([2], p. 46), and Outside of South America, we find in California instruments
lately BosE (p. 5). which closely resemble the South American p]ank drum with the
The dyadiko is a long slender log which is hollowed like a trough pit resonator. Thus tho Maidu placc a shcct of bark over an earth
in such a manner that it becomes flexible. On the side of the log which pit and stamp upon it (DIXON, [3] p . 221). According to KBOEBER
is not hollowed a water snake is painted with a number of butter- ([1), p. 365) this foot drum also exists among the Wintun where it
flies perched upon it. On one short end thé' bust of a woman is consists of »a large hollowed slab, 6, 8, or 10 feet long, placed with
carved in relief, on the other an alligator or the head of a lizard. its convex side up, above a shallow excavation in the rear of the
The dyadiko rests on two logs which are about 3/4 m. in diameter. dance house, and stamped on by the dancers. So far as available in-
These are pJaced at the two points where the snake ornamentation formation goes this drum is used only by secret society tribes. » The
stops. Furthermore the dyadiko is fastened with lianas to logs Coastal Yuki also have a sort of foot drum in the dance house and
which are set in the ground below those logs upon which the instru- the Yurok are said to have had a plank drum in ancient times which
ment resta, in order to prevent it from moving away from these was thumped with a stick (KROEBER (1), pp. 96, 216). According
while being played. Under the center of the dyadiko a pit is dug to KBOEBER, California is really a drumless regicn, except in the
and covered with two planks for the purpose of giving better sound area of the Kuksu cult.
to the instrument. Since it is a question of pounding the dancing-
log against the planks by dancing on it, it appears to a spectator as
T h e x y l o p h o n e.
though all dance by command and then suddenly all jump off.
TESSMANN describes how all the men dance on the middle of the To the group of percussion idiophones which make use of
dyadiko and by stamping simultaneously attempt to push the log a pit resonator also belongs an instrument which we m ight term
down. This is not easily done, but when they succeed the result the xylophone. It consists simply of two sticks lying over a hole
is a buzzing tone which affected TESSMANN's sense of hearing in the ground. It is used by the Uitoto as a signal instrument
extremely unpleasantly. According to him it was a tone »der on travels and is obviously of a more temporary character. Koon-
sich bis zum Unbehaglichen steigern kann. Ich dachte das GRüNBERG ([3], II, p. 303), who has seen it, gives the following
erstemal, er rührte von einem Erdbeben her». (TESSMANN, (1), description:
p. 323.) tF ehlen den U itóto dieso grosscn Signaltrommeln, z. B. auf
The dyadiko is used ata special festival, the purpose of which, der R eise, so verfertigen sie rascb, um etwa zwei Stunden weit
according to PREUSS {[3J, p. 139) is »die Tõtung des alten Mondes, signalisieren zu kõnncn, folgcnden kleinen Apparat: Sie graben
ein sauberes, viereckigC's Loch, nur wenig lãnger a.Is breit (c:a.
wo~urch die Bahn für die Erneuung frei wird. » A couple of other
80 cm.) und 40--50 cm. ticf, in den Erdboden. Dann schneiden
fest1vals are associated with the new and the full moon. Accord- sie zwei H õlzer, gleicb dick, so dass man sie mit beiden Hii.nden
ing to BosE the dyadiko also occurs among the Bora, a tribe living umspannen kann, und gleich lang (c:a 90 cm.), und flacben sie
nea.r the Uitoto.1 ) It is not known from any other tribe. BosE an einer Seito etwas ab. An dieser flachen Stelle hõblen sie je
(p. 6) regards it as a »transitional form » between the Stampfbrett eine glatte gleich lange, aber v erschieden breite und tiefe Rille
aus, die nicht bis zu den Enden der Stõcke reich t. Auf die kür-
{plank drum which is stamped upon) and the Stamp/schlifztromme'l. zeren Rãnder dcs Erdloches werden nun leicht zusa.mmenge-
As a matter of fact the dyadiko is not really a percussion idiophone bundene Strobbüschel gclcgt und auf diese die beiden Hõlzer
but rather a linguaphone (Zupf-Idiophon) , but some of its ideas mit der Rille nach unten, so dass sie b einahe das ga.nze Loch
are undoubtedly related to the plank drum (the stamping and the bedecken. Sie worden mit zwei einfachen Stõcken a.us ba.rtem,
schwerem Holz in derselben W eise geschlagen, wie die grossen
1
) According to an UFA film by MARQUIS DE WAWRIN.
Signaltrommeln. •
 14 K. VET. O. VITI'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 15
This is the only Indian xylophone with which l am acquainted
from South America. BosE observes quite rightly that this instru-
ment shows some relation to the dancing-tree (dyadiko) as well as
to the slit clrum (Schlitztro-mmel, cf. p. 22). On the one hand we
have the bole, the tree-trunk, the hollowing principie, and the sup-
port at both ends, on the other hand the function, the technique of HARO RUBBER

playing, and the doubleness of the slit drums. LMMI

o/ ª""'"" ltARO llUBBER CAP

ln post-Columbian times the so-called 7JWrimba, an African P'RAQMIENTS

OF POWOERED
xylophone, has been introduced into America. As far as 1 know wooo MICA
~
llAW HIDE 801'1:
the only tribes in South America which have adopted it are the Co- ANO
FllAOM!MTS

lorado (RrvET, [1 ], p. 193) and the Cayapa in Eouador (BARETT, [1], pl. RESll'S WOOD
FllAOMEHTS
CXXVII), which, by the way, are also in other respects influenced º"
YAAIOUS

by negroes. ln Central America, on the other hand, the marimba woooa ""' '""º
has become very popular, especially in Nicaragua and Guatemala.
(n 'HARCOURT, [1], p. 23). According to n 'HARCOURT, this is ex- COAR8E &ANO
plained by the fact that in these regions it has taken the place of
WELL TAMPEO
the teponaztli, which is also a kind of xylophone.

T h e C a t u q u i n a r ú d r u m.
A very remarkable type of drum is the one reproduced on fig. 1
from the Catuquinarú Indians at Rio Juruá. It was discovered by
CttURCH. NoRDENSKIOLD ([9], p. 71) includes it among »inventions
of isolated distribution», and he as well as KoPPERS consider it a.
local invention in South America. It is used for signalling. As fig. 1
shows, the instrument consists of an earth pit filled with various
sorts of material, in which a hollow trunk of hard palm wood is
r ············....
placed on end and also partly filled with many different things. ln
the center a small space is left empty. Both the pit and the upper 1
end of the trunk are oovered with a slab of hard rubber. The in-
strument is pounded with a club, the butt of which is covered with
hard rubber and rawhide. ln spite of its unique construction I
am inclined to believe that it is related to other drums with pit
r(lsonators. Like the drum of the Oyana the pit is filled (cf. p. 11).
One may wonder what function this filling of palro leaves, rawhide,
resins of various woods, etc. can have. May it possibly have some
magic i.mport1
The vertical tree-trunk is really the strangest detail of this Fig. 1. The Catuquinarú drum. After CHURCH.

drum. Possibly the Indians got the idea from the hollow log drums
and, instead of hanging it horizontally, simply placed it on end in
the pit. The clu b is evidently a culture element which has been
16 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTR UMENTS OF S. AMERICA 17
borrowed from the slit drum (cf. p. 22). The slab of hard rubber resonators, some Californian tribes have drums made of segments of
is peculiar and more difficult to explain. Possibly the idea has large wooden cylinders. They are struck with the foot and are used
come from the plank drums which have their earth pit covered with in the Kuksu cult. These drums are placed in the dance house and
a plank. On the other hand it may be an attempt to copy the are held very sacred (KROEBER, [11, p. 824). Among the Pomo the
membrane drum which in thcsc regions is probably post-Columbian. drum is, according to LOEB (p. 188), associatcd with the ghost cult
One may then assume that in its ideas this drum is related on and not with the Kuksu cult. This drum was about ~ix feet long.
the one hand to the plank drums, and on the other hand to some It was hollowed out of fir or oak wood and supported with grape
sort of hollow log drum. The function, the club, and the hollow vines. One man played this iristrurnent by tramping on it (LOEB,
log point towards the latter while the pit resonator with its filling loc. cit.). Similar hollow drums which are tramped upon are found
points towards the former. If this reasoning is correct this peculiar also among the )faidú and Wintun. The latter occasionally also
drnm should not be so isolated a phenomenon in America in its bcat the drum with a large stick (BARETT, [3], p. 448).
component cultural ideas as the above-mentioned authors believed.
Slit drums.
According to NORDENSKIOLD ([9], p. 46) the real slit drums are
T h e h o l l o w l o g d r u m. characterized by having been very carefully hollowed out from a
ln this group I include all drums made of hollow, or hollowed, tree trunk, in such a way as to leavc the aperture - or apertures -
tree-trunks which are pounded to produce sound. The American quite small and narrow. Since this instrument is mentioned »even
log drums appear in many forms, already studied by ERLA.;"'iD Noa- as far back as the time of the Discovery, as for instance by Carvajal
DENSKIOLD in an article entitled ~ Ist die Schlitztrommel in der and Heriarte», NoRDE~SKIOLD considers that »there can be no
neuon sowohl wie in der alten Welt selbstãndig erfunden worden~ », doubt ·whatever that it existed in America already at that time. ))
latcr reprinted in his »Modifications in Indian Culture ... » [9]. ln connection with his study of the slit drum NORDENSKIOLD
NoRDENSKIOLD has studied the various forros of this drum and also published a map of its distribution ([9], map 5, p. 22), according to
tbeir distribution, of which he has published a map. My data in which the slit drums are restricted to north-western South America,
the table on p. 29 are therefore to the greatest extent collected from i. e. the region around the upper Amazon and its tributaries. Ac-
bis work. cording to FRIEDER1CI, however, the slit drum occurs as far north
NORDENSKIOLD differentiates between three kinds of hollow as Cueva,1 ) and it has been found in the coastal territory of Vene-
log drums: the simple type, the real slit drum, and the tepo- zuela (Cumanagotes, Chiribichi, Cumaná) and at Trinidad. 1 ) TESS-
1
MAXX a lso mentions it from north-eastern Peru and from Colina )
naztli. KARL v. D. STEINEN found drums consisting simply of a
hollow log among the Bakairi and Kamayura, and in the neigh- at Rio l\farari, a tributary to Rio J uruá. ln the eastern and south-
boring tribe, Auetõ, ~lAx ScHMIDT found a similar one, consis- eastern parts of South America we find only the simple type of the
ting of a 6 m. long hollowed wooden log which was struck hollow log drum (cf. p. 29). Nor is there any information about
with a wooden block. The drum of the Ararandenuará is a its occurence in the West Indies wherc the teponaztli is used instead
long and narrow trunk of the Amhaúva tree (Gecropia) which (see p. 23).
is hung in lianas. Among these simple types NORDENSKIOLD also The forro of the slits on these drums varies considerably from
includes a canoe-shaped drum which he observed during a sojourn tribe to tribe and even within each tribe. As an example of this
among the Nonamá-Chocó Indians, and which he brought back let me refor to fig. 2, a-d which shows representations of drums
with him . from the Jivaro. RIVET ([l], p . 39 seq.) writes about the drumsof
Outside of South America we find these simple hollow log this tribe: »L'instrument présente le long d'une des génératrices
drums in California. ln addition to their plank drums with pit 1
) See table.
2
18 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MlJSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 19

t{l • du cylindre soit une ouver-

ture unique de forme carrée,
soit trois ou quatre ouver-
a. tures circulaires, soit deux
ouvertures se faisant face
et rappelant comme forme

@
- et disposition les oui:es d'un
violon. »
ln general we may .
cl. distinguish between two
main types of slits, one of
which consists of two round
boles (h on fig. 2 e) in either Fig. 3. Slit drum from the Tukano of Pary-
end of the drum, often also Cachoeira. Rio Tiquié. After K oCH·GRÜNBEno.
e. a pair of holes in the
middle (fig. 3), which are connected with a narrow slit (the
Schlitz). Occasionally the holes are square (fig. 2 g) or have

~: · ttGZ~
the shape of an hour-glass (fig. 2 f). Evidently these boles
constitute the first step in the process of hollowing out the log.
This hole system is the most usual and occurs for insta.nce on
f. all the drums mentioned by KocH-GRüNBERG (see table). The
other type of slits are found among the Jivaro (fig. 2, e. d) and
g. on PATER GuMILLA's drum (fig. 5). The object has evidently
been to make a kind of »tongue ». Naturally it is not possible
to get a large tongue on thc transverse of the drum and, due
to the structure of the wood, such a tongue would easily be
broken when beaten upon.
TESSMAN divides the drums from his territory in north-eastern
Peru into four groups without further characterization (TESSMAN,
[1], Kartogr. 24.):
1) Single drums of Jivaro type.
2) Single drums of Kapanahua type.
3) Drum pairs with the appellation man
and woman.
4) Drum pairs representing man and woman.
h.
The Jivaro type is found only in north-
Fig. 2. Slit drums. a = Jivaro, after TEssMANN; b = Jfraro, after R1vET; e =
Jivaro, GM: 20.7.276; d = Jivaro, aft.er FARADEE; e = Uitoto, after FARABEE; f =
eastern Peru, in the tribe from which it has
Uitoto, after T.ESSMANN; g = Kapanahua, after TESSMANN; h anel i = Andoke, repre· Fig. 4. Croas.section been named, while the Kapanahua type is found
senting woman and man, after TESSMANN. of drum on fig. 3. also among the Mayoruna. Drum pairs called
20 K. VET. O. V!Tl'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 21

man and woman occur among the Uitoto, Okaina, Bora, and Muinane p. 358, cit. FrnuEROA).1 ) FIOUEROA does not tell us whether this was
and anthropomorphic drums among the Andoke. Whether the a slit drum or a membrane drum. ln the western part of the
tribes which now have type three originally had anthropomorphic distribution area of the slit drum, the drums are placed at an
drums is difficult to say. Among the Okaina both types occur, as angle of thirty degrees from the ground, either on a special frame ,
will be seen from a reproduction of a pair of drums by de WA~ as among the Uitoto, or by the simple device of letting one end
[l]. This custom of using two drums which give different sounds rest on the ground while the othet· is fastened with a liana to a
is a peculiarity for which l have not found any Indian explanation. rafter or a pole in the hut. This occurs for instance among the
Bora,2 ) Okaina, Chocó, and Muinane, 3 ) i. e. among those tribes
which have drum pairs. An exception from this are the Choc6
(see p. 16) who, as I have already said, use the single drum. ln
this respect the Chocó clearly show themselves relatcd to the tribes
living on the other side of the Cordilleras, with whom they, by the
way, have severa! culturc elements in common.
As a rule the drums arn hollowed by means of fire and hot
stones (see table). WHIF.l!'EN and FARABEE give us descriptions of
t he course of procedure among the Bora and i\iiraiía:
t . . . two blocks of hard wood are chosen, somC' si x feet in
length. and about twenty-four inch es in diametcr. These b locks
are ,-ery carefully hollowed out by m eans of heated stones that
are iatroduced through a narrow longitudinal slit, and char tho
in terior. Instt>ad of endeavoring, however, as would be the case
\Yith an ordinary drum, to contrive as nearly perfect a cylinder
as possiblc, tho object of the signal-drum maker is to obtain a
husk of varying thicknesses, so as to secure difforences in note.
Accordingly , with his rude implcments, hot stones, capybara-
"Pig. 5. Slit drum frorn the Caverro. Aftor ÜlJMILLA. tooth boror anü 1:1tono nx<', h o foshions tho interior of tho drum
in such a manncr, that the outor sh ell, the sounding board,
varies in thickncss from halí an inch to four inches. Two hlock s
Usually the drums are hung in some way or other, evidently are u sed; thc smallcr is cal lcd the male, and the larger thC' fomalc.
The ends are simp ly thc wood of the tree which is not removed,
to secure better sound. ln the Xingú territory, however, they lie
ali the hollowing b<'ing accomplished by m eans of thc grooved
on thc ground. As will be seen from fig. 5, the Caverre drums hang slit. & ( WIFFEN, p. 214)
in a kind of gallows, while those in the Uaupés territory are hung
by means of lianas which are tied to four poles set solidly in the FARABEE's information is from the Uitoto (FARABEE [l], p. 147):
ground. The Jivaro hang their drum in two lianas which are tied »The interior of the log is burned out through the slit and holes,
to the projections of the drum (fig. 2 a-e) and to two poles (RIVET, and the fire controlled by blowing through the leg bone of a stork».
1, p. 40). ln all these instances the drum is hung parallel with the According to Gmm.LA (p. 117) the drum is hollowed out from both
ground. The Jivaro occasionally hang it vertically by fastening ends. RIVET ([1], p. 39) gives similar information, »... creusé à
1 ) FwuEROA, p. 261: • ..... tambien suolen balorso de tra.mpas, con tlisposion
the upper end in a tree and the lower to a pole set in the ground
que pissando en ellas dan un gran golpe en un madero 6 en el tambor quo en alto dei
(RIVET, [L], p. 40, cit. VON HASSEL). FIGUEROA mentions drums arból tienen colgado, escondido entro las ramas, donde se suelta la trampa. Con el
from the Mainas territory which were hung in trees hidden among ruído deste golpe son a.bisados !'n sus casas. t
the branches. They were connected with traps and if anyone hap- 2
) JIMÉNEZ SEMINARIO, p. 183.
pened to st ep on one of these the drum would sound (FRIEDERIOI, ") WHIFFEN, p. 214.
22 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWlTZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 23
l'aide de pierres incandescentes par une de ses extrémités, qui est tones (FARABEE, [1) p. 147). JrnÉNEZ SEMrnARIO (p. 183) and WH!F-
ensuite hermétiquement fermée à l'aide d'une grosse rondelle de FEN (p. 214) affirm the sarne thing about the Bora drum. Accor-
bois.» ding to GUMILLA, the Caverre strike the transverse l)tongue » which
The drum which KoCH-GRÜNBERG took away with him from is surrounded by a crescent-shaped opening.1 )
the Tukano shows a peculiar constructive detail in that the interior Besides the above-mentioned drum pairs in the western part of
of the drum is divided by a transverse wall placed at about the the territory of distribution, the Indiana in the M:ainas region used
centre of the instrument fig . 4. This wall is, from four to six drums of düferent sizes which thus produced differ-
however, pierced by a narrow slit. What function ent tones. 2 )
it may haveis difficult to say. It may be that Several travellers, who have heard the drums, state that the
it causes the drum to have more than one tone. sound can be heard very far. PATER GUMILLA (II, p. 120) is in
More difficult to explain is the existence of a particular greatly impressed and gives a detailed description of how
two-pound stone fastened with putty perpendi- the signal drums were heard over a distance of four leguas
cularly under the centre, that is under the (more than 22 km.) during an Indian attack in 1737.
middle opening of the drum described by
GuMILLA, who insista that if the stone is removed T li e te p o na z t l i . (Z1tngentrommel).
the drum will not sound.1 ) A very special kind of hollow log drum is the so-called ter><>naz-
The hollow log drum is played with clubs. tli . It is usually quite open in the bottom and the upper side is
The Jivaro and Auetô use only one club, but H-shaped with two longitudinal tongues which are struck with
this is an exception to the rule in South America. caoutchouc-covert>d clubs as in South America. The teponazili
The Auetô club consista of a large wooden block, is often placed on a special frame or simply on the ground.
while the butt-end of the Jivaro club is wound This instrument is never played in pairs. The size is about 50- 60
around with a piece of cloth. Among the other cm ., i. e. considerably smaller than the slit drum, which means
tribes two clubs are used. The Chocó clubs that its sound is also much less penetrating and therefore not sui-
are 36 cm. long and are somewhat thinner in the table for signalling. Its territory of distribution was Central Ame-
Fig. 6. Club used handle than in the butt-end. The Kapanahua rica and Mexico, but it was alsó found on Espafiola among the Tai-
wi t h slit drum from
clubs (fig. 2 g) are 73 cm. long, have two bulbs nos, to whom, according to LovÉN (p. 493). it carne from Yucatan .
t he Uaupés territory.
Bl"itis h Mueeum.
like those on pestles, and are also, like these, Usually the teponaztli is struck with two clubs; Haiti is the only
used to pound with. Most of the other tribes instance of the use of merely one club (LOVÉN, loc. cit.). ln South
(the Uitoto, the Uaupés Indians, the Caverre, etc.) use special clubs America teponaztlis are unknown.
covered with a lump of caoutchouc, which is in its turn braided ') G=A, II, p. 117: •En la parta s uperior le h acen sus claraboyas, ai modo de
over with thread (fig. 6). las que acá tiene el harpa, y enmedio le formean una media luna, como la boca, por
The drum is struck (p on fig. 2e, »the strike-board») on or d onde la repercucion sale con mas fuerza; y en la madera que hay en el centro de
la media !una, se ha de dar el porrazo para que s uene: de modo que si se hiere en
between the openings. Since the Uitoto drums vary in thickness qualquiera otra parte, solo suena como quien dà una mesa, õ en una puerta: maa
on either side of the openings, each of the two drums produces two aunque se aporree en el centro de la media luna, si no es con uno, õ dos mazoe, em·
1
) GUMILLA, II, p. 118: •· .. si abaxo en el centro de la caxa, en sitio perpendi- bueltoe en una rezina, que llaman Ourrucay , n o suena. •
c ularmente correspondiente à la media tuna, no hay fixado un guijarro pedernal, que ') Fiou ERoA, p. 101: •Hicieron la eeilal de paz con eus tambores que son unoe
p ese casi dos librM, ta.mpoco suena: (fixan dicho pedernal con el vetumen, que maderos grueesoe y guecos por dentro, socabados con fuego, no todos de un tamaflo,
llaman ellos P eramán) puesto el pedernal en su lugar, tapan ajuetadamente las sino el uno mayor, que tendrá cinco barae <le largo, que eirve de bajo; los demas van
d os bocas extremas de aquel disforme tronco hueso, y esta es la ultima diligencia de la minorando hasta. hacer como un cor o 6 juego de quatro 6 seis tambores: que los tocan
obra, que como dixe, ha de estàr pendiente en el ayre de aquellos dos correosos sar- á la par juntos, y en ellos hacen varios sonidos A compé.s, con armonia que retumba
mientos, que llaman Befucos; ... • y suena mucho. •
 24 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. :BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 25
The use o/ lhe hollow log drum. exceedingly interesting to know since it is of some importance for
The uso of th~ hollow log drum in South America varies. ln the earliest history of instrumental music.
general one may say it is used for signalling. This is also stressed Unlike the South American hollow log drums, the teponazlli has
by Bo E a~ rcgards the Uitoto: a more religious-musical function as a r ythmical instrument and is
played together with other instruments at religious dances. As has
•Die Tromm eln werden nur ais Signalinstrumente ,·erwen- been said before it is not uscd as a signal instrument.
d ct, ais Begleitung der Kulttiinzc treten sie niemals auf, weder
in Vcrbindung mit Gesang und anderen Instrumenten, noch
Since the hollow log drum , like so many other American cul-
allci11. Wcnn wiihrend des Tanzes dic Trommeln geschlagen ture elements, has its parallels in the Old \Vorld. many investiga-
werden, so ist <las eine aussermusikaliscllC', magische Bestãti- tors have believed it to bc imported from M:el:mcsia. ln his above-
gung. (Dio Trommol ist der Sitz d er Soolo dos Urvaters und des mentioned work NORDENSKÜ)LD has, however, attacked this hy-
ganzen Stammcs. Ihre Tone sind seino Worto.) Die Trommel pothesis and pointed out tho importance of studying fo detail the
di ent der Vorstündigung von Ansiedlung zu Ans icdhrng. Sio
ruft zu tlen Kultfcsten dio geladonen Gasto h orbC'i, kündet die
forros of culture elements bcfore comparing t hem and drawing far-
cinzolnen Phasen des Fostes an und vorbreitot auch wohl profane flung conclusions. ln this connection he points out the great varia-
Nachrichten. E s gibt einc besondcro Trommelsprachc, die aus tion in forro which is found in America and the existence of bot h
dcn vier Tonon und verschieden en Rythmen bcstcht. • (BosE, primitive and more complicated types, as for instance the lepo-
p. 7, cit. FARABEE and PREUSS). naztli, etc. None of these agrees in detail with the Oceanic types.
ln particular the leponaztli, the caoutchouc-covered clubs, and the
Unfortunately the drum-language is not known. According to peculiar incisions or opening must have been independently disco-
K ocH-GRÜNBERO ((3), I , p. 278) it has no relation whatever to that vered. The hypothetical , and in America non-existent, Melanesian
which is found for instance in the Congo. The question is whether type should then have been the precursor of both simple and com-
a real signal code existed or exists in South America. As a rule it seems plicated types. If the American drums were of Oceanic origin one
as t hough the signals are warning calls or alarm signals upon hostile should at least be able to trace t hem back to the Oceanic type, but
attacks (GUMILLAII, p. 120; MRSTEN, [4], II, p. 245). KARSTEN (loc. this cannot be done (NORDENSKIOLD, (31, p. 21). No&DENSKIOLD
cif .) also states that the Jivaro summon the spirits with the drum writes further:
at their big drinking bouts. Among thc Boro., Muinane, and »If we study the variation as to form we shall no doubl,
Okaina the use is the sarne as among the Uitoto and on the whole incline to the opinion that gongs of t his t yp e r epresen t an invon -
among the peoples of north-western Brazil. Thc AuetO, Guypu- tion indep endently made in Amerioa. We must b ear in mind
navi, and Mayoruna signal to collect the people in the villages (see that the m ero circumstan oo of signalling drums ocourring bot h
t able). The Chocó drum is not used for signalling but is exclu- in l\Ielanesia and America d oos n ot constitu te conclusi\·e p roof
of a common origin ~.
sively a magic instrument. It is beaten when earthquakes occur in
order to scare away their supposed cause, an evil spirit Teoré- and supposes:
mia (NORDENSKIOLD [3], p. 18). •I think it most natural to suppose the invention of these
The fact that slit drums are looked upon among certain tribes gongs to have come about by people to begin with having sent
out signals by beating on h ollow trees in the forest, subsequently
as man and woman, and in certain instances also have these shapes, carrying them home to the v illage, or that signalling was done
may perhaps be considered as having some relation to their magic by drumming on oanoes or wooden troughs. Then b y degrees
function. Their sounds are, to be sure, said to be the voices of the these make-shift gongs have bcen improved upon in various
first parenta (Uitoto, supra), but the very fact that the Indians ways. » ([9]., p . 48.)
distinguish between two instruments of different sizes may possibly ln his critique of the work just quoted, FRIEDERICI (p. 358)
be assumed to have some magic-social foundation. Unfortunately makes the following comments on NORDENSKIOLD's views as to the
we have no information about whether this is so, but it would be independent invention of these instruments in America:
26 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 27
•Der Referent hat früher ( tErgãnzungsheft • 7 der •Mitteil. MR. NrnuENDAJÚ told me that when walking in the forest one can
aus d on D eutschen Schutzgebieten •, 1913, S. 129- 130) witer
eingeheuder B egründung seine Ansicht dargelcgt, dass die
hardly refrain from striking a flat root or the J!ke, whereby a rather
Schlitztrommc l .an m ehreren Stellc n d er Erde se lbstãndig ent- dull, far-sounding tone is produced. Thus an excellent signal instru-
standcn sein kõnne, dass aber nicht daran zu zwoifeln sei, dass ment! And striking a ho11ow log can hardly be considered much
sie auch ais Kulturgut in gewissen Grenzen übertra.gen worden stranger. It would be almost more peculiar if its possibilities ha.d
is t. So ist es mõglich, dass a.uch eine Schlitztrommel aus Ozea- not been discovered.
nien nach Amerika gewandert is t.
E s wi.ircle ein Irrtum scin, wenn e in Ame rikanist aus der If we, furthermore, call to mind that NORDENSKIÕLD has shown
w oitcn Verbreitung, der Mannigfa.ltigkeit dor Formen und aus that several of those details which are characteristic of the hollow
eine r gewissen annchmbar gcmachten Entwicklungsreihe schlies- log drums, such as the caoutchouc-covered clubs, the peculiar in-
sen wollte, dass die amerikanische Schlitztrommel ein Recht
cisions (apertures), etc., exist only in America, and also recall that
der Prioritiit vor d er malaio -polyncsischcn hãtte, dass also eine
H erkunft über den Grossen Ozcan von Westen her nicht in
the Indians as a matter of fact have achieved quite a number of in-
}' rage komme. » dependent inventions, it seems at any rate probable that these
drums are American in origin. As long as we have no better evi-
FRrnDERICI does not, however, present any counter-evidence, dence of tbeir Oceanic origin we may as well accept NoRDENSKIÕLD's
but confines himself to showing that the Oceanic drums vary quite as conclusions.
much as the American ones. Among other things he points out We have, then, found that· a number of stroke idiophones
that the Uitoto drum placed at an angle corresponda to drums in occur in America. There are, firstly, plank drums with or with-
the New Hebrides and the Admirality Islands which are stuck into out pit resonators, and secondly flat roots and hollow logs,
the earth or placed vertically, and that the drums in Santa Marta either natural or artificially hollowed, the former evidently main-
which are hung in huts correspond to similar hanging drums in ly dance instrumenta, while the latter in South America are
Java and in the temple on Tobádi, Humboldt-Bai.1 ) With compa- ordinarily used as signal instruments. Besides these there are
risons of this Rort there is no difficulty in proving cultural connec- certain intermediate forms, i . e. such as have borrowed their
tions! According to FRIEDERICI (cit. FINSCH and TURNER) types ideas from the plank drums with pit resonators as well as
corrcsponding to the teponaztli exist in two places on the Hanse- from thc hollow log drums, for instance the Catuquinarú drum,
mann coast. How much these resemble a genuine teponaztli I can- the Uitoto xylophone, and the dyadiko. There are, in other
not decide since I have not seen the reproductions. The teponaztli words, two main groups with intermediate forma. Since the
described by FINSCH is a bamboo tube with only one tongue. SACHS, former usually are stamped, SACHS ([2], p. 39) considera them
moreover, mentions a Zungentrommel from Java. to be a sort of »organic projection » for the foot which stamps
On the whole I imagine it will not be possible to prove the Me- on the ground. This stamping he believes to be magic and for
lanesian origin of the American drums, and as a matter of fact I the purpose of driving away evil spirits.1 ) Severa! Indian tribes
cannot perceive why the Oceanic people in particular should be stamp on the ground during dances and it is not impossible that
superior to the Indians in inventive capacity. It is not, in fact, so the idea of stamping on plank drums has been derived from cer-
very peculiar that among the many varying drum types found in tain dance forros. Unfortunately I cannot discuss this interesting
hoth America and Oceania certain similarities should occur. It theme in detail, particularly as the material is much too scant.
is rather more strange that no absolute correlatives have been found, The similarity between South America and California, as
since they belong to the sarne system of instrumenta and since ideas regards drums which are stamped, is in truth very striking.
of such a simple kind might easily appear in more than one place. If this is an instance of a cultural connection the instrument
must be very old. Unfortunately we do not know the real
1
) As far as the Santa Marta drums are concerned it is obvioua from OvIEDO'S

text that they are m em b r a n e drums (see OvtEDO, II, p. 354). 1 ) SACHS, (2), p. 39, cit. F ALKNER.
28 K . VET. O. VJ'rrERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S . AMERICA 29

distribution of these drums in South America since they evi- How old a culture element such as the hollow log drum may
dently appear only at certain festivals and therefore are not be is, I suppose, impossible to determine. ln fact there are a
always observed by casual travellers. number of different types which have been invented at different
The advance from a plank to a hollow log is not so great , a times. As NoRDENSKIOLD h as pointed out, the instrument is for
fact wbich is shown in California where the plank drum wit h pit natural reasons confined to t he forested r egions and has therefore
resonator and t he hollow log drum ha ve the sarne function, which been checked in its process of distribut ion. F or t his reason it is
is also in a way true of the Uitoto (the xylophone) in South Ame- difficult to judge its relative age from the distribution. I should
rica . consider the original slit drum with two boles and a connecting
The use of hollow log drums I should t hink derives from the slit to b e the one which is common a mong Uitoto (fig. 2 e ) a nd
custom of signalling on flat roots or h ollow trees. It is quite possible in the Uaupés t erritory (fig. 3). The form with t he t ransverse
t hat t he development has been the one assumed by NoRDENSKIOLD tongues is probably a later development and the teponaztli the latest .
(p. 25). As I have said before (p. 19), there is a certain tendency Without doubt the drum-clubs with caoutchouc must be quite
in South America towards t he use of a sort of Z ungentrornmel an early invention, perhaps contemporary with t he Uitoto type,
with two transverse tongues. E ven in the most simple type the since they are used for the Sout h Americanas well as for t he Mexi-
large holes make of the »strike-board i>a sort of abbreviated tongues can hollow log drums.
(p on fig. 2 e). Very likely t he Indians soon noticed that when Slit drums do not occur in the West In<µes nor are t heir primi-
they struck t he »strike-boards » a fuller tone was caused through tive forms found south-east of Rio Amazonas. This may imply
their vibrations. If it is difficult to form a tongue on the t.ransverse that the r eal slit drum, is after all, a rather late invention.
of the wood it isso much easier to do it longitudinally, and through
this discovery t he teponaztli was invented. An instrument of this
type has probably quite easily su cceeded in ou sting inferior types,
particularly if, in Mexico and Central America, it was not originally Sirnple hollow log drum
used for signalling . With NoRDENSKIOLD I therefore think it poss-
ible t hat the teponaztli has forced ou t other instruments and become T r ibe Autbor (Collection) and Function
standar dized.
I t is only n atural that an instrument such as the hollow log
Auetõ MAX ScmnoT, (4], p . 84: •In der Mitte des I nnenraumes be·
drum is easily associat ed with magic ideas in cert ain tribes, so t hat fand sich am Boden ein dickor, etwa 6 m . langer, ausge-
it is for inst ance said to represent the voice of a forefather or a de- hõhlter Baumstamm, der m it einem grossen H olzklotz, einer
mon, or to be useful to frighten away evil spirits. Or it may, grossen Trommel gleich , geschlagen wirt, um bei wichtigen
as in Mexico, simply have the function of a rythmic instrument. Angelegenheiten die mãnnliche Auetõbevõlkerung schnell zu-
These are, however, secondary phenomena, possibly associated with sammenrufen. •
Bakairi K. v . D. STEINEN, [2), p . 326: •I m dritten Bakairidorf und bei
ideas about sound or with the use of other instruments similar in de n K a mayurá wurde a is P au ke ein hoh le Baum, der auf
K a mayurá
tone which the tribes have formerly u sed. ln its turn the identüi- Erde lag, benutzt. •
cation of t he instrument with the voice of a supernatural being is Ararandeüra or L ANGE, p. 219: Cf. pi. facing p. 221.
likely to have given rise to the anthropomorphic drums, and perhaps Man ájé
also, in connection with certain myths and social ideas, the use of Chocó (Nonamá) GM: 27.27.465.
Cuna WAFER, P· 25.
drum pairs. No doubt the ºIndians have also at an early stage BARETT, (2), p. 234.
Pom o
observed the differences in tone which arise by pounding the in- L oEB, p. 188.
strument in different places and have known how to make use of Ma idu DrxoN, (3), p . 221.
this fact in signalling. \ \7 int un BARETT, (3), p. 448.
30 K. VET. O . VITTERH. SA.MH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 31

Slit drums
Tribe Author (Collection) and Function

Tribe Author (Collection ) and }'unctjon

que tcndrá cinco baras ele largo, que sirvo de bajo; los de.
mas \"an minorando hasta hacer como un coro ó juego de
F1uEDERIC!, p. 359, cit. XAVARETE: tEstos tenían allí un atabe.I
quatro ó seis tambores, que los tocan á la par juntos, y en
que hacia una ,·oz ronca, y uno dellos de rato e n rato daba
e llos hacen ' 'a.rios sonidos á compás, con armonia. que re-
l'ie rtos golpes en e l a 1abal á me.nora de duelo. •
tumba y suena mucho. •
Cumanagotes FnrEDERIC!, p. 359, cit. LAS CASAS: •diversos instrumentos, en Omagua HERIARTE, p. 56: •Os instrumentos com que fazem suas festas,
Chiribichi especial unos a.tabales de un madero, hacióndolo hueco y <'On (Ca.mbebas) sacrifícios e bailes, a que são muy inclinados, são trombetas
<'iertos aguje ros. •
de tristissimo som, feitas ele tabocaa, que sao humas canas
Cumanh Ru1z BLANCO, PP· 65-6. grossas ocas por dentro, o huns tambores de pau cavado por
Paria. LoVÉN, p. 00, cit. L AS CASAS. dentro, por sor o buraco p equeno, e com uns páos cobertos
Paez PITTIER DE FABREOA, p . 325. de resina os tocão como atabales, que se ouvem muito longe. •
Cara. Indians, VELASCO, I , p. 208: •La. una es, la. fabrica. de esos mismos tam- Bora. (Boro) WHIFFE"N, p. 2 14: •Tn fact, the m ost remarka.ble of a li t he na-
O tavalo bores de guerra. que se oian e n una. increible d istancia. Per- tive instrumenta is t he manyuare or signal drum. Although
ma.necen hasta hoy dos de e llos e n el pueblo de Tusa, dondo the primary use of this drum is to s ignal, it is utilised on
los he visto; uno ya dariado que sirve de guardar cantidad great occasions as an addition to the aboriginal orchestra.
de trigQ, y el otro todavia entero. Es cada uno de una sola To make this importa.nt adjunct of the maloka two bloc ks
pieza do madera fortlsima, grueso mas de cinco palmos de of hard wood are chosen , some six feet in length, and a bout
d iametro, largo ai doble, con sue dos orejas para colga.rse ai twenty-four inches in dia.meter . These blocks are very ca.re·
aire. Es tan igual, y perfectamento cóncavo, con solas dos fully hollowed out by mea.ns of heated stones that are intro-
abertures estrechas y retorcidas como de \"iolin, por las cuales duced through a narrow longitudinal s lit, a.nd char t he in-
no pueden e ntrar ni los dedos. Con qué arte é instrumentos terior. Insteacl of endeavoring, however, as would be the
hayan podido fabricarlos, no hay quien pueda enterderlo. caso with an ordinary drnm, to contrive as nearly perfect a
E l mayor de todos los tambores de i R eino, a i doble de los cylinder as possible, the object of the signal-drum maker is
dos descritos, lo tenian colocado en la. llanura de la. pro,·incia to obtain a husk of va.rying thicknesses, so as to secure dif-
de Otavalo, lia.macia hoy tontaqui, por corrupcion, ha- ferences in note. Accordingly, with his rude implements, hot
biendo sido llatun-taqui , que quiero decir el gra.n tam- stones, capybara-tooth bore r, and stone axe, he fashions the
bor de guerra. Era. aquella. la plaza principal de armas, interior of the drum in such a manne r that the outer s hell,
donde se retiro el ú ltimo Scyri, y donde ga.n6, la batalla de- tbe sounding-board, varies in thickness from half an inch to
cisiva. dei Reino el Inca. Huaynacapac. • four inches. Two blocks a re usod; the smalle r is called the
Gonzalez Suarez, I , p. 91. male, and the largar t ho female. T he e nds are s imply the
Jivaro GM: 20.7.76. wood of the tree wbich is n ot remo,·ecl, ali tbe hollowing
RIVET, ( 1), p. 39; FARABEE, p. 123; TESSMANN, ( l ) p. 356. being accomplishecl by means of the grooved slit. " 'hen
Uitoto PREUSS, [3), pp. 8 seq., pi. I, fig. l ; FARABEE, p. 147; TESS· finished these are suspended by withes at an oblique angle,
)f.A1'"N, [ l ], p. 321. one end much hig her than the other - say six feet and
Indians of CARVAJAL, p. II: •AI cabo de dos leguas que habíamos ido e l three feet reepecti,·ely from the ground. They hang from
Rio Napo rio abajo vimos venír por e! rio arriba. cuatro ~anoas llenas the raftere of the m2loka, or from a.n upright frame, a.nd
de índios y requerír la tierra, y como nos neron, dan la present the appcarance of two barreis surmounted by a nar·
1
vuelta. á gran p riesa, dando arma en tal manera que en menos row slit. •
de un cuarto de h ora. olmos en los pueblos muchos e.tam- JIMENEZ SEMINARIO, p. 183.
bores que apellidaban la tierra., porque se oyen de muy le- TESSMANN, (1), p. 273.
jos... • Mirat1a. SPIX and :MARTIUS, III, pp. 1248-9: tSchon am Tage nach un·
Cocnma FmuEROA, p. 101: •Hicieron la sefíal de paz con sus tambores serer Ankunft erschienen mehrere Miranhaa aus deu Wãldem,
que son unos maderos gruessos y guecos por dentro, socaba.· h ergcrufen durch die Holzpauken (7'rocano), welche sogleich
cios con fuego, no todos de un tamano, sino el uno roayor, geschlagen worden waren. Es s.ind diess n ã hmlich grosse,
32 K. VET. O . VITTERH. SAMH. H AND L. SER. A. BAND õ. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSIOAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 33

Tribo Author (Collection) and }'unction Tribo Autho r (Collection) anel Function

ausgehõhlte, oben mit einer gekerbten Lãngsõffnung versehene, los extremos con tablas delgadas, es de tres ó cuatro varas
auf einige Balken liegende Holzblõ<:ke, welche, wenn mit de largo y tres c uartas de diámetro, le cuelgan tendido y
hõlzernen, bis weilen an einem Ende mit einem Knopfe \·on levantado dei suelo como una torcia y entre dos aberturas
elastischem Cummi versehene n, Knüppcln gcschlagen, einen como las de la caja de un \'iolin, pero proporcionadas á
dumpfon, weitin schallenden Ton von sich geben. Wir fanden .
aquella vaten con dos mazos de resina elástica y su sonido
dieses Jnstrument zwar n icht so ausgebildet ais es Gumilla se oye á tres ó cuatro leguas de e lla, pero no le llevan a
(rc, Cap. 36, § 2) bei den Gaverrea beschreibt, cloch war unsere campatia, y solo sirvo para llamar la gente dei pueblo que
Mimnha~ üboreingeko mmen, ihron Nachbarn durch verschie- .
está en la semeutora con toque diferente segun el porqué 6
dene Schlage darau f Signale von A liem zu gebon, was sie paraqué y en el acto defensa dei pueblo. »
interessiren konnte. K aum war im Hafen unsere Ank unft Tariámi K oCR·GRÜNBERO, [31, r, p. 276; II, PP· 53, 291, 303.
gemeldet , so erklang aus der l<'erne, von jenseits des F lusses Tnká11o
derselbe Ton, und der Tubixava versichorte mich, dass in Makúna SPitl:Ct:, II, p. 426.
einer Stunde alie Mallocas der befroundoten Miranlias von O pai na
unserer Gegen'.vart unterrichtet seyn würdon. ln den ersten
Tagen. da das I nteresse für uns noch ganz neu war, konnten
Yukúna
Piratapujos
•
1PAYER, P· 481.
wir nichts unternehmen, ohne dass es durcb den seltsamen Aniaiía anel
Tontelegrapben weiter verkündet worden wãre. Bald ertõntej Yucuná RIBEIRO DE SAllPATO, PP· 77-8.
es: tder ' Veisse isst, t bald twir tanzen mit den \Veissen t Arauaki BETE.lWORF, p. 494.
und in der Nacht ward angekündigt class wir uns schlafen Colinl\ MusEGM GoELDI (Pará). lnformation by XIMCEKDA.rú.
legten. •
WHIFFEN, p. 214.
Okaina DE WAVRIN, (1).
TESSMAN, (1), p. 552. e. Rattling ldiophones.
Kapanahua TESSlllAN, ílJ, p. 157.
l\Iuino.ne TESSMAN, (1), p. 333.
J i n g l e R a t t l e s.
Mt<yuru11t< Op. cie., p . 374 .
Jingle rattles consist of a number of sonorous objects, loosely
Jcbcro Op. cit., p . 429 .
Andoko ? Op. cit., pi. 85, 95.
attached together soas to clash together when shaken (B ALFOUR [1],
Romo ? Op. cit., p. 581. p . 3). These sonorous objects may consist of a great number of
CM·orro OuMrLLA, II, pp. ll 7-31: tEn las casas de los Caciques, en los different materiais, such as hoofs, fruit shells, conch, bits of reed
mas desembarazado de alias, hay tres paios, n i mas, ni menos and bone, metal bells, etc., and are fastened along some sort of
que una borca: dei atra,·esa1io de encima, con dos bejUC<Js de band, a string, etc., or in clusters. Thus attached together they
'
à quatro, ó seis brazadas cada uno, està colgado el tambor
por las dos extremidadas, distante una media vara dei suelo.
form an instrument which may be either fastened directly upon the
La caxa es un paio hueco de un dedo de casco, tan gruesso, 1 body or a staff or are simply held in the hand. Sometimes the indivi-
que dos hombres apenas le podràn abarcar, y tres varas de dual objects are placed directly upon the clothing or in the hair. ln
largo, poco mas, ó menos: la troza cs enteriza por todo el moving t he body or that part of it upon \Yhich the instrument is
circuito, y vaciada por las extremidades de cabo à. cabo à fastened, for instance at a dance, the individual objects beat against
fuerza de fuego, y agua. t See also p. 22, notes 1 and 2, and
one another whereby a rattling sound ensues.
fig. 5.
Girara RIVERO, p. 115. The jingle rattle is a very common instrument in many parts
Cuypuno.vi SoLANO, p. 278: tTiene n en e l cuartel la provision de armas y of the world. The invention is easily made - t he step from a neck -
u n a caja de guerra hecha de un t ronco de cierto arbol, c uyo lace, for instance, to a jingle rattle is not great. ln this connection
corazon es b ianda y s u camisa d ura, lo vacian y luego ciorran we are, however , concerned only with those specimens about which
3
34 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AME RICA 35
we know with certainty that they function as sound instruments. Kamakan and adjacent tribes. The Canellas also have a sort of
ln South America the jingle rattle is very common in Chaco and rattles made of hoofs but apparently these do not function pri-
tbe Amazon territory, but it is not found, for instance, in Tierra del marily as sound instruments. They appear on a number of differ-
Fuego and is hardly used in our times by the Indians living in the ent ceremonial objects which these Indians use at their initiation
Andes although it occurred there in prehistoric times, as I shall ceremonies, such as ceremonial clubs, drinking calabashes, combs,
presently show. etc., each one characteristic of the different societies. ln the
ln my treatment of the jingle rattle I have chosen the material neighbouring tribe, the Apinayé, the rattle appears to be a real
of which it is made as a basis for classification, whereupon I investi- sound instrument.
gate thc use and distribution of the rattles within each group Outside of this connected territory, t he hoof rattle also occurs
of materials. Then I proceed to compare the various methods of in a few places in the rest of South A.merica, especially in the peri-
fostening together the loose parts of the rattles and the manner in phery of the Amazon territory,
which they are worn. ln the first place we shaU accordingly con- among the Uitoto, Yamamadi,
sider the following groups of materials: 1) h o o f s; 2) í r u i t and Tikuna, as well as among
s h e 11 s; 3) e o n e h, b o n e, w o o d, e te. ; 4) meta 1. the Carib tribes of the Roroima
territory. Unlike the afore-
J i n g l e r a t t l e s o f h o o f s. named Chaco and Ges tribi·e
The distribution in South America (see table p. 60) is chiefly these latter are mainly agricul-
concentrated in Chaco, stretching from this territory through that turalists; but the tribes in the
of the Bororó to north-eastem Brazil, and eastwards as far as the Roroima territory as well as
the Yamamadi represent quite
an ancient culture.
This distribution indicates :Fig. 8. Jingle rattle of hoofa from Tepo-
that in South America the huane, Mexico. RM: 01.9.4.
hoof rattle is a very old -culture
element, ~hich probably originated with a non-agricultural people.
This is also confirmed by its distribution north of South America.
To refind this instrument we must go as far north as the Aztecs.
From then on it occurs more or less continuously in western
l\fexico, the provinces of Sinaloa and Sonora, and as far north
b as tbe Luiseiío lndians in California. It is also found in Grand
Gulch, the Pueblo territory (GODDARD (1), p. 51). In central
California it is missing but reappears in northern California,
where it is found a~ far north as Wishram and 'Vasco on the
Colombia River. In central California where the clapper rattle, ac-
a cording to KROEBER ((1), pp. 262, 283), was more common, it is
possible that the latter instrument has forced out the hoof rattle.
Fig. 7. Jinglo rattl<'s of hoofs. The clapper rattle is an isolated phenomenon which in the whole
a. = Ashlusblay, R:\[: B. 298; 1/0 of America appears only in Calüornia. According to Lowrn ([ 1],
b = Mataco, RM: M. 241. 1 / 3 the hoof rattle is much used by the Plains tribes. WILSON (p.
e = Apinayó, OM: 31.40.363 a. 2/
0 e 563) portrays a rattle of caribou hoofs from the E skimos at the Me
 IZIKOW'ITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 01'' S . AMERICA 37
36 K. VET. O. VITI'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1

Kenzie River. As I bave not found tbis instrument among otber T h e u s e o f t h e h o o f r a t t l e.

E skimo t ribes I questioned tbe well-known authority on Eskimo Among the Choroti Indians in Chaco the jingle rattle is used
culture, Dr. BrnKET-SMITH in Copenhagen , on t his point, and he at certain ceremonies which are celebrated on the occasion of a
informed me t hat he had not found it aruong the E skimos either girl's first menstruation. KARSTEN ((2], p. 83) gives an excellent
and that he was not quite certain wbether \V1LSON's ra.ttle really account of these ceremonies:
*Among the Choroti the puberty of girls is celebrated with
a magicai dance called K á u s i m a after the instrument which
th e women use for it; the instrumcnt is called k á h ui s. Tho
k á hui s is a dancing-staff, two or three m eters in length ,
ma.de of a light kind of wood or bamboo, which h as a bunch of
deer's hoofs tied at the top. Theso rattles produco a hollow
sotmd when the staff is struck on the ground and are supposed
to possess a mysterious power to influonce the spirits. This
power of course must b o explained from the fa.ct that to tho
Choroti the deer is a d emonial animal. The k á h u i s staff is
the only magicai instrument used by the Cboroti women and it
is n ever handled by m en.
The dance begins at the first n ew m oon after the appca-
rance of the signs of puberty, because the moon is b elieved to
cause and h ave great influence upon the menstruation of women.
It is perfonned every day until following new moon, sometimes
even still longer. At a K á u s i ma dance which I witnessed
the arrangemcnt was as follows. Tho mother of the girl and
some elderly womon fonned a circle, or rather an elliptic ring,
outside t.he hut whcro t he girl was, cach holding h er rattling
staff. Close to tho ring four m edicine -men were sitting at equal
distances from one anoth er, holding their rattle gourds (p e 1 i t e).
Thero wer e b esides two more mcdicine-m en standing up , cach
provided with a drum. During the dance the women moved
round ceremoniously with slow, r egular steps, chanting loudly
and marking timo with their rattle staffs which they struck on
F ig. 9. Detail of fig. 8. ~~.
the ground. Tho m en outside t h e ring also chanted, sh aking
their r attlo gourds, whilst the m on provided with drums beat
them. The girl in whose h onour the dance was h eld was st anding
deri ved from tbis people. As a matter of fact very little is known motionless and silent against the wall and h ad to remain so
during the wbole ceromony - - - •
about the McKenzie E skimos. At the sarne time he informed me
that jinglers (ivory clappers) were found only among tbe western A number of other ceremonies also take place which, however,
Eskimos and were undoubtedly due to Indian influence. ln Alaska, do not interest us in this connection. As a. matter of fact they a.re
furtbermo re, for instance on King I sland, a kind of jingle mittens not a.lways included, »but the K á u s im a. dance is always obliga-
covcrcd with the beaks of sea-parrots are used at the wolf-dance. tory », (KARSTEN, ((2), p. 86); that is, it suffices to dance with
ln southern Alaska, i. e. on Kodiak, a sol't of jingle rattles was the rattling staffs without the accompaniment of other male instru-
known which consisted of a pair of concentric rings completely ments. »The object of all t hese ceremonies is to protect the girl
studded with beaks of sea-parrots.1 ) against the evil spirits, the mo h se k, by which she is believed to
1 ) LANOSDORF,
be particularly attacked during her unclean condition l>, KARSTEN
II, pl. li, fig. 3.
38 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 39
(op. cit., p. 84) says or, expressed in other words, »to harden her case of the Apina.yé ohild's bea.ring-band, the hoofs are not designed
against evil spirits » (op. cit., p. 83). as sound instruments but probably act as a sort of amulets which
We find exactly the sarne customs among the Ashlushlay ln- have something to do with the child that is being carried and with
dians, a tribe adjoining the Choroti, and culturally closely related the young Canellas about to be initiated.
to them (KARSTEN, op. cit., p. 86). The Lengua also use this staff The tribes in the Roroima territory use rattles made either of
with a deer-hoof rattle inadance atthe Yanniena ceremony, thefeast deer hoofs or of Thevetia frnits . Apparently hoof rattles are more
which is celebrated at »the coming of age of a girl (GRUBB, p. 177). » uncommon. The Makushi bind their hoof rattles on the middle of
This dance agrees in many details with the one described above from a stamping tube used in the murü'a dance (v. HoRNBOSTEL, [5), p .
the Choroti but the remaining ceremonies are different. MrsTERS 398). KocH-GRüNBERG gives a very good description of the dan-
(p. 81)1 ) mentions something similar from the Patagonians: during cing festivals at which such rattles are used. These festiva.Is are not
a feast held in honour of a girl at the attainment of puberty, confined to any special season but usually take place in the dry
the sorcerers performed a dance at which they not only appeared season when no flood prevente the guests from coming. ln the
painted and adorned with plumes, but also with »a girdle of bells opinion of KocH-GRÜNBERG they have no r eligious function, but:
extend:iJig from the shoulders to the hip3, which jingled intime to tSie dienen dazu, nachbarliche Beziehungen mit Stamm-
their steps. » Whether the bells were ma.de of deer hoofs we are not verwandten oder auch Angeh õrigen anderer Stãmme zu p flegen,
informed, but the instrument is at any rate of interest in this con- alte Freundschaften zu erneuern, n eue anzuknüpfen. Die ural-
ten Gesangetexte werden durch sie von Generat ion zu Generation
nection. weitergetragen. Sie bieten aber auch Gelegenheit zum Austausch
The Italian painter, BoGGIANI, who during a rather long period von Neuigkeiten, zu allerhand Klatsch, zu Flirt und ernsthaften
t ravelled in Chaco, mentions that once during a visit among the Liebeshãndeln der jungen Leute und endlich zu lebhaften
Chamacoco lndians he observed a woman shaking a hoof rattle Tauschhandel vor dem Auseinandcrgehen. •
over her son who had just died (BOGGIANI, [l), p. 47). They are evidently social events most nearly resembling fairs.
Continuing to the Kayapó we are told by PORL (1, p. 401) that At these festiva.Is certain dances are executed which obviously have
t hese lndians u se hoof rattles at a nightly dance around a big fire. • some religious purport. It is at these parischerá - and muru'á -
U nfortunately we lrnvo no furthcr information about this dance. dances that the hoof rattles on stamping tubes are used. The dan-
According to a verbal report by·Dr. SNETHLAGE, who has lived ces and dance songs of all Roroima tribes are closely associated
for some time among the Apinayé Indiana, the men dance with with their myths and legenda and r efer to them (KocH-GRüNBERG,
staffs on which a hoof rattle is fastened. In the collections at the [4), III p. 159):
Gothenburg museum accumulated by Mr. CuRT NIMUENDAJÚ there *So bezieht sich der Parisch erá auf eine lange mãrchenhafte
are rattles which were used by a young boy and worn at the instep. Erzãhlung, in der zauberkrãftige J agd- und Fischereigerãte
l t is interesting that a child's bearing-band from this tribe is fur- cine Rolle spielen, die ein Zauberartzt von den Tieren bekommt,
nished with clusters of deer hoofs. um sie schliesslich durch Schuld bõswilliger Verwandten wieder
F rom the Canella Indiana SNETHLAGE2 ) reporta skilled dancers an die Jagdtiere zu verlieren , deren Vortãnzer er dann wird.
1
Die Gesãnge, die den Tanz Tukúi begleiten, erzãhlen von ein em
who wore hoof rattles fastened at the insteps. NIMUENDAJú's Ca- Zauberarzte, der n ach mancherlei Abenteuer der Kriegshãuptling
nella collection at the Gothenburg museum, collected at a certain und Vortãnzer der Fische wird. Wie der Tukúi der Tanz a.iler
stage of the extremely interesting and complicated initiation cere- Fische und auch allcr Võgel ist, deren Stimmen offenbar dio
monies which in this tribe take place during a succession of years, kleinen Pfeifen der Tãnzer n achahmen sollen , so ist der Pari-
contains, as 1 have already mentioned, a number of ceremonial ob- sch erá d er Tanz aller Jagdtiere unter den Vierfüsslern, besonders
der Wildschweine. Die lange K otte der Tãnzer, die unter der
jects which are covered with deer hoofs. ln this instance, as in the dumpfen Musik der H olztrompet en ankomrnen, stellt die
1) K .rnSTEN, [l ], p. 127, cit. MusTERS. unter . dumpfen Grunzen dahinziehende Rotte der Wild -
2
) $NETHLAOE, (1), p . 178. J schweine dar. Urspr ün glich sind a lio diese Tãnze Zaubermittel,
1
'
40 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 6. ~:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTBUMENTS OF S . A."\IERICA 41

um reiche Beute bei J agd und Fischfa.ng zu e rla ngen. Darauf has any connection with the above-cited use among the Chama-
d eutct a.uch folgendcs Erlebnis: \Vãhrcnd unserer R eisc a.uf coco (p. 00) I dare not say.
Uraricuéra sa.h mein Taulipáng JIIayuluaipu eines Nachts im
Among the Plains Indiana the hoof rattle is used in con-
Traum viele Leuto, die den Parischerá. tanzten. Er glaubte fest
da.ran, dass wir am andercn Tag vVildschwe ine treffen würden, nection with the ceremonies of tbe Dog society. It would be an
was lcider nich t der Fall war. • exceptionally interesting task to examine how the function of the
hoof rattle among these tribes may resemble its use at the ini-
ln comparing the use of the hoof rattle in Chaco with that of tiation ceremonies for girls in nortbern California. Unfortunately I
California we find to our surprise many points of agreement have not sufficient knowledge of the North American material to
with the northcrn parts of California - a fact which NORDES- enable me to analyse this problem. It would be of great value if
SKlOLD has already pointed out. 1 ) This is true not only of the hoof an expert upon North American cultures were to solve it.1 )
rattle and its function but also of several other culture elements. 'l'he use of the hoof rattle among the 'Aztecs may be considered
A cultural connection between Chaco and California - however an important link between northern California and Chaco. SAHA-
this may be explained - is without doubt a fact which cannot be GUN2) mentions that these people tied deer-hoof rattles around the
denied.2) · left foot at the U ei Tecuilhuitl feast, »das grosse Herrenfest », when
ln his excellent book about the Klamath Indians SPIER ([1], p. the X ilone, the first young maize cobs, were offered. For twenty
89) writes: »The deer-hoof rattle (so'ktsoks) is probably the only one days they sang and danced »nach Weiberarh, as is to be read in the
of the three Klamath ra ttles that is of any antiquity among them. text. PREUSS ([2], p. LXI) explains that »die Weiblichen Maisgott-
I t is used exclusively in the girl's adolescence rites. The Klamath heiten, die jugendliche Xilonen (von Xilotl »junger Maiskolben») und
form is a slender pole four to seven feet long with a cord along Ohicome coaae (sieben Schlange) stehen in einem nebengeordneten
t he upper third to which bunches of deer dew claws are tied at in- Verhaltnisse zur l\fondgõttin, indem Xilonen als Madchen von zw?lf
tervals. The butt is pounded on the ground to jar the hooflets ». Jahren vorgestellt wurden» (PREUSS, [1], p . 136). Here we have ob-
H e writes further: »ln Oregon and nortbern California there was a viously to do with some sort of puberty ceremonies: 12 years or
dance in which the girl participated each night of her period of more is supposedly just the age at which an Indian girl reaches the
seclusion. - - - Two dance forms occured together; a circling age of puberty. Also we should remtimber that the Aztecs are a
ring and a line abreast trotting to and fro. Their accompaniment people that have come wandering from the north. Presumably they
was the deer hoof rattle» ([1], p. 318). have brought the deer-hoof rattle with them from there. Like the
In Chaco the dance forro is a round dance3 ) but they also people in California and certain tribes in the Southwest, they were
dance· »with slow regular steps backwards and forwards » (KARSTES almost certainly not agriculturalists but in changing their economic
[1 l, p. 86). I bave also seen this dance with the sarne steps on a basis they have also changed their religion to suit their new living
Chaco film from Ashlusblay some years ago. Whether this type of conditions and thus identified the young maize cobs3 ) with young
dance is old and has any connection with tbe Californian dances is girls in the age of puberty. Likewise, the old initiation dance, in-
impossible to say, since the material is too scant and no investiga- stead of being danced by the women, has been transferred to the
tion has been made of dance forma in South America. men, who, however, still dance »nach Weiberart», in the fashion of
ln southern CaÍifornia the use of the hoof rattle seems to be women. ln spite of diligent but perhaps insufficient search I have
altogether different. Here it is usually the shaman's tool, and is not found any such ceremonies among the l\Iayas.
also used at mourning ceremonies. 4 ) Whether this latter function
1) Cf. Lowrn, [1] .
') NoRDENSKIÕLD, [10), p. 90. 2) SAHAG~, p. 146. .
2) See NonDENSKIÕLD, [ 10) . MÉTRAUX, [6]. !ZIKOWITZ, [2]. •) Identification of grain with human be ings is a. very common phenomenon m
3) According to picturo on p. 182 and the frontispiece in Gnuno. many parts of the wor.ld. Cf., for instance, the ballad about J o h n B a r 1 e Y e o r n
4) See table. in England, et.c.
42 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 43

From what has been said it appears that the function of the stork.1 ) The word for baby in Cuna is k9e and to give birth ~ek9e, that
hoof rattle is pretty much the sarne among the lndians in Chaco is, to catch the dee.r (kge). One might here object thatthe Cuna have
and northern California and the Aztecs, and that this function was no deer-hoof rattle, and that we do not know whether they have ever
associated with adolescence rites for girls. Further, it seems to had any. On the other hand we should remember that they may
me that, judging from the distribution, the hoof rattle must be well have had them in ancient times and that they have later be-
a very old sound instrument, without doubt older than the come extinct. But it is also possible that peoples who do not have
agricultura! cultures, since it largely occurs among hunting and the deer hoof rattle may have this conception. The Cunas are, after
collecting peoples. The animal which usually furnishes the hoofs . all, lndians, and have many culture elements in common with other
is the deer. This ·is always the case in North America and is tribes, which fact may permit a comparison in this case. Another
most usual in South America, although it has there been sub- matter would be to compare and explain one fact in America by
stituted also by the hoofs of other animals, such as the tapir, etc. another fact in Africa. Another, similar, record is to be had from
(cf. the table). Eastern Bororó. Their deer-hoof rattles, which are used at certain
If it were so that the use of the hoof rattle at the girls' puberty dances - the names of which are not given - are called buttori.
ceremonies were the original one, it might be asked how it has later Very likely this has some connection with the word buttu = to give
acquired another function and been used also by men. Among the birth; -ri is a common suffix in Bororó. But at the sarne time
Ges people it is obviously still used at initiation cerenionies but ÜOLBACCHINI2 ), who is our source of information, says that butto
evidently for boys as well as for girls, _a nd also as a tool. Whether means »to set » in connection with the sun and the moon, which to
its use in the Dog society is the original one 1 cannot say. On the judge from his text would seem to be the primary meaning.
'""hole it is almost impossible to follow functional changes from Among several South American tribes the deer is considered a
<me society to another, especially concerning such extremely ancient feminine animal. A myth from Toba tells about a great world fire
cultural objects as the one in question. However, it would be of from which the Tobas saved themselves by escaping into a large
great importance to find out which ideas and beliefs lie behind the excavation. When they were about to leave the pit, a sorcerer told
use of the deer hoof rattle. We might possibly then find that an them that they must cover their eyes with a cloth; if any of
investigation of the beliefs centered around the deer would contribute them failed to do this he would be changed into an animal. If, for
to the solution of this problem.
On reading South American myths one cannot help noticing the
important role played by the deer in the imaginative world of the
Indian. Nor is this strange. The deer, of which there are several
r instance, a young Toba woman neglected to do so she would be
changed into a deer. »The idea that the deer - like the guanaco
among the Fuegians - is a f emale animal is found among several
tribes in different parts of South America» (K.ARSTEN, [1], p. 272).
species in the New World, without doubt played quite an important NORDENSKIOLD points out that the deer and the hind play im-
role in the hunt, at least in certain parts of North America and portant roles in the Indian love myths.3 ) The Jivaros look upon
Mexico. An investigation of this sort would, however, take me en- the deer as one of the most dreaded demons known. The souls of
tirely too far away from my original subject and 1 must therefore women are believed to reincarnate in this timid animal which, in
confine. myself to a few examples. What 1 really need in this con- 1 ) Without doubt Puritan influence is to be detected here. Scotch colonista
nection is a myth giving a direct explanation of the association lived among the Cunas for some t ime.
between the deer's hoofs and the girls' first menstruation. Unfortu- 2) CoLBACCfilNI, pt. V, p. 187: *I verbi ruttu salire' e buttu 'discendere', 'cadere'
na,tely 1 have found none of this kind. qui, cssendo attributi ai Sole e alia Luna, significano sorgere e tramontare', ma non
s i sa come applicarei a un pesce e a un ucelle; buttu significa anche 'naacere' (il
Most interesting among my examples is unquestionably the one
bambino cade), forse perché la donna partorisce stando in piedi, appoggiata a un
from the Cuna. The Cuna children are not allowed to have any albero. » Possibly there is some other explanation, perhaps a mythological connection
knowledge of natural birth; therefore, when a child is born, they with the sun.
say that a deer has brought it, precisely as we speak of the 3) For instance. the Maropa-Aymara Indians and Tumupasa, [2] p . 277- 8, 479.
 44 K. VET. O. VITI'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. Sl!:R. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ , MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 45

its noiseless movements and the mysterious rapidity with which it tive study of the mythical brothers GurSINDE ([l] p. 693) observes
disappears in the forest , easily suggests to the Indian mind tbe idea t hat among the Selknam they are thought of as being descended from
of a ghost. The Jibaros therefore never eat the flesh of the deer, the sun. One of the brothers is said to be the inventor of menstrua-
believing that if they do they will certainly die. » (KARSTEN, [ 1), tion and death. Before this invention was made huma n beings
p. 285.) could renew themselves. The other brother is not associated with
A taboo against the eating of deer meat is also common among the sun or moon but finally became the constellation Orion. The
other tribes in South America, for instance the Choroti, who also Yamana have a similar myth although here it is the younger brother
look upon the deer as an evil spirit. Among certain tribes in North who invented menstruation and death. The brothers both became
America there is a custom that the women during their period of stars. They are also said to be the inventors of fire. Even though
mcnstruation are not permitted to taste deer meat. This occurs for these myths might possibly be regarded as later contributions to
instance among the Seri, in southern and central California, among the imaginative world of these Fuegian tribes, they must never-
the Walapai (KROEBER, [3], p. 43), and among the Huchnom (SPIER, theless be very old, since they have found their way as far south as
[ l J, p. 316). Tierra del Fuego. Evidently the guanaco here takes the place of
The Cora in l\fexico believe the evening star, »our younger the deer, since this latter animal does not exist in these regiona. To
brother», to be a deer. But even the older brother, the mor- ' be sure, the brothers are not identified with guanacos or deers,
ning star, may be a deer, as, for that matter, all the stars. To the but suggestions to the effect that one brother carried along with
H uichol Indians »Urgrossvater Hirschschwanz » is a fire god pre- him the guanaco and also discovered menstruation and death shows
cisely as it was to the old Aztecs (PREUSS, [2], p . XXXIV). The that he was associated with life. For the Selknam the guanaco,
Aztccs also thought of the fire goddess as a two-headed deer. like the deer for other hunting peoples, meant life and death. It is
An interesting detail is the Cora word for morning star. It is undoubtedly a hunting people's age-old conceptions we have here
namely sometimes called nttiwalcan, as are the young corn cobs. come into contact with, and it is quite possible that these concep-
This word really means »der Geborene » (the born) and is used of tions in some 'Way or other are bound up with one another. With-
chil<lrcn as opposed to grown-ups. To be born (»geboren werden»), '1 •I out doubt they consist of a number of different motifs and ideas
when it concerns human beings, is called nuiwa, a word which is which have been combined in various ·ways. Most likely the deer
also used about sautari, the evening-star deer. Nuiwan is tbe place 1
is the symbol of the new life and with this is associated mcnstrua-
»wo Kinder gemacht werden » and in tbat place man exists together tion, which is a sign that the time has come when a woman is ma-
with the morning star (p. XLI) . This is in a way a parallel to the ture and able to bring forth new life. It is also the deer as the symbol
Cuna's k t]e. Obviously, in both cases the deer is associated with of new life which escapes from a destructive world-fire and deluge.
certain astral conceptions and with birth. ln certain parts of California and north-western l\Iexico rattles
PREUSS considers the morning star to be some sort of god of of cocoons are used in precisely the sarne way as deer-hoof rattles.
vegetation, but it is also looked upon as »Klauen der Hirsche. » Deer ls it not possible that the cocoon also in this case is a sort of sym-
hoofs are used as an »ornamentation » on the quiver of Hatsikan, bol of the new life which it contains in the pupa?
»the older brother » of the Huichol Indians. The reason for this We find then that the deer in some way has a mythical rela-
PREU s does not know ([2], p. LXVII). tion to birth and the new life, although to explain the origin of this
Evidently in Mexico we have to do with a mythical pair of relation is impossible for me with my insufficient material. Know-
brothers in the morning and the evening star. These brotbers ing this it is not unreasonable to suppose that similar conceptions
reappear in the lore of a number of tribes in America (EHRENREICH, lie behind tbe use of deer hoofs at menstruation ceremonies, etc.
[3], p. 44 sq). The Bororó, for instance, have the idea that they are Another question is then why just the hoofs are used. ln an-
descendants of a man and a deer who saved themselves from the swer to this I wish to point out at once that occasionally other parts
deluge (cf. the world fire of tbe Tobas, p. 43). ln a small compara- of the deer are used, although this is more unusual - as, for in-
1 r
 l

46 K. VET. O. VITI'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BA.ND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRlJMENTS OF S. AMERICA 47
stance, inflated deers' eyes which contain a small pebble, among reed fastened along a leather band which from the belt hangs down
the Havasupai (SPIER, (2], p. 187) and deer skulls among the Guarani the back or across the back of the runner. The magic sound of
(TECHO, III, p. 17), but unfortunately we have no specific infor- these rattles prevents them from going to sleep during the race,
mation about the use of these rattles. they say, and furthermore the animal heads invest them with the
\'Ve should remember that hoofs, claws, a.nd the like are of ma- speed of the deer. » I should imagine that this object is in the first
gic import among Indiana (KARsTEN, (1), p. 122). They are often hand an amulet and the animal heads are likely to be those of a
worn as amulets for different purposes. M:ost likely the bunches fleet deer. If so, the sound is a secondary matter. For the sake of
of deer hoofs on the Apinayé bearing-band and the ceremonial tools argument we will presume that in the case of hoof amulets the
of the Canellas are not supposed to produce any sound but ;tre sound is also a secondary matter and that they were originally amu-
simply amulets. •- lets. One might then ask what is the function of the sound itself?
According to KARSTEN the »hardening against evil spirits » is Nothing is actually known, but it may be that sound is believed
the principle of the initiation of girls. Since the hoofs belong to to have magic power in itself as a good means of scaring away
the hard parts of an animal it is not altogether impossible that this evil spirits. But we must not forget its intensified effect at the
way of thinking might be compatible with Indian mentality. ceremonies. Through the movements of the bearer during the dance,
ln bis book about the intellectual culture of the Netsilik Es- ' the rattles sound rythmically and this rythmic sound together with
kimos, KNUD RA.SMUSSEN (p. 274) presenta another point of view: the magic song, the movements, etc. unquestionably have a very
»lt is very characteristic that when women wear amulets, and es-- intensifying effect.
pccially when they bear many of them it is most often not for their Thus we have seen that there probably are a great number of
own benefit but for their sons; even little girls wear amulets for their ideas connected with the function of the hoof rattle and which con-
future sons.» He depicts a large number of amulets of this sort, stitute its raison d'être; partly beliefs about the material - the
and under one of the pictures the text reads: »Amulets kept by the deer - as a sort of symbol of the new life which is to be born, and
woman Qugliôq for the benefit of her future son. They consist of partly about the hoofs which most likely are a sort of amulets
real claws which will some day be sewn on to the boy's inner coat meant to give certain attributes to the unborn child and perhaps
at the armhole, and will give him strength. Seal snouts, to be sewn also to protect the woman against evíl spirits during her first criti-
round the waist of the inner coat give luck at the breathing holes, cai period. The attribute of the rattle as a sound instrument is
etc. i> (Op. cit. p. 277). something secondary, although it is undoubtedly also an important
It is not altogether impossible that the deer hoofs around the magic detail. Should we ignore the aspect of the rattle as a sound
girls' insteps at their first menstruation have a magic import similar instrument it remains, as I have said, an amulet. One might then
to that which KNun RASMUSSEN emphasizes with regard to the ask which of these ideas giving rise to a demand for deer hoofs is
Netsilik Eskimos. What attributes the hoof amulets might the older - the belief about the deer and the new-born or about
give to the child it is not easy to say. Perhaps it was origi- hoofs and similar things as amulets1 It may be that the Indiana
nally for the purpose of making the child a good huntsman, or it originally had amulets of hoofs as a protection against evil spirits
may have been some other motive connected with the myths I or to ensure good hunting or the like, since deer-hoof rattles are not
have just discussed. That the hoof rattle originally may well have used only at the girls' puberty rites. But in certain places it has
been a hunting amulet is to some extent suggested by the function probably been combined with a conception of the relation of the
of this rattle at the dances of the Indians of the Roroima territory deer to birth, new life, the child, or the like - we cannot clearly
(cf. p. 39). ln passing, I might mention a matter which is of some disentangle these conceptions - and that this combination has
interest in this connection. LUMHOLTZ (I, p . 206) describes a resulted in the use of the rattle at the girls' puberty ceremonies.
race from Tarahumare in northern Mexico: »The contestants wear Perhaps au idea of the deer-hoof hunting-amulet having a favou-
a sort of rattles which consist of animal heads and small pieces of rable influence over the hunting attributes of the future child has
48 K. VET. O. Vl--..rTERH. SAMH. HL-..DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL TNSTRUMENTS 01<' S. AMERICA 49
also existed and been added to this. On the other hand its function From the Conibo ÜRDISAIRE
at the puberty ceremonies may be the original one, and the remai- <lescribes rattles made of nuts of
ning ways of using tbe boof rattle may bave developed through the schacapa, which is in Latin thc
those changes which took place when the hoof rattle spread to tree Cerbera perumana. Professor
. ocieties of other types, or by changes within the life of the socie- e. SKOTTSBERG, the clistinguished
ty itself throughout the centuries. To achieve clarity in this Swedish botanist, has been kind
roatter is, however, as yet impossible. It may bc tbat a more care- enough to inform me that this is
ful investigation of Indian mythology will solve these problems and the name of a tree which is gene-
arrive at better results than I have succeeded in doing in the course rally called '1.'hevetia nerifolia, the
of this very sketchy research. As will be seen from this brief review sarne species from the fruits of
the conceptions about the deer are very complicated and demand which rattles are usually made
a more specific and detailed investigation. in the Amazonas. That exactly
such rattles existed in Peru if;;
J i n g l e r a t t l e s o f frui t - s h e l l s. shown by a find from Casa Grande
J"ingle rattles consisting of fruit-shells are most common (near Trujillo) (see fig. 25, p. 72)
in South America and specifically in Amazonas. The modem which depicts a jingle rattle in metal
Aztecs are the only people north of South America which to my representing Thevetia fruits . It is
Fig. 10. Jingle rattle ofTherntia
knowledge use these rattles. I have not seen them mentioned from therefore possible that whonever shells from Guiana.
North America. In South America tbey are missing in the Chibcha t ho name saccapa, etc. is used for After DE LAET. 1633.
territory and in the south, are uncommon in Chaco, but occur in jingle rattles, these consi ted of
t he Diaguita territory. In Chaco they are found among the Sana- Thevetia fruits. According to MrnDENDORJ<' (p. 744) the word sa-
pana, Chamacoco, and Chané, but are missing among such typical kapa means in Kechua »cascabeles hechos de caracoles», jingle
Chaco tribes as the Ashlushlay, éhoroti, Lengua, etc . which in their rnttles or bells made of shell. He continues: »dünne Flechten,
place have only jingle rattles made of hoofs. In this connection we welche hei den Indiern ais Kopftracht gebrauchlich sind; schellen-
must not forget that the Chané is an Arowak tribe and as such has artige Zieraten aus Muschcln. » This does not, however, exclude the
surely emigrated from the Amazonian territory. According to se- possibility that scika.pa originally was the name for Thevetia nuts.
veral autho rs the rattle existed and perhaps is still in use on the The meaning may later have beon altered to include only bells or
Andinc plateau. The name of the rattle is, both in Aymara and jingle rattles. Concerning bells as »ornaments )) for women 's bair-
Quichua, saccapa, Sacapa, etc. It is interesting that the sarne name dress compare p. 68.
for rattlcs occur among a number of other tribes in north-eastern Jingle rattles of fruit-shells also
P eru, as shown by the following table: occur in eastern Brazil among the
Karajá anel Kayapó, and along the
Tribe Indian name Source
1 1 coa t among the Patafo and Tupi-
Aymara 8<lccapa Cono, IV, p. 229. nambá. In a letter to me }fr.
HERTONIO, II, p. 305. Nrm.;ESDAJÚ writes that the Canella
K echun sakapa l\úODENDOR•', p. 744.
Con ibo
and Apinayé not only have jingle
scltacapa (Oerbera peruviana) ÜHDrNAmE, p. 42.
Omagua ~akapa TESSMANN, p. 56.
rattles of hoofs but also of fruit-
I Kokama tfokapa Op. cit., p. 75. J.'ig. 11. Jingle rattle of Thf'vet iu
shells and shell. The main idea
J Panobo liaxkápa Op. cit., p. ll5. shell from l\fauhé. seems to be to produce sound in
Chayuhuita ~axka;pá Op. cit., p. 389. GM: 23.I0·.647. some way or other:
4
50 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5 . N:O l
IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL JNSTRUI't!ENTS OF S. AMERICA 51
tH euf.e ersetzen die Canellas und Kraho, in deren Gebiet
de r Tapir so gut wie ausgerottet ist, d essen Hule duroh glocken-
fõnnige Spitzen kleiner Lagenarias. Frühe r waren dieser nur
h ei d en R asse"lgehãngen d er baumwo llenen Brustschãrpen in
Gebrauch, welche die Vortãnzerinnen der Frauen trugen. H eute
ist aus d em obigen Grund auch de r •éi •, der R a.sselgürtel der
Mãnner mit Lagenariaspitzen besetzt. Bei den Apinayé ver-
wenden Mãnner meist Klauen, Frauen Fruchtschalen a.n ihrem
Schmuck. Die kleinen Muscheln die v on diesem Stamm h eute
a u ch m anchmal verwendet werden, kõnnen nicht ursprünglich
sein. t

It is an interesting observation that different materials are used

for the two sexes. Unfortunately 1 have no idea what the reason
for this may be. The transition from hoofs to Lagenaria tips is
important. It is not altogether improbable that the hoof rattle is
t he older type and that for some reason or other rattles of fruit-
shells little by little have taken its place. If we compare the distri-
bution of jingle rattles of both materiais we get the impression,
from the limited distribution of the fruit-shell rattle, that the latter
is the younger of the two.
The Sanapana and Chamacoco also use Lagenaria tips for rat-
b
tles. As a rule, however, Thevetia fruits are the most usual material.
These are very hard and give a fine and loud sound. Other suit-
able sorts of fruit, for instance Juglans australis (cf. p. 79) among
the Pauserna and in the Diaguita territory, are also used as jingle
rattles, but these appear to be exceptions.
It would be worth while to find out whether the Thevetia neri-
folia possibly has any magic import. ln spite of eager search in the
literature on this subject I have not succeeded in finding any such
information.
Some of the fruits used for jingle rattles are cut in a peculiar
way which may be observed on figures 13 a, d. The aim has
evidently been to get out the contenta without destroying the fruit- e
shell.
It is difficult to determine in which part of Amazonas the
fruit-shell jingle rattle has originated, and also whether it has any
direct relation to the Aztec rattle. It may be that the accepted
transition from hoofs to fruit-shells has taken place in both places
independently of one another.
Fig. 12. Jingle rattles of fruit ahells. a = Tukano (R. Tiquié) GM: 25.6.190; b =
Uitoto, GM: 31.8.54; e = Parintintin, GM: 26.2.2.
 IZIKOWITZ, MCSlCAL lNSTRU llfENTS OF S. AMERICA 53

1
j
b
.,
e.
d..

Fig. 14. J 'ingle rat tles, a-e of fruit shells, f of bone. a = Jh·aro, GM: 20.7.169;
e. b = Chamacoco, GM: 17.13.32: e = Jivaro. Gi\1 : 20.7.170; d = Ji,·aro, G)l: 20.7.
168; e= Ma uhó, G'.\I: t:J.t0.647; f = Campa, G)f: 21.10.131.

T he u se of t he f r u i t-s h e l l r a t t l e.
These rattles evidently have not tbe sarne use as tbose made

e.
% f.
of hoofs. Pro primo, they are worn almost exclusively by men
and, pro secundo, tbey do not appear to be connected "'itb girls'
puberty ceremonies. Tbey are generally used at certain festivais of
anotber type. It would be a very interesting piece of work to in-
vestiga.te and analyse these festivais - they seem to be in some
way interrelate.d in the Amazon tribes - but this would take
Fig. 13. Jinglo rattles of fruit shell~. a = Pauserna, OM: l õ.1.868; b = Uitoto, me too far away from my original theme and moreover the infor-
0 1\1: 3 1.8.54; e = Patamona, G:VI: 12.1.142; d = Tukuna, QM: 30.40.152; e = Va.
nana (Yutica, R. U aupés), GM: 28. 1.176 e; f = Tukano (R. Tiquié), GM: 25.6.190.
54: K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND õ. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 55
mation which is to be fdund in the literature is altogether too feast was: »dass sie dadurch auch künftig eine reiche Jukaernte ha-
slightly detailed. ben wollen. Sie tanzen um Juka zu essen, und arbeiten auf den
One feature which these dancing feasts have in common is that Felde, um zu tanzen, d. h. ohne das Fest vorher zu feiern, darf man
they evidently are celebrated at such times when there is an abun- keine Juka essen. » It is also directed towards the forefathers in the
dance of food and drink. The food may consist of manioc bread or underworld who taught them the feast. The renewal of the manioc
fish , but the beverage appears to be the same in the different pla- (the Juka) is associated with the new moon. The forefathers live
ces, n amely kashiri, also a manioc product. The reason for these in the underworld »und verkõrpern in sich clie uralte Ordnung auf
feast s may also be a funeral, the initiation of boys, cooperative Erden. Die Erneuung des Mondes wie der Juka ist dort schon vor-
work in connection with the cultivation of manioc, or the like. But gezeichnet. Durch das Fest, das sie gelehrt haben, wird dieselbe
the dccisive reason is probably a wealth of food and beverage, es- Ordnung auch auf der Erde aufrecht erhalten. Das geschieht nicht
pccially of manioc and kaschiri. As is known, maize does not play durch den Wille der Vorfahren, sondern auch durch das Fest der
by far as important a role as manioc. Important in this connec- Lebenden» (op. cit., p. 133). The rattle is in some way the inter-
tion are those inventions for the conservation of food which make mediary between the living and the forefathers:
it possible to gather sufficient food for the great events. Obviously tEs fragt sich nun wiedcr, ob und in welcher \\'eise die in
these feasts are associated with the manioc-cultivating peoples of der Unterwelt lebenden v erstorbencn Vorfahren Gegenstand der
the Amazon territory. Typical for them are the dances. Another religiõsen Verbindung sein kõnnen. Dass sie es sind, geht a.us
feature of the feasts is, that on these occasions members of the der Erzãhlung d es Okirna-Festes (op. cit., 31,4) hcrvor: »W ir
sprechen und singen zuweilen diese Worte..... . Und aus den
neighboring tribes are invited even though they are not linguisti-
Gesãngen d es F esten erseh en wix, dass von dort aus die Antwort
cally related, and this gives to the feasts the appearance of fairs, to erwartet wird. D enn ein solcher Jautet z. B.: ~Hiodya, die
a great extent contributfng to that marked acculturation which is Knierassel zum okima-Gesang in d er Unterweltl Da unten ha t
considered typical of the Amazonian territory. schon Vater Okinuy!ma gesprochen. Eben liess sich unten in
Not only fruit-shell rattles are used at these feasts but also a Okinuyt}_mas Hütte am Türpfeiler die Knierassel nieder um!
great many other instruments belonging to the Yurupari music and sãttigte sich auf d en Spitzen der Juka-Bãurue. Es sãttigto sich
der Liebling, die Rassel (d. h. zuglcich die Libelle) und r edoto
the mask dances, such as trumpets, flutes of various kinds, etc., h inauf zu den Mcnschen a.u f der Erde» (op. cit., p. 35).
which will be discussed further on.
I shall proceed to give examples of some ceremonies at which The Yagua, a tribe adjoining the Uitoto, dance with fruit-
the fruit-shell jingle rattles are used. . shell rattles at the nià feast which is celebrated when there is plenty
ln connection with the hoof jingle rattle (p. 39) I have al- of manioc. The rattle is worn by men as well as women (TESS111AN,
ready described the use of fruit-shell rattles in the Roroima terri- [1), pp. 466, 468).
tory . The function of these rattles of different material is probably Among the Tukano and Arowak tribes in the Rio Negro terri-
the sarne; we do not, however, have any exact information about this. tory the rattle is used at certain religious ceremonies; but it is alto-
Among the Uitoto Indians the fruit-shell rattle is, according to gether impossible to get any clear idea of its function from the su-
PREUSS, used at various feasts, among these the so-called Okima perficial descriptions of KocH-GRüNBERG ([3], p. 292). One receives
feast , »der Fest der Juka und der Vorfahren. >> PREUSS ([3), p. 129) the impression that it is conceived of as being a sound instru-
describes a dance at one such feast when the members of two neigh- ment only. Several tribes are often r epresented at the festivais,
boring villages dance. »Die Mãnner der beiden Dõrfer standen ge- thus on one occasion the Tuyuka and Tukano. Then the Yurupari
sondert in je einem Kreissegment nebeneinander. Jeder einzelne dances are executed. To this dance is ascribed great »Zauberwir-
war mit einem langen dicken Stab bewaffnet, an dem die Leute des kung » and it is supposed to drive away all sicknesses, even large
fremden Dorfes meist je eine Knierassel befestigt hatten. Diese wounds (op. cit.., p. 320). Among the Tukano a puberty ceremony
stiessen sie taktmãssig auf den Boden .. . » The purposo of the is celebrated simultaneously with a festival of this sort, but whether
56 K . VET. o. Vl'.ITERH. s~m. HANDL. SER. A. BA:-<D 5. N:O 1 lZIKO\VITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. "fERICA 57

this latter has como into boin_g merely for the sake of the puberty Parias. That the former have them is undeniably a proof that jingle
ceremony does not appear. !n this connection KocH-GRüNBERG rattles existed in South America before the Arowaks left the conti-
remarks: »Die Feste des :Mãnnerbundes finden stets zur Zeit der nent (LovÉx p. 492). Anima1s with suitable hoofs do not exist on the
R eife einzelner vValdfrüchte statt und sind den Dãmonen der Antilles and it is therefore very probable that the shells are a sub-
Fruchtbarkeit geweiht. Die Tãnze sind Zaubermittel, um diese Dã- stitute for hoofs, just as among the Apinayé and Canella. Tbe use
monen die sich in den Instrumenten verkõrpern, magisch zu beein- of the rattle among 'fainos is interesting. It is namely carried at
flussen und gunstig zu stimmen. Deshalb unterwerfen sich auch die the instep when the first crops of manioc are harvested or offered.
Eingeweihten den Kasteiungen und von Zeit zur Zeit schwerer Gies- This agrees with its function in the
selungen ... » (op. cit. , p. 346). Amazonian territory where it is also
'fhe dance festivals among the Indian tribes living around the used at ha.rvest festivals.
sources of the Rio Xingú somewhat resemble those which are found Besides the above-named rattle,
north of the Amazon river. Typical for them is, according to KARL called zacapa (p. 48), the highland
,._ n. STEINEN ((2], p. 297), »dass sich die verschiedene Stã.mme zum Indians, according to CoBO, had
'fanzfest vereinigten . E s ist allgemeine Sitte, dass sich die Dõrfer jingle rattles which they called
zu den grossen F esten gegenseitig einladen. Auch nach barlich cliuru and chanrara. The latter were
befreundete Stã.mme entsenden zahlreiche Teilnehmer. » The festi- of metal and the former of »caracoles
vais are celebrated when great quantities of food are found. Only de la mar larguillos y de varios
t be men dance and they are then dressed in animal masks and in colores. » It is evidently one single
some of the dances they carry a dance rattle on their right foot rattle of this kind which o'HAR-
(op. cit. , fig. 90). K. v. D. STEIKEN assumes that they were origi- COURT portrays (n'HARCOURT, [1],
nally hunting festivais. Questioned by v. D. STEINEN as to the pl. I, fig. 2) and which was found
reasons for the dance festivais a Bakairi Indian answered: »Wir at Ancon. I have already men-
feiern das Fest um die Zeit der Ernte, weil wir dann etwas zu tioned that the Quechua Indians
feiern haben; in der Trockenzeit müssen wir sparen, in der Regen- use rattles of shell (p. 49).
zeit würde alles verschlimmeln» (op. cit., p. 297 seq.). In the Tikuna collection at the
The K.arayá Indians are in the first place a people of fishermen, Gothenburg Museum there is a jin-
:Fig. 15. Jingle rattle o f mussol-
in the second place a]so cultivators. Manioc is their most important gle rattle of shell whicb a girl wore s he lls. Apinayé. CM: 31.40.215.
crop. Jf much food is found after a successful hunt or fishing ex- on her back. Unfortunately the
pedition the chief arranges a feast. Then the men dance dressed catalogue does not mention on what occasion it was used (G.\f:
in masks which represent animals, both fishes and other animais. 30.40.134).
The dancers hold gourd rattles in their hands and have rattles of The Jivaro Indians use a sort of girdle with triangular pieces
'.Phevetia shells tied around their ankles. This is particularly the of shell (fig. 16), about which their collector, KARSTEX, ([l], p. 130,
case when the mask representing the Pacu fish is worn (EHRENREICH, note l} writes: »Thus a mong the Jibaros, when the women join
[4], p. 36 seq ., fig. 22 b.). in the dance performed round the head of a slain enemy, they
wear heavy rattling cinctures, made of snails' shells, round the
J i n g l e r a t t l e s o f s h e l l. waist. These rattles are never worn by the men ».
I have already mentioned (p. 50) tbat the Apinaye and Canella. At a dance which BoLINDER witnessed among the Ijca Jndians
h ave rattles of shell. 1?ig. l 5 portrays a rattle of this kind which the latter wore a special costume. The usual shirt was laid aside
has becn worn by an Apinayé at tbe log racing ceremonies. Shell and a short mantle which covered only the back took its place.
rattles are used also by other tribes, among them the Tainos and Around the waist they wore a girdle of the usual kind but behind,
58 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 59
among the fringes, were small shells which jingled at every move- J ing l e ratt les of other materials (except metal).
ment (BOLINDER, [2), p. 164). Naturally there are objects of other materiais which r attle
ln t he Dresden M"S there is a parallel to this in a girdle with more or less. This is the case with necklaces of various sorts, amu-
rattling snail shells which was worn by a dog-headed priest (cit. lets, etc. At the museum in Gothenburg there is for instance a
SELER, [l], II, p. 702). Jingle rattles of shell must have been rather bearing-band from the Campa India na (GM: 21.10.131), around
common in 11exico to judge from the frequency with which they one edge of which hang a number of long ornamented pieces of
have been reproduced and discussed. They were not only worn at bone (fig. 17). Whether these are primarily amulets or are meant
the belt but also around the calf of the leg (op. cit., p. 428), and to produce sound 1 do not know. The transition from a necklace or
the Pulque gods tied them at the ankle (op. cit., p. 438). Once in a the like with amulets attached or other objects with magic influence
while these oyualli, as they were called, were also worn as a sort of to a jingle rattle is very
slight. An example of
t his are the necklaces
of bone-flutes which the
Cuna Indiana wear at
certain feasts (cf. plug-
flutes). ln some of the
necklaces they are not
all real flutes but simply
bits of bone and there
are even necklaces which
consist altogether of bone
Fig. 16. Jing le ratlle of shells, used by women. Jivaro. GM: 20. 7 .204.
tubes. These necklaces
form a kind of rattles Fig. 17. Bearing-band (to carry a. child) with bone
as they are shaken during jinglêrs. Campa. GM: 21.10.131. See fig. 14 f.
breast ornament (op. cit., p. 167). These oyualli did not always the dance by the move-
consist of entire snail shells but are once in a while depicted as ments of t he dancers. According to the Cuna Indian, R uBEN
being polished segments of such shells (fig. 84). Oyualli were the PEREZ K.ANTULE, t hey are also used with t he idea of producing
rattlirig ornaments of the Mexican dancing gods (op. cit., V, p. 243, a rattling sound.
fig. 58). North of South America we find rattles of other materials, for
Jingle rattles of shell are not uncommon in North America. instance among t he Cora Indians, who have jingle rattles made of
Through trade they have spread widely over the continen t from the bits of reed fastened on a piece of leather which in turn is fastened
Pacific coast.1 ) under the knee, just like the hoof rattle in some tribes. ln southern
Sometimes pierced snail shells, more or less worked, have been and south -eastern U . S. A. severa} tribes have a sort of knee r attle
found in graves. Whether these were meant for jingle rattles or for which consists of small shells of the tortoise which are perforated
necklaces or other ornaments is of course impossible to decide, since and filled with pebbles or similar objects. Thus they do not belong
we do not know how they were fastened. An example of this is a to the jingle rattle type but to the group which 1 have termed the
pair of triangular pieces of shell with rounded apex and furnished hollow rattles (cf. p. 60). Still, it is evident that they form a substi-
with holos, which was found in Caipipendi (RM:K.2 and 15). tute for the hoof rat tle or similar jingle rattles, which are often
1
) D.a. W . KR1cKE BERG has been kind enough to supply me with this informa. worn under the knee. ln Jemez Pueblo, for instance, a rattle of
tion. this type consisted not only of tortoise shells but also of antelope
 60 K. VE'l'. O. VlTl'ERH. SAMH. HA..i."'<DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 61
feet. It was worn by the men at a certain dance. ) Rattles such 1
Species of
as those used by the Cora and those of tortoise shells are also iso- 1 Tribe animal Altachment 1 Author (Collection) and :Function
1 1
lated phenomena within the territorial distribution of t he hoof l
rattle. Bor or ó orientali pecari or wild band, right anklo. CoLDACCHIXI, pp. 232-3.
It is rather odd that usually only one material is used for the boar
sarne rattle. The exceptions are quite few. To cite a couple of Ka.y a.pó cotton band. Blli: VB 8192 (coll. KtssENnERTH);
(Pao d 'Arco) band or cord at knee POHL, vol. I, p. 401;
exarnples: From Guaicurú in Paraguay CHARLEVOIX informs us D:\f: 40622.
that these Indians wore »ornaments of glass beads, mussel shells, 1

Canooiros (Tupi) deer WM: 674 (coll. PoHI.).

and metal disks hung at the cincture, the rattle of which was heard 1
Kama.kan tapir. is h eld in the hand. SM: JC 36128 (coll. Wied).
at a long distance. » (Cit. KARSTEN, [1] p . 127). Still another pecari, tapir,deer in rows on cotton Mf:TRAUX-DOUVILLE, p. 260;
example from KARSTEN's book: »In Chaco, the Mataco bands.

sorcerer, when he beats the drum, wears round the waist a leather » ta.pir. is held in hand. WIEO·NEUWIED, II, p. 220.
Krãn (!) knee- or arm . band. SNETHLAGE, [2], P· 178.
cincture from which various rattles of mussel shells, tin disks, Fa.jé. (Chavante) banda of hoofs. MANTZER, [l], p. 330.
small homs and bones, or other things hang down .... » (p. 126). Patascbo cincturo 8)1: IC-Kr 19117 (coll. Wrnn).
According to KARSTEN the purpose of this music was to scare (Rio Muery)
a way evil spirits. T ekuna tapir in a bunch under the G:\1: 30.40.150.
kneo.
Yamemadi • girdle-ornaments in STEERE, pi. 4, fig. 3.
bunches.
Jingle rattles of hoofs.
Mnkushi deer on bamboo slaffa. V. HORNBOSTEL [5], 398.
Tribe Spcci~s
animal
of
Attachment 1 Author (Collection) and Function •
Apineyé » knee or ankle. GM: coll. XmUENDAJÚ.
11
Canella
1)fataco tapir, peccary, to sticks, h eld in NORDENSKIÕLD, [4] P· 173. KARSTEN, Uitoto on tho logs. \TESSMANN, [ l ), pi. 55, p . 321.
etc. t he hand, girdles [2], p. 83.
Ashlushlay » Wishrnm deer to ono cnd of a 6 in_ S.rrnn & SAPIR, p. 202. Uscd by Wasco
Choro t i
• Wasco • wooden handle. in the war dance.
T oba
L êngua
• HM: 854: 06. The Surprise • tiod about the knoea. KELLY, p. 146. The deer hoof rattle was
used only by the shamans, each of
dee1· sticks. GRUBB, pp. 177- 182. BM: vc 1874. Valloy Paiute
)lascoi HM: 806: 06. whom made his own.
T ereno
• BM: VB 994 . Klamath • a slondcr pole 4-7 SP,IBR, (l], p. 89.
Kadiuyeo
• BM: VB 1138 . feet long wilh a. cor<.l
Chamacoco • cord. BM: VA 7736; BOOOIANI, [ l ], p. 47. a.long the upper
wild boar B:U: VC 3000. th.ird to which bun-
<lccr B:\I: VC 3035 b. ches of deer clew
Payaguá • AZARA, p . 359. claws aro ticd at
Bororó • leather band. B::ll : VB 1387. inten-als. The
• do cam-j knee, foot. B:\I: VB 1389. butt is pounded on
panha • plaited IWM: 827. the groun<l to jar
the h ooflets.
') DAN CnO~'T, I, p. 551: Jemez Pueblo. W'JLSON, fig. 216: Also SPECK, Karok KnoEBEn, [l ], pp. 149, 291.
P· (IJ: »••. the rattlos worn only by women in the dances. Thoy are com. To Iowa
poso<l of s ix to ten terrapin shells containing small white pobbles, attachecl to Wa.ilaki
sheets of hide+. (Yuchi). Chilula
 62 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l
IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 63

Jingle Rattles of Fruit-shells

Species of
Triba Attachment Ant hor (Collection) and Function
animal Species of
Tribe A ttachment Author (Colleotion) and Function
Fruit

Klallam deer on a small staff. GüNTHER, p. 298. Used by female sha-

mans. Incas ankle Coao, IV, p. 229: >Fuera de las galas
Shasta a stick 20 cm. long. DIXON, [4], p. 449. Used by the young y arreos que sacan en sus bailes;
girls during the puberty dance. se ponen en la garganta dei pie sar-
Achomawi· deer DrxoN, [3], p. 216. tas de sus cascabeles, que son de
Atsugewi dos ó tres manera.s. L os Incas los
N orth-eastern A bunch tied to the DrxoN, [3], p. 222. usaban antiguamente de cier tas cá.s-
Maidu end of a stick 72- KRoEBER, [l), p. 419. earas de frísoles grandes y de colores
l m. long. que hay en las províncias de los
Luiseiio JKnoEBER, [l), p. 665. • ··· used only, it Andes, y llamabanse estos cascabeles
seems, in hunters rites. • Zacapa... •
Havasupai deer or mountain strings of rattles SPIER, (2), p. 202. Aymara. BERTONIO, II, p. 305: .s a e e a p a; vna
sheep hung at the wo- frutilla prolongada, a modo de auellana
man's belt. de corteça muy dura, y suelen los ín-
Diegueiio deer KRoEBER [l), p. 665. dios seruirse della para cascaueles por
Yuma • a bunch of rattles FoRDE, p. 130. • ... can be used only by el sonido que hacee no con lo que tiene
dentro sino encontrandose, o golpeando
held in the hand. the leader of the keruk songs in the
mourning ceremony. • v no con otro, S a e c apa t tas i t h ª'[
Cochimí two belts of deer KROEBER, [3], p. 44. P onerse los cascaueles dichos en los pies'
hoofs are fastened de qualquiera suerte. S a e e a p a n i
on the shaman's quirquitha taquitha Chill-
wig or cape of hu- c h i t a: Baylar, o dançar con estos
man hair. cascabeles. •
1 Yaqui-Mayo deer KROEBER, (3), p. 14. Campa Thevetia GM: 21.10.126.
')
Mayo • BEALS, (2), p. 32. Conibo • leg ÚRDINAIRE, p. 42: •Ils s'attachent a ux
jambes, pour danser, d as chapeleta
Cahita deer some wear circlets BANCROFT, I, p. 574.
around the ankles de grelots fournis par les noyaux
Acaxée as »ornamenta•. BANCROFT, I, p. 482. de la se h a e a p a (Cerbera peruvi -
Apache ana). •
• Cocama kneo TESSMANN, [l], p. 75: ».• wurden vont
Huichol or Cora
Tepehuane •dancing belt •.
•
RM: Ol.9.4. Mannern zum Tanz getragen. » Name: I
Aztec SAHAGUN, p. 416. f; s ak áp a.
Grand Gulch » or antelope. a pair of sticks. GoDDARD [ l], p. 51. Aguaruna necklace BM: VA 32801.
Jivaro leg TESSMANN, [l ], p. 356: •Bei Tanzfesten
schnallen sich die Chiwaro Rasseln um
die Beine. Es sind geflochtene Faser-
strange, in die in kürzen Abstanden
dünneren Schnüre eingeflochten sind,
die beiderseits überstehen. An diesen
sind halbierte F ruchtschalen an beiden
Seiten angeknotet, die beim Anein-
anderschlagen rasseln. (Taf. 59, fig.
5.) See a lso R1VET, [l], figs. l & 17.
necklace GM: 31.8.53.
 64 K. VET. O. Vl'l'TERH. SAMIL HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 65
Specics of Attachment Author (Collection) and Function Species of
T ribu frui t Tribe Attachment Author and Collcction
fruit

Zapa ro ÜSCULATI, p. 170: t)fottone sul capo Indians of Rio The,·etia HM: 17, 90, 89-90.
cerchietto fatto di corteccia adorno di Ariary
piume che cbiamano gliuscià gliaitu Cumanagotes leg OvrEDo, II, p. 256: • .. toda la noche bay-
o la.sciano pendere sui fiancbi grandi
laron de muchas maneras con unas
cinture adorno di semi fora.ti ed in- najas atadas en las piernas a manera
filzati cbe nell'atto della danza bat- de cascaveles, assi hombres como mu.
tendo l'un contro l'altro, imitabo assa.i jeres... »
bene le nostre naccbere questi vezzi
vengono denomina.ti namuenatka. ~
T amannchi feet GILIJ, II, p. 277.
;!;aparo leg TESSMANN, (1), p. 540.
Crixanti BARBOSA RoDRIOUEs, [2], p. 162.
necklace GM: 20.7.54.
Inpurucotó women's apron Op. cit., p. 142.
P eba BM: V A. 29642.
Warrau Therntia foot RICH. SCHOMBURGK, l, p. 153.
Yag ua legs (m en) TESSMANN, (1), p. 466.
Ackawoi • foot RICH. SCHOMBURGK, l, p. 205.
breast (womon)
Trio and Oyana • t D' ÜRBIG:S-Y, p. 246.
Amagcra TESSMANN, ( 1 ) , p. 56.
• DE GoEJE, [2], p i. I, 22, 24.
Panobo Op. cit., p. 115.
•un paquet de sono- CoUDREAU, p. 176.
Chaya hnita Op. cit., p. 389.
ners graines. . . la
T ikuna under knco GM: (coll. NmUENDAJi:::).
cheville.. •
staff GM: (coll. Nml:rENDAJi::).
• NnruENDAJU, (2), p. 193.
GM: 31.8.53. Staff of the Taboka
1
Galibi HM: B 822.
t:itoto staff A rapai foot DEUBER, p. 322.
palro. Mauhé The,·etia under knco G:\f: 23.10.647.
knee PnEUSS, (3), p. 17: tEinige batten Knüt-
Indians of Roro- • girdlo, stick BM: VA. 60906; GM: (coll. TnULrN).
tel in der Hand darunter auch einen
ima WºM: 2090 (coll. NATTEREn); V. HORNBO-
gebundener Kniorassel aus Frucbt-
STEL, (5) p. 397.
scbalen (f irisai) und stiessen mit
ihnen taktmâssig auf den boden. » (ln
ringdance.)
Guiana Thernt ia BM: V A. 10445.
cincture GM: 31.8.54.
Okaina WlilFFEN, pi. XVII, 2: •· . there are al- • under knee DANCE, p. 331.
Br. Guiana BM: VA. 17110 (coll. SCHOllUlOUROK).
most a. thinkle in them ... • Yaunpory BM: VB. 4088.
Indians of Rio armlets Op. cit., p. 2 13: ».... ma.de of nuts, Cane lla KISSEl'<BERTH, [ l ], p. 49.
Yapurá and Rio wristlets strung witb coloured beads on palm
Tapuya PISO ET l\:IARCGRAV, p. 271.
I ça lcglets fibre, and very carefully fasbioned. • K a rajá The,·et ia Kampfapielgürte l ElfRENitEICH, [4], p. 36.
anklets
bracclet B:\l: VA. 7724, VB. 7511.
Kaynp ó(Arrarao)' t bracele t B:0.1: VB. 8440 (coll . KissENDERTH).
bunches Op. cit., p. 214: tThe arm rattles are
P a tas o J S:'il : IC-Kr. 19166 (coll. WIED).
under the knee made of smaller nuts, some are not 'fupinamba :lif:TRAUX, [2], p. 214 (cit. LERY and
unlike an oval hazelnut, flat on one
Sou AREZ DE Soi:::sA ).
sido, cut in half and highly polish-
ed. • Chnmacoco Booo1Axr, [l], p. 30, GM: 17.13.32.
Cawxana MM: 454-455 (coll. Spix). Sanapana gourd t,ips BM: VC. 4262. »• .• um die Kinder in
Indians of Rio KocH-GRÜNBEna, [3]. Scblaf zu bringen. •
Negro CM: (coll. NrnVENDAJU & MELrN). Churapa RM: Tj. 28.
5
 66 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZJKOWITZ, MUSIC.AL INS'l'RUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 67

J i n g l e r a t t l e s o f m e t a l.
Species of Attaehment Author and Collection
Tribe fruit
1 1 1 The tra.nsition to so amorphous a material as metal creates
new forms which are partly dependent upon the pattern and partly
Pauserna (Gua·
lcincture GM: 15.1.868 upon the metal technique. We are here concerned with three kinds
rayu)
Paressi foot MAX ScmuDT, [3], p. 83. of jingle rattles or bells, as they are often called when they are ma.de
Bakairi • Op. cit., fig. 19, p. 107. of metal. Closely related to thcse forms are bells which contain
Indians of the • STEINEN, [2], PP· 279, 326-7. a pellet and thereby differ from the real jingle rattles through the
sources of 1 manner of thcir sound production. ln reality they should be
Xingú
Thevetia GM: 26.2.2
counted among the hollow rattles, but 1 have included thcm in this
Parintintin
Yamamadi fruit shell & snail for children BM: VB. 3811. group since the idea behind their forms ha.s without doubt been
shell inspired by other jingle rattles. We have then the following
Vanana 1 foot, stick laM: 21.1.176 & 184 (coll. NIMUENDAJÚ). types:
1. Genuine jingle rattles.
a.) the conic bell
b) the pyramidal bell
e) the Thevetia-formed bell
Jingle Rattles o/ Skdl II. Rattles which usually, but not always, contain a pellet.
a.) the bivalve bell
Tribe 1 Ligature 1 Autbor and Collection b) the pellet, or hawk, bell.

Tupinambá LERY, chapt, VIII, p. 130. T h e e o n i e b e l l.

Apinayé GM: (coll. NIMUENDAJú).
Canella GM: { t NIMUENDAJÚ). Among the objects

l!!
Tainos ankle, arms, hips, LoVÉN, p. 492. found in graves on the
calves
Andine pl~teau we notice
Parias • LoVÉN, p. 492 .
M1DDENDORF, p . 744. a number of small bell-
Incas
shaped objects (fig. 18 o b. e. d. e. f-
Couo, IV p. 229.
Tikuna GM: 30.40.134. a-f), the use of which is
Jivaro GM: 20.7.204 (coll. KARSTEN). not known. They are
oincture KARSTEN, [l], p. 130, note r.
all ma.de of a. bronze-like
Colorado GM: 20.7.13.
Ijca cincture BOLINDER, [2), p. ) 6'1.
metal a.nd usuaUy ha.ve
Aztec cinoture legs SELER, ~ l ], III, P· 4!8, V, fig. 58, p. 2~3. a. ring or a. hole in the
Op. cit., II, p. 70-; fbb. IX. Op. ctt., apex for the purpose of
I p. 428. oyattalli. suspension. Most likely
we have here a sort of
h. k.
Fig. 18. Copper bells (upper row), and Laurakc11,
jingle rattles. One of the
solid pieces of m etal carried in tbe hair of Chipaya
bells has a small cross- women. &--f = from the Bolivian Sierra, GM:
bar on the inner side 31.15.254, 255, 257, 261, 262, 266. g- k = laurakea,
which has probably Gl\I: 32.1.8-9.
68 K . VET . o. VITTE RH. s.um. HAN DL. SER. A . B AND 5. N :O 1 IZIKOWITZ, M US ICAL 1:-<STR C \IENT S OF S . AMERICA 69
sC'rved as a holder for a small clapper. This object sbould evidently - the stone-chamber graves on t h e
be referred to t he so-called clapper bells. All t hese bells are Puna - and also in a n archaeological
mouldcd . A pair similar to them were found on t he coast a t collection from Tiahuanaco, points out
Antofagasta (L ATCHA::'iI , p. 19, 40-41). t hat t he Chipaya »orna ments » are to
ln Va lle Virú anot her t ype of bell-like objects, which have be considered as merely a »degeneration »
obviously functioned as jingle rattles has been found (fig. 19). of t he original Tiabuanaco charms. On
T hey are ma.de of silvcr-plate bent so as t o form a cone. ln the these latter we are able to distinguish a
apex is a small hole for su spension. Five plainly modelled figure, most likely tha t
objects of this sort belong t o one group of a woman. H er horn-like hair-dress
of finds (GM: 24.6.97), four to another is characteristic, and I should think that
(GM: 24.6.05). it is the sarne sort of hairdress which
ln t he literature from the Peruvian we find.among the Moruche-Arau canian s
coas t notbing is ment ioned about the (cf. SMITH'S description above. }1) A s
.' function of these bells, but a mong the we see on fig. 18 the sarne feminine
Arau canians of to-day we still find a figure reappears on severa l of the bells.
F ig. 19. Dc ll-like o bjects of
mctal. \ "ullo \"iru. C:\I: 24.6.97.
similar type of bells made of silver - Since M É TRAUX has made it clear
plate, as shown in fig. 20, 21, which are that the culture of the Chipaya India.ns Fig. 20. Ara ucanian girl from
used for hair ornaments. ln his book »The Araucanians », SlllITH is a simplified version of t he old high- southern Chile, with conic silver
bells in her h air. Photo. GM.
describes t he women 's hair-dress a mong t he Moruche-Araucanians la.nd cult ures around Lake Tit icaca
(p. 208): a nd since there is, moreover , much more evidence to prove a
»Tho h air was divided into two q ueues, wound r ound with connection between the Ara uca.nian culture a nd the high cultures
b righ t blue bcads, an d con uectcd at the ends b y anoth er string of P eru and B olivia I should consider it likely that
of brass th imbles. On ordinary occasions t his hcad~drcss is not
worn, but tho queues, wound with beads are t wistod r ound th e
our conic bells are the prototypes of the Tiahua-
h eacl like two snakes the ends falling clown over t he face, or naco and Chipaya »ornaments ». For some reason
st iok ing out in front like h orns . .. » or other a deoorative element has been added and
On a m agnificent head-covering - a grave-find from Ica - the bells bavc been simplified and made solid, since
whic h in reality consists of a wig, a great number of pyramidal a solid piece of meta l of this size jingles almost
bells are fastened (fig. 24 cf. p . 71 ).1) E vidently we have a lso here an as well as a small bell.
i nsi a ncc of ha ir a dorned wit h sounding bells .2 ) Among t be modem On the other hand, however, it is also possible
hipaya Indians, whom .MÉTRAUX visited in 1931, t he sarne thing that t hese bells have been placed on some otber
is t rue.3 ) To be sure, t hey have no bells but only metal pieces of pa rt of t he bod y or t he clothes t han just the ha ir.
thc shape shown in fig. 18 g-k worn only by women . The hair is T he modern Ashlushlay Indians, like a num-
divided into several . mall braids. precisely as on t h e pre-P eruvian ber of other t ri be in t he post-Columbian era, ha ve
wig , and for t hat matt er also as on t he abovc-named head-covering excha nged t he hoofs of t heir jingle r attles for
from Ica. Mf:TRAUX, who has found imilar pcndants in chullpas jinglers made of m etal -plate formed like hoofs, i. e.
almost conic in sh ape.2 ) A similar cha nge in ma-
' ) I hlwo di scussotl t his head-coYering in dotai) in an nr t iclo t Une coilfure d'appa- F ig . 21 . Conic t erial has t akcn place in many regions during
1·at d 'l ca.. • be ll o f silver from
2
t he Arauc11nians.
post-Columbian times, for instance among the
) Concorning jingle i·11ttlcs of shell worn as J111i1· ornamen ta by Quechua women,

compare p. 49. Sco fig. 20. CM: . 1 ) SMJTJ{ rop roducos this lm ir-dress in his book on p . 208.

3
) Mt•.rnAUX, [7], p . 242. 19.1.277. o/,j . •) RM: 03. 3.G9·L
70 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDJ,. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 71

Havasupa.i in Arizona. SPIER ([21, p. 202) portrays a woman's a nd they weigh up to 170 gr .1 )
garment decorated with conic metal bells and writes (see fig. 22): MIBROSETTI1 ) remarks t hat the
•Strings of rattles are tied at various points along the bells found in the southern
woman's b elt. These are small deer or mounta.in sheep boofs, region of Calchaqui as a rule
or sometimes tubes cut from tbe leg bones of jack -rabbits, cot. are larger than those from the
tontails, and wildcats, and in r ecent timcs metal jinglers. Tbey north: Some of the bells have
a re strung on the fringes of a doubled lcngth of skin. •
clappers. These 1 shall consider Fig. 23. Pyramidal bell. Ica.
Dn. KnICKEBERG kindly informed me that similar metal bells in connection with the other GM: 16.9.252. s/,.
are found in large parts of North America and that in the West clapper bells (p. 88).
they have their natural prototype in the Dentalium shell. 1 there- The metal of which these bells are made is either bronze, silver
fore consider it likely that these Peruvian (Ancon)2) or a gold alloy (Ica).3 )
conic bells are hoofs »translated » into The area of distribution of the pyramidal bells is the southern
·.. metal, as is the case among the Ashlushlay.
"'; .·
coast of Peru and north-western Argentine, principally the Diaguita-
Since it is the women who wear these hoof- Calchaqui territory. With the exception of the large bells with
derivatives in t he hair it is not difficult clappers they have evidently been used as ornaments on clothing
to imagine that t hey have originally been or in the hair. On the above-mentioned wig-like head-dress
a sort of amulets - and probably still from Ica (fig. 24.) there are a great number of these small
Fig. 22. Woman's apron are among t he Chipaya - perhaps with a. bells.3 ) BoMAN2 ) found a bell of this sort on a piece of clothing
with m e tal jinglers. Hava. function similar to that of t he hoof rattle in a grave at Pucará de Rinconada. MAx SCHMIDT ([2], p . 467}"
aupai. After SPIER. in Chaco and other places. Why these portrays a bell from Marquez ~hich is hung
metal bells have later become ornamented in a necklace.
with a feminine figure it is difficult to say.
Whether there is any difference in age,
~nother bell, which probably has the same origin as the conic
and if so how great, between the conic and
type; is t he on e I have called.
the pyramidal bell it is impossible to say in
the present state of archaeological investigation
T h e p y r a m i da l b e l l. in these regiona. They are two culture elements
T his is made of a piece of square or more or less rounded metal- each of which has evidently gone its own way.
plate which is folded diagonally and along t he diameters (fig. 23). The conic forro belongs to the highlands and
To make a conic bell we also use a squa re piece of metal-plate, the Araucanians, the pyramidal forro to the
eventually rounded in the corners, from which we cut out a sector- south coast of Peru and the Calchaqui-Diaguita
shaped piece. It is without doubt easier to cut out a square than territory. Almost certainly there are several
a sector-shaped piece of metal and in this way more plate is saved , other culture elements which have a similar
but this »rationalizing » thought has hardly been opera.tive, since territorial distribution. ln those instances when
in certain instances the pyramidal bells are moulded (AMBROSETTI, they are found in the sarne place but in different
[1], p. 230), as are the conic ones. strata it may be possible to construe a relative
Measured by the diameter or side of the metal-plate the sizes Fig. 24. Pyramidal c~ronological düference.
of the pyramidal bells may vary from 1.7 cm. (Ica)l) to 8.5 cm.,2) bells of gold. A de-
tail of a head-dress l) AMBROSETTI (4), p. 229.
') Izrnowrrz, [1], p. 337. from Ica. 2) See the table, p. 72.
2
) DEDENEDETTI (2), p. 226. GM: 29.32.21. Y4· ') IZIXOWITZ, (1), p . 337.
 72 K. VET. o. VITTERH. s.nrn. HANDL. SER. A. BANO 5. Y:O l
IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL INSTRUMEN'rS OF S. A..'1ERICA 73
Pyrarnül.al B ells T h e p e l l e t b e l l s.
Pla<'es Authors and Colleclions
A characteristic feature of the pellet bell is that it consists of a
vessel which is not necessarily altogether closed but only sufficiently
to prevent the pellet from falling out. When the bell is shaken the
Ancon REISS & STi: BEL, pi. 81, fig. 9.
Environs of Lima B :\i: VA. 37486.
pellet beats against the walls whereby sound is produced. The pellet
i\Ia rqucz MAx Sc mnoT, [2], p. 395. bell is accordingly a sound instrument which from its principie of
Ica G)f: 29.32.2 l and 16.9.252. sound production should be included among the »hollow rattlcs ».
lZrK OWlTZ, [ 1 ], P· 34. ln spite of this 1 have included the pellet bells among ~the
Quota BoMAN, vol. H , p. 022. jingle rattles because, as we shall see, they are closely relatcd to
Puca rá do Rinconada Op. cit., p. 655.
Casabindo
the fruit-shell jingle rattles in shape: lnstead of using severa! _
v. RosEN, [ I ], fig. 103, p. 135.
Tala de Tilcara DEDENEDET'.1'1, L2J, p. 226.
at least two - bells which beat against one another, a pellet has
Salta. 1 A~IBIIOSETTI, [4J, p. 227. been placed within the bell itself. Moreover, sometimes these
Cata marca. Op. cit., fig. 27. bells occur either w i t h pellets - the most common type - or
Angualesto (San Juan) DEBENE DETTI, ( 1), fig. 97.
w i t h ou t them and in certain archaeological finds they have
La P ayd A 111BROSETTI. [3 J, fig. 223, p. 425.
Tolomosa
been broken and have lost their pellets so that one cannot possibly
,. . RoSE~, ( 1). fig. 338. p. 364.
tell what the principle of sound production may have been. They
may then sometimes be pellet bells, sometimes jingle rattles.

T h e T h e v e t i a - forme d b e l l. Fr iii t s hell s wi th pel l ets.

In a small study n'liARcouRT ([2], p . 541]) reprodnces a golden Before treating t he genuine pellet bell of metal I shall give
jingle rattle from Casa Grande, (Truijillo) which is quite obviously some examples of fruit-shell jingle rattles which contain a pellet
an imitation of Tlievetia nuts. As fig. 25 shows they are made of a and in this way form a sort of pellet bell, if we are willing to en-
)

Fig. 26. Xuts, containing pcllcls. I•rom a woman·s clrees. " ·ai-" ai.
Fig . ~5. The,·etia-formed hei!. After 0°.H AncornT. CM: 27.7.188. ' /,.

piecc of metal-plate in the shape of a n eight . As I said before large the significance of t he word 'bell' to include other than more
(p. 4 ) sevcral authors mention the fruit-shell j ingle rattle from the or less open vessels of metal.
highland. . Thesc were called saccapa, which namc I have shown in CLAUDE n 'ABBEVILLE as well as .JEAN DE LERY state that fruit-
all probability referred to rattles of Tlievetia nuts. Such rattles shell jingle rattles existed among the Tupinambá about 1600. 1 )
have, however, never been found in Bolívia or P eru , but this imita- Another record is from thc Waiwai (G1f: 27.7.188) in the form
tion shows plainly that t hey have been in use there. On the whole, of an instrument consisting of a string upon which nuts are fastened
jingle rattles seem to have been used very little·on t he coast of Peru, a t regular intervals, each of which contains a pellet. It has been
judging from the infrequency with which thcy are represented on worn by a woman, fastencd at tbe hem of her clothing (fig. 26).
vases. Whcther this is due to the rattle being vcry old or whether ln a child~s burial placc at Casabindo (Puna de Jujuy) E. v.
it has simply been rare in these regions I do not know. 1) LERY, chapt. VIII, p . 130. o'At1BEVJLLE, foi. 274 b.
74 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND õ. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 75

RosE~ ([l), p . 153, fig. 144) found a bell made of the nut of Juglans fig. 1) portrays a bivalve bell decorated on either side with a figure
australis. Inside it was a pellet consisting of a. seed the size of a pea. probably representing the sun. No detailed information regarding
He found similar hawk bells made of the sarne nuts in the graves at the location of the find exists. One similar to this was found in
l\forohuasi, a few miles from the former place. A.MBROSETTI de- Pachacamac (fig. 27) and the ornament plainly representa some
scribe similar b()lls from La Paya. This shows that pellet bells demonial figure. (MAx ScRMIDT, (2) p. 386). It is 16 cm high. Of
of fruit shells have existed in various places and it is quite possible the sarne size are two similar bells from Casa Grande, near Truijillo
tbat they have occurred in severa! places other than those 1 have (15 and 16 cm respectively). n'HARCOURT ([2], p. 542), who describes
mentioned, especially before the invention of the metal hawk bell. them, also mentions two othcrs from the sarne find. These are
however of a more spherical form (height 8.3 and Y2 cm. respective-
ly), and both sides are hammered
Fruit lhells with pellets in the shape of an owl's head.
He compares it with the sroall, 2
Tribo or Place Author (Collection)
cm. long metal bells in the shape
of Thevetia fruits which 1 have
T upinambá. LERY, chapt. VIII, p . 130. already described on p . 72. They
J D'.ABBEVILLE, foi. 274 b.
GM: 27.27. 188.
have the sarne construction as
Wniwai
Casabindo (Puna de Jujuy) v. RosEN , [l), p. 163. the bivalve bell.
Morohuasi Op. cit., p. 206. The only specimen of the
l La P aya AlmROSE'.ITI, [3), I. fig. 76, p. 144. • bivalve bell which exists at the
Gothenburg Museum is part of a
strange object from Nazca which 1
T h e b i v a l v e b e l l. have never thus far seen described
The bivalve bell consists of two connected pieces of convex, round or portrayed in the literature Fig. 27. Bivalve bell from Pachacamac.
metalplate. It is made as follows: A piece of metal-pia.te cut in the (fig. 28). It may possibly have After MAX ScH111mT.
shape of an eight or an ellipse is hammered convex and then folded been used for an ear ornament or
so that the two round pieces cover one another and assume the shape the like. This object has only two small silver bells - originally
of a lens (n'HARCOURT, [2], p. 543). Some of the known specimens there were probably three - which are only 13 mm. wide. These do
of this type have ornaments which have evidently been hammered not contain any stone or similar object, but a faint jingling is achieved
over a form. ln the middle of the metal-plate a bole has been by five profiled bone-clappers which beat against them. The bells
pierced for the purpose of suspension. Some of the bells contain a. and the bone-clappers each hang in separa.te cords, ali of which run
stone or similar object. Since all these bells are a.rchaeological together in a filamented spherical piece representing a head. From
finds and rather the worse for wear it is probable that such pebbles this again there proceeds a strap with a loop for suspension. It
which they eventually may have contained have been lost. is all very handsomely embroidered in many-coloured threads in
Thus far the bivalve bell is known only from the Peruvian blue, yellow, white, red, green, pink, etc. (GM: 32.16.146).
coast, with one exception in a find from Cuzco (BM: VA.8672). Besides these examples 1 may add the one of silver from Cuzco
We do not know anything about their function since, to my know- mentioned above, which is only 8 mm. in dia.meter, and one of a
ledge, there is no information with regard to how they were found copper-like metal from Ancon which is 20 mm. in diameter (BM:VA.
and since they furthermore, as far as 1 know, are not mentioned in 1328).
the literature from the time of the discovery. These are the only specimens with which I am acquainted. It
Iam acquainted with the following specimens: MEAD ([1], pl. II, is quite possible that as n'HARCOURT has pointed out, they have
 76 .K . VF.'f. O. VITTERH . SA)ffi. HANDL. SElt. A. BA. D 5. X:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, )llJSlCAL T~S1'1t ln1ENTS OF S. AMERICA 77
others, who have also treated it from the metallurgic viewpoint.
Thus most of the items on my table (p. 84) are derived from in-
formation borrowed from R1vET AXD VERXEAU. As we see from
the table, the hawk bell oceurs in outh America on the northern
a nd middJe coast of P eru and also on the Sierra in Cuzco. Accor-
ding to U RLE severa! bell have bccn found on the plateau , but
he does not present any cvidence for t his assertion or mention
anything about their shapcs. For my own part I have not come
across hawk bells frorn other places tha n Cuzco in any museum. To
be sure, CoBo mentions a sort of meta l bell from thc highland, but
whethcr this is a hawk bell or some otber kind oí clapper bell iL is
impossible to decide. l le writcs: »Ohanrara son otros que hacian
de cobre y plata como campanillas» (IV, p . 229). I have scarc hed
for this word in BERTONTO's Aymara lexicon but unfortunatcly
it had not been includcd .
RIYET AXD YERX.EAr rep ort one ingle find from Calchaqui.
lt has probably found its way to this place through trade. because,
so far as is known, t he lndia ns in t he Calchaqui territory usecl
mostly pyramidal a nd clapper bells. N orth of P eru thc hawk bcll
seems to be more common in E cuadot' a nd in the Colombia n higb-
lands. Furtherrnore, spccimens arn found in Chiriqui, Costa Rica,
Honduras, Yucatan and in other sLates in :\fexico, primarily Oaxaca,
\ 1
Michoacan, anel in thc valley of Mexico. FEWKES rnentions them
from the Pueblo ruins and asserts thcy havc been found aJso in
scveral ruins in Arizona. Hc does not belicvc they were madc by
thc Pucblo Indians thcmsclves, but r athcr that they wcre intro-
duccd tbrough t ra rle. Thc sarne is prcsumably the case wiLh the
Fig. :18. Ornam('n L wit,h a couple o f bi\'a h-o bt•lls. N11sca.
m ost northern find in thc Citico )found in Tennessee.1 )
Ç )f: 32. 1 6. 1~ 6 . • •.
Rl.VET AXD VERXEAP (p. :31:}) clistinguish between two ma io
hecn developed from the jingle rattle imitation of T he1lelia fruits typc of tbc h awk bell: one with a ring for suspension (fig. 29) and
madc of mctal-plate. On t he other hand, tbc Indian · undoubtedly thc othcr wit hout. The la.iler have a couple of h ole in the top
obtained t he idea of t he pellet from t he bawk bell , a nd these bclls of t hc bell for thc corcl to nm t hrough. They occur only in
hould mo, t pr obably be considered a a n attcmpt to simplify the E cuador. According to RlVET t hi type also exists on the plateaus
latter a nd in t his way avoid the dilficult à cire perdue m oulding. of P eru and Bolivia. F or thi a crtion he relies upon a bell
which · U IILE mentions from P achacamac, that is, from the coast.
It i relatively badly d rnwn, but still sufficiently well to show a
'l' h e h a w k b e l l (Rollschelle). couple of small juts which are most proba bly the remains of abro-
Thc Amer:i can hawk bell has bcen studied by a number of kcn ring. UHLE gocs on to declare thi.Lt the bell is common on the
authors, among them RIVET AN D VERNEAU, who havc shown its distri- platcau but ml'Jntions nothing a,bont the fact that it is the ringless
bution , a nel NoRDEXSKibr:,n, RrvET, A1tSANDEAUX, H IJL'rGREX and 1) Soo table .
78 K. VET. O . VITTE RH. SAMH. HANDL . SER. A. B AN D 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL INST RUME N TS OF S . .AMERICA 79
bell wbích is r eferred t o. To my knowledge t bere is therefore no and I also consíder thís very likely. Tbe likeness is striking and the
record of t he ríngless type from Bolivían and Peruvia n territoríes.1) incision which is fonnd on ali metal bawk bells is also common on
On t he whole a li bells outsíde of E cua dor bave rings for suspension. t he bells of fruit shells of various sorts (fig. 13, a, b, d .).
According to NORDENSKIOLD ([71, p. 147), t he ringless bells are To this may be objected that t he J uglans au.stralis has been u sed
r elatively little as a material for jingle r attles or hawk bells of fruit
shells. I know only of the above-mentioned finds from the Diaguita
territory (p. 73) and that of a jíngle rattle from Pauserna (fig. 29 a )_

a .
.

b.
a b
e

a.
F ig. 30. H a wk bells of metal. a = Peru, OM: 31.15.263; b , e= N ochistlan, Me xico,
GM: 23.6.413 - 414; d = Ma niznles (Colombia), Gl\I: 31 .18.66; e= Mnniznles, C M~
d e f 3 1.1 8.65. 1 / , .

Fig. 2!J. Delis of nut and metal. After KoRDENSXJÕLD. n = Nut, pendant to
belt from the Pauserna Indians, R io C uaporé. Soo Fig. 13 a. b = bell of copper, But t here are many other kinds of nuts, the names of which I un-
E cundor, after SAVILLE, e = bell of copper, •L ima, aftor BAESSLER, d = bell of fortnnately do n ot know, of a shape more or less like t he nut of
coppe r, Chuquitanlo, aftor BAESSLEB, e = bell of bronze, Chiriqui, aftcr HOLlIES,
Juglans au.straliss which ha ve been utilized. We should also con-
f = bell of b ronze, p laite<l or wash ed with gold, after liOLMES.
sider the possibility t hat when the Indiana star ted making ha wk bells
of metal these forced out t he frui t-shell bells. As is known, there ·
typologically the older. These have boles in the t op for suspen-
is a considerable difference between the sound of bells made from
sion precisely like the fruit shells which are used as j ingle ratt les.
these two kinds of material. The J uglans australis and related species
The ringless typ e has, according to NoRDENSKIOLD , com e into exist-
are really sub-Andine plants which grow on the wooded east ern
ence by imita ting bells made of the fruit of the Juglans austra.lis,
slopes of the Andes . They are found as far south as Tucuman and
1) A ho.wk b oll with ring from Cuzco, see N onDENSKt êiLD (7], fig. 20 d . Cat a marca and as far north as Colombia and Venezuela and certain
 80 K. VET. O. VTT'l'F:RJC. SAl\IB. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INST.RU:ME~TS OF S. fl1ERICA 81

specics are even found in 1\Iexico. Obviously this plant has been of this sort and I h1we seen a similar one in the British Museum
used pt"iroarily in the r cgions where it grows. ln the Amazonian which was fitted on the top of a stick of hard wood. Since the
lowlands, on t he othcr hand, it is mo tly the Thevetia species which Jower part of tbe stick was broken off I was not a ble to determine
has bccn madc use of. Both these nut-trees have evidently been its original lengtb. It may possibly have been some kind of stick
used on the Andes and both have been »tra nslatcd » into metal. rattle (fig. 32).
lt is peculiar that t be oldest type, i. e. thc ringle s bell, occurs In his book abou t metal implements in north-
in t hc 111iddle of the arca of distribution. This imggests either that ern Peru ANTZE (p. 55) describes similar objects
• which were found in Cerro Sapamé, and says of
the bell with a ring has been inventcd independently in two places
that is, north anel sout h of Peru thom that they »wohl als Endverzienmgen von
- or that is lias first come into use Staben angesehen werden müsson, vielleicht von
in one of t hese rcgions and thcn in Stiiben, die Amtsabzeichen gowisser Würdentrager
the course of cli tribution jumped wa ren oder bei T iinzen gebraucht wurden. » This
over Ecuador, i. e. the conncctions agrees excellcnt ly with t he pccimen in the British
have been by way of the sea.1 ) )foseum and fits in perfectly with my supposition
On t he other ha nd, a detail such that stick rattles were a sort of emblems of dignity
as the suspen ion ring is not a (cf. p. 138).
particularly unusual invcntion. Thc hawk bells from Ecuador are spherical or
·w e should remcmber that it is pear- haped. ln one specimen from Itschimbia (the
also found on several objects Cara tcrritory) t he pellet is of copper , in another
other than bells. it is made of stone (R1vET A D VERKEAU, p. 313).
The P eruvia n and Colombian The Colombian bells are of t he sarne shape as
h awk bells are made of copper tho e from E cuador t hough somewhat larger.
and bronze. ln Ecuador they Arnong others, Rrv.ET A:ND CREQUI-MONTFART (p.
are made of copper and silver , in 52G) reproduces one which is 5.85 cm. high. These
Lcig . H1. lkonzo obj ocL wiLh bells.
Colombia of eopper or tumbaga, bells often have fluted ornamcnts like the Mexican
Chim(1. Aftor J\1Ax Sc:UMIDT.
in Central Amcrica, of eopper and ones. A bell from Manizales has a strong loop -formcd
gold , in lexico of copper, bronze, or gold (Rn'.ET AXD YERNEAU, ha ndle (fig. 29 e). l t was cvidcntly shaken like a
p. 313), and in :North America of copper. gourd rattle. This is also true of a speci men from
ln shapc the P eruvian bawk bells are more or less spherical. Chfriqui. It is made of gold and consists of three
orne of t hem have ornaments con isting of figures in relief jutting large bell fastened on a plate which in its turn is
F ig. !l2. Stick
out from the top and r epresenting doer hcad (fig. 30 a), birds fastened on a handle. It is made all in one piece raltle from
(Ancon, :\IAx ScmnoT, [2), p. 394), and thc Jike. A bell from (WIL ox, fig. 281). Some of the Chiriqui bells Peru.
Chuquianta represent a human face (BA.ESSLER, fig. :"513). :\lAx have a small jut for suspen ion. British ~Juseum.
Sc11:r.irn1' ((2], p. 402) portrays some odd objccts - knives and bells The :Mexican hawk bells have an elongated egg-
- which, according to th e .au thor, belong to t he Chimú culture. like shape (ovo"ide allongé), a fonu which according to RrvET AND
They were found in Truji llo a nd Va lle Yirú . Thcy are decorated VERXEAU also occurs of Antioquia (Colombia) and in Honduras.
wit h small bells of t he characteristic hawk bell shape which do not ln l\1ichoacan t hei·e have been found bells shaped like tortoises
c011tain any pellets and have figures of huma n hcings and birds in (SELER, [1] , III, p. 100, fig. 40 a). Tbe sizes of the l\íexican hawk
relief. Most likely thcy werc sacrcd tools. Fig. 3 1 shows an object bells vary considerably. ARSANDAUX AND RrvET reproduce one from
') Comparo N01mE.NSKIOLD ([7J. p. 160).
6
82 K. VET. O. VITT.ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, l\flJSI CAL I NSTR{'JlfENTS OF S. AMERICA 83
Azcapotzalco in the valley of .Mexico which is 12.2 cm. long. Evi- zugeschrieben worde n. \\'ir erraten sehr Ieicht weshalb, denn
dently characteristic of Oaxaca are certain very long and narrow bells mit den B einen wurde ja die Haupttãtigkeit der mcxikanischen
Gõtte r ausgeführt - der Zaubertanz •Und gleich bcfrstigt er
ha ng ing in a sort of ornament which was proba bly u sed to fasten
an beide n Flissen scinc chcllcn, ganz aus Gold bestehcn dic
together a mantle or otber object of dress. SAVILLE ((3), pl. I) Schellen, die man oyualli nennt, mit ihnen rasselt er im Gchen ,
portrays cxccptionally beautiful golden ornaments of tbis kind. mit ihnen klingelt er und macht sich hõrba r. • (cit. SAHAGUN,
The Mexican hawk bells often have fluted ornaments. The Bcl. II, K. 24).
method of executing this ornamentation was a subject of conjecture According to SAVILLE ((3), p. 69) the above-named ornamenta
unt il H ULTGREN (p. 209), by investigating a couple of bells from with bells from Oaxaca - they are most likely Zapotecan - were
Nochistlan (fig. 29 b, e ), was able to show that they were moulded used as ear pendants. These ornaments represent shields with ar-
à cire perdue. 'l'he grooves were made by winding strings of wax rows (op. cit. pl. l). ln ConEX KINGSBOROUGH similar shields with
around thc core, i. e. the sarne method by whioh a clay vessel is bells around the edges are rcproduced (SELER, (1), V, p. 163).
formed. Very likely the similar ornamentation found on Colornbian Among the gifts which the Totonac lord af Cempoallan pre-
bawk bells (fig. 29 d) has been produced by the sarne me thod. On the sented to Axayacatl on a special occasion was a wig, the hair of
whole, as I have already pointed out, the hawk bells north of E cuador which was braided with golden leather bands and with golden bells
show a certain resemblance to one another also in their shapes. hanging from it like fringes (K.RICKEBERG, [1), p. 32, cit. TEZOZOMOC).
Since all finds of hawk bells are archaeological there is very From this it appears that the pcllet bell has developed from the
little information a bout their function . The bells which CoBo de- fruit-shell jingle rattle in t hat a pellet has been put into tbe fruit-
scribes from the high plateau (p. 63) were u sed at dances, and were shell, "Whereupon tbis materia l has later been »translated » into me-
worn at the instep. ÚIEZA DE LEON (I, p . 203) reports from Guaya- tal. This has happened in a region where the material most used
quil in Ecuador, »that when the chiefs were sick, the Indians, to ap- was the nut of the J uglans australis, i. e. \Yithin an Andine terri-
pease t he wrath of their gods and pray for h ealth made sacrifices of tory. M:ost likely it has not tak en place in P eru, since the pellet
a superstitious nature; killing men (as I was told) and b elieving that bell is ratber a rare ph enomcnon on the Sierra and occurs most
human blood was a grateful offering. ln doing these things they frequently on the trccless coast. It has probably taken placc f~r­
souncled drums and bells before certain idols like lions and tigers, ther north, perhaps in B cuador where we come across the typolo-
which they worshipped. » From Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, gically oldest type. l\fost likely the pellet bell was invented inde-
anel Honduras I have no inforrnation regarding their function. From pcndently in America in spite of t he fact that the American bells
Yucatan CoGOLLUDO (LANDA, p. 128) states that the Mayas used closely r esemble hawk bells in other parts of the world. ln its de-
srnall copper bclls for coinage. Their size d etermined the value. t ails the American bell does, however. prcsent certain divergencies
The Aztec bell of copper or gold was called coyolli (SELER, [l), II, from t hose of the Old W orld. The idca of using a pellet in the bell
p. 538). Ooyolli of gold were part of the king's da ncing costume is in itself not so very str a nge. lt is a discovery which is easily
a nd were fastened at the foot with a broad band of gilded leather. made and which h as no doubt boon made in severa! places in Ame-
rica. However , not until the bclls are produced in metal do
Ooyolli as well as oyualli meant bells or jingle ra.ttles of both
t hey achie•e a ny importance a nd as a r esult tbereof wider
metal and shell. I have not been able to discover wbat the real
distribution. W e also find examples of a kind of pellet bell in
diffe rencc between these words is. PREUSS ((1), p. 166) writes of
North America among the Havas upai (cf. p. 46) where the women
t he Mexican bells:
use inflated d eers' eyes containing pellets. Another example is the
Dazu kornmen die Schollen (oyualli) die ais Brust- und Californian cocoon rattle which has prccisely the same function as
Ohrsohmuck Macuilxochitls, des Tanzgottes und d er ihm ver-
wandten Gestahlten, besonders des Affon uncl d or Coyote be-
hoof jingle rattles. A nut with a dried kernel is nature's model of
kannt sind. Im Gõttertrachtenkapitel des Sahagun.manuskripts a hawk bell. When in moul<ling à cire perdue a part of the core
sincl Schellen sogar allen Gottheiton ais Schmuck d er Füsse is taken away· it will later constitute a sort of pellet.
84. K. VJ<:'L'. 0. VlT'.l'ERH. SiL'1H. HANDJ,, SE R. A. DAND 5. :X:O 1
1 IZIKOWlT Z, MlJSTCAL I NSTRt:i\!ENT S OF S. AMERICA 85
Hawk Bells
Tribc> o r Placa :.\ktal Author (Collection)
Trilx> or Pla('c .\letal Autho r (Collectio n)

T angancic uaro Loc. ci!.

Prov. of Tuc·uman H1n:T & \'EJlNEA U, p. 313. cit. DE LA ()l ichoacan )
VA UT.X. Xochistlan (Zacate-
Calchaqui Op. cit. ca) e :\1: sec fig. 30 b. e.
Cuzco Op. cit., cit. EweANK. Aztcc SEu;1t, [ ! ], II. 428, 538. (coyol/i) .
bronze? B:.\1: VA. 784. Vnllcy of ) fexico
s ilver B'.\1: VA. 287 6. (Azcapotzalco) R1V ET & A nsAND:EALX, [ I J, p . 207.
Aymam copper , silver Coao, I V, p. 22!). T ootihuacan H AMY, p . 44].
Ancon MAX Scm11Dl', 12·1. p. :194. ]\'loxico Li 1v"T & ARSANDEAlJX, (2], figs. ü- 11 ,
JJnc ha <:amac copper R i vET & V irnNJ>A v, p. 3 1:J. cit. vHLE & 15, 16.
BAESSLEI\, Tlalnf'pa nt la RIVwr & VER.-...EAt:, p. 3 13 scq. (Wi th
Ch11q11ilanta Op. cit., cit . BABS~LEH, figs. õ 13- 18. rcfercnces.)
Lima copper, bronze Op. cil., cit. BAJ::SSLJ>n, figs. 513- 8. Pilon de Azucar
Trujillo Loc. cit. Cerro )[etates
) I.!.x Scn:moT, r21. p. 402. Cerro )fontoso
Chiclt1yo \"allcy RrVET & YJ::RNAl'. p. 3 13. :\Ictlellin (Vera
\·alie Viru :.\1Ax ScrnrroT. (2]. p . 402. Cruz)
Ln Balsa bronze! fül : \'A. 10361. Churumucco
Guayaquil CTEZA DE Ll:Ol\. I. p. 203. 'l'angancicuaro
:\lanabí c:opper RrVET & \'ERNA:t:U. p. 3 13. ()lichoacan)
Ca1iari Sultepcc ()fexico)
Cara Tehuantepec (Oax-
Quindio ARANGO, p. 105. a ca)
Manizalcs GM: 3 1.18.65. antl 3 J.J 8.66. 'l'he state of T laxcala
Anlioqula R r vi::T & C1rnQ u 1 -MON'.l'l'OrtT, p. 526. E nvi rons of Tula
BM: VA. 1036:2. (Coll. RANDELL-SOKOL- 'l'epec
sKY.) Pátzcuaro
BM: VA. 14788. (Coll. RANDELL-SOKOL- Santa Fó de la La-
SKY.) guna
Chiriqui RIVET & V E Rl\EA t:. p. 313. Puc blos
Costa K.i<'a coppcr AT,FARO, p . 26. Citico )found, Ten-
Rio Chamolo n. Xaco ncssee TH Q)IAS, fig. 2J2. p. 376.
(H onduras) 13LACKESTON, p. J37.
Yucatan LANDA, p. 1:? : t La m o nunie dont ils
se sen ·ait étaienl dcs clochettes ct des
el a p p er b e l l s.
grclots do cuh·re, dont la grandeur Clapper bells are a k ind of bell wh ich are entirely open on one
fixait I<' prix ... • (From Coon,Ll:DO).
)Iixtequc
. ide. The sound is produced by means of a clapper which is fastened
coppcr? füI: \'C. 300:!6.
Oaxaca gold SAVILW. 13), p i. JT I a.
inside t he bell and beats againRt it walls when t he bell is shakcn .
RIVET & ARSANDJ::At;X, (2), figs . 1, 14, These bells are found in t he Ncw World only in Sout h A merica
22. a nd t hcre only in a limitcd rcgion, na mely t he P eruvian Coast, northern
Totonac gold K m c 1rn1m1w, [ 1]. p . 32. Chile, and the Diaguita te rr ito r·y. i\fost of them have been found
Nar1t11j11n at Zacapu SJ>LJ>n, [ 1 J, r1 r, fig. 40 a - <', p. J oo.
in t he Calehaq'!li valley and in Quebrada de las Conchas - accor-
(Mic honc·r111)
di ng to BoMAN (TI, p. 230) about twenty of t hem. LATCHAM: (see
86 K . VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SEfR. A . BA D 5. N :O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTR UMENT S OF S. AMERICA 87

table) mentions a couple of bronze bells from Antofagasta in northern bell, (Bl\1. VA. 45883) as woll as a pair of bronze or copper bells,
Chile, but points out t hat these were urely imported from the one from Nasca (G.:\'l), t be other from Chancay (GM), instead of a
Calchaqui valley; t hey are t he only ones known from the coast of trapezoidal crosscut have one in the sbape of an h alf ellipse, that is,
Chile. F rom t he P eruvian territory only a fcw are known, most they have a rounded apex (fig. 33 a). Furt hermore t he silver bell
of t bem from t be coastal J1as an ornament consisting of a n animal h ead in r elief which
r egion at Ica, Nasca, Chan- juts out from t he apex. Ali t hese bells h ave two t op holes.
cay, and P achacamac. The wooden clapper bells are in form most like the Diaguita
'fhe most u su al type of metal bells. They are, moroover , almost of t he sarne size as these
t he South American clapper and flat in the apex. 'rhey have been found at Ica, in the Rio Loa
bell has a trapezoidal cross- valley (Calama, L asana, Chiuchiu, etc.), and in Casabindo and Mo-
cut; t ho opening at the base rohuasi (see t able). Among
anel tbe top plane are ellipse- t hemselves the shapes of the
formed , and tbe opening
has t he largest great -axis
(fig. 32). Compared wit h
our clapper bells t his bell
appears rather flat. The
wooden bells do not vary
mu ch. A pair of bells from
t be Rio Loa valley have a n
extra pair of boles on t he side,
about on e cent imeter below
o . -

sizes of t he bells vary con- the upper edge, meant for t he

siderably. string which is to ser ve as a
Tn t he apex or t op hold for t be clappers. I have a b
of t he bell t bere ar e two not ob served such holes on F ig. 34. Clapper bells. a of copper from
holos, moant part ly for the the other bells I have seen. Nasca, C M: 30.2.123 i; b of silver from
oord i n which the clttppers Severa! of these wooden bells Pachacamac, CM: 16.9.156. Y:?.

are t o be suspended, partly · have t heír clappers preser ved .

for t he su spen sion cord of The t wo bells from I ca, for instance, eacb bave tbree clappers;
t be b ell. On t he Diaguita one of them, wlúch is at the Gothenburg Museum, has clappers of
Fig. 33. Boll of wood with cla ppers of bone. bells t hese boles are often bone (fig. 32) a nd t he other, a t the Museum für Võlkerkunde
Ica (?). m i : 29.32.5. .square. The bells of this in Berlin, has wooden clappers. Two bells from northern Chile
type are made eith er of have wooden olappers oonsisting of pla in wooden sticks of uniform
metal or wood. Tbe Caloha qui bells whioh have been a na lysed wer e t hickness. One of t hem, from t he R io L oa valley, has nine clappers;
found to be of bronze. t be other, for which no more dcfinite finding place is known than
) '.letal bell from the rnaguita territory are u sually decor ated northern Chile, has seven clappers.
at the base wit b simple geometric designs and espccially with faces . The cla pper bells thus far descI'ibed are very closely r elated to
Tbc lines of the ornamentation are elevatcd, which has evidently one another . To be sure, only t he wooden bells have their clappers
beon clone in the process of moulcling by inoisions in t he form itself. preserved but sinoe t bc diffcrent specimens are so alike I presume
The Poruvian metal bells are closely related to t he former but usu- that even t hose bells which were found without clappers have had
ally lack om amentation . They are, however, much smaller and t hem. It is interesting that in t hose fow· instances when the bells
somcwhat diffe1·ent in shape. The P achacamac bell of silver -plate h ad clappers there were always severa! to each bell. On the whole I
on fi g. 33 b has a circle-formed basal opening and top plane which find that this type of bell differs considera bly from those types with
gives i t the shape of a truncated cone. Anothor Pcruvian silver which I am acquainted from the opposite shore of the Pacific. As
 88 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. ~:O l
I ZIK OWITZ, :\1 USTCAL TNSTRUMENTS O.F S. AMERICA 89
a matter of fact I suppose it is only in Africa l_hat anytbing similar nor have I found any information in the old literat ure about t heir
is to be found. L arge wooden bells are, to b e sure, u sed in Indo- function. Like A)IBROSETTI, v. RosEx ([1], p. 134) assumes tbat
ne ia, but t he e have anotber form and only one clapper. the clapper bells were uscd as bell on the llamas. »vVhen traveHing
ln t he course of bis excavations at Casabindo (Puna de Jujuy) across t he puna with beast of burden », v. RosE:s write , »it is custo-
E. v. Ro ·EN [l ], p. 135) found a pyramidal bell with clapper s made mary that t he anjmal wbich is to lead carries a bell. The rest of t he
of bronze. The diameter of the opening was about 6,5 cm. Along- a nima is quickly get the habit of following the sound of t he bell. »
side of thi h e found a small stone clapper which had obviously
been fa tened by a hole in the apex of the bell with a narrow
Wood. Clapper bells.
leather band a nd sinews. E. v. RoSEN compares it with a similar
bell made of silver - also with a stone clapper - which was found P lace Clnppors Aut,hor o.r museurn
at Ancon (REISS & STüBEL, I , pl. 81, fig. 9 and 9 a), a nd also with
anothcr bell belonging to WoLFF's collection in Cordova. This latter Ico. (?) 3 of bone 1 Ul\T: 29.3:!.5. Fig. 33.
has a bronze clapper fastened t o a ring insidc the bell. In view of Lasana Hl\I: 17.29.409.
t be con truction of the clapper, AMBROSETTI ([4], p. 230) supposes (Chiuschiu)
Korthcrn Chile 7 of wood 1K\I: 27.29.409.
it to be post-Columbian and produced undcr Spanish influence. It Rio Loa Valley 9 of wood ~IONTELL, p. 28. fig. 33.
is, of course, impossible to say whether the e bells were g iven clappers l\forohuasi v. RosEx, [l], p. 192, fig. 191.
before or after Columbus, but we should bcar in mind t hat the Calama BOllAN. II. p . 744. fig. 1i.>.
distribution of the pyramidal and the trapezoidal clapper bell is very Casabindo op. cit., p. 614.
much alike and that both these types exist only in South America.
Metal.
This does not givc any reason to s uspect t hat t he former was not
fo und with clapper already in pre-Columbian days, in spite of the Place Author or museum
construction of WOLFF's bell with the bronze clappcr.
Tiahu an a~o bro11zo(?) MM: 1 ~- 14- 493.
lt is as yet impossible to determine which of t he clapper bell
Chancay coppor r.M: :rn.:u~:.i i.
typcs is the oldest. Personally I am inclined to belicvc that the Pachacamac silv0r (J M: 16.9. 156. F ig . 34 b.
small metal bells carne first and thereafter the larger, produced in Nasca coppor C ~I: 29.32.3 d . Fig. 34 a.
wood as well as in metal. A small woodon bell procluces very little Peruvian Coast silvcr HM: VA. 45883.
souncl, and taking everything into consideration it is most likely • copper(?) B)I: VA. 62:l32.
t hat the clapper bells originated wben the Indians startcd to make Casabindo copper v. HosEN, [ !l. p. 192, fig. J92.

different sorts of bells in metal. That later on bells of wood a nd

'r inogasta lbronze :\ QIU>B~SIO OLD. [7]. p. 99, cit.
1 •"ANCJH;z ÜJAS.
clay wcre manufactured m ay be due to lack of material or of Antofagasta LAT(" ILA31 . p. 19.
tecbnical knowledge in t be art of moulding, or some similar cause. Cnldera op. rit .. pp. -lO- -ll.
Thc introduction of the clapper is not in itself so extraor- Cnfayate r
A lrnitoc:1::TT1 4 J, p. 2.~s.
dinary an invention that it might not occur in more than one place Jujuy
Pampa Grande
in tbe world. ln t he SPrx AXD ~lARTIUS' Atlas (p. 36, fig. 29) we (Cumbres dei Aco-
find reprod uccd some jingle rattles from Brazil, which a re evidently quija)
made of fruit-shclls, and each of which has its bonc »clapper». l\fost Animaná
likely thi was attached merely as an ornament. 'fhe object from (Valia Cla chaqui)
Nasca f ig. 28 is also a sort of clappcr bcll, although thc bone C11rt iembre
Luracatao
clappcrs are fastcnod on the outside. La Paya
As far as I know the Indians of today do not u se clapper bells, Molinos
90 K. VET. O. VTTTE RH. S~IH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l
IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUl\IENTS OF S. AMERICA 91
H ow the jingle obje,cts arl\ /astened logether etc. Usually the separate jingling objects are, however, fastened in
Thus far we have treated the jingle rattles and various sorts of a row along long strings or bands. The technique and material of
bells according to their material, forro , distribution, function, etc. thesc bands differ from tribe to
Wc sha ll now proceed t o study the method by which tbe separate tribe. ln Chaco, among the
jingling objects are fastened together so as to form rattles. The Aztecs, and among certain Cali-
separate objects are hung on strings, leather bands, etc., and are fornian tribes only leather bands
e ither collected in bunches which are held in the hand when in are used; among other tribes -
\ISO - this OCCUl'S in Chaco, among the Tukano, P at aso, possibly and this is the more common
a mong the Tainos (LovÉN, p. 493), in North America among the - tbe jinglers are fastened on
strings or on woven or plaited
bands. On fig. 13- 14 l bave collo-
cated various tecbniques of such
rattles from South American
tribes. These band r attles are
tbereafter fastened on the body
or on a staff when used. Certain
tribes tie tbese rattles under the
knee, others at tbe in tep, either
on the right or t he left foot, or
on both. ln the tables on pp.
60- 66 l have collocated infor-
mation regarding the manncr
of wearing thc rattles am.ong
Fig . :rn. Apron with jinglers of nut·sholls . Trio. CM: 23 .1.1.
different tribes. We soo by this
how great the variations are bo-
Yuma , etc. - or they are fastened along long strings or bands. The tween the tribes. ln Amazonas,
jingling objects may also, as we have seen , be fastened separately in for instanoe, the rule is that they
tbc hair (cf. p. 67) or directly upon a piece of clotbing. l have already are worn at the instep , a oustom
on p. 71 given an example from a head-dress from Ica. ln Guiana wbich also is found among t he
mall j inglers of nut-shells are sometimes fastened to the small Azteos. A number of other tribes
aprons worn by t be women. Fig. 35 shows one from Trio. l have in South America, for in tance
een a simila r pecimen from the Uachmiri lndians: (WM: 71029). a b e
the Pauserna, Jivaro, tho e liv-
The Waiwa i women fasten a kind of hawk bell of nuts on t he border Fig. 36. J ingle rattles of fruit s he lls tied
ing in Cbaoo, etc. wear the rattles on s ticks . a = 1.;it-0to, G)I : 31 .8.53.
of their dresses (cf. p. 73). According to SPIER ((2), p. 202), pieces around the waist (see tables) . 105 cm. b = )focushí, G)I: 12.1.124. 91
of clothing with attached jingling objects also occur in North Among certain South Ameri- c m. e 'J 'ukunn, G)I: 30..10.149. 126 cm.
America among the White l\fountain Apaches and H avasupai, and can tribes, as well as in California
they are mentioned in the myths of the Shivits Paiute, Wind and on the Plains, tbe rattles are fastened upon staffs. These may
River Shoshoni, and Comanche. SPIER also reproduces a woman's be either short and thon form a sort of handle, which is the case in
apron from the Havasupai (fig. 22) which is decorated with conical North America (see tablo), or they may bo staffs about three me-
metal jingle rattles (SPIER, ((2), p. 188, fig. 40 b ). tcrs long, which are pounded on thc g round. These latter occur in
92 R . VET. O. VITTERH. SAXH. HANDL. SER. A. DAND :; . N:O l IZTKOWJTZ, MU SICAL 1NSTRlJ;\1EN TS OF S. A."\fERICA 93
Sout h Am erica , not only in Chaco but also among the Uitoto and If we now compare the differcnt techniques and the mothods
'l'ikuna, in the Rio Negro territory among fot· in tance the Yanana, of wearing the rattles when in use with the different group of
in t he R oroima territory and in Dutch Guiana. \Ve find these materiais. we find that rat tles of all the different materiais discu ed ,
taffs again in northern California. The specimen already cited i. e. hoofs, fruit- hell , shell, etc. may be either tied togethcr in
0 11 p. 40 from Klamath is, as I have pointed out, rem iniscent of bunches or placed on cords or bands , which in their turn may be
t hc Chaco India ns' instrument. The similarity is undoubtedly : worn as girdles, anklet , on the clothing, in the hai:r, or simply held
interesting. in the hand. Rattlcs of hoofs, fruit shells, and even hawk bolls may
The taffs in Chaco may be either of solid wood or slender al ·o be tied to sticks.
r eeds, whilo in the Roroima territory, for instance, and among the
Uitoto t hcy consist of coarse bamboo. Thesc latter constitute in
t hemselves a new type of instrument, tho stamping tubo, with which Summary.
T hall deal in another chapter. Whon a tube is poundod on the Drawing conclusions from what f have already written about
ground it emits a hollow sound and the attached rattle beating tho jingle rattle and the pellet and clapper bells I have made tho
following summary of the history of these instruments or the changes

t=-==
Fig. 3i. Jingle rattle of frui t she ll tied on Cecropici s tick . l "sed
.. i~
AS stamping t ube.
i
they have passed through in America during the centuries. J
a m myself, fully aware that thi summa ry, º"ing to the insufficiont
material with which I have had to work, must necessarily be a very
hypothetical construction. Detailed invcstigations with other me-
Arekuna. After \". H ON BOSTEL .
thods than t hose I have bcen able to make use of in.a comparative
study within so wide a geographical area as the one now covered
aga inst the stick intensifies the sound. On fig. 36 some stick ra ttles
will undoubtedly produce far more a ccurate and valuable rcsults
are reproduccd. The specimen from the Roroima territory fig. 37, is
than my own. It would, for instance, havc been interesting to make
made of a species of Cecropia. The end which is pounded on the
a survey of the different festivals in the Amazon territory. Ono
ground is covercd with skin which evidently takes the placo of the 1 •
would almost certainly through a study of this kind have beon in a
soptum in a bamboo tube. The Cora India.ns use knee rattles and at
position to analyze tho intricate processes through which the Ama-
thc sarne timo hold sticks in t heir hands. These sticks are ornamented
zonian cultures have passod in changing from bunting and fish -
wit h what wou ld scem to be magic signs. The stick is in all pro-
ing to the cultivation of the manioc. Perhaps one might also be
ba bility an indepcndent cul ture elemcnt which perhaps originally
able to show the course of acculturation and distribution, etc. and
had no connection with the rattles. \Vha t the purpose of these
simultaneously with this discover the interesting changes in ideas
stick may have b een is not easy to say and it would lead me too
within their social life.
far a way from my thome to enter upon an inve tigation of this pro-
I should then con ider it probable that the hoof rattle is the
blem. Mo t likely they have different functions dep ending upon
oldest among all the American jingle r attles and that it originatcd
t hcir diffcrcnt orig ins. ln certain insta nccs the stick is clearly a
in and belonged to a hunting cultura. At first it was probably an
ma rk of dignity (cf. p. 138j. ln t he Roroima tcrritory , for instance,
a mulet for hunting and as such h as possibly been connected with
only t he foreda ncers carry them, and the sarno is the ca e in the
those ceremonies which are celebratcd at thc girls' adolescence, most
Rio Negro territory.1) When furnished with a hoof rat tle and used
probably to ensure that the ir children will become good hunters or
by womcn th c stick probably has another function. l t would seem
the like. At this point tho conception about »hardening against the
that the difforcnt functions in some way or other h a ve become in-
evil spirits » may very well have been brought in, and also ideas
tec·mingled. 'l'he problem is worthy of a closor investigation.
about the deer as the bdnger of lifo which in their turn most pro-
1
) ~ IM U.BN l>AJV [2], 'rof. VII, 5. bably were associated with astral myths about the deer and the
94 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWJTZ, MUSICAL INSTRUJllENTS OF S . .AJIIBRICA 95

mythical pair of brothers, etc. It is all an intricate complex of con- rattle seems to be primarily a sound instrument used for the purpose
ceptions which dese_rve closer attention in a comparative study in of accompanying the rhythm of the dance. H ere it forms part of
mythology. To explain other functions wh.ich the rattle may have a complex of ceremonies with mask dances, beliefs about demons
in otber societies cannot well be done with the material at my which are partly symbolized by other instruments, etc. Undoubt-
disposal. Of particular interest would be an investigation of the edly we have here ideas and culture elements of different origins.
use of the hoof rattle in the Dog society of the Plains Indians. Characteristic for these feasts is that a great number of neighbour-
It is thus the ideas associated with the material - hoofs - wbich I ing people, strangers in tribe or language, are in vited, all of whom of
consider to be essential and primary while the object as a sound cow·se contribute new ideas.
instrument must be regarded as a phenomenon of secondary im- If we compare the distribution of the jingle rattle of different
portancc originating in the dances which occur at the ceremonies. materiais - hoofs, fruit-shells, and shell - we find that it is mainly
Tbere is, bowever, no doubt but that the sound of the hoof rattles in Amazonas, and particularly among the agricultura! peoples, that
has tbe function of intensifying tbe effect of the magic ceremonies. rattles of fruit shells and shell are u sed. ln the ancient hunting
At first tbe hoof amulet was carried in various ways, tied to cultures in the periphery, on tbe other hand, hoof rattles are used,
some part of the body or upon staffs when it was used at the dances. as they also are among certain agricultura) peoples with a more
·what the function of tbe staff itself may be is impossible to say. ancicnt culture, such as for instance the Yamamadi, the N orthern
Little by little some of the tribes have changed their culture. Ges-tribes and the tribes living around Mount Roroima. ln large
The basis of tbeir economy changed from bunting to agriculture parts of America, however , along the Peruvian coast, in Ecuador,
and the fruits of the earth carne to occupy the central place in the Colombia, Central America, Yucatan, etc. these rattles are missing.
social life which was formerly filled by wild game, such as the deer This gap is filled by jingle rattles and bells of metal, especially the
•
and other hoofed animals. With these changes in the living condi- hawk bell. I have shown that the metal bells are »translations » in
tions of the Indians similar changes took placc in their outlook metal of rattles of hoofs, fruit shells, etc. This explains why these
upon life and consequently also in the ceremonies. A change of non-metal jingle rattles are lacking here. At first they were re-
this sort may be observed very clearly among the Aztecs. Obviously, produced in metal, but soon other forros were discovored better
witb a cbange of this sort those ideas which were associated with suited to the metal of which they were made. At this point two
the material in a hoof rattle disappeared, since they were bound up details in sound tcchnique wero added, the pellet and the clapper.
with the hunting lifc. On the other hand, there was no reason to To be sure, bot h of these no doubt existed before metal bells were
cbange the manner in wbich the rattles were worn and tbeir techni- invented, but they were both particularly well-suited for the metal
cal details. At this stagc any material capable of producing sound, bells. The clapper bells wcre evidently meant for the llamas to
such as hard fruit shells, snail and mussel shells, etc., was considered wear, and the other bclls decorated ceremonial clothing and are still
suitable for rattles, espccially since they occurred in greater quanti- used as dance instruments like other rattles, etc. On the whole their
ties than deer hoofs in a non-hunting society. The rattles were now function is little known. ln many instan ces t hey were without
fitted into an entirely different group of ceremonies than t hat to doubt merely ornaments, as for instance in Mexico where they per-
wbich it formerly belonged, namely to the festivais of agricultural haps were also a mark of dignity. Since, according to OoGOLLUDO,
peoples, for instance at harvest time when there is an abundance they were used as coinage in Yucatan one may surmise that hcre
of food providing a cause for celebrations. We may watch the tran- they were considered to be of some value.
sition among the Aztecs, where tbe young maize cobs are regarded
as girls in the age of puberty, and among the Uitoto, where at the
harvest festivais the rencwal of the manioc is celebrated at the
new moon just as they celebrate puberty ceremonies at this sarne
time in Ohaco. At festivais in the Amazonian territory the jingle
 '

IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL lNSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERlCA 97

classification of the instruments in t his group we arrive at the follow-

ing result:
1. Gourd rattles.
2. Derivates of the gourd rattle in other materia1s.

H O L L O W R A T T L E S.
G o u r d R a t t l e s.
(Gefiissrasseln). Among the gourd rattles ono may distinguish two types, one of
1

1
which is furnished with a short stick or handle which is grasped
1 when s h a k i n g the rattlo, while tho other has a very long handle,
or rather is put on a long stick, which is p ou n de d on the ground.
Characteristic for for t he hoHow rattles of instrurnents is that
they consist of a hollow receptacle (Gefiiss) in which are enclosed a . The gourd rallle which is shaken.
pellets of stone, hard seeds, or some other suitable material which, This group NoRDEN KIOLD ([4], p. 173) divides into two types,
\Yhcn the instrument is shaken, beat against one another or against one of wbich consists of an entire Lagenaria fruit, the protracted
tho ides of tbc receptacle and tbereby produce a rattling sound. stem of which forros a natural handle, while the other consists of a
)fany varying types of instruments bclong to this group. Tbe gourd with a special bandle, consisting of a peg stuck through it.
mo t common is the gourd rattle and closely related to it are r Rattles of the former type are mostly to be found in Cbaco.
rattlc with forms very like those of the gourd rattles but which Fig. 38 c portrays a spccimcn of such a rattle from the Tobas (RM:
are made of ome other material. Types altogether dilferent To. 31). Like many of the gourd rattles it is furnished with incised
from the e are a sort of hollow rattles which are formed by app- ornaments. The seeds have cvidently been taken out through a
lying t he main idea or principie of the hollow rattle to an instru- bole which bas later been closcd with wax. At the end of the
mcnt or tool of another kind. Jn its acoustic principie the hawk ! handle there is also a narrow hole which is closed with a wooden
(pcllct) bell also b elongs to the hollow rattlcs, although genetically ' plug. The sides of the rattle are picrced by a number of long cactus
it is closer associated with the jingle bclls. Thus we have three spines (t). When tbo rattle is shaken the rattling contonts also
main groups of the hollow rattles: 1 ) beat against theso spines which t hen emit quite a pleasing sound,
A. The gourd rattle anel similar forms in othel' materiais. i faint but still audible as it is evidently intensified by the resonance
B. Tools which originally werc not rattles b11t upon which a of the receptacle. Thcse ncedle in gomd rattles occur only in
hollow rattle has been applied. Chaco (among the Tobas, Lcngua, Noctén, etc.); they are also found
Sticks with hollow rattles, and tubular rattles. on tubular rattles which I shall deal with later (see p. 144). Concer-
ning tbe spines or nails of thc Longua rattles, GRUBB writes (p. 74):
1
1 »Some are made to produce a more musical sound by driving a.
Group A. numbcr of needles to t he butt end through the bulbous sides wbich
Thc rattles of group A haYe from thc first been conceived of are thus fi:xed in a rigid position and produce diffcrent notes as
as sound instruments, i. e. they were not originally tools with some thcy are struck by the seeds when swung to and fro. » Fig. 38 b
othcr function upon which the principie of the hollow rattle was l shows a rattle from Cboroti- Esmeralda. It is made of a Lagenaria
applied. Quite a diffcrcnt matter is for what purpose and by whom of another shape than thc one on fig . 38 c. Rattles of tlús sbape are
this sound instrument is used. Taking the ma,terial as a basis for opened only at the end of thc stem and closed again with a wooden
1
plug. This Choroti raitle is decoratcd with brass nails about 1 cm.
1
) Tho h!~wk bell, cf. p ellot bells, p. 73. long, while here and thcre 2 cm. Jong irou nails are driven through.
7
98 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l rzmowrrz, J\1lTSTCAL 1 NS'l'RL'1\H~N'l'S OF s. AMERICA 99
Thesc apparently bave tbe sarne object as tbe cactus spines. A rattle
reccntly brougbt to Gõteborg from the Tobas by ~1R. RYDÉ~ has
long steel wires fastened to the side of tbe rattlc and passing straight
tbrough the instrument. The Toba-s told him tbey were put there in
ordcr to get better sound. Anotbet rattle from tbe sarne collection
is furnishcd with rcctangular boles (fig. 38 a). Similar boles are also
founcl on a rattle from Cboroti-Guachalla (RM: D. 1332). Rattles
made of a whole gourd are also founcl outside of Chaco among the
Guató, Paressi-Kabesí, and Nahuquá.
I do not consider this type of rattle without a handle so

o Q

f
a

e.
F ig. 38. Courd rattles from Chaco. a = Toba, CM: 33.1.469; b = Choroti (Esme-
ralda), CM: 13.1.165; e = Toba, RM: To. 31; d = oroa-section of e. Y,..

strange in itself, since it is brought about by the shape of the Lage-

naria. It would be more important to discover how this material
compares cluonologically with the rattles which are made of Ores-
centia cujete, the tree-calaba.sb, of whicb the rattles in Brazil and
the rest of South America are commonly made. Tbc r elation
bctwcen the Lagenaria and other species of Ourcurbita and the
Orescentia i a very interesting problem, particularly since tbe Lage- e.
naria is suppo ed to have come over tbe Pacific from the Old World
d.
to America in pre-Columbian times. This problem can bowever
a.. b. e.
be solved only by a carefully detailcd study of all kinds of imple-
ments made from calabashes, gourds, etc. which are used by the
Indians, naturally in cooperation with a botanist.
The fruits of the Orescentia are more or less round or shaped
like an ostrich egg. They are characterized by their lack of the Fig. 39. Gourd rattlos. a = Patamona, CM: 12. 1.338; b = eross·scction of a; e ~
natural stem found on a number of species of the Lagenaria. The Baniwa, CM: 28.1.106; cl lj«a, CM: J6.3.lí64; o = Tjca, CM: 16.3.731; f = Ooo.-
jio·C!, 24.23.3. ~ ·
most us ual way of getting a handle to these ritttles is simply to
100 K. VET. O. VITrE.RH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, :M lJSTCAL INSTRUMENTS OF S . AMERICA 101
fasten a peg on to tbe gourd. This type of rattles usually has recep- 41 e). The gourd of thls latter is fastened to the peg with a
tacle of Crescentia, tbough thls is not always the case. Once in string which on either side of the gourd runs through longitudinal
a while othcr sorta of gourds are used. openings. This method of fastening is common to the rattles of
The gourd may be fastened upon the handle in many different these ten-itories. I have also seen a similar method used on a pair
ways. .,f.J; t hese vary somewh at
from tribe to tribe and even within
a tribe it is usually not possible
to deduce any final conclusions
regarding tho r·attle gourd's mi-
grations through a study of the
technique. The most usual method
is simply to stick a peg through
the gourd. The calabash will then
remain on t be peg-handle if the
holes in the gourd through which
the peg goe are sufficiently nar-
row. vVith a few exceptions to
be discussed la.ter this method is
also used through the entire area
of distribution of this instrument,
for instance on the gourd rattles
from the Goajiro (fig. 39 f ), Ijca
(fig. 39 d, e) Chocó, Palikur, etc.
Usually, however, further arrange-
ments are necessary to prevent
the calabash from fal ling off from
the vigorous shaking when the
Fig. 40. Goui·d rnttle. Calibi (Surina.m). rattle is playod. One way of doing
ll\1: 06477. lfoight = 35.3 cm. this is to fasten tbe peg with wax a.
(e. g. tho Ijca rattle, fig. 39 d),
Fig. 41. Gourd rattlcs. a = Apinay<I, G'.\i: 31.40.214; b = Apinayé, G)I: 31.40.216:
or to tie a tring around it at the places ·whcre it goes in and out e = Tukano, G:\f: 16.5.54. C:a 'is·
of the gourd. Often the peg is somewhat thickcr in the handle
proper $0 that thc calabash cannot slide down. This is illustrated of rattles from the territ.ory around the sources of Rio Xingú (Auetõ,
in fig. JO. Thc handlo on the Apinayé rattle (fig. 41 b) is furnished BM::VB. 2771; Nahuquá, Bl\f:VB. 2547), although these specimens
with plaited work; anotber from tbe sarne tribe ha a handle of lack the longitudinal openings on the gourd (fig. 43 a). The Nahuquá.
bono in which the peg is stuck (fig. 41 a). This takes the place of rattles on the whole exemplify how this instrument may vary within
the thickcned handle. Another method may be observed on the one tribe. Thus on some rattlcs from this tribe the peg is fastened
Tembé rattle (fig. 42) which, like the rattle on fig. 44 a from tho Cuna with wax which on a number of thcm is modelled (fig. 43 e-e) in
Jndians, has the handle wound around with a string. 'l'he handles the shape of ai;i. animal head with an eye of shell, a bud, etc. On
of mttlcs from the Rio Negro territory are often profiled (fig. another specirnen the uppermost part of the peg is furnished with
 102 K. V.E'r. O. VITI'ERH. SAMH . HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, )lUSICAT, lNST.RUMEI\"'TS OF S. AlllERICA 103
a small cross-picce of wood (B~f: VB 25461). The Nahuquá also have
rattlcs made of the whole Lagenaria preci ely like tho e from Chaco.
Rattles from tbe tribes of the R oroima territory have a
pecial metbod for fa tening the calabasb. The handle is t hicker
than the pointed upper pa rt of tbe pcg which is put into a narrow
t ube to prevcnt it from sliding out of
the ·calabash. On t he specimen in fig.
39 a, b t he total longth of the r attle is
47 cm. and tbe small axis of the cala-
bash is only 7 ,5 cm: Often t he upper part
of the tube is decorated w ith feathers.
(v. HoRNBOSTEL, [5], Taf. 65, fig. 6).
The rattle gourds of tho Cuna Indi-
ans (fig. 44 a) pre ent a deviation from
the u sual method of sticking a peg
straight through the calabash. A bone
or a wooden stiok serves as handle -
on one sp ecimen a wooden handle in
the shape of a bone - which is only
partly stuck into thc calabash but does
not go all the way t hrough. Four small
boles around the opening for the handle
are meant for the string which fastens
the handle to the calabash. We find
similar rattles among the Bribri Indians
in Costa Rica, a tribo undoubtedly close-
F ig. 42. C our<l rattlo from ly related to t he Cuna Indians (SKINNER,
t.hc T cmbó. C)f: 31. l l.l. ~ · [3], PI. XXV C) . The find of a rattle
from Chiriqui shows that a similar type
ha exi ted in t he territory between thesc tribes (fig. 44 b , ! .
- c:c
WJL. ON, p. 626). It is evident that a distinct type of rattle has ::: >
f ..
developcd in t he e parts of Central America. 1 ) "O~
.. e:
Comparable to tbese are the rattles from the K adiuveo (MAXIZER,
o"'
o
d
(l], p. 324), Kaingang (~IBROSETTJ, [l ], p. 318), and Bororó
(COLBACClllNI, p. 231) in t bat the handle does not go through t he

·, 1 ) Tho Lncnndonos and the moderu Maya.s (TozzEll, (2), p . 7 5; STARR, [2] p. 8 1) use

a-rattlo type which may possibly be relatcd to this Contrai Amorican typo. The
h andle it.solf, which runs through tho gonrd, is furLhermor o fastoned with small
floxible s Licks which are stuck into sm all holes around the handle- hole . The sticks
are thoroaftcr lash ed along tho handle with a strip of bark (fi.g. 45).
104 K. V1'~T. 0. VITTERH. S.AMH. HA.i.°"'DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRU)IENTS OF S. AMERICA 105

enti.re calabash. As the illustrations are inclistinct l cannot in ples, e. g. from British Guiana, about which W.
detail decide about the construction , but it sccms as though the ROTH, describing a feathered rattle gourd, says
handles of the Kadiuveo rattles are fastened with strings and that that i>the feathers not only must be those of a
the peg does not go through the whole rattle. Concerning the Bororó spccial kind of parrot (Psithacus aestivus) but that
rattle COLBACOHI~J: writes that the handles are fastened with wax. they must also be plucked from the bird while
AMBROSETTI only gives a description without illustrations. alive. » This is also the case with the Tupinamba
and Apapocuva-Guaraní (KARSTEN, [1] , p. 91).
The missionary, W. T. VENESS (p. 29), who
lived several years among the Warrau Indians of
Mazuruni, also points out the magical significance
of the feathers on the rattlc: »Attached to the
maracca and wound round anq round it is a string
of the beautiful red and green and blue wingfeathers
of the kalow or large Amazon parrot which are
also believed to have a wondrous charro». Of parti-
Fig. 45. Gourd
cular interest is ~1ANIZER's ([l], p. 335) information rattle from the.
that the feathers on the rattles of the Guaraní Lacandones.
lndians are thought to be souls of birds which are After Tozu:n.
tbe assistants of the paZé - tbe shaman. The sarne
idea is found among the Palikur {NIMUE~DAJÚ, [4], p. 88).
Usually only one calabash or receptacle is used for each rattle
altbough there are some exceptions to tbis rule. ln the l\foseum
für Võlkerkunde in Berlin thcre are a number of rattles, excavated
in Puenta Piedra on the Peruvian coast (fig. 47), one of which has
two gourds, one on top of the other. 'l'he sarne is the case with a
a b
rattlc from Nahuquá (fig. 43 e).
Fig. 44. a= gour<l rattlo from the Cuna, Gl\f: 27.27.1190. b = rattle of clay from The gourds of tbe rattles are often ornamented. This is always
Chiriqui, after WILSON. true of rattles from thc Rio Negro territory. The ornament is in-
cised. A pair of rattle with particularly fine decorations should be
Both in Brazil and in Guiana it is customary to decorate the mentioned, one of which come from Guahibo and is portrayed by
r attJes with feathers, a custom which to judge from illustrations in STRADELLI, while the other is a Galibi rattle now to be found in
the l\fayan and l\fexican coclices was also found in these regions the Lindenmuseum in Stuttgart. KRAUSE and KrssENBERTH por-
(fig. 46 a, c). The feathers are not »for pleasure » only, but have tray cveral ornamented rattles from the
a r eligious function. ln a chapter on »Feather ornamcnts » in his tribes of north-eastern Brazil. Accorcling
work »South Amcrican Inclian Civilization », KARSTEN ([1], p. to KARSTEN [ 1] the ornamentation also has
78) says that »feathers are essentially means of conjuring and magical ignificance.
exorcising evil spirits and used as charros cven in many cases A peculiarity about some rattles is
where to a superficial observer they seem to be mere 'ornaments' ». thc small perforations which we often find
F ig. 46. Pictures of gourd
ln the sarne connection he also points out the magical import of rattles in Mexican Codiccs. on spec imens from north-eastern Brazil
the fcathers on gourd rattles ([1], pp. 88- 91), giving some exam- After SELER. (Apinayé, Tcmbé, Canella, Guajajara, Kay-
106 K. VET . O. VITTERII. Sfu\IH. HANDL. SE:R. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL l NSTRUl'tIBNTS 01'' S. A111ER1CA 107

apó, Carajá, etc.), Guiana - where thc holcs are in groups, e. g. 4 t ion from the common type of rattles from this territory which
times 9 boles - a nd among t he Ijca (fig. 39 d , e), either according ar e usually ricbly sculptured. The rattle in question - like tho e
to a a ccrtain ordcr or scattered o>er t he ent ire calabash. On from this territory in general - is made of two hollowed wooden
Goajiro and Chocó rattles there are indiddual holes in tbe c~abash. halves with the handle and t he thickcned part made in one piece.
On thc mustrations of gourd rattles to be found in Aztec and ~fayan Here also it is possibly a case of a n influence, the origin of which
codices (fig. 46) we see that t he rattles al o hcre were perforated by a may be traced to the high cultures in Mexico.
great number of holes over the en tire calabash . This is evident ly A rattlc which l\lR. RYDÉ brought
still in use among t he Huichol to the north and thc Lacandones and back from the Toba was furnished
with a grcat number of small rectan -
gular holcs (fig. 38 a). It is not likely
t hat this should be due to influence
from the ra ttles of the Amazonas terri-
tory since influence from t his part is
extremely rare in Chaco. It is pro-
bably an isolated phenomenon.
It is difficult to say what pur-
pose the boles in t he calabash may
have had. Unfortunately I lack in-
formation on this point. Perhaps
they are there in order to improve the
sound or to remove the powder which
is generated from the inner mem-
branes of the calabash as tbese are
torn to pieces by the contents when
Fig . 4 7. Courd rattles from Puento P iedra, Poruvian Coo.st. the instrument is played. The slits
BM: VA. 34180- 34182. in t he Guiana rattles (fig. 40) may
perhaps in this way be accounted for Fig. 48. Rattle of wood from t ho
Pipi! to t he outh. The rattle which TozzER portrays from the Lacan- as a special development. Tsimshia.n, :Ka.ss River.
dones has holes arranged in a pattern (fig. 45). The sarne peculiarity The rattling contents of the cala- KM: H . 1713. C:a. 1 ~ .
may be n oticed on rattles from southern North America. Obviously bash u sually consist of hard seeds
thc perforatcd rattle is an old ~1exican-l\fayan type which spread of various sorts, stone , shells, glass beads, lead · shot, etc.
to thc ljca - which tribe, by the way, also in other respects shows Obviously t he lndians have made use of materials most suitable
t races of l\Iexican influence (cf. p. 373) - and further to t he mouth for producing the rattling sound, but t his does not, on the other hand,
of t be Amazon river with surrounding territories, Guiana to the appear to h ave been t he most important consideration. Thus Rev.
north and the northern Ges-tribes to the south ; territories which W. T . YEXESS (p. 29) mentions that the rnaracas of the Warraus
are strongly influenced by Central American culturn. Particularly contained »fragments of rock crystal (Maraweri diamonds, or Cali-
interesting is the fact tbat the perforated rattle rccurs on tbe north- c ut stones, as tbey aro called) bJ'ougbt from tbe mountains of the
west coast of N orth America, more definitely a mong t he Tsimsbian. interior and supposed to possess some hidden virtue ». Further Nr-
I have seen only one specimen, which is found in the ethnographical M UENDAJÚ sayi? r egarding the sacred rattles of the Apapocuva-
museum in Copenhagen (fig. 48). This rattle constitutes an excep- Guaraní: »Als Rasselsteine dienen dieselben schrotkornabnlicben,
 108 K. VET. O. VlTTERH. 8AMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL JNSTRUMENTS OF S. A.."l\iERICA 109

schwarzen Früchte (ymau) aus denen die Brustketten hergestellt l t he functions of the gourd rattle among some Chaco tribes. The use
werden. Diese Frücbte stehen im Geruch ciner gewi sen Heiligkeit. of this instrument is in general the sarne as that of the water drum.
l\fan lii.sst sie nio auf Boden herumliegen .. . » ((1), p. 341). But t he Argentine l\fataco, unlike the Choroti, use the drum more
RunEN PEREZ ~TULE, a member of the Cuna trib~ of Sa.n tban the gourd rattle, and among the Chaco the gourd rattle is a
Blas Coa t , Panama Isthmus, who for several months worked at magical instrument. KARSTE~ says: ». . . the instrument wben
the muscum of Gothenburg, told me that there is a difference shaken is believed to have a remarkable 'power' which is partly
between t he pellcts of a sacred rattle and a ordinary one used by the d ue to the magical properties of the gourd itself, partly to the sceds
women to quiet the children; the former contains seeds of a sacred or other things with which it is filled, partly to the gcometric figures
plant nõ, the latter anything suitable, for instance maize. Concer- with which the outside of the gourd is ornamented» (loc. cit.).
ning the contents of the Guiana rattles RoTH ([1], § 289) writes: »But The Choroti make use of it not only »to frighten away and
whetber seeds or stones, they usually have some out-of-the-way conjure evil spirits in general, but also for certain positive ends.
origin: the former, for instance, may have been extracted from Onc shakes the rattle to obtain something. Thus it is played at
thc piai teacher's stomach; the latter may be the güt of the Water marriage and courtship dances by men who are despised by the
spirits. According to a Kaliií.a the power of the maráka lies in girls in order to »hurry on » the latter and to give greater success in
the stones contained therein. » love. The father also plays the rattle in order tbat his son may be
E. v. RosEN ([2], p. 179) examined the contents of a number of successful in bis love affairs. When the Choroti women at their
rattles from Choroti in Chaco and found that they contained sheet first menstruation dance with hoof rattles it is customary for the
irou, cactus needles, bits of glass, etc., and seeds which upon investiga- men to sit and accompany them with their gourd rattles. We have
tion proved to be Canna, Convulvulacé, Smilax, and several others here an example of how certain instruments among certain tribes
which were impossible to determine. Among other things v. RosEx are used only by one of the scxcs.
gives an account of the contents of a small bag of red cloth which When algarobo beans for brewing the sacred beer are gathered,
he received from a Choroti. ln this bag thc Indian told him he or wild fruits, or the young men go fishing, the husbands of the
used to keep the things which he put in the magic rattles. This bag women and the old men sit at homc and shake their gourd rattlcs
was found to contain a large number of seeds of many different kinds: to onsure luck for thesc undcrtakings. ln conclusion KARSTEN
39 quad1·ilateral pieces of plato iro~, 3 curiously shaped says:
picces of plate iron, about 25 mm. in lcngth; 4 plo.to iron ferrules, »It is difficult to mflke out. cxactly the train of thought un·
or casings (these were probably oncc mountings on lcather fringes dc rlying this curious custom. Ono might think that thc Tndians
attachcd to a girdlc); 6 pieces of tin; l turquoise .coloured glass m can t o frightcn away, by thcir rattles, the evil spirit.s which
bead; l fragmcnt of ditto; l pieco of uncoloured glass; 4 blue impede s ucccss in an important enterprise, and in part it is no
pieces of glass; and 4 green pieccs of ditto. Through friction doubt so; but lho chicf idca S<'em s to be another. The very move.
against each other all these bits of glass ha,·e got their sharp m ents, togcthcr with tho tpower t emanating from tbe magica!
cdges worn off and tbeir faces ground dull; in shapo they now instrument, are c,·idcntly bclieved to exert a dircct, mys terious
cxactly resemble small quartz pcbblcs. influence upon natural proc<'SS('S and even upon human tbought
and feelings. ln othcr worcls, the effects seem to follow mainly
Personally I have not investigated the seeds of the rattles I
on the principles of sympathctic magic• ([2], p. 159).
have studied, since this would in my opinion be superfluous and
since moreover, it is exceptionally difficult to determine tbe species Among the 'l'obas tbc ceremony of shaking the gourd rattle is
of these eeds. »the general ,·..-ay of c:xpclling cvil demons which move about at
night, causing sicknes , tempests, thunderstorms, etc. » Further-
T h e / u n e t i o n o / t h e g o u r d r a t t l e. more »various important incidents in the social life of the Tobas,
ln bis valuable book »The Indian tribes of Argentine and such as tbe birth of a child, thc initiation of young girls at the time
Bolivian Chaco i> KARSTEN ([2], p. 155 seq.) makes a compilation of of pnberty, and deaths are celebratcd with poketá danyakk6 (gourd
110 K. V1'~T. O. Vl'l'TERH. S&\IB. HANDL. SER. A. DAND 5. )1":0 1 IZIKOWITZ, ~1USICAL J NSTRUMENTS 01'' S. AMERICA lll

rattle) conjurations. The most important occasion on which the STADEN, who in the beginning of the 16th century was a captive
rattle and the drum are used is, however, among ali triijes the pre- among the Tupinambá for a fairly long period.
paration of fermented drinks » in order to prevent cvil spirits lrom The Tupinambá looked upon the maraca - the gourd rattle -
poiling the beer (op. cit. pp. 159- 160). Thcre i also a positive a s the haunt of a spirit. The reverence accorded the 1naraca and its
object, KAR TE)!" (p. 161) explains ~which is indicated by the very sacred character were due to the belief t hat its sound was the voice
expre · ion ' hurry on the fermentation' ». of a spirit. According to TnEVET the spirits who manifested thcm-
lf wc go on to other Chaco tribes reports become considerably selves in the maraca were those of the forcfathers. The instrument
fewer and more meagre. GRUBB (p. 74) states that the Lengua use as such was not sacred until the medicine had given it power. Inte-
their golll'd rattles at feasts and that thcy are used by witch doctors resting in this connection is STADEN 's detailed description (IT,
for the purpose of exorcising evil spirits and in performing other chap. XXIII):
rites connected with their craft. According to SANCHEZ LABRADOR »Sie glauben an eyn ding/ das wechst wie eyn kürbs/ ist so
they are used by the M:bayá medicine-meu to cure the sick, prevent gross wie eyn halb mass dõpp<'n. lst inwendig hoel/ stecken cyn
stecklin dardurch/ schnr iden oyn lõchlcin darein wio eyn mundt/
storms, etc. ln speaking of the Kadiuveo village, Nalike, MA.~IZER vndt thun kleyne steynlcin darein/ das es rasselt./ Rasseln dar-
([1], pp. 324 seq.) says that thegourdrattle was used by a shaman who mit wann sie singen vnd tanzen/ vnd h eyssen es Tammaraka.
wa a Chamacoco Indian but who had grown up among the Kadiuveo. Ist so geformirt wie folget. Dicsclbigcn hat das Mans ,·olck/ eyn
Among the Bororó orientali (eastern Bororó) the rattle is used yeder sein eygens/ so scind mm ctliche vnter jnen/ welche sie
at various burial rites; a person always shakes two rattles simultane- heyssen Paygi/ werden vnt<'r jnc n geachtet gleich wie man hie
die warsager achtet/ diesclbigen ziehen des jars eyn mal durchs
ously, one in either hand. There are two different sizes of rattles.1) landt in alie hiitten/ vntl gebm für/ Wie das eyn geyst sei bei
The s maller one is used particularly with those songs which are jnen gewescn/ welchC'r wC'ithcr von fremden õrtern komcn wcrc/
sung when a corpse is disinterred for the purpose of a second burial. h ette jnen maacht gcbcn / <las alto die rasselen Tammaraka/
With the rattles in hand the Bororó accompany not only the real welche sio wollcn/ sollcn sprC'chcn vnd macht bekommen wo sie
burial songs but also hunting and fishing songs which precede the es vmb bitten sollo cr gowch rC't soin Eyn yeder will dann/ das
in seino rassclcn dio g<'wnlt kom o/ machen eyn gross fest/ mit
grcat collective hunt which takes place the day after the death of j trinckon/ singcn vnd wcissngcn / halten v il seltzamer Ceromonien.
an Indian. The rattles are kept by special officials. CoLBACCHINI, Darnach bcs timmcn di<' wahrsagor oyncn tag/ in eyne hütten/
who in his excellent monograph »l Bororos orientali-Orarimugudoge» welohe sio Jodig machon/ mlissen kC'yne weiber oder kinder dar-
fumishcs us with splendid descriptions of all thcse rites, also gives inne bleibcn/ dan gobictc n dic wahrsager/ das eyn jed er S<'in
a detailed description with note illustrations and analysis of the Tammaraka rot vcrmalo/ mit fodern vnd dahinkomme/ so wõlll'
er jnen die gowult ' 'bcrlifferen das s ie sprech en sollen. Darnach
rhythm in which the accompaniment follows these songs. Thus komen die in dio hütten/ so setzcn sich die warsager obenan/ vn
t he rattlo is a burial instrument in this tribo. The medicine- haben jre Tammaraka bci sich in d er erden steck en/ Darbci s toc-
men do not seem to make use of it in curing the sick. (CoLBACCHThJ:, k en die andem jre a uch/ E yn yeder gibt den Warsagcm ge-
pp. l l5, (114], [120], [122]). sch enck/ welches SE'in flitschpfcile / feddern/ dinger die sic an die
Among t he Tupi people the gourd rattle has played a very ! ohren h encken/ auff d as y c seines Tammaraka nicht Ye rgessen
werdt. \Yann s ie dflll a llc bei eynander sein/ so nimpt er dann
important role as a magicai instrument at religious ccremonies. It eyn ycdcrn Tamma ra ka sondr rlich / Ynd bereuchert es mit krau-
is often mentioncd in the old French 16th century literat ure about de/ welchs s io Bittin ncnne n. Damacb nimpt er dic Rassel hart
the Tupinambá and in general in the earlier descriptions of the YOr den mundt/ Ynd r assclt mit,/ v nd sagt zu jm: Neo Rora/
Tupí-Guaraní. ln one of his excellent treatises on these peoples, 1 mm rede/ vnd lass dich h õrcn / bistu darinne. Dann red et er
»La religion <les Tupinamba, etc.», MÉTRAUX makes a comparative kleynlich / vnd gerad eyn wort das man nioht wol m ercken kan.
Ob es die rassol thu/ odcr ob r r es thue/ Vnd das andor volok
study of the function of the gourd rattle among these tribes. Ris meynct/ dio rasscl thu os. Abcr der warsager thuts selbs/ so
sources are the old French authors LERY, THEVET, and the German thut . er mit allcn rnsscln/ oyn cr naoh der andem. E yn y<'dcr
1
) Colbacchini, p. 231. m eyne t dann/ das scine rassel grosse maacht bei sioh hab. Dcnn
112 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOW'.ITZ, :MUSICAL INSTRU")1ENTS OF S. ~IERICA 113
1
gcbie t cn jncn die warsagcr / das sio zu kriege zieh en/ feinde fang- m edico, hace c reer á los, quo h a b la. con el demonio, y quo por
cn / dann die geyster so in dem Tammaraka seicn/ gel üste schlauen ser m edio sabe si ha de vivir o n o cn el enfermo. . . . Con la.
fleysch zuessen / deronach zich en sie zu kriege. ) faraca grila y p rogunta ttl clemonio él Pia<:hée y quando se
W enn nun der warsager Paygi aus allen rasseln gõtter ge- leantoja, mud a d o voz . . .. ~
macht h a t / so niropt dan cyn y ed er sein rasseln hin/ heysset sie
lieb er sohn/ mach er jr sygcn hüttlin/ da es inne steh et/ setzt On the whole the maraca seems to be the medicine-man's tool
jroe essen vor/ begchrt von jmo allcs was j me von nõten ist/
among tbe Arowaks in Guiana. WALTER ROTH ([2], p. 374-) mcn-
gleich wie wir den warhafftigcn Gott bitten/ d as sein nu jre
Gõtter/ ». tions that >}the maraka among the present-day Arowaks of t he Pome-
roon District is the paraphernalia of t he medicineman. With it he
Among the Apapocuva-Guaraní the rnaraca plays quite as
invokes the Spirits in t hc night. >} The fire must be extinguished
important a role as a sacred instrument as among the Tupinambá.
during this ceremony. 'J'J1e mcdicine-man blows smoke on the maraca
It is used at medicine dances, at which it is an important instrument.
all the while and sings and shakes his rattle. RoTH also speaks of
At least the medicine-man must h ave a rattle at these dances.
similar ceremonies a mong t he Caribs of the sarne district and quotes
NIMUENDAJÚ ([1], p. 341), who gives this inlormation, goes on tosay:
on t his sarne subject BARRERE from Calibi in French Guiana. The
tDiese Tanzrasseln sind oft alto Erbstückc, wclche vom
ceremony is highly reminiscent of the one which 1'\111IUE:NDAJÚ
Vator auf dcn Sohn übergeh en. Ibro H ciligkeit und Zauberkraft
scheint mir besonders in ihrer tStirome •, d. h. in ihrcn Klang, witnessed in 1924 in an Arowak tribe, Palicour (P alikur) at Rio
i
zu b cstohen. Es berührt dfo Incliancr immcr ungem <'in peinlich Oyapock, Brazilian Guiana. We find t bat the gourd rattle, the
w cnn ein nascweiser Fremder cino Rasscl in die Hand nimmt und s moking of tobacco, the nightly hour, tbe complete darkness, and
sofort mit der »Kinderklappcr ~ fidol zu ulken anfiingt. Manche 11 othcr such details recur. Among t he Palicour every spirit has its
Medizinmiinnor gebraucben auch zwci Rasseln,') d eren Stiele own magic song which the medicine-man accompanies with the
roitoinandcr v erbunden sind, g loichzeitig. •
rattlc (NIMUEXDAJÚ, [4], p . 93) .
Through NIMUENDAJÚ's descriptions it becomes quite olear We '\'\ili now continue our investigation among other Arowak
what lies behind t he use of the rattle at medicine dances. Evi- tribes. The Tainos in thc West Indies who wer e representatives for
dently it is t he sarne here as in Chaco - with the rattle evil spirits an old Arowak culture used an instrument which is obviously meant
are expelled. It is probably also this idea which lies behind a 1 : to be ·a rattle. The descriptions of the Taino rattles in t he old Jitte-
clescription given by TECHO (III, p. 32!J) from thc Guaraní on the rature are very clifficult to understand, but according to LovÉN's
occasion when a missionary, P a dre Castillo, was killed. The famous in vcstigations these must h ave been made of Orescentia. The de-
chicf and medicine-mau, Niezú, when he roused the people against scriptions give us no information regarding their appearance. Ac-
the missionary, used a rattle and was attired in fcather-mantle cording to PA..'<E (cit. LovÉN, p. 493 seq.) the Haitian gourd rattle
and headdress, cxactly like a medicine-man in full action. To judge had not one simple handle but two, a detail which I have never seen
from Niezú 's words he regarded Padre Castillo as a dangerous on other rattles. LovÉN believes this may have been a mistake on
sorcerer or evil spirit who should be annibilated. t he pa rt of P ANE. The gourd rattle in Haiti belonged to the para-
l!'ATHER GUMILLA (I , p. 174) maintains tbat the Arowaks of p hernalia of the medicine -man also.
Guiana are tbe inventors of the maraca and t hat they havc intro- Among the Goajiro thc rattlc was also uscd by the medicine-
duced i t in otber tribes. He ''Tites: . man, t he piaché, for the p urpose of driving away evil spirits who
t E stos inclios son los m as diestros y a ún c reo, que son los 1 attacked the cattlc. This took place simultaneously with t he blow-
invt>ntores d e la )laráca , que se ha. introducido tambien cn otras ing of tob acco smokc on t he horses while the piaché shook his
Nac ion cs, y se reducc t'I. un t>mbastero, que so introducido á
maraca (CANDELIER, p. 200) .
1
) In this trib o tho maraca is generally uso<l only by t he men, in contrast with
It would be exccedingly interesting to be famil iar with the
tho stnmping tubo which is a typical fe male instrumont. Still, it seoms as though u ses of the maraca in several difforent Arowak tribes from dif-
t hore have beon m edicino-wome n who havo used it (NrMUENDAJÚ, [ ! ] , p. 342). ferent territories, in order to compa re its func~ions among these
8
 1 i

114 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. DANO 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 115

people who are generally suppo_sed to ~ave. clistri?uted it over are at the back of this function. From a theoretical point of view
Amazonas. Unfortunately such inforroat1on is lacklllg. From a 1 it would therefore be more valuable to start with the function and
great number of Arowak tribes it is only mentioned t hat th~ maraca then include the entire complex which belongs to it, for instance
is used at dances. This is in particular true of the Rio Negro the healing of tbe sick. This is, however, not my task in this book,
territory and of the Central Arowaks (Wapishana, Atorai, Taruma, but I hope to return to it in a later study .
Napidian) and of the Mitua, M:ojo, etc. More detailed informati?n Let us continue to study the use of the gourd rattle. I have
as to t he import of these dances is not given. It would, for m- already mentioned the function of the rattle among thc Pomeroon
stanco, be of special value to get reliable information concerning the Caribs and the Galibi of French Guiana. Certain statements
function of the maraca among the southernmost Arowak tribe, the from other Carib tribes may be added at this point. Among the
Guaná. The information which CoMINGES (p. 200) presents from Makushi and Yekuaná the rattle is u sed by the medicine-man in
this tribe is entirely too meagre to enable one to draw any conclu- contrast with the neighboring Arekuna and Taulipang. Among the
sions as to whether in this tribe the maraca is orginally an Arowak latter it evidently does not play a particularly important role; it is
instrument or whether the Guaná have received it from some neigh- · used only at certain dances the character of which I do not know.
boring tribe. P. CoMDrGES m erely mentions that it was a very According to Gu:mLLA {I , p. 181) it would seem as though the now
sacred instrument which was used against evil spirits and that extinct Mapuyes also made u se of the r attle at some kind of dance
once when he wanted to play it everybody protested against such a which was executed at a »marriage». It is not surprising that the
sacrilege. This is a feature wbich we recognize from Apapocuva- use of the gourd rattle among t he Warrau resembles that of the
Guaraní (p. 112) and also from a number of Arowak tribes. To cite neighboring Arowak and Carib tribes. VENESS (p. 29) writes that
WALTER RoTH: » . . . according to Indian t radition the original the Warrau medicine-man »makes use of a maraka when anyone
rattle was a gift from the Spirits. DANCE accounts for the great is sick. He fumigates it with smoke tobacco in their eyes (meaning
veneration in which it is held even by the Christian converts who that h e blows smoke into the openings of the rattle). »Then he
have ceased to u se it. BRETT confirms this sayin g tbat there are commences to chant a kind of invocation to the evil spirits to
Indians who fear to touch it or even approach thc place where it is depart from the sick person and cease to afflict him. All tbe time
kept. I had personal experience that the sarne holds true today in he continues to rattle his ruaraca in order to drive the evil spirits
t be Pomcroon. » ([2], p. 331). CANDELIER (p. 222) affirms something away.»
similar from Goajiro: »Personne n e peút voir un Piachée », nor lend According to CIIAFFANJON tho Piaroa, another isolated
or buy bis maraca »ce serait un cas de mort pour lui . » linguistic tr ibe further up tho Rio Orinoco, u se the maraca to drive
On the whole there are a great many resemblances between the away evil spirits from a ncwly-built h ouse. 1 }
medicine-men's paraphernalia and practice among t he Arowaks A somewhat different function of the maraca is found among
and Tupí a nd a number of adjoining tribes. We have the gourd t he Conibo. According to ST. CRIECQ (p. 290) it was played at the
rattle, the smoking of tobacco, the feather-mantle ot· feather -crown, ceremony of oircumcision for girls which takes place at puberty.
etc., and t he conceptions which are associated with tbese objects. It What conception lies behind tbi I do not know. Most probably it
is possible that they have spread as a complex. A study of this - is for the purpose of warding off evil spirits which, to the primi-
that is, of t h e t h e o r y a n d p r a e ti c e o f t h e m e d i- tiva mind, are apt to be particularly dangerous at so critica! a
c i n e - m a n - should no doubt result in much valuable informa- juncture. The K ágaba lndians use their r attles at religious dan-
tion concerning the distribution of an object or, in this case, perhaps ces (PREUSS, (4], p. 13, 116) and t hoy often play them together with
rather of a complex of ideas and problems associated with it, flutes of t he Ijca type (fig. 24 1). This r eminds one of the Cuna who
as for example acculturation. An object, for instance a gourd accompany certain songs »cantos de diversiones » with rattles and a
rattlc, is not distributed as a material object but in connection simple end-flute. To judgo from a small golden figure from the
with or rather because of its function and tho conceptions wbich ') KARSTEN, [1), pp. 88- 0, cit. CHAl'Jl'ANJON.
116 K. v~;T. 0. VL'l"l'~;RR. SA.ll!H. HA..~DL. SER. A. BAND 5. :N:O l IZIKOWlTZ, l\H -STCAL ~STRU"MENTS OF S. AMERlCA 117
Chiriqui (cf. fig. 171 ) tbis mode of playing is evidcn t ly old . Among of this kind for ~orth Amcrica. So much is however certain, that
the C'unas the gourd rattle plays an important role as an accom- thc gourd rattlc in many place has a similar function thcrn a in
paniment to various religious songs wh ich for instance serve to South America. That it shonld bc lacking in Mexico may mean that
heal t he ick. Thc Cuna Indian PEREZ told me t hat there were the rattle ther e has lo t its original import and function.
forrnerly medicine-meu who played t be rattle with such skill t hat
they could throw it so high up into the air that it stood still tbere b Gourd rattles on lony 8ficks which are pounded on the ground.
and played by itself. The r attles are hcre also uscd to quiet the During a visit among t hc Palikur lndianR, an Arowak tribe Ji v-
children with , but they do not then contain t he sacred seeds, n õ, ing on t he Brazilian shorc of Rio Oyapock, NnrnENDAJÚ obscrvecl a,
which are found in the sacred medicine rattle, but on1y maize and kind of rattle, the gourd of which was fastened upon P / 2-2 m long
t hc like (soe p. 108) . elastic rods. These wcrc used hy both scxes at a woman's dance
Among the Bribri, a Chibcha tribe in Costa Rica which in many a nd were pounded on tho groun<l a.t r egular intervals (ND:J:U.EN DA ,JÚ ,
respects rcsembles the Cunas, we find that the rattles are used by a [4], pp. 54, 99). W . RO'l'll montion!:l t he sarne rattle from amoncr o thc
sort of shaman who uses them as an accompanirnent to certain songs. .A.rowaks of Britis h Guiana. Thcy use it at »the H auyari dance,
From SKJNNER's description it appears that t hese songs are sung at hcld at a female's death. Thc ha ndle of the shak-shakl) attained
mortuary ceremonies which are very like s imilar ceremonies among a lcngth of 5 or 6 feet, the extremity of whicb prodded into the
the Cunas. This is especially true of a song, the contents of which ground while marching along, causcd the gourd to rattle » [1), p. 464).
are similar to the Cuna's death song »Nãlup nacrüz igãla. » (SKTh~ER, Ata Haityari dance which HRETT witne'lsed »young men danced with
(3] p . 101; GABB, p. 517; NORDEKSKIOLD, f l2)). rods about 12 feet in length on t hc top of which were fixed small
If we continue further north in Central America we find that gourds with stoncs in t hem and dccorated with streamers of si lk
information abou t t he function of the rattle becomes more scarce, grns , painted r ed . )>2)
although t he rattle has there been in use and is portrayed in :M:ayan At the deatb of a ma] e mcm ber of thc tribe the so-called macquari
codices. The sarne is true of the Aztecs. Among t he latter the dance is executed . The men t hcn play a sor t of wooden whistle (see
rattle is used at various feasts and often together with other musical p . 27 5) and beat one another v iolcntly with a kind of whip. The womcn
instruments , such as membrane drums, tortoise gongs, etc. One p erformers are cach provided with a rattlc made of small round
possibility would, however, seem to be precluded, na mely that the gourds, enclosing some pebbles, mountcd at the end of very long
gourd rattle should be a tool of the medicine-man. Among the sticks (8 or 9 feet) and adorned w it h tasscls of aeta fibre (1111 THTTR:\f,
modem Mayas, L acandones, and Quichés it is still in use, among [2], p. 285). Obviously t hc rattlcs as well as the whipping are for
the former as an accompaniment to t he singing in certain rites, t hc purpose of preventing the spil'it of thc dead man from hurting
among the latter at some kind of religious dances, with the func- the surviving.
tion of wbich I am not fully acquainted (TozzER, [2J, p. 70, TER- I sbould consider it po sible that th i type of rattle has its ori-
1\IER, p. 454). gin in the jingle rattle on a tick wJ1ich is so common in Guiana, thc
As in South America, the gourd rattle seems to p lay an import- j ingle of which bas simply bccn exchange<l for a gou.rd rattle. I do
ant role in North America for exorcising illne . This is for instance not know of the exi tence of this type from any other part of South
the ca e among t he Papago, Havasupai, Numa, Toton Sioux , Chip- America, and it is only in ~fex ico that one finds an instrument com-
pcwa, .Menomini, and most likely many othcrs.1) Thc Cocopa and parable to it. SELER ([ 1) , p. 103) portrays a tool which h e inter-
:M.ohave u e it at the bird dance which is danccd before a cremation prets as a chicaitatzli. This is found on r. ")faya relief of ce.llrela. woodcn
ora memorial ceremony . It would be interesting if a student special- tablets from Tikal. As w:ill bc een frpm fig. 65 it is a rccl staff,
izing in North American ethnography s ho uld make a comparison t he hcight of a man , upon which are fastened two small round ob-
1) Namo of the. instrumont,.
1) Soe DENSMOJrn's works. 3) W. Ro·.rH, [11, § 847, cit. Bn1n1·.
118 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HA.NDL. SER. A. :BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 119

jects which Iam inclined to believe are gourds with feathers attacbed. i n one piece, which are fastened together with leather band.s. The
Since the chicauatzli was a rattling stick wbich was found among the ex rior is carved and painted with various mythological figures and.
Mayas and Aztecs (see p. 137) l should think these gourds contained motifs. These wooden rattles obviously revert to the gourd rattle
a rattling material. ln the upper end of these chicauatzlis hawk bells with holes, such as we find them in J\fexico. A r attle of this type
are fastcncd. The chicauatzli pla,y s a,n important roll at fertility froib Tsimshian is found at the museum of Copenhagen (fig. 48) . The
rites as its upper phallus-formed part also suggests (cf. p. 137, the Chippewa and other tribes in northern North America make rattles
Tikal staff).

D eriv ate s of the goiird rattl e in other materials.

Among the tribes frving around the sourees of the Xingú, K.. v . D.
S'.l.'EINEN saw rattles of tortoise shell which were strung on a stick ((2],
p. 326). NoRDENSKIOLD also found rattles of this material among
the Chocó at Rio Baudó (GM: 27. 27. 442), but these are without
handles. NoRDENSKIOLD ((10] p. 90) quotes BoGOIANI for informa-
t ion about the occurrence of such rattles among the Chamacoco,
but unfortunately l have not been able to find this statement in
BoGOIANI's works. ln tbis connection he compares them with those
found in North America, for instance among the Iroquois. ln my
opinion it cannot in this case be a question of any d.i.rect cultural
connection. The fact that they occur in both places, in the north as
well as in the south, may rather be considered as evidence that the
gourd rattle has been copied in the sarne material.
Rattles of the egg shell of a certain fowl are mentioned by K. v.
D. STEINEN as existing in the territory around the sourees of the
Xingú ([ l ], p. 326).
R attles of a monkey-skull are mentioned from Karajá by Fig. 49. Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Fig. 52.
KRAUSE. They are supposed to be very r are at this place (Taf. 58, F ig. 40. Rattle of raw-hide from the Son t hern Patagonians. 33 cm. high.
fig. 10 a- b , p. 318). The specimen in fig. 10 a - b. is pierced with B M: VC. 163 a.
a stick. Fig. 50. Rat t le of basketry from P eru GM: 24.6.112. 2/3.
Fig. 51. R a t t le of basketry from Chuquitan ta, Peru, BM: VA. 24057.
ln excavations from the old Arica culture UHLE ([1], p. 14) F ig . 52. Rattle of basketry. Br. Guiana. After \Vn.soN. 'f •.
found rattles of rawhide contairúng smali stones. This may possibly
pro'e tbat the rattle in Peru is very old. Rattles of rawhide (fig. wit h hollow bodies from bir ch-bark (DENSMORE, [2], p. 12). They
49) are also found among the Tehuelches (ÜUTES, p. 259). ln shape are cylindrical and pierced with a stick. The gourd does not exist
the hollow partis cylind.rical and evidently made over a form. The in these nortbern regions. ln other places they make rattles also
handle is in one piece with the receptacle. NoRDENSKIOLD ([10], p. from tin cans, skin-covercd frames etc.
89 seq. ) compares these rattles with those of tbe Plains Indian tribes. Cbaracteristic for all the e imitations of the gourd rattle is that
No do11bt there is no direct .connection; it is rather a case similar to tbcy occur only in isolated territories and partly beyond the boun-
that of the tortoise-shell rattle. dary of the distribution of the gourd .
The No1·thwest Coast lndians make rattles of wood which con- Rattles of baskctry are found in two territories in South
sist of two hollowed wooden halves, the handle and the hollow part Amcrica, Peru and Guiana.
120 K. VE'l'. O. VITTEHH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND ;J. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL l ~STltUMENTS OF S. Ai\IERICA 121
The P eruvian rattles I have seen aro madc of twined w with the hollow part macio in two hah'es which are welded together
(fig. 50). Thoy con ist of a hollow pear-shaped part and a han le, (NORDEXSKIOLD, [7], p. 183). ln the La Plata museum there
all madc in one piece. A baskeh1' rattlc from (.;huquitanta at the are, moreo>er, a pair of metal rattlcs from Peru which are made
Berlin mu ·eum (YA. 24957) has two hollow bodie (fig . .31 ). Obvious- in anothcr ,~rny: the hollow part i fonned like a spoon which has
ly it rcpre cnts a gourd rattle with two calaba hes. The find. at bcen bent and soldered together. 1 ) I have seen a similar specimen
Puenta elo Piedra shows that such rattles have existed in Peru (p. 00). in the British :Museum (fig. 55).
ln Guiana, one finds two kinds of basketry rattles (fig. 52 and 53). A number of topus ( chalneedles) which NORDE-XSKIÜLD found
Onc of t hern, like the Peruvian, is undoubtcdly an imitation of the in chullvas, on the Rolivian plateau , contain pellets which procluce
goul'd rattle. The other is a tubular rattle (for diseussion, see p. 00). a rattling sound (RM: OG. l. 317).
The braicling teehnique of these rattlcs is different from tho Peruvian;
it is the »twilled worlu> so common in Guiana, which has the cffect of
making tho shapes of the rattles more parallelepipedieal , that is with
rectangular crosseut. They often have pattcrns made with braid-
ing in black and natural colourn. Apparently they a1·e not so very

Fig. 53. T ubular rnttle of basketry from Cuinna.. Dr)!: A.'""· F. 96- 72.
Length 69.5 cm.

common, judging from the few specimens one finds in museums and
in t he literature. W. RoTII mentions them from the Pomeroon dis-
trict, »plaited out of it_iriti strands » ((1 J, p. 407). He illustrates the
techni que of one of t hem from the Moruca River Arowaks. They Fig. 54. Fig. 55.
are baby-rattles compared with those made of a calabash , which are Fig. 54. Rnttlo of bnskotry. Arnuca11iuns. StM: :34198. Length 16 cm.
r ather an ad ult's musical instrument to be used in the dances (sec. Fig. 55. Rattle of coppct· frorn Pucosmuyo. 1'cru. Br. 1\1: 1907.3- l!l.481.
437 and 6:W). ER~ T YATTER (p. 100, fig. 32) portrays a beautiful rattle
from lU·inamc in the possession of the museum in Frankfurt a/M. Out ide of South America, among the Chiriqui, a peculiar rattle
J4'ig. 54 how a rattle of basketry from thc Araucaniaus. I should of gold has been found. lt eonsLts of tbree ha,Yk bells fastened
consider it likely that t.he basketry rattles from Peru, Guiana and upon a rouncl plate anel thi in it t urn on a bandlc (WIL o~, p. 627,
Chile are moclifieations of the gourd rattles made independently fig. 281). This has nothing to do with the Peruvian rattle, but
each one in it territory. mu t bc regarded as an independcnt development.
Raskctry rattles are also found in North Arnerica. At the mu- Pottery rattle of different Rhapes are found on the Peruvian
;;cum in Goihenburg there is a pair from the Klamath Indians made coa. t. Fig. 56 show some specimen from t he )foseum für Yõlker-
of vcry thin twined \\'Ork. kunde in Berlin. The e are, to bc sure, not exact copies of the gourd
.Rattles of meta,l are in South America found on ly in Peru. Such a ratUes, but a hollow body on a handlc suggests that the lattcr have
rattle - from Supe - is at the museum of Oothcnburg. An account originally been cop.ied in clay. ln working with so amorphous a
of it has already been published severa] t imes, duo to t hc strange material as clay onc may easily leave t hc shape of the original model
techn ique by which it is made. Tt is namely altogether of copper 1) Iniormation by S. RYD1=:N.
122 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SA.MH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL lNSTRUMENTS OF S. .AMERICA 123
and follO"w one's own fancy. On the will find that the original type consisted of a Crescentia rattle pierced
other hand, quite faithful imitations with a stick. When ripe this fruit rattles. The Crescentia belongs to
in clay of the gourd r attle may be the tropical regions a nd is hardly found outside of Cent ral America,
found. An example of t his is a rattle where it is much used by the Indians. Where the gourd rattle
from Chiriqui (fig. 44 b) which is a n has spread outside of these boundaries it has been necessary to
exact copy of a Cuna rattle. LOTH- change into some other material, in the first place to ot her kinds of
ROP (fig. 273) gives examples from gourds, such as species of the Oucurbita and Lagenaria, as is the case
Costa Rica with pictures of clay ratt- in Peru and Chaco. ln this latter place a special variety has deve-
les which are obviously copied from loped , due to the natural stem of the Lagenaria. ln North Arnerica
Fig. 56. Pottory rnttles from P eru. Lagenaria rattles. the distribution is also to some extent bound up with the cxistence
a = Chimbote, BM: VA. 22348; It is therefore not certain that a nd cultivation of other kinds of gourds. But other kinds of mate-
b = Chimbote, BM: VA. 18575. the clay rattles in Costa Rica, Chiriqui, rial, such as skin, tortoise, etc. are also used, and this is in particu-
and Peru have any direct cultural lar true of regions wherc there are no gourds.
connection with one another. Obviously, a modification which The sarne holds true for South America, although gr catcr va-
has come into existence by copying a natural object in an amor- riety in material is to be found there. It is interesting to observe
phous substance, as for instance clay, may take place independently that in one case - in Guiana - the function of the r attle dilfers
in several dilferent places. with t he material - gourd and basketry; the former material
belongs to t he sacred rattles which are used by adults, while the
latter is used for baby rattles (see p. 120).
Di s tribtttion and origin o/ the gourd rattles A map of the distribution of t he gourd rattle in South America
a n d t h e i r d e r i v a t i v e s. has already been published by NoRDEXSKIOLD ([4], p. 171). I have
Having investigated the technique and function of the gourd to some extent made use of his material in table on p. 126, and
rattles and their derivatives in other kinds of material we may now have made some corrections and additions and also put in r attles
turn t o the distribution of these instruments. Aside from South of other kinds of material.
America we find the gourd rattle and its dcrivatives in the greater NoRDENSKIOLD ([4], p. 181) points out that the gourd rattle is
part of Mexico and Central America, as well as in North America Jacking among the Ges tribes at Rio Doce, among the Jivaro, and
among t he Pueblos and other tribes in the south-west, among the among the tribes at Rio Purús. Furthcrmore, he quotes UHLE and
agricultura! peoples in the east, a number of Plains Indian tribes, and DEBE:XEDETTI on the occurrencºe of thc gourd rattle in Arica and in
also on t he north-west coast. They are, however, lacking in Califor- San Juan (the Diaguita territory) and points out its absence in
nia, among the Dasin and Plateau t ribes, the northern woodland Peru in historical times. To t be Peruvian archaeological discoveries
Indiana, and t he Eskimos. should be added the Puenta Piedra. gourd rattles, (fig. 47) the por-
The fact that the gourd rattle to a great cxtent occurs among trayal of a rattle from Tiahuanaco mentioned by PosX.ANSKY1), a nd
agricultura! people in North America as well as in South America the rattles of metal, basketry, etc. wbich may be considered as
does not necessarily in itself have any connection with the distribu- derivatives of the gourd rattle.
t ion of the maize cult ure. Our observations show that the function Thus the rattle has disappcared from P eru and the Diaguita
of the gourd r attle is not associated with any agricultura! rites. The territory, although with thc imperfcct chronological knowledgc we
explanation is more likely that the rattle has spread along the as yet have of Peruvian archaeology it is impossible to say when
sarne r outes as, and p erhaps sinrnltaneously with, the maize culture this h appened. ln any case it must have been in an age with r ather
- probably even from the sarne culture. Most likely we must look highly developed metallurgy, t o judge from the fine technique of the
to Central America for the land of the origin of t bc gourd rattle and 1) Quoted b y MKTHA1JX i11 Jz1KOWJTZ [:JJ, p. 264.
124 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 125
coppcr rat tle. Nor do we know how old the rattle is in Peru al- From the rnouth of t he Amazon r iver the rattle has very
though the find at Arica suggests that it may be very old. Jikely been spread in recent times through that branch of the Tupi-
East of the Andes, as far south as Patagonia, t hc rattle is still Guarani people which t ravelled southwards along the coast of
in existence or bas at least existed within historical times in many Brazil and t hen into the interior. Tbe fact that it occur s among
places. The map illustrates its distribution in these regions. We t he Tupinamba, Gua ja jara, Apapocuva-Guaraní-Caingua-Guarayú
may here observe a technical detail which gives certain hints re- gives evidence of the route of its migrations. The Chiriguano, on
garding t he routes by which the rattle has travelled from Central the other hand , do not have it; they obviously did not know it
America into South America . I am thinking of the perforations in before they started on their migr ation towards the west. A Tupí
the receptacles characteristic of Mexican and Mayan rattles, which tribe such as Parintintin also lacks it.
are fo und in North America in the south-west states and in the east, More difficult is to decide whence the Ch aco Indians got their
for instance among the Yuchi, and even as far north as among the rattles, partly because their type is very special, owing to the
Tsimshian on the north-west coast. These perforated rattles occur use of t he Lagenaria, and partly because we know of so few spe-
in South America in thc territories around the mouth of the cimens of Peruvian rattles. Probably it is a case of P eruvian in-
Amazqn river (see p . 105); that is, in regions that also in several other fluence since t hey have received so much of their culture from t his
respects show marked Central American influence. It may therefore source. Most likely the Diaguita rattle from San Juan also origi-
be considered probablc that t he rattle has made its entrance from nates from Peruvian culture centers, and has perhaps spread from
Central America and spread across north-western South America and there to P atagonia where, however, it was made of leatber in default
along the Rio Amazonas to its mouth. li'rom here it has probably of other material.
travelled with the Arowaks via Guiana to t he West Indies where it From what I have already said it would therefore seem likely
appears among t he Tainos. On the other hand the Arowak peoples t hat the rattle originated in Central America and was spread from
evidently did not contribute in any marked degree to its distribution there during a period when maize culture was already known;
within the Amazonian territory. Thus, we do not find the rattle tbat its original shape was a Crescentia fruit pierced with a stick
among t he Arowak tribes at Rio Purús, nor among the Tikuna, which served as a handle; and that in all probability from the
Kampa, or Chané; whereas it does occur among the 1\fojos and Pa- beginning it was meant to be an implement for t he medicine-mau
ressi. The explanation of this would be that the Arowaks were al- for the purpose of driving away evil spirits. The conformity in
ready dispersed over t he Amazonian territory before they became function between certain p arts of South and North America speaks
acquainted with the rattle a nd tha~ the rattle was carried along to for this. It may be assumed that the r attle was dispersed along
t he West Indies eit her at the t ime of the Arowakian emigration or with a number of other customs and conceptions associated with
together with some later current of culture. ln the 1\fojos territory t he medicine-mau practice. This is a hypothesis for later investiga-
the Arowak cult ure has no doubt later had some association with the t ions to prove.
high -culture region at the mouth of the Amazon and from there The gourd rat1.le is probably younger t han the jingle rattle,
receivcd later influences, a fact also confirmed by the archaeologi- which was already part of t he hunting cultures (cf. p. 93). As l
cal discoveries.1 ) have already shown in the chapter on the jingle rattle it happens
ln this connection it should be mentioned that the word for quite often that jingle rattles are fastened upon short sticks which
gourd rattle, maraca, is not common to all Arowak tribes . K ocH- ser ve as b andles. If, then , this instrument is older than the gourd
GRüNBERG ([5], p. 79) characterizes it as a lingua-ger al word and rattle it is not altogether unreasonable to suppose that t he latter
it is, as a matter of fact, only used in Guiana and by certain m ay have given the idea to the former by exchanging the jingles for
Guarani tribes . a r attling Crescentia fruit. ln southern North America, for instance,
we find knee rattles of small tortoise shells filled with pebbles (cf. p.
1) See NoRDENSRIOLD ( 13). 59). These are obviously to be regarded a<i substitutes for the hoof
 1

126 K. VET. O. VITT.ERH. SAl")IH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL lNSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 127
rattles. These may be much later than the gourd rattlc; I only wanted
to show by this example that a transition from the jingle rattle to Tribe or plaoo Author or collection
a hollow rattle is possible. ln P eru, where the rattle has disappeared,
i t was most likely forced out by the membrane drum which is, Noctén (San Antonio) B)í: VA. 29986.
in fact, one of the few rhythmical instruments used by t he In- Abipone DOBillZHOFFER, II, p. 267.
Gató MAX SCBM1DT. (4], p. 311; BM: VB. 5037.
dians during the Inca rule and which is for that matter still in use. Kadiuveo MANlZEn, p. 324--325.
A change of instrumenta such as the one mentioned may come Boror ó ÜOLBACCD!N r, p. [ ll4J.
about tbrough a process like the following : an instrument of a cer- Chavante (Faj á) MANIZJ>R, P· 329.
tain material and construction has a certain definite function. As Kaingang AMBROS l>TTr, [ I J, p. 318.

long as the function is associated with certain conceptions about Karajá KllAUSI·:, p. 317. WM: 71895.
Cayapó KHAUSE, p. 400. BM: VB. 8392.
tbis particular material (for instance, hoofs) it is maintained. But,
S1wajé KRA USE, p. 365.
as soon as the significance of the material has been forgotten, sub- Canella GM: (coll. Nwu:t;NDAJ Ú).
stitu tes of one or another kind come into use, even t hough these Apinayé GM: (coll. Nrni;ENDAJÚ) see fig. 41.
may not at all be necessary. The original shape is, however, main- Koroado
tained. If the original function is forgotten the instrument either Aweikem
J\tf:TRAOX·PLOETZ, p. 180, cit. ESCHWEOE.
Mf:TRAUX·PLoETz, p. 180, cit. PAULA.
.
Tupinamba. L~;RY. J, p. 130--l, Thevet, p. 224, etc. see
disappears or it is made use of and assumes a new function in other
J\if:TRAUX, p. 2 17.
ceremonies, or is finally regarded merely as a sound instrument for
1Guarani llAN•ZEn, p. 335; MoxToYA, foi. 2 12; TEcno,
profane purposes. It may even happen tbat tbe original shape
III, p. 329.
of the instrument is abandoned and its principie applied to another
instrument, while at the sarne time it retains its more or less magic l wayganna STADEN, II, p. 35.
Apapocm·a NlMOENDAJU, (J], p. 341.
function. I am giving below some examples of this t ransfer of tbe Caingua. ZELL"ER, p. 109; AMBROSETTI ( l ), P· 671; R"ENO-
principie of tbe hollow rattle to other instrumenta or objects of - OER, p. 127.
as I find - magic use. ln certain inst ances attention may have ' G uarayú CAT\DÚS, P· 79 .
been paid only to the kind of sound produced by the instrument Chipaya Nau~NDAJÚ, [2], p. 1009.
in ordet• to create the sarne sound by another method. An example Curuaya No1rn1rnsi,:1iiLJJ, [4], p. 181.
of this is the hypothetical transition from jingle rattle to gourd Tapirapé KISSBNDEHTH [2], p . 72.
Kamayurá & Auetó K. v. o. SmINEN [2], p. 326.
rattle and from gourd rattle to membrane drum.
Yuruna. K. v. o. STETh'&"'I (1], Ethnol. Taf. II.
Guajajara D)f: 722 (coll. XnrnENDAJú).
T embé CJ\I: 31.l l. l.
The Gourd Rattle. (.Maraca) J\Iauhé NonoENSKIÕLD (4], p. 181.
Goajiro CANDELJER. p. 200 seq.

Tribe or place Author or collcction Arowaks of Br. Guiana RoTH, (2], p. 347.
Arawak ÜUMlLLA, vol. 1, p. 1 i4.
Wapishana Rorn, (J ], p. 464, p i. 168 A.
Choro ti 1\QRDENSKIOLD,(4), p. 169. Taruma, Atorai, J\Iapidian FAllAJ)EE, p. 161, pi. XXXIV.
Ashlushlay (4], • 169. Baniwa G'.\f:
J\fotuco [4], • 169. Taino Lov~;N, p. 493.
Tapicto (4], • J 69. Mit ua CR~:VAUX, p. 480.
Toba [4], • 169. Siusi KOC'H·ÜRÜNBEHO, [5], p. 79.
M.bayá SàNCHEZ LA13RADOU, JT, p. 34. Uarekéna [5], p. 79.
Longlla GRUBB, p. 74. Katapolitani [5], p. 79.
1 Payngu(i BJ\i: VC. 34. Tariána CM: 28.1.254.

i
1
128 K: VE1'. O. Vl'ITERH. SAl\IB. HA..'<DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWI'l'Z , MUSICAL "INSTRUMENTS OF S . .A..XERICA 129

Tribe o r ploce Autho r o r eollect ion Tribe or place Author or collection

Yukúna. C '.\l: 28.1.254. Tiahuanco P OSNAN:SKY, scc lZIKOWITZ [3), P· 264.

Palikur X IMUENDAJi;, [4), p. 54; OM : 26.3.129. Ijca GM: 16.3.731; B OLINDER, [2], p. 78.
)tojo EDER, p. 33 . Chimila Gl\I: 16.3.26.
[3], p. 240.
M Ax ScBmDT Cu na C M:27.27. 11 8 i .
J?arcssl-Kabisl { K. [2), p . 543.
V. D. STEINf:N,
Bribri S J<I.NNEH, pi. XX V e.
Guonâ CoMINGEs, p. 200.
Tir'i bi ÜAUII, p. 5 17.
T oro no BM: VB. 966; VB. 963.
Cayapá BAJrnrr, p. :327.
Trio DE Go1m~. [2), p. 24.
Paez l<'A mmoA, p . 325.
Patamona, MactLiii, Arecnria GM: (coll. 'l'H UJ.JN & L1LH~ WALOH).
K ágaba l?m;;uss, [4], p. 99.
Kali na DE GOEJE [2], P· 45.
Misqtd to coast CoNzEM.rtrs [3], p. 111.
Aparai DEUBJ~Jt, fig. 8 1, 4, 5
Aztck SELlrn, [1) II. p. 700.
Yckuuná V. l iOHN DOSTEL, [5], p. 398.
J\layas • [ I] ll, p. 701 , S TARR, [2] P· 8 1.
Mapuyo GIDCTLLA, ], p. 18 1.
Chiapnnecs STAJtR, [2), p . 129.
13akairl K. V. D. ·STEINt~N. [2], p. 326 1
P ipil Ri\!: 03.45.3 2.
Xahuquá Loc. cit., (see fig. 43).
l\lixcs BASSA1-õU , p. 54.
Galibí S'.\1: 96477.
H o pi, Havasupai, ~a,-aho, Zni\i, SPtEH, [2] pp. 283, 289, with literature.
Pima, Ya,·apai, :\Io ha,·e, Yuma,
' L'ukano tribes: vanána Koc H -GRi:!>rnERo, [3], pp. 165, 957, 819, 120.
Chemenhne\i, K oso, Cahuilln,
Tuyúka
Souihern Yavapai.
Dará
Uaiana Cabrielino, Diegueiio K noEoEn, [ l ], p. 632, 723.
Tukano Cocopa Ü ENSMORE [9), p. 25.
B u kagana Papago • [ 7], p . 91.
T sõla Sout h -Eastern Cult llre SWANT ON [ ! ], p. 708.

Deaana (Chi t imacha, Hollma) • [2], p. 285, 352.

Y upíia Y uchi S PJ•:CK , PI. VII, 3.
Yahuna P coples of E. Statcs ](llJ CKEB"F.ltG. (3), p. 111.
l(uerotú •das ganze Gebie t beherrsch t die Kürbi.srassol. •
J(o béua

'.\lakú G'.\I : 25.6.92. Group B.

Conibo ST. CRIECQ, p. 290.
Chama TESSMANN (2), Taf. 30, fig. 9. P ottery figurines, cups, vessels. spindle whorls and other instrmnents
Boro. [ 1], p. 273. as rallle.s.
) luinane [ 1], p. 333.
C ua hi bo STRADELLI, p. 40, fig. 18.
Aside from t hose p ottery rat tles which I have already discussed,
Trib<>s of R io Yapura and Rio I ça WRITFEN, P· 3 13. s uch rattles occur in a numbcr of shapes which do not seem to have
Xed.ro OrinoC'o GJL1J, II, p. 275. their origin in the gourd rattle. They bave more likely come into
Piaron RM: 00.31.6; K AnSTEN, [ I ), p. 8, cit. Chaffanjon existence when t he bollow body of an object for some reason or
U ito to Sl\1: IC. 70352 (coll. ZAHOt;s).
other has been filled witb pellet s. As a rule these objects are figu-
Chocó GM: 27.27.
rines, pottery vessels and cups, etc. resembling human beings or ani-
Puonto Piodm BM: VA: 34180- 82. fig. 47. mals, which have in this way been gi ven rattling attributes. An
Cnlinagsta (San Juan) [ 1], p. 65, fig. 36.
DEBr;NEDE'M'í example of this is given by R OTR ((l ], p. 497) from Guiana where
9
130 K. Vf.T. O. VITTJmH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BA~D 5. N :O l IZIKO\VITZ, :\I USI CAL IN STRU1\1ENTS OF S. A.MERICA
the Carib children a t ~fanawarin (a branch ofMoruca river) use clay Sout h of Peru anel .Bolívia,
r a ttles in the shape of turtles as toys. This is the only ca ·e I know in tho Diaguita t erritory, one does
of which is not ar chaeological. not, to my knowledge, finei rat t -
ln Peru we find a sort of curious ly-shapcd cups consisting of an ling vessels. Going north , on the
upper receptacle and a lower foot or handle. This latter is hollow other hand, they are found again.
and closed and fi llecl >1ith pcllcts. An example of tlús is fig. 57 In E cuador they are rare, as is
from (;himbotc. D'HARCOURT portrays one simila r to this from cvidcnt from t he fact that A·
Tr ujillo (pi. I , 2). Further I know of such cups from Chuquüanta v 1c1.:FJ only knows oftwo fragmcnts
(B.'.\f: VA. 48728). Rea l vessels - I of rattling vessels - very likely a
mean such as are meant to stand anel pi~ir of feet to a tripod (í4J, p t . lJ ,
not to be held - are t h osc on fig. 58 pl. LXXVI, 10, 11, p . 197). 'l'hcy
anel 59 from the territory about Tia- are fu1·nisheel with a number of
huanaco (1) . 'l'he lower part of the h oles which are probably necessary
bottom of the vcssels are made in open to their procluction (L IN "Í<:, f21,
work anel filled with pellets of clay . A p. 12!>). Atthe museuminG othcn-
vessel \\~ith a similar bottom is portrayeel b urg aro some orna mented spindle
by MAX SCH:.\UDT (í 2], p. 275, fig. 4} whorls of clay. hollow a nd filled
from Pachacamac. Another specimen is wit h pellets (G ~t 31.13.lJ 6- 7)
a curiously shaped vessel in black-ware from Sucre {Colon~bia) . These also
pottery from Lambayeque (CM: 20. 9. occur in .Mexico (Teotihuacan, ~'i g. 58. Rattling ves.<wl from T ia-
76.) The upper part is covered and GM). h unnaco( ?). C)l: 35.32.31.
furnished '"i th six small holes . ln all While excavating a grave in
F ig. 57. Ro.ttling cup of po t -
probability a vessel-shaped upper part is La Resaca in Cupica , Colombia, LINNÉ (í l], p. 182) founel a bowl
ter y from Chimboto, P oru. lacking, a supposition also suggested on a high column-foot which was closed and filled with pellets .
Dl\1: VA. 4664. by the rough surface. .From El Zamuro, Venezuela, K. v. D. STEINEN ([3], fig. 24.)
Among typical Tiahuanaco cups I describcs rattles in the form of buman f igures and a vessel which
hlw e seen one from Isla de Parite (Lake Titicaca) that rattles serves as a rattle.
(fig. 60; G~: 31.lõ.83). Below the bottom is a closed, hollow East of the Andes we als~ come upon rattling Yessels. ln tho
space filled with pellets. The rattlesnake painted on the vessel Tarupay u valley, which is now
indicates its rattling attributes. Among the archaeological collec- inhabi ted by Chiriguano ln-
tions which NoBDENSKIOLD collected from the Mizque valley is a dians, EBLA.L."'D NoRDEXSKIOLD
fragment of a vessel which is evidently meant to be a foot (GM: ([2], p. 40) found a burial place
15. 2. 23). It is hollow and closed and contains rattling material. where t he skeletons or burial
This is a feature which is highly reminiscent of Cent ral American urns were covered by other
and Mcxican clay vessels. urns, the rin1s of which were
The above-mentioned vessels which are also rattles are the only hollow and filled with pellets.
oncs I know of from Peru and Bolivia. It is possible that t hey SimiJa.rly constructed clay ves-
have been more common than my scant material suggests - they sels have been found in the
were probably not as a rule placed in graves, for instance, - in mu- Fig . 59. Rattli.ng vesael fro m Tia. Santarem territory and on
seums at least they are very scarce. huanat·o(?) Gl\1: 35.,1!.30. Marajó Island. Here they were
132 .K. VET. O. VTTTERR. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL JNSTl'WMENTS OF S. AMERICA 133

also covertures for burial urns. Fragments of similar vessels have Quite probably these rattling vessels in South America are repre-
been found a lso at B. Tauíry, at the mouth of Rio Tocantins (GM: sentatives of the furthermost offshoots of a culture current from
31. 4 1. 733). Evidently in this case the rattles have a magic import, the north which originated in Central America, like the tripocl and
most likely that of scaring the dead so that they shall not reappear. severa! other pottery types and culture elements. Santarem has
From Marajó are also a sort of ornamented box-like rattles in clay a lso been strongly influenced from the north-west but the covertures
unlike those found elsewhere, as far as Iam aware1) . for burial urns discovered here and at other places have thus far
Rattling pottery has not been found in the West Indies, only been found only in South America. On tbe otber hand it is not im-
stamps with frog-motif which are hollow2 ) anel contain a pelletR. possible that it is only the fundamental idea itself which is to be
looked for in Central America. Future excavations will shed Jight
on this matter.
Rattling vessels also appear in
other parts of Central America, such
as for instance Chiriqui, various places
in Guatemala, Mexico, etc., anel branch
out even into the mound culture in
eastern North America.
Since most of these vessels are
archaeological finels nothing exact is
known as to t heir function. ln the
case of Santarem - and Tarupayu -
the intention is quite transparent. Fig. 61. Rattle of silver from Visu.
N or do the other vessels seem to be BM: VA: 21860. 13.5 <'ln. high.
Fig. 60. Ratt ling C'up in Tiahuanaco-style from Isla cio Pari to ( Lako Titicaca). The
meant for everyday use as they are
mttlo-snnko ornament indicates its rattling attributos. Soo t.ho cross-section. often very richly ornamente<l anel elccorated. This suggests that
they have probably been used at religious ceremonies, which is
also confirmed by tbe fact that in Central America the handles
lf rattling vessels are rare in South America they seem to be
of incense-burncrs contain pellets. Possibly even the rattling
more common in Central America to judge from the numerous speci-
spindle whorls and the stamp from the 'Vest Indies havc had a
mens LOTHROP describes from Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Here
religious function.
we find not only the above-mentioned pottery rattles but a lso rattles
in figurine shapes and, more often, vessels which serve as rattle:>,
among wbich are tripods with hollow legs filled with pellets, and Rattling M e tal Cups
incense-burners, the handles of which often contain pellets of clay.
The silver rattle in fig. 61 reminds one strongly of tho e Peru-
Sometimes entire vessels were covered over the mouth and served
vian rattles in pottery on fig. 57. It is from Viru anel its height is
as rattles . Other vessels have an animal-shaped bottom part (ef-
13,5 cm. Ido not know what fun ction this object may have had.
figy vessels) or a ring foot which is closed and filled with pellets.
They are to some extent reminiscent of the Peruvian vessels from
the Tiahuanaco territory and of those from El Zamuro in Venezuela. Rattling Membrane Drums
1) l'hoto o.t GM.
1'wo-heade<l membrane drums containing pellets are treated in
2) FJ,WKF!S, in A. A. n. s., vol. 16, p. 216. the chapter on. the two-hcaded membrane clrum, p. 184.
H4 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAJ\ffi. H.A:NDL. SER. A. BAND õ. N:O 1 ll,[KOWITZ, M USl C.\ L I NS'l'RUJ\1ENTS OF S. AMERICA 135

B ox Rattle s Group C.
A peculiar kind of rattle is the one shown in fig. 62. It consists
of some sor t of box made of small pieces of reed which are tied S t i e l.: .s w ·i t h h o l lo w r a t t l e s a n d t u b u l a r r a t t l e s.
together. Insidc the box are pellets. The hollow stick rattles are rods which are partly hollow and
ln America t,hese rattles occur only in Peru a nd there, as far as h ave this bollow part filled with pellet s. The tubular rattles are
I know, only in Ancon (REISS a nd STÜBEL pl. 88, fig. 5 and 90, fig. 3). t ubes of reeds, basketry, or some other
A 11 t hese finds are ar chaeological, for which reason nothing exact m aterial conta ining pellets. The shapes of
is known about thcir function. As regards the box rattle from t he ·e tools vary and their functions are part-
Jy unknown; ye~ I treat them together because,
as we shall see, possibly certain types within
both groups b elong together.
The Peruvian stick rattles are made of
some hard sort of wood and carved in one
piece. They consist of a rod-formed part
with circula r crosscut a nd a rattling part, the
appearance of which diJfers with the different
specimens. ln the instances I know it is usu-
a lly ·omewhat broader than the stick itself.
somewhat flattened, hollow, and filled with
, orne ratt ling material, such as pebbles, etc.
'fhis part is also often ornamented with an
open-work pattern and sculptures in reliefl )
(fig. 6~). The Jength of these implements are
Fig. 62. B ox mttle. Lima. GM: 23.5.204. L e ngth 28 cm. Hbout 1,5 m. Of those specimens I know
five pieces from Huacho, one from Chimbote
Ancon one may indulge in guessing. The small doll tied to it gives a nel another one from Casma (fig. 64) .
thc impression of its being a toy and that it merely depicts the , ince ali these implernents are burial finds
ladder-like cradle which has been used in these rcgions and which , and since they, to my knowledge, are not
according to NoRDENSKIOLD ([10], p . 79), is supposed to be a very mentioned in the literature, their function is
Fig. 63. Stick rattlo from
a ncient culture element in South America. Tbus the whole thing unknown. SACHS has, however, pointed out Huacho. BM: VA. 3I343.
may represent a child tied to a ladder-like cr adle. That the cradle t heir likeness to the M:exican Rasselstiibe, t.5 m. high.
has later been changed into a rattle, or rather that a rattle has chicauaztli (fig. 65). These have the appear-
been applicated upon the cradJe is easily understood . As we have a nce of »ein sich oben bret tartig verbreitender und an dieser Stelle
seen , the rattle here as well as in Europe often functions as a child's mit Kügeln oder Steinen gefüllter Stab. » (Preuss, [l], p . 165.)
toy ow ing to its quieting effect upon a cbild. 'ELER ()], III, p. 426) writes about the chicauaztli: »Das Rassel-
It is interesting to notice that these box rattles also occur in brett (chicauaxtli) ist da"8 Zauberinstrument, mit dem die Frucht-
Ea t Africa. ln technique these are very like the ones from Peru, barkeit der Erde, wie der Menschen, bewirkt wird. Es wird in den
but t heir form is more square as compared with the rectangular
') I r efer to r eproductions in MAx ScH~U DT's •Kunst und Kultur t, P· 419,3
Pcruvian type. No doubt we have here to do with a typical case fro m Chimbote a~d p. 423, figs. J and 4 and R. o'HARcoun.T's •La musique des
of conver·gence. Tnc ast, PI. 1, 4.
136 K. VET. O. Vl'l"l'ERH. SA)ffi. HAXDL . S.ER . A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, M USI CAL lNSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 137
H a ndschriften und anderen bildlichen Darstellungen dem Gotte IV, pp. 191) mentions music in connecti on with agricultura! work but
X i p e To te e, der Oott der Vegetation oder Erdgeist, der Feld- does not give any information as to what instruments were t hen
geist, ist ferner d er )faisgõttin, der Wassergõttin und den Regen- used . Considering this, it is therefore not altogether impossible t hat
und Berggõttern in die H and gegeben. » It was u ed at the spring our P eruvian stick rattle m ay have had a function similar to the
festival, tlacaxipeualiztli, wben the ayacachpixolo ceremony took chicauaztli in Mexico. The cultures of P e ru and Mexico havc much
place. This latter name means in common and not least in agricult ure - maize probably came to
»there is being sown with the P eru from M:exico - hcncc it is a lso rather reasonable to suppose
rattle » ( »es wird mit der Rassel tbat a number of agrnrian rites and coremonies have been added , as
der Samen ausgestreut»). There
was singing and dancing and
everybody h ad a rattle. 1 ) Judging
from the name of the ceremony
one might think it had to do
with an ordinary calabash rattle,
sincc the Aztec name for t his
is ayacachlli. But this was not
the case. lt was evidently here a.. (,,
a question of some kind of
e. d.
ceremonial owing \Yith the

t [.
chicauaztli, for in t he commen-
tary to the fo urth verse of the
song to the maize and earth
goddess, Ciuacoall, it is said:
»Mit dem Rasselbrett wühlte sie
den Bodcn auf und saete mit
f'
9· h. L.
Vig . 65. l'igures depicting tho Mox ic1111 chica1wztli. The large stick to tho loft from
ibm. » It was a case of combin- th o T ikal relief. The l'08t uro from Codicos and scu lptures. After Si;:LEll.
ing a magic and a practical
tool. Nor is this strange. Among a sort of recipe or »d irections fo r use» to show how one should pro-
many different peoples in diffe- ceed. On the other hand we have no connecting links to prove the
Fig. 64. Stick ruttle from Casma. rent parts of the world religious stick rattle's functional connection with Mexico, because, as we shall
CM: 32.16. 155. 1, , 0 • ceremonies are connected with see, instruments of this kincl which are known from intervening
purely practical agricultura! territories have other functions.
work . T o the primitive m ind both are equally important. ln Peru ln one of t he K ágaba m yths recorded by PREUSS ([4], p. 251}
t his has been and supposedly still is the case, and I may in this a pair of stick rat tles are mentioned. One was made of Brazil wood,
connection refor to an article by TELL02 ) in which he at some length the other of G uayaca wood . The upper parts were scu lptured in
discusses agricultura! work and the ceremon ies associated t herewith. t he forro of a buman being; one had , moreover, a wooden rattle in
Music plays an impor tant role at this work, although now modem its upper part while the middle part of the other sounded like a
European musical instrumenta are used. 'l'he early writer Cono (pt. ra ttle. They were used together with a pair of wooden masks, a
l) rm~\188, L11. p. 334, cit. SAHAOUN. death -mask and a sickness-mask.
2) '.J'J~LW, ( 1. ).
Leaving out the rattle, these sticks without doubt resemble
 138 K. VET. O. VITT~~RH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A . BA~D 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRU1\I ENTS OF S. Al\IERICA 139
t he »official §!taffs » (Amtstabe) used by the Indians. The upper ~ame which is u sed for süarmimmi, wooden figures with tbe sarne
parts of these staffs are also decorated with anthropomorphic figures function as t hese staffs.1 ) None of the three specimens of ki~apõlo
l'epresenting gods and demons. One of these official staffs (fig. 66 d ) in the museum of Gothenburg rattles. The Tiribi is a Chibcha
h as such a figure which, according people as are t he Cunas and K ágaba, and on the whole have a good
to PREUSS, possibly represents many other features in their culture which a re strongly reminiscent
the great mother, Gauteóvaíi, who of the Cunas.
on her head wears a forksbaped
object which is particularly
interesting for the comprehension T h e »s p e a r » r a t t l e s o r r a t t l i n g »l a n e e s ».
of an object belonging to t be 'rhese are very limited in distribut ion and occur almost exclu-
stick rattle's group, rntmely the s i vely in t he Rio Tiquíe territory. According to KocH-GRüNBERG,
e. socalled »spear »rattles. t he center of distribution is t he Desana, a Tukano tribe who havc
GAnB (p. 520) describes an ornething like a monopoly on their production and sell it to other
»official staff», or to use bis tribes. The spear rattles are made of a kind of heavy and hard
own terminology, a »royal em- red wood and are very well executed and handsomely carved. The
blem » from the Tiribi lndians upper end is fork-shaped and furnished with a point, either of wood,
of Costa Rica: »It is a staff of bone, or the teeth of a rodent. ln the lower part of t he spear is
hard black palm wood, over four an arrangement for the rattle (fig. 67) . »Bei der Bearbeitung des
feet long. The top is carved in Schaftes ist an dieser Stelle eine spindelfõrmige Verdickung stehen
t he shape of an animal, not un- geblieben, die durch zwei Langsspalten ausgehõlt wird. Runde
like a bear sitting on his haun- Kiesel, die als Klappern dienen, werden in die H õhlung gebracht,
cbes. But there are no bears in indem mandas Holz über Feuer erwãrmt und die Spalten dadurch
t his country, and it must have vorübergehend erweitert» (KocH-GRüNBERG, [3], 1, p. 344 seq.).
b. been intended for some other At certain feasts the rattling lances are always worn together
animal. Below this figure, the with a dance-shield and m oreover only when the drink, Kaapi, is
stick is square, a nd is carved out being consumed: »Ein eigentlicher Tanz findet damit nicht statt.
into four pillars severa} inches D as Kaapí wird gewõhnlich von einem alteren Mann kredenzt.
long, with spaces between them. Dem Ti:inzer hãngt der Schild am linken Unterarm. Mit der rechten
d. ln the interior, between t hem , H and fasst er die L!tnze über der Schulter, so dass die Spitze mit
is a cavity in which a loose piece der Rassel nach hinten weist. Zunachst schüttelt er die Lanze
a. of t he sarne wood can be shaken mehrmals, schlãgt sie dann auf die Schulter und li:isst sie mit schril-
about. $ Tbus i t is simultane-
Fig. 66. Ceremonial sticks. a = Cuna, l) RUBE~ PEREZ KA~TC"LE's catalogue in C ~L note to X o. 27. 37. 13 15., a staff
G~I: 27.27.13 11. b = Bribri, after SKLv-
ously a rattle and a n official from Kaynora, a Cuna pueblo . tBastón k a a p o 1 e t con culebra. Los usan como
xEn. c = detail of b . d = Kagaba, staff. It is very much like cer - emblema d o mando los policias indigt:>nos que nunca faltan cuando hay une. reunión .
after PnEl:SS. tain official staffs from the Cuna Las figu res que se oncucntran en bastón son simples adornos de la curiosidad. Los
which are called kãapúlo. There c urandcros casi no usan cl b astón, solo usan cuando está mas do eclad para apoyal'!le.
Pero hay unos bastones espccialcs q ue los que saben cantos para buscar e! alma per -
are two sorts: one for t he men who keep order at festivais and other
dida cntonces la figura siempre do for ma de gente no de animales etc. como los bas-
gatherings - these carry an animal figure on t he top - and tones de policias; pero no carge.n todo ol tiompo sino usan cuando van ir a cantar
another for those men who know the songs for seeking a lost soul para un e nfermo. El paio que dobo usar t iono á raboles esp ecial?s com o tiene p ara
(fig. 66 a) . This latter t ype is made of a special kind of wood, t he l1acor su 'suar m immi' fetiche. •
 140 K. VET. o. VT'l'TERH. SA:'lm. HANDL. sgR. A. BAND 5. N:O l
IZIKOWITZ, :'llUSICAL INSTRU:'ltENTS OF S. AMERlCA 141
leu Rasseln ausvibrieren, indem er bei jedem
If we were to consider them as rattling lances they would be
Schlag mit den Knien wippt. »
an isolated phenomenon in America, only to be compared with
The feast at which they were used when those rattling spears which are found in Celebes1) and whioh were
KoCH-ÜRÜNBERG vi ited them was evident- o riginally real spears.
ly some sort of puberty ceremony. »Die It is the fork-shaped upper end of the K ágaba stick which
Feste des Mãnnerbündes finden stets zur gives us a clue. As I have alrcady pointed out, the upper end of ali
Zeit der Reife einzelner Waldfrüchte statt spear rattles is fork-shaped a nd it is moreover always this end which
und sind den Damonen der Fruchtbarkeit points upwards when the object is helcl in a vertical position and
geweiht. » (KocH-ÜRÜNBERG, [3], I , p. forward when in a horizontal position. For these reasons one re-
344-8). ceives the impression that it is this part which is the more impor-
According to KocH-ÜRÜNBERG these tant one and that the »spear » point with the rattle is less important.
rattling lances were originally real weapons The western Amazon tribes, particularly the Tukano peoples,
for use in war, and it is he who has intro- have many traits in their social structure which speak for their
duced the term »Rasselspeere » (rattling being influenced by the high cultures in the north-west and not by
lances). As they are worn together with a the neighboring Arowak tribos. Quite contrary to current opinion
plaited shield the association of ideas KrncHROFF (p. 163 seq.) considers that these Iatter in their
connecting them with weapons is natural. relations with the Tukano tribes were recipients and not givers.
Dr. DOUGLAS MELTN, who has travelled in I should be inclined to consider the spear rattle as a culture ele-
these parts and collected sorne of these ment which the Desana have in common with the high culture of
»lances» for the Gothenburg m useum merely the Colombian highlands, if the supposition is allowed that the
calls them dancing-staffs.1) KARSTEN, {[1], Kágaba culture should be regarde<l as a survival of the vanished high
p. 91) emphasizes tbeir magic import, deri- culture of these plateaus, the carriers of which were the Chibcha
ved from the fact that they are decorated peoples. It is therefore quite possible that these spear rattles ori-
with feathers and ornaments - details ginally were like the stick rattles mentioned in the Kágaba myths,
which according to this author are in which had an antropomorphic figure in the upper end and were made
themselves magica! - a nel adds: »This is of about the sarne sort of wood as the spear rattles, and that this
consistent with the fact that they were used figure quite easily may have resembled the two-horned goddess,
at the Yurupary-dance which was of a Ga!fleovalí. vVhat significance this fork-shaped object may have had
profound religious significance. » He writes in itselfI do not know, but we recognize these cloven forms in severa!
further: »Yet it is evident that they were cases, among others for instance in the double corn - cob, cimatl,
serious instruments of conj uration. fully which has played so important a part in the )lexican culture. :More-
comparable with the rattle-gourds, drums, over, we know it is quite usual that a semi-detached figure is
and flutes, etc.» changed into a simple geometric ornament. Let us for instance
ln my opinion these so called »rattling compare the different figures on fig. 68 with one another and with
lances» have never been real lances but the ornament on the Tiribi (Bribri) cacique stick (fig. 66 b, c) and
rather a kind of religious tools, comparable on an ordinary cacique stick , for instance from the Cuna Indiana
to the stick rattles of tho Kágaba or Tiribi, (fig. 66 a). I should consider it likely that the ornamenta of the
F ig. 67. Rattling cl11ncLng which I shall here s how. rattling spears were originally a detached figure, like the Kágaba,
stick from Tucano (Tiquié).
and that it has later so to speak been merged in the stick as on the
CM: 25.6. L79. 1
) Acc. to tho catalogue in C:U. 1
) Cf. KAUDEltN, p. 87.
 140 K. VET. o. VT'l'TERH. SA:'lm. HANDL. sgR. A. BAND 5. N:O l
IZIKOWITZ, :'llUSICAL INSTRU:'ltENTS OF S. AMERlCA 141
leu Rasseln ausvibrieren, indem er bei jedem
If we were to consider them as rattling lances they would be
Schlag mit den Knien wippt. »
an isolated phenomenon in America, only to be compared with
The feast at which they were used when those rattling spears which are found in Celebes1) and whioh were
KoCH-ÜRÜNBERG vi ited them was evident- o riginally real spears.
ly some sort of puberty ceremony. »Die It is the fork-shaped upper end of the K ágaba stick which
Feste des Mãnnerbündes finden stets zur gives us a clue. As I have alrcady pointed out, the upper end of ali
Zeit der Reife einzelner Waldfrüchte statt spear rattles is fork-shaped a nd it is moreover always this end which
und sind den Damonen der Fruchtbarkeit points upwards when the object is helcl in a vertical position and
geweiht. » (KocH-ÜRÜNBERG, [3], I , p. forward when in a horizontal position. For these reasons one re-
344-8). ceives the impression that it is this part which is the more impor-
According to KocH-ÜRÜNBERG these tant one and that the »spear » point with the rattle is less important.
rattling lances were originally real weapons The western Amazon tribes, particularly the Tukano peoples,
for use in war, and it is he who has intro- have many traits in their social structure which speak for their
duced the term »Rasselspeere » (rattling being influenced by the high cultures in the north-west and not by
lances). As they are worn together with a the neighboring Arowak tribos. Quite contrary to current opinion
plaited shield the association of ideas KrncHROFF (p. 163 seq.) considers that these Iatter in their
connecting them with weapons is natural. relations with the Tukano tribes were recipients and not givers.
Dr. DOUGLAS MELTN, who has travelled in I should be inclined to consider the spear rattle as a culture ele-
these parts and collected sorne of these ment which the Desana have in common with the high culture of
»lances» for the Gothenburg m useum merely the Colombian highlands, if the supposition is allowed that the
calls them dancing-staffs.1) KARSTEN, {[1], Kágaba culture should be regarde<l as a survival of the vanished high
p. 91) emphasizes tbeir magic import, deri- culture of these plateaus, the carriers of which were the Chibcha
ved from the fact that they are decorated peoples. It is therefore quite possible that these spear rattles ori-
with feathers and ornaments - details ginally were like the stick rattles mentioned in the Kágaba myths,
which according to this author are in which had an antropomorphic figure in the upper end and were made
themselves magica! - a nel adds: »This is of about the sarne sort of wood as the spear rattles, and that this
consistent with the fact that they were used figure quite easily may have resembled the two-horned goddess,
at the Yurupary-dance which was of a Ga!fleovalí. vVhat significance this fork-shaped object may have had
profound religious significance. » He writes in itselfI do not know, but we recognize these cloven forms in severa!
further: »Yet it is evident that they were cases, among others for instance in the double corn - cob, cimatl,
serious instruments of conj uration. fully which has played so important a part in the )lexican culture. :More-
comparable with the rattle-gourds, drums, over, we know it is quite usual that a semi-detached figure is
and flutes, etc.» changed into a simple geometric ornament. Let us for instance
ln my opinion these so called »rattling compare the different figures on fig. 68 with one another and with
lances» have never been real lances but the ornament on the Tiribi (Bribri) cacique stick (fig. 66 b, c) and
rather a kind of religious tools, comparable on an ordinary cacique stick , for instance from the Cuna Indiana
to the stick rattles of tho Kágaba or Tiribi, (fig. 66 a). I should consider it likely that the ornamenta of the
F ig. 67. Rattling cl11ncLng which I shall here s how. rattling spears were originally a detached figure, like the Kágaba,
stick from Tucano (Tiquié).
and that it has later so to speak been merged in the stick as on the
CM: 25.6. L79. 1
) Acc. to tho catalogue in C:U. 1
) Cf. KAUDEltN, p. 87.
142 K . VET . O. Vl'lTERH. S AMH. HAN DL. SER. A. B AND 5. X:O J IZIKOWITZ, M USTCAL J l\STRU.MENTS OF S. AM E RlCA

Bribri staff - t he lines of t he body and the legs were separated sorne sacred kind of wood and have a figure in the top. The Chocó
and convent ionalized when the original significance was forgotten l1a>e t wo types, one wit h a human-like figure and t he ot her with a
(fig. 6g b. e), un til f inally all that is left are some simple ornaments spear -shaped point in t be upper end. The ceremonial st affs of the
in t he shape of a p air of ornl rings, etc. (fig. 68 d . e). ()ayapá a re also lance-shaped . The same feature is found again in
t he chicauaztli which very oftcn is furnished with a spear-like point .
1 do not know the significance of t his point.
The ceremonial staffs are evident ly intended to be u sed only
by certain officials anel on special occasions. Unfortunatcly we
are not informed by K ocH -ÜR Ü'NBERO or by any other author of
the fonction of the bearers of t he spear rattles.
From what has been said it is evident that stick r at tlcs
a nd ceremonial staffs are one a nel the sarne thing, and t hat t he
so-called rat tling lances are a lso to be included in this group. T o
thc ceremonial staff bas merely been added a rat tle in order t o in -
crease the magic power which i he staff a lready had , not only as a
staff as such but also, as KARSTE~ very pertinently points out ,
b ecause it is decorated wit h feathers, ornaments, etc. I n this
connection it is interesting to note t hat t he D esan a have both t he
I ) r attling lance anel the ceremonial staff and that these differ only
in t hat the lance has a r attle and is somewhat longer. Fig. 68 e
e. shows the ceremonial st aff, or t o speak with the collect or , Dr.
DOUGLAS MELIN , the da nce staff. Its length is 1.74 m ., that is on
,, ~
the average 60 cm. shorter than the rattling lances. The ornaments
li
· t e. on the upper ends are almost identical , as will be seen by compa-
ring the figUTcs on thc sarne side. The sarne is true of the kind of
wood which is used .
i,, But for the fact that an under taking of this kind should take
Fig. 68. llattling dancing sticks from the Uaupés territory. a = T u kano (Tiq uié), me too far away from t he subjcct 1 am now pursuing, it would be
OM: 2i;.6. l79. b = D csan a, G'.\1: 25.6.1 39. e = Tttkano (T iqu ió), G'.\l : :!õ.6.1 80. interesting a t this point to makc a compilation of st affs a nd sticks
d = Tariána, G'.\I: 28. l.303. e = Arapúço. O'.\l : 28. 1.:!
wit h magic and ceremonia l functions in South America. In t he
course of t he present investigation I have frequent ly called atten-
I have a lready in connection wit h t he K ágaba and Tiribi t ion to instruments which consist of a. stick wit h a sound in t ru-
stick r attles p ointed out t heir relationship wit h the official staffs, m en t applied, a for instance jingle rattles, gourd rat tles, t he
uch sticks a lso occur among several other Chibcha people, as for s tamping tube, membrane drums (p . 19 l ), et c. ln many places the
i nstance t he Cayapá 1 ), the Chibcha, Ij ca ,2 ) anel also Ch ocó - an isola- Indians use st affs without a ny sound instrumcnt attached; thus,
ted linguistic group which lies wedged in t he territory of t he Chibcha for instance, the Chiriguano have long st affs decorated with feathers
people.ª) Characteristic for them is t hat t hey are often made of (KARSTEN, [ 1], p. 92), the Canellas have staffs with and wit hout
1
) JI, p. 350.
BAJUtJ,:TT,
feathers anel ornaments at their puberty ceremonies, while the ln-
2
) Hor.TNn1m, 12], p. 130. dians at Rio Negro at their dan ces with certain masks have long,
3) Ü M. : 27 .27 .502. often double staffs which are sometimes furnished with long strips
144 K. V.E'l'. O. VI'l'TERH . SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BANO 5. N:O 1 IZrKOWITZ, MUSICAL I~STRl'ME~"'TS OF S. A..\1ERTCA 145

of bark.1) The Chipaya worship a holy staff which t hey have rattles have the sarne function as the stamping tubo with jingle
stuck into the eartb.2 ) Examples are numerous. 1 consider it rattles (cf. p. 153). Possibly the cotton hangings are the remains
probable that the staff in itself has some magic or ceremonial signi- of a jingle rattle without a hoop.
fi cance aside from other magic details, such as rattles of various In this tribe, as well as among thc Uachmiri and Yauapery,
types and figures of demons, feathers, strips of bark, scalps, orna- we find tubular rattles made of plaited ·work, the so-called wicker-
ments and figures, etc., and especially the sacred quality of the w01·k (fig. 53). There is eycry probability that they are imitations
particular kind of wood of which the staff is made. of t ubular rattles of rced.
Possibly there is also some association of ideas between these v. HoRNBOSTEL ([6], p. 279) mcntions a tubular rattle from
staffs anel sculptured or painted poles, whether »totem poles», stelre Cberente, wlüch is suppo. cd to be founcl at the Võlkermuseum in
of stone, or the like. Leipzig. This rnuseum has, however , informed me that t hey
• have n o such instrument from tb is tribo, so it would secm that
v. HORNBOSTEL h as made a mistake in this instance.
T bular r a t t l e s.
ti
Tubular rattles are found among t he Cuna 3 ), in Ecuador among
the Colorado4 ) , in the interior of Guiana, and in Mexico among t he
Huichol 5 ) . To these may also be counted a chicauaztli which is
obviously made of some sort of reed (fig. 65 a). The majority of
tubular rattles are made of reeds, for instance bamboo or Cecropia,
or t hey may be of plaited reeds. They are closed in both ends and ~ Fig. 69. Tubular ratllo from the Colorado. ' i e·
are filled with hard seeds, pebbles, or the like. Some of them have ~ mr: 20.i.35.
a strange detail in that a large number of palm needles, of a length
almost equal to that of the inner diameter, are stuck into the
Outside of South Amcrica wc find the t ubular rattle again in
walls of t he tube (fig. 69). This construction is found among the
a report by PRElJSS ((5), p. 594 f.) from t he Huichol Indians in nor-
Cuna and in Ecuador. ln turning a rattle of t bis type upside down
thern Mexico. This specimen is of particular interest for us as it
t he seeds beat against the needles whereby t hey are ch ecked some-
illustrates t he relation betwecn stick rattles anel tubular rattles.
what in their movements and produce an odd sound very like t he
ln a description of an al tar, which the neigb boring Cora in Sierra Madre
patter of rain.
build and use for certain cercmonies at t ho sowing festivals celebr a,ted
ScHOMBURGK has supplied us with iiúormation about the Ma-
immediately before thc rainy sea on, PBEUSS ((2). p. LXXII) mentions
cushí rattle.6 ) He describes h ow the masters of ceremonies held in
that among tbe sacred insignia are included three staffs decorated
t heir hands two large pieces of b amboo, t he cavities of which were
wi th symbols of clouds and lightning. The entire altar is, by the
filled with small pebbles while the exteriors were decked with cot-
way, reminiscent of t hc symbols of rain. Threc similar staffs are
ton hangings and feathers . They walked at the bead of the dan-
also part of the Huichol altars but they do not symbolize rain
cing column, stamping at intervala with their bamboos on the tbrough pictures but through sound in that t heir scpta are perforated
ground, by which a rattling noise was caused, women and men
and they are partly filled with seeds of the guaute, »so dass man sie
accompanying t he sarne with a monotonous song. Obviously t hese
lange Zeit wie einen feinen Rcgen herabricseln hõrt, wcnn man die
1) 0111: 28.1.180. Robre urncl.reht. >> It will be noticed that t his rattle is very like t he
2
) [6), p. 266.
Mi'TUAIJX, thc tub ular rattle with palro needles, since the edges of the perforated
3) Informat ion by R. PEREZ KANTULE.
4 ) C:lM: 20.7.35.
scpta bave tbe sarne function as the ncedJcs. On the other hand it is
6 ) PnEuss, see p. 145. functionally r elatcd to t he Mcxican chicauaztli, also callcd ayauchi-
6 ) w. HoTH, [2], p. 464, cit. SCHOMBURGK. cauaztli = fog-chicauaztli, for it was the attribute not only of Xipe,
JO
146 K. VET. O. Vl'l'TERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND õ . N:O l IZIKOWITZ, )1US!CAL I -sTRUME~'TS OF S. AMERLCA IH

the god of fertility , but a lso of t he rain gods (Sb:u :n, [l), V, p. 581). The Indians who use this type of rattles have also been in intimate
Its rattling sound is reminiscent of rain, and r ain means fertility. contact with the immigrating negroes. This is the case with the
Considered this way one understands that t be chicauaztli was a so\\ing Cuna, wbo do not otherwise seem t,o bave been influenced by their
implement, s,incc sowing most of all is dependent upon the fertilizing culture, while the Colorado Indians show more evidence of this
rain. The chicauaztli bas evi<lently existed in a num ber of variants influence. They have both the marimba and drums of negro types. 1)
to judge from r epresentations in the codices. On fig. 65 I have ln Togo the nails (needles) havc a technical object which ex-
collccted a number of details from such pictures. Let us consider plains their existence. According to SME~D (p. 90) the tubula1·
fig. 6il a which evidently represents only a single t ube, opened on r attle is here made by cleaving t he tube lengthwise wbereupon it
one side. This entitles us to assume the possibility of a connection is nailed togetber . ln Sout h America, on the other hand, t he tube
between t he chicauztli - t he stick rattle - and the plain t ubular is open in both ends. On thc whole, one rarely finds objects nailed
rattle. With this I do not, however, intend t,o maintain tbat t he • together in South America (lzIKOWITZ, [l), p. 168 seq.). 'l'hus it is
t ubular rattle is older t han the stick rattles and that the latter likely that the t ubular rattle with needles is post-Columbian . On the
has developed from it. But to determine in which way t he rest of otber hand we must not forget tbe relation of the Huichol and the
t he t ubular rattles are related to the Huichol specimen becomes a Cu na r attles towards respectively t he chicauatzli and the official staffs.
more difficult task as, aside from the above-mentioned case from I s hould therefore say that in pre-Columbia n times there havo been
l\fakushí, I am acquainted with the function of this instrument in t ub ular rattles without needles and that the Indians who had t hese,
South America only in one more instance, that is from the Cunas. or sticks rattles, were receptive to negro instruments with nails.
The instrument is here called kãa'[JOlo, i. e. the name of the Cuna That is, they have merely modified an old instrument and applied
Indians' official staffs. Among the Cunas the t ubular rattle is also, upon it the nails, or needles, which they have presumably considered
like some of the former, used by the men who keep order at the an improvement.
festivais (see p. 139).1 ) As will be remembered, a number of gourd rattles from Chaco
The interesting fact is that I have not found any rattling official also have needles (see p. 98). I should think that even in this case
staff from the Cunas, but it is of course quite possible that they it is a post-columbian detail, introduced by the negroes. Here also the
exist. Some of them are carved in such a way that they might just Indians should then h ave taken up tbis detail and adapted it t o an
as well be rattling like those from the Tiribi (p. 138). They may pos- instrument which they already had. But there are no negroes at ali in
sibly be expected to have something in common in their construction Chaco. We should, however, remcmber that already in 1619 there
since they have the sarne function. The other t ubular rattles are were sixty thousand inbabitants in Lima, wbereof thirty tbousand ,
also from Chibcha tribes. The Chocó and t he tribes at Rio Napo t bat is 50% (!), were negro slaves. The port of Lima, Callao, existed
must be rcgarded as influenced by Chibcha cult ure, since they live already in 1537 a nd from it went all the import trade to Peru, Chile,
close to this territory. and La Plata, and the old trade r oute passed over the Peruvian
The peculiarity with these tubular rattles is their unique construc- highland, past Jujuy -Tucuman-Cordova towards the north, in order
tive detail, the needles. Tbis detail is also found in otper places to avoid the attacks of t he Pampa Indians.2) Very likely negro
outsidc of America, for instance in Africa, and D'HARCOURT. ([1) p. 7) slaves were at t hat time used in these transports.
suspects t hat they might possibly be post-Columbian instruments To decide finally how the Guiana rattles have evolved is more
which have been introduced by the negroes. difficult. Are they connectecl with Colombia and Mexico, are t hey
According to SACHS ([2], p. 123) and V. H ORNBOSTEL (~6), p. post-Columbian negro instruments, or independent inventions1 The
278 seq.) tubular rattles with needlcs are found especially in West question is as yet impossiblc to answer. As I have already said they
Africa, for instan ce in Togo and among the Pangwe, that is, in just are in a way functionally related to the stamping tubes 'vith jingle
those regions from which negro slaves were brought to America. ' ) Soo t he ch apter on tho mombrnno drum , p. 179.
1) tnformalion b y t he Cuna Indino, R u BEN PEni-:z l<ANTULE. ') S C RMTEDI-.:U,PP· 48, 102.
 148 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HA . DL. S IO:H. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIROWlTZ, l\1USTCA 1. INSTR"CMENTS OF S. Al\1ERICA 149
rattles, which to some extent speaks for their being independently men and priests must participate in many different ceremonies with
invented in Guiana. Another variation of these stamping tubes or their magic knowledge and their paraphernalia, among these their
sticks with jingle rattles is the gourd rattle on a long stick whicb magic staff rattles when t hey were neecled. It is by reason of this
is pounded on the ground (see p. 117), an instrument which is not that the staff rattles have come to be u sed in connection with sick-
unique in Guiana since it also occurs in Central America. ness anel death-masks and as a sowing staff which with its rattling
Tlrns we see that t be stick rattle and the tubular rattle are very sound should call down the rain and fertilize the earth.
nearly related. The question is only which is the older of the two. From the abovc it appears that all these stick rattles and tubu-
Plainly the chicauaztli has developed from a type consisting of cala- lar rattles probably are related to each other in some way. If this
bashes on a staff, in other words tho chicauaztli which is illustrated is true it is evident that we are dealing with connected phenomena
on the Tikal reliefs (fig. 65). On some of the common chicauaztlis within an area stretching from Huichol in the north through Mexico
the top has with a detail formed like an arrow-point. Very likely and Central America down to the Chibcha territory in the south.
this is a conventionalization of the phallus-formed top ornament This cultural current has evidently also followed the Peruvian coast,
on the Tikal sta.ff, which should still further support my supposi- on the northern part of which, in the Chimú territory, we find a
1
tion that this latter is oldcr than tbe usual ones in wood. \Ve know kind of stick rattles, staffs topped with metal objects with attached
now tbat the chicauaztli is a fertility implement and that it is used bells (soe the 'fikal staff fig. 65). This may be a sign of a soutbern
for sowing - that is, boles are made in the earth with it. From this offshoot of the Chibcha culture, for many circumstances point to the
point of view the phallic symbol is easily understood. Further it is conclusion that l\fochica, the language spoken by the inhabitants of
quite possible that the chicauaztli as well as the gourd rattle may the Chimú territory, was related to the Barbacóa languages, the
have developed directly from the jingle rattle on a stick, precisely as outhernmost offshoot of the Chibcha races (KRICKEBERG [3], p. 327).
I surmised for Guiana (p. 117). 'fhe transition from a jingle rattle It is impossible to decide whether the Peruvian rattle-sticks of wood
directly to the tubular rattle might then be pos ible in that the belong to this group or not. Another cultura.! cu_rrent has evidently
principie of the hollow rattle is known. On the other hand the tubu- gone towards the east to the Uaupés territory (the rattling lances),
lar rattle may be a simplification of the usual chicauaztli made in a nd p ossibly t:> Guiana, where the jingle rattles are often used by
onc piece. \í\fhichever way we look upon the matter we cannot yet the leaders of the dances.
determine anything about the difference in age between the two
rattlcs; the only thing I should consider probable is that the Tikal
staff is a forerunner of the stick rattlc and that the former, as well
as tubular and stick rattles, are genetically related to one another. \Ve have now investigated a group of sound instruments which
ln stick. rattles of various sorts and tubular rattles we have are based on the principie of the hollow rattle. We have witnessed
com bined two ideas, partly that of the bollow rattle a nd partly that how this principle became app1ied to goi1rd rattles anel many other
of the holy or sacred staff. objects of various ·orts, of which the greater majority have more or
One may surmise that originally thc staffs with or without less of a religious-magical function in common. vVe Europeans
rattles were the medicine-man's tools, as was the raltle by itself, and think of the rattle e ither as a toy belonging to the nursery or as a
that they have later come into use among other social fonctionaries. rhythmical instrument which we have perhaps only met in thc
The medicine-men and other members of the tribe who belonged to rumba-orchestras in mo<lern dance-lrnlls. To be sure, cven the
the priesthood were really the ruling class, not only among tbe Indians sometimes use it to quiet babies andas a rhythmical instru-
Chibcha people, but also in the Mexican and Central American high ment accompanying dance anel song, but these are secondary func-
culturcs. That the Mexican gods then bave the chicauaztli - the tions. The rattle is prim~uily magic in its function, precisely like
stick rattle - as their emblem should not surprise us. Nor is it the song anel the dance with which it is used, anel its magic properties
surpl'ising that the function varies among clifforent tribes; medicine- are first of ali to be fow1d in its peculiar and characteristic sound.
150 K. vg1•. O. VIT'.r.ERU. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. IlAND 5. N:O 1 IZTKOWITZ, MUSICAL I 'S'l'R l 'i\l.E~TS Olf S. A."\1ERlCA 151
As I bavo personally only hearcl tbe rattle played by Indians on the ance of being tumed. Whet hor t he instrument
phonograph I should like to quote NnroENDAJÚ on the use of the is Indian or not [ dare not ay on the bas is of
rattle among the Apapocuva-Guarani: the e fow data . Nor do I know of its oxistence
tMan dcnke nur nieht, dass dieses Ins trument, wc-lchcs man in Europe, although it is not impo ·sible that it
in D eutsehland nur ais Spielzeu g d er kleinsten Kinder kennt, in occurs as a folk instrument. Tho South European
<IC'n Hãnden der Indianer irgcndwie lüch erlich wirke. Wer je folk instruments are unfortunately far too little
eincm ernsten l\fedizintanz d er Guarani h eigewohnt hat, wird known.
s ich wunde rn, welcher Xuanccn d er Ton eines so simplen lnstru-
The sistrum occurred in ancient times in
m1>ntes fiih ig ist. I ch roõchtc die Tanzra!lsel das Symbol d es
G uaranf-Stammes nennen: Roh tmd cinfiich in ihrcm bnrbar- Egypt and was found in the entirc Roman em pire
as far as Oaul. J n our times a fo rm very similar Fig. 70. Sistrum
isch cn Schrnuck, unfühig sich im Konze r·t dC'r Zivilization v er-
from tho Kndiuveo.
wcndon zu lasscn, wo ihre Rolle nur cino Jiiehorliche sc in kõnnte, to those old specimens is used in Abyssinian
Aftcr Booo1ANI.
nbcr sohr wohl begabt, der eignen Stimmung Ausdruck zu ver- church music and in Caucasia. Another variety
IC'ihen: Bald klingt die Mbaracá e m st und frierlich, ais wolle sie
of the sistrum is found in the Niger territory (SACHS, [2], pp. 147
clie Gotthcit zum tH ersehen • veranlasscn; d ann laut und wi ld,
die Tãnzer zUI· Ekstase fortreissend, und dann wied e r "ºleise seq.). The Abyssinian sistrum portrayed by SACHS1 ) is very like the
und zitternd sanft, a is wcine darin dio altP Sehnsuch t dieser Yaqui instrument. From wbicb part of the Old World this instru-
müden Rasse na0h •Unsrcr l\futter • und nach Ruhe in dem ment has been conveyed to America still remains to be determined.
tLand ohno Schlechtes. • ([ l], p. 341.)

It is the magic po,-.;-er of the sound which is essential; the rhythm,

the ornamentation, the feathers, the sculptures on the stick rattles, D . Stamping Tubes.
their sacred wood, the song and its words, the dance with its
(Bâton de rythme, Aitfscltlagsrohre, Stosstrommel).
suggestive body movements, etc. - all these, magic in themselves,
are contributing factors intended to increase and intensify the magic These instrÚments consist of tubes of bamboo or some other
effect together with the rattling sound, and all this is merely a part suitable kind of wood. When thcy are pounded, for instance against
of all the other ceremonies which man has devised and performs in t he earth, a dull sound is producod.
his struggle for existence in order to get J1elp from the good powers MÉTRAUX has already treated this instrument in bis book2) and
and to protect himself from the evil ones. shown its distribution in Amazonas. ln a n article3 ) which preceded
this book he classes it as a Melanesian culture element and compares
it with instruments in Melanesia. Evidently he changed bis opinion
The Sistrum. about this matter, for in discussing the stamping tube in bis book he
does not say anything about itf' Melanesian origin. The interesting
~ÍANIZEH. (p. 328) and BoGGJANI ([2], p. 120) reproduce an
and valuable observation )IÉTRAUX has made is that it is one of
instrument from t he Kadiuveo consisting of a fork between the
those culture elements which accompanied the Tupí people on tbeir
ends of which a string is stretched. On this a number of discs have
traveis south of Rio Amazonas (l\IÉTRAUX, [2], p. 216). He writes:
been strung which beat against one another when the instrument
»L'occurcncc de cet instrument au sud du grand fle uve n c
is shaken. This is tbe only tribe in South America which to my peut s'expliqucr quo par les migrations dos Tupi-Guarani, car ils
knowledge have this instr ument (fig. 70). n 'ést signalé là quo chC'z les tribus nppartcnant à cctte famille
DENS~fORE ([1], pi. 29 a) portrays a similar instrument from the linguistique ou ayant ótó e n contact avec elle. •
Yaqui. It is used by tbe leading dancers at the Deer dance. In this 1
) Sachs, [2], pi. 25, fig. 170.
tribe it is made of wood altogether and has two strings, one above ') llft'.l'RAUX, [?J. pp. 225 seq.
the other. The handle isso elaborately carvecl that it has tbe appear- 3) Mi'TRAUX, [ I ].
 15;! K. Vl~'l'. O. Vf'f"l'EUH. SA~ffi. HANDL. SER. A. DAND 5. N:O l
IZIKOWfTZ, .M USICAL I~STR UMJ<:N'l' S OF S. AMERICA J53
J3ut before continuing t he discussion about its travels and origin, extent resemble those of the Apapocuva. PRIEWASSER (p. 290)
let us consider t he different forms of the stamping tubo and the says of t hese:
function of this instrument. tlm T ocai') b<'findcn s ich dem Osten zu einige dicke, g leich-
Two types of t he stamping tubo exist - a plain one of coarse mãssig geschnitlC'nc Bombus-R õhre de r hohlen Tacuara, WC'lch o
bamboo which is the most common, and another which is usually zwei Knotenglicd cr habcn miisscn. Sie sind etwa 60 cm. lang,
made of Cecropia or some other kind of wood. 8 cm. dick, bC'zichungswC'iso hoh l. Zu je zwcien angebundPn
werden sic geordn ct auf einC'r Hank aufgC'stellt. •
The bamboo instmments occur among mo t of t he tribes south
of t he Amazon River a nd north of it a mong the Yahuna , Uitoto, and According to CARDÚS (p. 78) the upper ends of t he Guarayo ln-
Tamanacks, and a lso in the Roroima territory; the latter instrument dians' stamping tubes are closed with wax. The stamping tubes of
is fo und in the Rio Negro territory, and possibly at thc Orinoco the Cainguá are 100- 130 cm. long . TJ1ey are made of taquarassit
among t he Salivas, and at the Rio Yapurá among the Juri-Taboca. bamboo and have the bottom end closed. As among tbe Apapocu va
ln reading NIMUENDA.Jú's ([l] , p. 342) description of the use of they are called tacuaJnt (ZELLlm, pp. 100- 130; Ai\IBlWSETTI ([l],
t he stamping tube among t he Apapocuva-Cuaraní one discovers that. p. 318).
the bamboo staff must be cut in a special ma nner: M°ÉTRAUX2 ) describes t be stamping tubes of the Tupinambá as
tDie Tacuapú1 ) s ind gcwõhnlich aus C'incr »Ta q u ar a bamboo t ubes the length of an arm, 6- 7 times the width of a hand
b r a. n e a t genannten B ambú-art hergestcllt. Man schneidct (palmos) long, and open at the top. The Tamanacks make theirs of
dic tücke so ab, dass mau dic Stangc m1lc1· l'inC'm Knoten ,-oro
Strauch trennt; diese1· erste Knotcn bildet das untcre, ,-erschlos-
t he coarse ba mboo which is called guádua. They are four »palms»
scnc Endc. Dann übergeht man d cn Zweiten Knot C'n und schnei- long (Gn..IJ, I , p. 277). ln the 1\fuseum für Võlkerkunde in Wien (WM::
d ct die Stange dicht unter dcm dritte n Knot<'n durch wodurch 2698) there is a wahlonglca, or stamping tube of bamboo, which is
das obcre, offene Ende gebiklct wird. Dio Zwisch enwand des 1,47 cm . long and decorated wit h incised ornaments. On the middle
mittlcrcn Knotens stõsst m an dann mit eincm Stock vorsichtig a cotton thread with fringes is fastened. It was collected by RTCHARD
durch. l\fan sucht stets die lãngstcn Jntervallen zwischen dl·ei
Knotcn aus, a ber selten erhãlt mun ('irt Tacuapú, wC'l ch es 'liinger
ScHO:MBURGK during bis travcls in 1835-8 in British Guiana. No de-
a is 75 cm. ist . Die Riinder werdC'n glntt bcschnittC'n , d er obere )
scription is found of the other bamboo stamping tubes. The Uitoto
mit cincm F ed orkranz v erziert, manchmal n och c in zweiter sol- a nd the Indians of the Roroima territory have, as I have already
chcr Kru.nz eino Spanne weíter dal'unter angcbrn.cht, und hi.iufig m entioned, bamboo tubes with attached jingle rattles (cf. p. 91, fig ..
wird dann. noch dic Taquara r1111<lherum mit cinom lang- 36). These are about 1- l ,5 m. long. On the M:akushi stam-
gezogcncn Schachbrctt ãhnclndcn J\fuster ornamcntiC'rt, indem
man immer von einem F eld díc iiusscrstc Rindo de r Taquara ab-
ping tube the end which is pounded on the ground is covered with
zich t und s ie iro nãchsten stchcn li:isst. Dio abgcschiilten F elder skin (fig. 37).
fiirbt man mit Urucú. D er Durchmi:isser der q_'aquara ist etwa 'fhe other type is usually manufactured of the so-called ambaúva
4 cm. ln l\latto Grosso vcrwendct man ais Taciwpú auch die tr ee (a species of Oecropia). They aro best known from KocH-GRüx-
Taquarussú genannte Bambú-Sortc, welcho Rohrc \'Ort bis zu BERG 's book about t he Rio Negro lndians (see tables). There are
i cm. Durchmesser licfer t. Dio Tiinzerin fas.~t, dic Taquara
stehcnd untcr dem oberen , sitzencl übcr dem w1tcrcn Ende und
two models, one with and t he other without a bandle (fig. 71). The
stõsst sie irn Takt auf den Boden , wodurch cin jo nach d em latter ar e often slightly conic and rather coarse in comparison with
Durchmesscr h õherer odcr tiefer Trommclton c ntslch t . D er the former. They are close<l in the bottom and open in the upper
K lan g der aus Taquarussú verfer:tigtcn ist b cdoutend sonorcr und end: ln the upper edge are two boles in which a cord is fastened.
laut<'r als der der andern, dieso Bambú-a rt ist jecloch iro Osten Most probably this is to hold the t ube. 'l'he tubes with handles are
r echt selten . ~
cylindrical, closed in t he bottom and open at the top, and the handle
The instruments are kept in a special medicine hut. This is is made in one piece with tho tube itself a nd is placed at the upper
a l.·o the case a mong the Guarayo, whose stamping tubes to some -
') Tho Tocticino hut..
' ) 'l'his is the narno of Lho stamping tube.
' ) l\H;TRAUX, [2], p. 215, cil. SOAltEZ DE So1·sA.
1\
154 K. VET. O. VlTTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND ó. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, l\IUSlCAL 1 ' STRUME ' TS OF S. AMERICA 155
end in the longitudinal direction of the tube. On several of the the sound which is of impot·tance. This is also stressed by K1ucEN-
handlcs a human face is carved and otbers have some J<lnd of DAJÚ Cl], p. 342). As evidence of this, NnrUENDAJÚ mentions that
feather ornament (fig. 71 b ). The length of the difforent stamping once when the Apapocuva were in a region where they found no bam-
tubes varie from 1 m. to 1.20 m. Characteristic for all of these boos, they pounded an empty bottle on the ground and succceded in
stamping tubes from the Rio Negro creating a sound similar to that of the taquara. 'Ve meet the sarne
tenitory is that they have ornaments phenomenon among the Jndia ns at the sources of the Xingú. Here
painted in black and red (probably uru- bottle-calabashes are used (v. D. STEINEN, [2], p. 326). Evidently
cu paint). Unfortunately I have no Huitable reeds do not grow in these regiona for they make their large
information as to the import of the flutes from hollowed wooden halves.
ornamenta. ln the chapter on jingle rattlcs I pointed ou t
Stamping tubes similar to these that certain tribes, for instance the Uitoto, Tiku-
occur among the J uri-Taboca (MM: 11a, 1\fakushí, etc. occasionally attach the jingle
488 and 489, fig. 72). One has a rattle to coarse bamboo tubes which are pounded
lateral handle consisting of two semi- on the ground. These are also in a way a species
circular osier switches, the other has of stamping tubes. Tbis custom, I observed, is
a handle parallel with and as long as bound up with the custom of attaching jingle
the tube itself. The diameter of the rattles to staffs (cf. p. 91). The Uitoto use both
former is 20 cm., its Jength a little more bamboo tubes (fig. 36 a) and 1ong, slender staffs
than one meter. They are heavily or- upon wbich they fasten tbeir rattles. I sbould
namented with paintings. Possibly imagine tbat the stamping tube has developed
Saliva's stamping tubes have been from this custom. By making the small change
something similar to this. GuMILLA of holding the rattle in the hand or fastening
(I, p. 218) mentions that they were it on the body and retaining the bamboo staff in
»muy pintados», much painted. the hand this has been changed from a staff to
'rhe oldest type of these stamping Fig. 72. Stamping
a sta.mping tube. 1 ) This is also the case for tubos from thc Juri.
tubes is, I should think, the plain instance in t he Rio Negro territory, among the Afte r SPix ANO
bamboo tube, since this is most com- Tamanacks and Bora, etc. Among severa! of l\IART11:s.
a. b
mon and has the widest distribution. those tribes tbat use tbe stamping tube, jingle
Fig. i l. Sta.mping tubes from the
·aupés territory. a = Karútana,
The tube with a handle is undoubtedly rattles are also used, but I have no evidence of their being used
a.fter KocH-ORiJNBERO. b = Yutíca, the youngest. I can give an example imultaneously. When a. cultura element such as the stamping tube
OM: 28.1.220. of this from the Baniwa. ln NAT- becomes an independent idea, independent of the jingle rattle, it
TERER' s collection in the Museum also becomes capable of &travelling & by itself. Thus tbe jingle rattle
für Võlkerkunde in Berlin there is a collection of stamping tubes is missing for instance among the Cainguá and Apapocuva. M:ost
from the Baniwa (MM. 1854). They belong to the type reproduced likely MÉTRAUX ([2], p. 216) is rigbt in bis tbeory tbat the stamping
on fig. 71 a. This collection dates from 1817-35. ln a later collec- t ube has developed north of the Amazon and from there has ac-
tion at the Gothenburg Museum from the sarne tribe, collected by companied the Tupí on their migrations along the coast and further
NIMUENDAJÚ in 1926, there are only tubes with bandles (fig. 71 b). on into the interior. At first it was a plain bamboo tube, which
I have not found any statement from South America to tbe ef- through the efforts of the tribes in north-western .Brazil became
fect that staffs of different lengths are used to produce different 1) SACHS regards the tube as an organio proj ection of the leg which is stamping
sounds, as is for instance the case on Malacca. Obviously it is only i n tho dance, [2], p. 74.
 156 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SA:\1H. HA~DL . SER. A. UAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL J NSTRUMENTS OF S. A.'1ERICA 157
1
slightly more refined. The fact that t he stamping tube is not pinambá ) the men, when t hey saw the moon red as blood for the
mentioned from among the Arowaks of the West Indies may signify first time after the rainy season pounded the ground with staffs,
that it is younger than the emigration of t his tribe. yelled and shouted, while the women and children cried and
The reed-staffs which the Cora lndians in Mexico use together screamed, ali turning towards the moon. They believed that a star
with j inglc rattles (cf. p. 59) are ornamented. Whether or not they which they called »the dog » was going to devour the moon and that
a re ponnded on the ground PREuss l2] does not mention. Even they ali must die . These Jndjans also use the staffs at dances
if they were, they could not produce any sound Yolume worth (SOAREZ DE SOUSA, p. 345), and STADEN portrays them dancing
consideríng as they are too slencler, but if these Indians hacl access to with them at a funeral ceremony. 1 )
sufficiently coarse bamboo, stamping tubes might havo appeared here Among the Apapocuva-Guaraní the stampíng tube is a woman's
quite independently of the Amazonian territory. instrument. According to NIMUENDAJÚ ([1], p . 345) the mere t hought
Among the Apapocuva and certain tribes in the Hio Negro terri- of a man dancing with a taquara in bis hand would be ridiculous.
tory, gourd r attles are used together with the stamping tube. It is Thls instrument is considered inferior to the gourd rattle ín magic
just possible that this rattle has supplanted thc jingle rattle which power and religious nimbus which does not, however, prevent it
ought to have been t here in its place. from being indispensable at every medicine dance. The reason for
medicine dances may be incidents of all kinds. The most impor-
2·~.,..,.: -
. tant of these is Nimongarai, a feast which is celebrated once a year
.,,.~~
.~- - - .. -
:-·
"'._... - -
when the frllits of the field, particularly the maize, are green. The
purpose of the feast is »sowohl die l\fonschen als auch die Nahrungs-
Fig. 73. Stamping tube from Uaupés tcrritory. British :.\luseum. pflanzen und -tiere fü1· das ganze J ahr gegen schlechte Einflüsse
zu freien. » The instruments and the sound they produce are in tlús
In those instances when stamping tubes are used simultaneously case evidently intended to »harden against evil spirits », to use K.Ans-
with jingle rattles we are already acquainted with their function. TEN's terminology.
For those I refer to t he descriptions of festivais in the Roroima and Among the Guarayo the stamping tubes are used at the feasts
R io Negro territories, among the Uitoto, and other tl'ibes which I for the forefathers which are celebrated either at the time for sowing
have given in connection with the jingle rattle (cf. p. 53). Among or for harvest. Much chicha is drunk at these feasts. They take
the tribes north of the Amazon river, and to some extent also south place in a special ceremony house, tocai, in which the stamping tubes
of it, a great many different instruments are used simultaneously at are also stored. The latter stand, tied together in pairs, alonga wall,
t heir fea ts, anel it is therefore impossible to ascertain the exact func- on a special stand, alongside of which other ceremonfal objects are
tion of each instrument. It is not even certain that they have any placed. The days before the festival are spent in gathering great
function at aU. Perhaps it is the sounel itself which plays the most quantities of food the men go hunting anel fishing while the women
important role. Therefore the stamping t ube is usecl simultaneously brew chicha. F or the feast , men a nd women alike paint anel deco-
with gourd rattles, jingle rattles, various kinels of flutes, etc. The rate themselves with feathcrs anel other ornaments. A gourd rattle
p urpose of the feast also varies. Thus, for instance, BARBOSA Ron- gives the signal for the ceremony to start. After the mas ter of cere-
RIOUEZ ((2), p. 142) mentions that the taquara stamping tube is used monies has blown smoke upon t he ceremoníal objects, each one of
at a n initiation ceremony for boys among the Ipurucotós (Purukotó) the participants takes holcl of a taquara anel the singing begins,
together with membrana drums, maracas, flutes, etc. The stamping rhythmically accornpaniecl by the stamping tubes. During this
tube is here called waranga, which is also name its among a num- festival the women wear a sort of bracelets of frllit-shell jingle
ber of other Caribbean tribes, as for instance the Cricxana Makushí rattles. 2 )
and Arekuna (BAl'tBOSA RODRIG UEZ, [2], p. 162; Ro·rH, ÚJ,
§ 576< 1
) cil . MÉTRA.ux, [ 2], p. 2 ll3 aoq.
CLAUDE D'ABBEV1LLE (foi. 317) describes how among the Tu- ') CAUDÚS, PP· i S- 80.
 158 K. VET. O. VIT'l'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. X:O J IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OJ;' S. A-"\fERICA 159
Among tbe Kaingang1 ) and Kaingua2 ) the stamping tube is used
Stampi!lg Sticks Stamping
at funeral ceremonies. ln the latter tribe two women handle the . tu~es w1lh withjingle tubes used
Stampmg J mgle li togethf'r
stamping tubes. It is d.ifficult to find the reason why among certain 1 es or · h · · 1
Tribcs tube used rattles or ragourcl w1t Jmg e Author anrl collcct ion
tribes the stamping tubes are used only by women. alone gourd ttl rattlcs or
rattles rn cs gourd
'The stamping tube is tben, to sum up, an instrument which aitached attaC'hed raitlos
most probably originates from the jingle rattle on a staff. It has 1
detached itself from the rattle and become an independent idea or Guarayú + + g. r . PRIEWASSER, pp. 290, 207.
culturc clement which has spread together with the Tupí peoplc ÜRDIGNY, [2], II, p. 329.
from the center of distribution in northern Amazonas towards the CARDÚS, p. 79.
regions south of th.is river. Evidently .it has no function other than
In<linns of Rio + KocH-GnüNnEnG, [3J, r, figs. :rn, 120,
Nogro and + 213; TI, figs. 34, 4 7.
to contt:ibute its particular sound to that of other instrumenta at Caiury Uaupés +
the rel.igious ceremonies. ln Guiana, like the staffs with jingle Tamanack + + j. &g. ÚILIJ, I , P· 277.
rattles, it is an instrument for the master of ceremonies (cf. p. 92), Bora + + j.1-. SEXINAfüO, p. 89.
wh.ile among certain tribes in the south it is a feminine instru- Saliva + ? G"C"MTLLA, I, p. 218.
ment. Whether this latter may be explained as a kind of sun'ival
Roroima ~rr. + + j. r. + Koc11-GnüNnE1w, (4], p. JJ9.
l\iakushi + + j. r. + ROTH, ( 1], chspt. 576.
of the idea of the staff rattle as a feminine instrument among certain V. HORNBOSTEL, (5), p. 398.
tribes it is as yet impossible to say.3 ) \Vapishana + Rorn, ( ! ], § 576.
Patomona +
Uitoto + + j. r. PnEUSS, (3), p. 129.
Stamping Tubes. 1 G)f; 31.8.53
Juri-Taboca + SPTX & ~llTIUS, pi. XXYJ, figs. 30
Stamping Stº ks Stamping & 32.
tubos with ºthi_c 1 tubes used
.
Stamprng Jlllg . . 1e w1 ttlJmg e t ti l\fl\i: 488 & 489.
ra es or .oge
h . . rnr
Tribes t u be used ratt1es or ourd w1t Jmg1o A11thor anel eolleetion 1 Yahúna + Coll. du P. TASTEVIN.
alone gourd g ttles rattles or Kaingang
rattles
ra
attached gour<l
+ '.\1ANIZER, [!], p. 334.
attached rattles Crixaná + KocH-GnüNBERG, [4], l IJ, p. 398.
BAJlTIOSA RODRIGUEZ, (<!j, p. 162.
Apinayé + j. r. SNETIILAOE, (verbal r eport).
Puinave + Crtf;vAUX, p. 352.
Tupinamb(1 + SoAllEz DE SousA, p. 345.
Dr. Guiana + mi: 2698 (eoll. Rrcu. SCH 0"11ll l!CIK).
D'ADDEVJJ,U;, foi. 317 b. Dani"·a + '.\Di: 1854 (coll. NATl'ERER).
G)f: (coll. NDIOEN"DAJl:).
Apapocu'"a + + g. r. NIMUENDAJÚ, ( J), p. 34:!.
(See text, p. 152).
Choroti + j. r. KA:RSTEN, [2], p. 83.
Guarani + ! + g. r. lllANIZER, (1), p. 334.
Ashlushlay + j. r. lúBSTEN, (2), p. 86.
STRELNlKOV, p. 797.
Lengua + j. r. Gnmm, p. 177.
Botucudo Palikur + g. r. X=~-nAJú. [4], pp . .)4, !l!l.
+ STRELNIKOV, p. 800.
Arowaks of g.
Cainguá + STREL."llKOV, p. 797. 1
+ r. ROTH, (l], p. 464.
ZELLER, PP· 100-130.
Br. Guiana + g. r. llr T1n;n.x, [2], p. 28.3.
AlllDROSE=T, [l], PP· 318. 670.
lpurucotó +? + g. r. 1 + g. 1'. BARBOSA Ronmot:Ez, [l ]. p. 14:!.
)fANIZER, í lJ, p. 334.
Klnmalh 1 + j. r. SPtER, [ l ], p. 89.
1 •
1) i\IANlZEll, (2), p. 786.
2)
STllELNlKOV, [ 1], p. 797.
3)
Comparo a lso t he tube rattles as emblema for highel' fttn ction1n·ies, p. J.t4, and
concorning gourcl l'attles on staffs, used by Palikur womcn p. 117.
160 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5 . N:O 1 IZIKOW!TZ, MUSTCAL INSTRUMENTS O.F S. AMERICA lGl
E. The Notched Stick. that the notched stick is post-Columbian in South America anel that
(LL.'\XÉ, rasping bones, scraping sticks). it was brought in by thc negroes. However, it is interesting to find
that a culture element which seems to be pre-Columbian in the north
The notched stick is an instrument consisting of a solid or hol- of Panama anel wh1ch was doubtless independently invented by the
low body, on the side of which parallel notches have been cut. When Indians is a negro instrument in South America. This example should
these notches are quickly scraped by a stick or some similar object be kept in minel in a study of other culture elements, such as t he
a r asping sound is produced. These instrument were common in musical bow, the plug flute, etc.
pre-Columbian times among the Aztecs anel are widely sprcael in
n orthern Mexico and in the western parts of the United States.
LJNNB ([3], p. 204 seq.) has made a study of the distribution of this
instrument north of Panama. The instrumcnts are calleel by him Linguaphones.
Tasping boncs or scraping sticks, according to tbe material of which
(Zup/-1dioplwnen.)
they are made . The instrument eems to be spreael very evenJy anel
without gaps, anel a study of the ceremonies with which it has sprcael This group of instruments is very sparsely represented in America.
·woulcl be well worth whHe . Strangely enough it does not seem to To it may be counteel the U itoto's dancing-tree, the dyadiko, which
ha ve spread south of the l\fayan territory. is, however, already treated on p. 12., for reasons there explaineel.
In South America the notcheel stick has not been founel either The spines in tube rattles anel in t he Chaco rattles may also be
archaeologically or in the olel literature. It was useel only by In- considereel as belonging to this group. They are, however, in my
clians influenceel by negro culture, for this instrument is common in opinion post-Columbian. I have alreaely discusseel them in connec-
Africa. According to SACHS ([2]) p. 17), thc Serpa, MW'a anel Guató tion with the hollow rattles (see p. 98).
tribes, a mong others in South Amcrica, ali of them influenceel by Aside from these specirnens linguaphones are missing in Ame-
negrn culture, have the instrument. He also mentions the Cayabá. rica. An instrument as common as the Jew's harp, which belongs to
a nel urinam tribes.1) tbis group, has, to my knowledge, never been useel by the Indians;
BOLINDER ([2], 189 seq.) 2 ) found a curious notched stick in use it bas, at any rate, nevor met with any success in spite of the many
a mong the Busintanas in northern Columbia. It was a bow, with Jew's harps which have been introdnced into America.
n otches on one side and with a string of palm fibre. When played,
the bowstring is held between the openeel lips, anel the mouth cavity
forms t he resona.tor. 'J\vo sticks are used, one of which is scrapeel
o ver t hc notcheel eelge of the bow, while the other strikes the bow- Friction ldiophones.
string. The instrument is t hus a combineel musical b ow anel notcheel
The South American friction ieliophones consist of entire tortoise
stick . It is calleel the marimba, and is used at the dance with tbe
s hells on which either one of the juts protrueling at the tail or neck
samc name. BoLTNDER shows to foll evidence that this instrument
part are coated with wax. Wben the wax is heatecl anel rubbeel
i of African origin.
with a moist palm, a crealcing sound results which. according to
To t his I may add information regarding a strangc find. On a
LANDA1), is »lugubre y triste.» According to SACHs1) the distribution
photograph of a n Aymara festival in the GothenbUl'g l\fuseum, taken
-0f the instrument includes: the Indians of Yucatan, anel t he Ijca,
by Ml!:·rnAUX, an Indian is seen playing a notched stick. Evielcntly
Tucano, and Karajá. Thereto may be adeled RoTn's1) reports from
t his must also bc explaineel by negro influenco. I refer to the state-
Guiana (Waiwai, Trio, Oyana, Wapishana), and Chocó anel Bogotá.
men t of ScIDHEDER quoteel above (p. 147). It is therefore evident
To judge from the area of distribu tion this is an instrument
' ) Soe also LrnonLOM, p. 68.
•) Sco a lso B o LINDER (1 ). ' ) see table.
11
162 K. VET. O. VJTI'ERH. SAJ\ffi. HANDL. SER. A. BAND õ. N:O l IZl.KOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMEN'l'S OF S. AMERICA 163

which has spread from Central America to Sout h America. It has Friction ldiophones.
not been observed in the West Indies, which may indicate t hat it is
later than t he emigration of the Arowaks to these islands, supposing Triba A uthor (Collection)
t hat its failure to appear in the literature means that it did not ex-
ist, in itself no definite evidence. Since this instrument does not Trio DE GOEJE, [2), pi. VII. fig. 14. Played to-
occur outside of America, NoRDENSKIOLD ([9], p. 19) considers it to Oyana gether with panpipes.
be a n independent Indian invention. There are, to be sure, friction Makushí ROTH, [ l ), p. 469.
W apishane. RoTB, [ 1], p. 469.
idiophones on New Ireland (SACHS (2), p. 90), but t hese are of a type
Waiwa i F .uu.m:E, [2] p. 151
altogether different from Caraj ll KRAU SE, p. 3 17.
the American instruments Indiana of Rio Tiquié K oCR·Git üNDERG, [3], J, p . 303.
of tortoise shell. ROTH, [l] p. 469.
Information as to t he Ijca OM: lG. 3. 746.
Choc6 Verbal report to EnL~-0 NORDENSKliiLn by t ho
fun ction of tbjs instrument
Chocó medicine-man SEUMO.
is very scarce. K:RAUSE says Bogotá GM: 27.:22.105.
t bat the K arajá Indians, '.\faya LANDA, PP· 124- 7.
according to their own re- STAllR, (2], p. 7!).

port, use it »wenn die Kna-

ben aus dem Walde kommen .
Ob hierin ein Hinweis auf
Knabenerziehung, 1Veihen.
u. s. w. im Walde liegt, ge-
F ig. 74. F riction idiophone of tortoiso shell. lang mir nicht festzustellen. »
(KnAUSE, p. 31 7.)
Although we cannot discover tbe conceptions which are associat-
ed with this instrument we do get some information about its func-
tion in certain ceremonies among t he Ijca Indians in Sierra Perijá,
which BOLINDER ([2], p. 164) has witnessed. The dance festivals of
tbe Ijca Indians take place on isolated spots. At the dancing place
there are among otber things four maize fields on which four different
kinds of maize are grown. These are used at cer tain festivais. The
sacred fields lie near t he dancing place and they must not be sOWil
with com other than that which is to be used at t hese festivals_
The maize which is to be sown is consecrated with water and exor -
cised with various kinds of holy stones, and when t he young men go
to sow they play these strange musical instruments of tortoise sheJJ .
T he most impor tan t of the dances which are then performed is t he
Tanicane, which is danced for t he purpose of keeping the fields in
good shape a nd to procure rain.
Among the Trio and Oyana the friction idiophone is, according
to DE ÜOEJE ([2], p. 24), played together wit h the pan-pipe.
 Izrn:owrrz, MUSICAL JNSTRUMENTS OF s. AMElUCA 165

Membrane drums.
The membrane on South American drums may be caused to
vibrate in two ways: t hrough percussion either wit h the hand or a
striking instrument (a stick or the like), or by confining within thc
body of t he drum itself pebbles or other objects that rattle when the
MEMBRANOPHONES. drum is shaken. Since, however, the sarne drum may be used as a
percussion drum as well as a r attle drum a classification according to
By membranophones are meant instruments which produce these principies is not satisfactory. On African drums the technique
sound by m eans of the vibration of a membrane which in its turn of fastening the drum skin is very important as a basis for classifica-
causes tbe air to vibrate. The m embrane may be caused to vibrate tion. ln America, on the other hand, this t echnique is so simple
either· through percussion or through friction. Percussion membra- that it is worthless for this purpose. Of far more importa nce is,
nophones are commonly called drums; skin drums in case the mem- as we shall see, whether or not the bottom of the drum is closed, and
bra ne consists of a skin, which is tbe most usual. I have called them whetber it has a single membrane or double membranes (one- or two-
mem brane drums in order to differentiate between them and the headed). This gives us:
hollow' log drums (cf. p. 16). Friction drums are, if they occur at
a.l l among the South America Indians, post-Columbian.1 ) Usually A. Drums closed in the bottom: k e t t 1 e-dr ums.
the membrane is connected with a vessel which constitutes a sort of B. Drums open in the bottom. Since these are often rathcr
air-chamber or resonator. long and narrow I have called them tu b u 1 ar dr um s .
An instrument which should also be counted among tbe membra- These naturally have only o n e membrane. Another
nophones is the so-called mirlitone2 ) which cannot itself create any single-membrane drum is the arctic shaman-drum or
tone but only colors a tone already created. We get an example of f r a m e-dr u m. These do not occur in South America.
t his type of instrument if we bold a comb covered with tissue-paper C. D o u b l e-m e m b r a n e or t w o-h e ade d drums.
in front of the mouth and sing. The voice achieves a nasal tone ln general one may say of membrane drums that they are scarse
through tbe vibration of the tissue-paper. in South America. One need only move from a South American to
I know only of two specimens of mirlitones from America. One an African department in a museum to observe the great difference.
is from Venezuela (BM: VA 32721), the other from the Maya ln South America, on t he other hand, flutes of all possible varietie;;
Indians (GANN, p. 24). They consist of a short piece of reed which domina te.
is closed in one end with a thin membrane. Most likely they are If we thereupon scrutinize the South American drums we fincl
blown like a flute. ln both places the instrument is used for that the great majority of them are nothing but copies of European
the purpose of alluring deers. Beyond doubt the instrument is military drums, and if - as NoRDENSKIÕLD has already done ([4],
not American in origin, but has obviously been introduced by the p. 165) - we investigate wbat names the Indians have for these
negroes. ANKERMANN (p. 46, fig. 101) portrays the African mir- drums we shall find that as a rule they derive from the Spanish or
litone from Manju . Portuguese appellations: tambor, tamborino~ etc.
Sbould we then on a m ap mark down all thc South American
1
) I
am only ncquainted with a pair from Honduras HM: 3720: 07, and HoRN- drums which are to be found in the museums or mentioned in the
DOSTEL AND SACHS (p. 572) mention one from Venezuela. These instruments have literature we should gct the distribution of the drum in pre- as well as
come e ither from Europa or Africa..
post-Columbian times. It is such a map tbat NoRDE"NSKIÕLD ([4],
') }"lutes with mirlitones are very common in China. It is rather strnnge that
the Indians havo not discovered it altbough its principie is so obvio us. Jf, in
map. 30) has published. This does not, however, give us any picture
carving o ut t he flute holes for instance in a reed , the inner m embrane is left in of the distributi1;m of the drum at the time of and before the Disco-
p lnce, one gets the sarne instrument, which in Swed en is used as a toy. very. I have therefore not taken thc trouble to amplify this map
 lGG .K. v~;'J'. o. VI'.ITERH. s,um. H.A:-<Dr~ . SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL I NSTRUMENTS OF S. A.l""l:ERICA 167
with later acquisitions, but have confined myself to an attempt to •D entro la C h i p a coloco.ban uno. especie de tambor de barro.
determine tbe distribution of the pre-Columbian drums. This is, E! que se encontró e n Covcndo tiene l a forma de un flororo con
dos caras do hombres, groseramente trab11.jadas. Lo tapaban con e l
however, not always easy and often quite impossible, since the
cuero d ei Sari 6 Agutí, q ue cllos llaman Cheti. Por la noch e todos
literatu1·e does not always state the type of tbe dnun and since, los hombres entraban e n lo. Chipa, y en el, el Cucucsí 6 Yanacona.
moreover, one cannot be sure that the genuine lndian drum has not hacia ciertas in,·ocaciones supertiosas desmidándose, cantando y
in post -Columbian times been exchanged for a European or African tocando el tambor que llamaban Pogno, y convidando ai Masoha
irnitation . á. tomar chicha; la que le p onlan cerca d ei tambor . . . . •
ln the southern and eastern parts of South America tbe drum ln col. NATTERER (A.
was apparently not know11 at ali in pre-Columbian times. From 653), Museum für Volker-
Chaco, on the other hand, and the entiro west coast, or the Andine kunde, Wien, there is a
territory frorn the Araucanians clay-vessel drum from Cari-
and upwards, we have definite puna, the membrane of
.
.~--~--
-----=-~ -
~-...,,.. .
information concerning its ex- which strangely enough does
istence. ln Centrai America and not consist of skin but most
l\Iexico the drum was known and likely of caoutchouc. The
also in large parts of North Ame- hollow body is an ordinary
rica with tbe exception of Cali- Yessel about 13 cm. high.
fomia. The distribution sketcbed From the distribution
/ here includes a number of diffe-
rent types which I shall proceed
of these drums in Chaco,
NORDENSKIOLD ([4), p. 164)
to discuss. concluded that like a num-
ber of other culture elements
K e l t l e-dr um s. in these regiona, they, had
Fjg, 75. K ettle-drum of pottery from Kettle-drums are most com- originally come from the
tho Choroti, Chaco. GM: 13.1.54. mon in Chaco, but soJitary speci- high culture regions in the
mens bave been found also in west. This h ypotbesis proved
otber rngions (see table, p. 193). Tbe body of the drum consists to be correct, for in 1930 Fig. 76. K ettlo-<lrwn of pottery from Ica
either of a clay vessel or a hollowed tree-trunk, the bottom of which NORDENSKIOLD succeeded in l erritory, P eru. 23 cm. high. GM: 38.41.l.
has been closed. As a rule the membrane is of raw hide which securing from Dr. GAFFRON
eitber fastens by itself when dry or is simply tied with a string a Peruvian clay-vessel <lrum (fig. 76) , the finding place ofwhich was
(fig. 75). A peculiar detail is that among a number of tribes these reported to be tbe region about Ica.1 ) A sirnila,r drum was also found
drum a1·e filled with water when in use. ln Chaco, among the in the neighborbood of Nasca.2 ) The shape of Dr. GAFFRON's drum is
llfataco, the drum is fa.stened to a couple of parallel sticks stuck in rather unusual for a Peruvian clay vessel. Apparently the vessel
the ground in s uch a ·way that the player can stand and drum on it was formed for the sole purpose of being used as a drum. The
(Iú.RSTEN, (2), p. 157). skin is presumably that of a deer. It is 23 cm. high.
At t he museum in Gotbenburg there is a pottery drum of this The wooden kettle-drums in Cbaco consist of hollowed tree-
type from tbe Choroti (fig. 75). The Lenguas, Mataco, Ashlushlay, trunks. THOUAR mentions that the Toba made a wooden kettle-
Toba, etc. have similar drums (see table). 1 ) JzIKOWITZ (1).
P. ARMEN'TIA (p. 138) describes an interesting clay vessel drum 2) lnformation given by Mr. O. PlZZAJtO y SCHMIDT. This drum is now in tho
from Mojos: P Pnnsyh-ania museum.
 168 K. VET. O. VlTTERH. $;h'1:H. RANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. ::":O l lZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL JNSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERlCA Hl9

drum, pimpim. from a mortar over which was stretched a goat skin. ln South America as well as in North America the drums are
The drum wa half-fiJJed with water. The l3ororóºs d1·ums are con- p layed with a single . tick (fig. 77). The Bororó constitute an exccp-
structed in t he sa rne manner (K . v. D. STEINEN, (2], p . 496, BM:: VB. tion in that they use two sticks, which is a rarity among the genuine
2191): »Sie war ein mit einem Stück Ochsenfcll überspannter H olz- South American drums. ln North America a looped drurn-stick
mõrser, als chlager dienten ein paar tabchen aus Seribapalmholz. » is used . This form does not cxist in outh America.
This drum wa used ata death ceremony. The skin was fastened on A peculiarity about both the South American anel the X or t h
t he mortar by winding a string around it. NORDENSKIOLD believes American drums is that they are partly f.illecl with water when played.
t hat the Chirig uanos has a similar drum. H e writes ([5], p. 116): Tn South America this occu1'S for instance among
»A large drum is called by the Chiriguanos »a n g u a r ai.» Like t he :àfataco, Ashlushlay , Choroti, Lengua, Cuai-
t he Guaraní Indians in .Paraguay the Chiriguano cal! rnortar »a n - curu, and Toba; in North America among the
g u a». Thc Mataco sometimes make chums by stretching a skin Yavapai, Kiowa, Irokos (lroquois), Cherokee,
over a wooden mortar. So too if we are gu ided by the name the :Menomini, and Odjibwã. (see table). Very likely
Chiriguano drums must originally have appeared. » The Tehuelche this detail about filling the drum with water has
have a »drum made by stretching a piece of hidc o ver a bowl. » (i\fos- existed among a number of other tribes although
'.l'ERS, pl 81). Whether this is made of wood or clay I do not know. it has not been observed . lt is rather a strange
It may possibly resemble samewhat the drum of t he Araucanians detail and since it occurs both in North and South
which I shall describe in the next chapter (p. 174). America it is reasonable to suppose that these
During an excavation in La P aya, AMBROSETTI found »un tam- drums have the sarne origin. One may ask
bor formado por un simplo tronco escavado, de sección o,·al, y de what function the water with which t he drum
paredes muy delgades; con el tambor ba ila mos tambien el palillo is filled may have. I have only one statement
ornamentado con dibujos grabados y partes esculpidas, cuyos detalles from South America and that is from t he Lengua.
publicamos en la figura 77. » Unfortunately this picture is so badly GRCJBB (p. 75) says: »These drums are rnade by a b e
p rinted that one cannot discern any details. stretching wet deer hide over clay pots containing Fig. 77. Druro-sticks
The kettle drum also occurs nort h of South America. ln :Mexico, varying amounts of water in order to produce for kettle-druros frorn
for instance, it is found among tbe Lacandones and Mixes (see table). different sounds. » From the Objibwa in North Chaco. a = Ashlu-
t ribes which most likely have lived in Mexico from very ancient America ' VINCHELL (p. 611) mentions that the sh la.y, Rl\f: A. 171 9 ·
b = Mataco, G::\I : 1a.
times. ln both t hese tribes the drums are made of clay-vessels. The water-filling was meant »to give t be proper degrec J. 515. e ~ Choroti.
specimon from the l\'Iixes consists of a bi-spherical vessel on tho lower of sound. Exactly what pitch is necessary we RM: 03.3.681.
part of wbich ü; a handle representing some animal, perhaps a bird. have not learned, but imagine it is modified
ln North America t he kettle-drums have a considerably wider to suit t he individual case, some cases being of the same kind
distribution than in South America a nd Mexico. We find them here require a higher key, others a lower, and in each case the levei
mainly i n t he ea tern and southeastern states, on the plains, a nd in of the water in t he drum will affect the tone.» From the same
t he southwest. ln t ho sout hwest and tbe southeastern states and tribe HOFDIANN writes ([l], p. 190): »Frequently, however, water
among t he Kiowii the body of t he drum con isted of a clay ves el, is put into the bottom of the drum a nd t he drum-heacl stretched
while among the more northern tribes, as for instance the Odjibwã. across thc top in a wet state , which appears to intensify the
and Menomini, it consistecl of a hollowecl tree-trunk. The s kin on sound very considerably. » The sarne author writes about the
the wooden kettle-drum is usually stretched over a wooden hoop Menomini ((2], p. 77 ): »- - - a nd after the drum-head hacl
which is thereupon fastened on t he bocly of t he drum . Through a been t horoughly softened by soaking, it is t ightly stretched acro.'S
small hole in t he side t he drum may be filled with watcr, and t he the top and secured by t he hoop. - - On account of the water
hole is then closecl with a wooden plug. in the bottom Of the drum , the sound , when one is near by, is
 .,

170 .K. VET. O. VLTTERH. SAl\lli. HANDL. SER. A. BAND õ. N:O 1

l IZIKOWITZ, MlJSIOAJ, I NSTRlTMENTS OF S. AMERICA 171
mercly a series of dull thuds; but on a still night it is audible for The drumming is the chief characteristic of this feast. It is kept up
the distance of a miJe or more. » for about six or seven weeks (GRUBB, see table).
Outside of America water-filled drums occur among the Hotten- 1 Courting is not an easy matter among the Toba Indians. CAR-
tots but, according to SACHS, ([2], p. 176), these differ so markedly nús mentions that when a young man wishes to marry a girl he
from tbe American ones that they cannot be compared with these. must first go to the girl's parents and get their permission to woo
Consequently we must for the present consider the water-filled kettle- her. When he has received this permission a small hut of straw in
drum to be an Indian invention. which the girl is placed is built outside of tbe family hut. The girl
is not allowed to leave it unless it is absolutely necessary. Food is
carried to her. The suitor has prior to this made a necklace of the
T he f u n eti o n o f t h e k e t t l e-d r u m.
bones of the different animais which he has killed up to this time
According to KARSTEN ([2], p. 155) the kettle-drum is: and hung it in bis belt. He then places himself outside of tbe hut
».. Lhe principal magicai instrumcnt of the Argentine Ma- and sings and beats thc pimpim, meanwhile moving the body in
taco, who use the rattle gourd less whereas on thc other hand, s uch a way that the bone pieces in the necklace rattle. For eight
thc Choroti, who also havo both in1'truments, scom to appreciate days and nights the suitor must stand there and sing, wbether it is
tho rattlo more. • (Cf. p. 109.) •ln a Ma.taco village the drum
hot or cold, whether it raios or the sun shines. If be tires or if he
is at work nearly every day: somctimes the spirit of a dead In-
ctian is frightened away with it, sometimes othcr cvil spirits, does not please the father heis refused (CARDÚS, see table).
diseasc-spirits, spirits of hurricanes, tempests, drought, etc. are The society of the Guaicurú Indians is divided into different
conjurcd with it; sometimes the lndians try to influ<'ncc the good ranks or classes. Thus a member of this tribe must pass through
spirits animating trees and plants with it, so as to affect an abun- different grades of the social scale during his life. According to Lo-
dant harvest of algaroba and chai'íar. The Choroti again mainly ZANO (see table) the third and highest of these is the rank of ~vete­
use tho drum during algaroba season, whcn tho instrumcnt is
bcaten both day anel night. ln a Choroti village whcre I lived
ran warrior » (soldado veterano). Among otber incidents taking place
for sovem! months, an Indian sorcerer was espeoially engaged during the ceremonies connected with the initiation into tbis age
for thjs important ceremony. Tho objcct of drumming was *to group, tbe water-filled drnm is beaten from an hour before sum·ise
hurry on» tho ripening of the algaroba and chaíiar fruits, and at till four or five o'clock in t he afternoon.
tho sarno time to frighten away the evil spirits of hurrica.nes and According to AZARA (§ 594) the Payaguá - a tribe belonging
tcmpcsts which frequently blight these tl'ccs at tho time when
thoy are flowering. Drought is anothcr g rcat <langcr to a rich
to the sarne Jinguistic family as the Guaicurú and Toba - use
n.lgaroba and chaíia.r harvest. By m cans of <lrumming the de- . tbe kettle-drum at all those festivais whicb are connected with the
mons, who cause the drought by kcoping the rains baok, are birth of a boy, the piercing of ears and tbe lower Jip, marriage, a
conjurcd. ln som e cases it sccms to be regarded as indispens- girl's first menstruation , the moment when a girl applies permanent
able by tho Ma.taco drummcr. ln somo cases it seem.~ as if the body painting, etc.
drumming Indian, by tho vcry timc in which h e is beating bis
From these few statements we find that tbe kettle-drum in
<lrum, were imitating the fall of the rain-drops. •
Chaco has quite varying function , although they are to a great
~foreover the author points out tbat »the gourd rattles are used extent concentrated around the feasts which are celebrated at those
m uch on tbe sarne occasions and for the sarne purposes as the occasions when an individual, particuJarly a male, passes some im-
drum. » According to CARDÚS the Mataco use their mortar drum, the portant milestone in his life, such as birth , marriage, or initiation
!
pimpim, at the girls' puberty ceremonies, and also at burials (see into the group of the older warriors. Whether the information about
cit. in table). The Bororó also use tbeir kettle-drum at burial cere- the marriage ceremonies really refers to a marriage or to some sort of
monies (K. V. D. STEINEN, [2], p . 496). initiation rites I cannot decide. I can merely call attention to tbe
Among Lengua the water-filled kettle-drum is used at a festival fact that incorrect observations have often been made on such oc-
which is celebratecl to »commemorate the coming of age of a boy. » casions by travellers.
! 1
 172 K . VET . 0. Vl'l"l'ERH. SAMH. HA..."'<DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL J NSTR l' M1'~.STS OF S. AMERICA 173
The intcresting question is whether tbe kettle-drum in Chaco -was Yupanqui. They were beaten by fom· lndians of high caste.1 ) These
originally a magicai instrument in general, as for instance among the drums were also beaten at births a nd deaths. At the splendid feast
1\lataco and Choroti, or whether from the beginning it has been asso- whlch was celebrated when t he first-born son of Inca Rocca was
ciated with the male initiation rites. If thís latter alternatiYe should bom, special hymns were sung to the sound of eight drums and
be the corrcct one, the drum is very probably bound up with tbe divi- »caxas temeraria-s. »2 ) PlzARR03 ) mentions how, one year after the
sion of t he society into classes which occurs among certain Chaco execution of Atahualpa, bis wives and nehrest relati,es, following
tribe , for in tanco t be Guaicurú tribes, a nd it is obviously among the old tradition, went from place to place, from hillock to hillock,
tbese a nel the Lenguas that the drum is used at t he initiation. No where be had liked to pass his time, singing burial hymns which
investigation of ocial conditions in Chaco has as yet been made. described bis life, and accompanying these with the sound of drums.
Some informa tion on the subject may be found in the old literature, We see by this that the drum was used by both sexes. ln the un-
but there is unfortunately none in tbe newer Jiterature. This book published MS by Pomo de Ayala thero is a picture of a procession in
is, however, not the place for a study of such a kind. which a woman beats a drum.
Since the kettle-drum has also existed in Peru (see p. 167), it ' From tbis it appears that in the old Inca empire t he drum was
would be intercsting to investigate the function of the drum in this u sed for much the sarne purposes as in Chaco. Even if in this case
'
region. Unfortunately conditions are such that whenever mention i t may not concern the sarne type of drum, tbere is always a p os-
is made in t be old literature of a ceremony it is never followed by a sibility that the function was originally connected '"ith tbe kettle-
description of the musical instruments used in it. Thus, for in- drums in Peru and that i t has been constant through the ages, while
tance, we are simply informed that drums are used, and, as l shall the construction of the drums ha changed. As we sball see further
how later ( ee p. 1 5) , a great many different types of these existed on the kettle-drum is most probably the oldest drum type in America.
in Peru. ln North America, among the Odjibwa and Menomini, the water-
Bcside in wars - for signalling and to stimulate the soldiers filled kettle-drum is used exclusively by the l\I ide' society and,
- t he Peruvian drums were used at a number of festivais; among according to HoFFl\1ANN, particularly at the initiation ceremonies
othcr occasions they were played at I ntip-raymi, the sun festival.1) for the future medicine-men. He writes of the Odjibwã: ».. . and
The young boys of the Inca clan ha d togo through quite a num- that it is to be used in the Mide'wigan during the initiation of the
ber of ceremonies during their early yeat·s before t hey were admitted n ew members or the advancoment of a Mide' from a degree to a
to the socicty of grown-ups. These initiation ceremonies were asso- higher one. » (See table.) lt is thus used at ceremonies the function
ciated with festivais . When, for instance, a boy of t he aristocracy of which to some extent coincides with those of South America.
was abo ut four to five years old he received a clan-name, the hair 1 Among t be Kiowa it is used in five of the six male confederacies
was cut, etc. 'l'his took place at the time of t he so-called rutu-chicuy (G. WAG)IER, p. l l l, cit. MooN.t.:Y). It is furthermore u sed at tbe
fe tival. When he later entered the age of puberty he passed through sun dance and plays a certain role in the Peyote cult among the
the ceremonies a sociated with the huara-chicuy or capac-raymi fes- prairie tribes (G. ·WAGNER, Zoe. cit.). ln the southern states it is used
t ival. which was celebra ted in Xovember or December. On this oc- '
i at burial ceremonies (HoLMES, ~2], p. 34, ·ee table). ln the south-
casion his ears were pierced and he put on the huara.tbc loin-cloth. west the Havasupai beat t he kettle-drum at tbe annual dance wbich
Among other incidents occurring during the e ceremonies, the taqui was performed for rain and prosperity ( PIER, see table). GIFFORD
coyo dance was performed. This is said to have been introduced by mentions a simular function from the soutb-eastern Yavapai.
Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui. From m orning t ill night for six days it \Ve bave, then, considered a group of drums which all have in
was danced to t he accompaniment of four Jarge drums which had common t hat they are closed in t he bottom and therefore deserve
been made for t hese festivals by order of t he th ird Inca, Llogue 1 ) D'H ARCOURT [ 1), pp. 15, !)7; cit. PA C HAC l lTI YAMQ'O J and CoBo.
') 1J' H A1tco111tT, [ l J. p . 15, cit. SANTA C1i1•z l'A C' HA Cl'l'L YAM<:\lil, ÜA 1tCH.Asso 2) Op. cit , pp. 15, 101; cit. l'ACJJA CUT I YAMQl'J.
n ' A co>rrA, D1' BwrANzos. 3) Op. cit., p. 102.
174 K. VET. O. VTTTERH. SAMH. HA~DL. SER. A. BAND 5. ~:O 1 JZtKOWlTZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMEltTCA 175

the name of kettle-drum. They are made of pottery or wood. Which t ai n s to n e s w h i eh r a t t l e when the instrument is played.
of these is the original material is difficult to say - perhaps pottery, Thus it will be seen that this type of drum differs markedly from
since it is considerably simpler to obtain a clay vessel than a hollowed the other kettle-drums. It does not contain water and it is held like
log. The drum is çi,l so in the main associated with agricultura! an arctic shaman drum. There are also drums which are made of
peoples. A peculiarity is the water-filled drum which occurs both in one-half of a large calabash and the drumstick may consist of a small
North and SouthAmerica. As a rule the drum is beaten with a stick. cn,labash (G UEVARA, p. 281). These drums are called cultrun or rali
which in South America is straight, in North America often curved: cultrun. There is, however, also a type of drum, the caquelcultrun,
To judge from the wide distribution of the drum it must be a ver.v which is larger than the above-mentioned and made of a hollow log.
olcl culture element. It is interesting to ascertain that its function
is in South America associated with certain ceremonies which have
to do with a man's life from the cradle to the grave, whether it
is a matter of initiation into a higher social class, adolescence rites,
or marriage. We have ascertained tbat the drum has a similar
function in Ch.aco, Peru and North America. It is possible that these
parallel functions have some connection with one another. If this
is the case, it is likely that the water-filled kettle-drum has spread
together with those ceremonies in which it functioned. The dístribu-
tion must have taken place during a period when the knowledge of
agriculture was being dispersed or was already dispersed in great
parts of America, since the drum occurs among agricultura! tribes.
Most likely Mexico is the center of distribution of the kettle-drum.
Nothing definite can, however, be proved with the scanty material I
have about the kettle-drum. One must proceed from the forros of
social organization and all those ceremonies and facts which are
associated with these forms. An investigation of this sort still re-
mains to be made, at least as regards Chaco, which, as far as the Fig. 78. Arau('anian kettle -drum with drum-stic k. SM: 87207.

social organization is concerned, is terra incognita.

This is played on both sides (»que se toca los dos lados»), i. e. it has
two skins (two-headed) (GUEVARA, Zoe. cit.). According to l\fEDI~A
T h e A r a u e a n i a n d r um.
(p. 301) the drumstick is called macahue. Slightly varying symbolic
A special type of kettle-drum is represented by the Araucanian sjgns are often painted on the drum-head with the blood of animais
drum. Of those specimens I have seen1 ) one consisted of a round or with red ink (CLAUDJ~ JOSEPH, p. 78). The small drum, or cult-
wooden platter, 40 cm. in diameter and only 16 cm. in height,2 ) with run, is used by the machis (medicinemen) . CLAUDE JOSEPH (pp. 77
a horse-skin stretched over the opening. The ligature may be observ- seq.) gives a detaíled description of a ceremony when the drum was
ed on fig. 78. On the back of the drum is a leather band which u sed at the initiation of the medicine- men candidates.
serves as a handJe. The drumstick belonging to it is a 45 cm. long ln its construction the Araucanian drum is a kettle-drum, but in
wooden stick, around one end of which a many-colored woolen other respects it stands isolated. It may be that the Araucanians
thread has been wound so as to form a bulge. T h e d r u m s c o n - formerly had a kettle-drum of the Chaco type which they have
') Sl\f: N. C. 597 and I. C. 44161. Bl\1: VC. 1919. later changed into a rattle drum. We shall now more closely in-
') This holds for SM: N. C. 597. vestigate the occurrence of the rattle drum in America.
J 76 K. VET. O. Vl'l"l'ERH. SA11fH. HANDL. SER. A . DAND 5. N:O l IZfKOWITZ, :\1USlCA L I NS1'Rlll\1ENTS OF S. Al\IERICA 177

R a t t l e dr ums. ~ide a number of pebbles. lt was painted red and black . .. and

Asidc from its occurrence among the Araucanians the rattle rattled the pebbles to frighten away the bugs or evil monidos. »1)
drum also appears in South America among the modern Indians of The drttm is very flat and consists of a frame - most likely a
Peru. n 'HARCOURT ([l], p. 14) writes about these: »Aujourd'hui au hoop of bent osier - completely covered with two skin-halves which
rérou ... J'instrument peut contenir, et contient souvent, des gra- are . ewn together. The drum of the Dakota Indians is construc-
viers ou grains durs qui frappent les membranes lorsqu'on l 'agite ted in precisely the sarne way, a lthough it is somewhat larger - 13
tout com me une sonaja. » n'HARCOURT stresses this in order to prove inches in diameter and 2.5 inches in height. As it does not contain
tbat the early Peruvian drum had two membranes. The supposition pebbles and is beaten with a stick it may be regarded as an ordinary
is then t hat rattle drums existed in Peru in pre-Colum bian times, a
supposition which I consider quite reasonable.
In the Museum für Võlkerkunde in Müncben there is a kind of
rattlc drum from Purulla in Guatemala.1 ) It consists of a rectangular
frame, completely covered with two skin-halves which are sewn to-
gether, and containing pebbles (fig. 79). A Jeather band serves as a
handle. I have no information as to whether it Íb shake!l ur bea-
ten with a stick. BovALLIUS (p. 301) mentions a rather peculiar
rattled rum from Simoos (Mosquitos) in Nicaragua. It consists of
»a large calabash containing one or two stones; the opening is co-
vered with a net of bast or a snake-skin. Tbus a kind of drum. »
Rectangular drums such as the one from Purulla also occur
among the Andine Chipayas (fig. 80), Hupa,2 ) and •rarahumare,3 )
although they are not rattling. These rectangular drums need not Fig. 79. :Fig. 80.
have any association with one another. That the frame has been Fig. 79. Square drum from Purulla, Guatemala. ::\IM: 09.351.
made square may simply be due to lack of material or some similar Fig. 80. Drum from tho Chipaya. CM: 31.35.16.
reason (cf. the Huacho drum, p. 86, fig. 87). It is, of course,
far easier to make a square frame than a round one or to hollow drum. To be sure, an ordinary drum Rhould be ·somewhat larger for
out a log. · the sake of the sound , but in~them we do, nevertheless, clearly
In the »lliNDBOOK OF ~IERICAN !NDIANS » (II, p. 3õ6) mention is notice the transition from a rattle drum to the two-headed drum.
made of rattle drums from Pueblo. WILSON (fig. 224) portrays a t1VO- The Cree have both types of drums. One of these is a.s large as the
headed drum from Pueblo but gives no information as to whether it ordinary arctic shaman drum , three feet in diameter, according to
is rat Wng or not. Nor have I found any other statements as regards FnA~.KLDI" (p. 80),2 ) two-headed, and it is beaten "\\ith a stick. The

the existcnce of rattling drums in t he Pueblo region. On the other other is in reality a ra ttle. The frame of this drum rescmbles
hand we find that rattle drums are somewhat more common further very much the frame of a racket used in ball games, for instance
up in North America. W~CHELL writes about the O<ljibwa drums: by the Dakota Indians. lt is covcrcd on both sides with skin and
»The O<ljibwa tom-tom, as used by the mide, was similar to the filled with pebbles. Similar drums occur among the Chipawayan,3 )
dance dl'Um of the Dakota, except that it was smaller, being only anel evidently also among the Labrador Indians.4 ) In München
about seven inches in diameter. It was drum and rattle having in-
') WL.'<CHELL,p. 610; BM: lV B. 8 11 8 a .
') :M M: 09.351. * ~ur boi kirchlichen Festen gobrauoht. • ') Also: Bm1rn•r -SM!Til, [ ! ), p. 36a; KM: H l: 22.
') W1LSON, p i. 73. 3) BmKET·SM1Trr,. [2], p. 75; KM: H l : 63.
3 ) J nformntion by Dr. KmcnHOFF.
') HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN JNDTAN$. JJ, 0. 3.36.

12
178 K. VET. O. Vl'l'TERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. DAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWJTZ, MUSICAL TNSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERlCA 179
there is such a cross between a drum anda rattle. No definite fin- that the cylinder on one side has a small bole. For what pmpose
ding place is recorded, but in all probability it derives from the this may be I do not know. The drurn-head itself is painted with
Canadian Indians. 1 ) It is 27 cm. in diameter and 2 cm. high, and red ornaments. The drum is beaten with a stick, one end of wbich
is furnished with a wooden handle. The skin is painted with red has a buckle of cloth. There is no information as to how the
ornaments. drum is held when it is played. NORDENSKIOLD, who collect.ed
It will be evident from this that tbe rattle drums in northern it, never saw it in use.
North America in reality are genuine rattles. Iam therefore inclined The Chocó lndians have four different types of drums, three two-
to believe that they a.re a sort of substitute for the gourd rattles. headed1) and one one-headed. The one-headed drum has a goblet-
As is known· the gourd does not occur so far north. Most likely
the remaining American rattle drums have no connection with these,
but have in all probability originated by the Indians having put
pebbles into a drum, precisely as they have done with a nwnber of
implementa - often more or less sacred - with hollow bodies
(cf. p. 129). ln this way ·the pebbles have constituted an addition to
or a substitute for the drumstick. The rattle drums have, then,
been capable of developing independently in such regions where
the drum and the rattle have existed side by side. ln consequence
the drum must be completely closed and portable. This is in my
opinion the source of t he. double-membrane drums in America. 2 )

Si n g l e - m e m b r a n e t u b ii l ar d r u m s.
As a rule drums of this type have a long and narrow body, one
end of whioh is open while the other is oovered with a membrane. a. b.
Their distribution is in the main centered about Mexico and Central Fig. 82. One-headed drums. a = Talamancn, aftor BoVALLHJS. b = Chiriqui, oJ.
America. ln South America they occur only in the north-western tor Hourns. <' - Choc6, GM: :17.27.43 1.
parts and among the Chiriguano.
The drum type of the latter is, formed body of palo balsa (fig. 82 e). The opening, which is sligh tly
however , somewhat different from wider than the body, is covered with a s kin that is fastened to the
the northern type. The body of body with the so-called Keilspannmig (wedge ligature). Over the
their drum (see fig. 8 1) consists of membrane a Schnarrseite is fastened npon which are strung some
a hollowed wooden cylinder, 17 blue glass beads that beat against the skin when the drum is being
cm. high and 31 cm . in diameter. pla.yed. This is not done with a. stick but wüh both J1ands whilo
The material is most probably the drum is held between the legs. 2 ) The height of the drum is 50
palm wood. Over one opening cm. and the diameter of the head 19 cm. Similar drums, though
a membrane of skin, sewn into a somewhat larger, are described by BARRETT (p. 390) from the Cayapá
ring-bent osier which fits closely Indians in Ecuador. These are held and played in the sarne manner
:F ig. 8 1. One-headed drum fro m the on the wooden cylinder, is as the Chocó drums.
Chirig uano. JtM: E. 550. stretched. A peculiar detail is
- -1)-MM:
- -26- 3- 34.
,) Dcs.-ription on p. 192.
') See the portrayal of tho 111anncr in whioh thc drum is played in XottrrnN-
2) Scc fnrthcr in the chapter on thc Peruvían drum p. ] 85. S KtÜLO, li I"J, p. 105.
 J 80 K. Vi,J1'. o. V['.l"l.'ERH. s.urn. HANDL. SER. A. UAND 5. N:O l
IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. Al\iERICA 181
The drum of the Ijca Inclians is rerniniscent of these t hough it narrowing toward the bnso (pi. JL"'{\' I ), b eing constric ted about,
is considerably smaller, measuring only 10.5 cm. in height and 19 cm. six or seven inches fro m the bo t,t.o m, tho flaring slightly . Drums
in tho uppor diamcter (fig. 83). Furthermore it lacks t he foot of tbe arP h ewn fro m il solid piece of w ood, anel fitted with a tight hcad
Chocó drum and is held under t he arm when played. The ligature of ig uana skin , whic h is shrunken o\·er the largo end anel holtl
in place with fiber cord glucd on with dried blood. The drums
is likc tha t of t he former, but the wedges are missing. I t has been are also fumiRhed with 11 fiber ropc for suspension.
maintained that these drums (from the Chocó, Ij ca and Cayapá) At a Chi cam festival one Incünn was seen stnnding with a
·were African in origin .1 ) There are, to be sure, negroes living in these drum undor his ll'ft arm and its carrying strap over his Jeft shoul-
regions; in t he Chocó territory, for instance, der, slapping tho h <•ad of tho drum with the open right palm. *
they tive at t he mouths of the rivers while
the Indians live furt her inland. The reason He writes further:
for this is, l suppose, that the Chocó were »This goblct- liko form of drum is a ntique, and t hcre is a
sp ecimen mado of pottcry , from an nnciont grave, in t he Natio-
originally an inland pcople who h ave probably nal ::vruseum of , an José. *
formerly lived east of t he Andes (cf. p. 21).
The Cayapá Indians play the marimba - a The most common drums among the Bribri are, however, double-
typica1African instrumcnt (cf. p. 14) -together headed, (SKINKER, [3], p. 88, pl. XVII) and evidently post-Columbian
with t heir drums. ln spite of t his l am as t hey have the sarne kind of ligature as the European drums. ln
nevertheless inclined to believe that t he Jn. Chiriqui two clay vessels (HOLJ\rE [l ], p. 158) have been found which
dians of tbese regions already in pre-Colum- were apparently used as drums. Their sbape is the sarne as that of
bian times had similar drums, and t hat only t he Bribri drums. Clearly they did not have K eilspannung ligature,
the ligature (K eilspcmnung) and t he Schnarrseite but something considerably simpler (see fig. 82 b) - only a string
are due to negro influence.2 ) This hypothesis wound around the sk.in. ln the upper part of the drum there is a
is also supported by my Centr al American small groove for thls purpose. This also stands out very clearly on
material. a small Chiriqui whistle representing a drum (HOLMES, [l], p. 166).
Yig . 8:.L Tubular drn m LOTHROP, who has treated the ar chaeology of Costa Rica and
BovALLIUS (p. 252) describes a drum from
from the 1j c·u..
U~l : Hi.3.567.
the Talamanca '~hich is very like the Chocó Nicaragua, describes several interesting clay drums. Most of these
specimen (fig. 82 a). The inembrano has been are found on the Nicoya peninsula, but their territory of distribution
fastencd on the drum simply by tying a string around it. ln reaches from British H onduras to Chiriqui.1) They have many shapes.
speaking of t he drums from these tribes, GAnn (p . .317) says that Goblet-formed drums occur h ere as in Chiriqui in »chocolate ware»
t he membrane of Jizard skin is glued to t he <lrum with fresh blood (LOTHROP, pl. CXXXIII e). The drums in the so-called »orange-
anel tied with a string till the blood has dried , whereupon the string brown ware » are of particular interest. They are clivided into t wo
may be rcmoved. SK~ER portrays a similar drum from the Bribri chambers: » .. by a partition in the interior, a little below t he middle.
in Co ta H.ica and \Vrites ([3], p. 86 se:i_.): Thus two notes could be obtained by placing a hand on each end.
t'fh<' drum is the mos t impo rtant musical ins tntment of the A vertical cross-section would resemble the letter H . » Strictly
Bribri. ln shape the common nati n) instrtLmcnt is thrf'f' feet or speaking these are two kettle-drums which have been combined to
lcss in length, nnd fiye or s ix inoh<.'s in d iamc t <'1' a t thc h ead, form one instrument. It is undeniably interesting t hat t he Indians
-----
1
) (9), p. 108.
Xo 1i 1n;NSKJ O LD, wanted to produoe two tones. \Vhether thls has any connection
2
)On t he othor hund, drums of u ndcniablo ncga·o origin witho ut d oubt occ ur with the two-tone system of other instruments, as for instance the
foi· ins ta nco in tho t erritory oast of the Andes. E,·idontly t he one describcd by K. slit drums, it is clifficult to say.
v. D. S·m rNJo:N (ll!], p. 555) from Cuyaba is of this lypo. Jioro us woll os among tho
Mur a tlao nf'gro i11fluonco is yery strong mode m. Tho sanio is l ruo of the \Vost
ln Mexico, among the Mayas and Aztecs, and also in Michoacan,
Jnd ian drums.
' ) Lothrop, pp. 11 8, 2i5- 2i7, :330.
182 K. VET. O. VJ'l'TERH. SA..)fH. HANDL. SER. A. BANO 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL !NSTRUl\IENTS OF S. A:\IERICA 183

t he tubular drum ex:isted in several different sizes already in pre- drums are played with the hands or the fingers. It is really rather
Columbian times. SELER ((11, II, p. 677) mentions that it \Vas found in strange that the Indiana have not thought of using drumstioks since
two sizes, one larger - the well-known Mexican wewet, or perhaps such, though somewhat powerful, were already in use for the tepo-
more correctly tlapanwewetl -- and a smaller which was either held naztli. l suppose it is a consequence of the drumming technique.
under the arm or between the legs when played. l have not seen any . Anyone who has heard an Arab beat his darbouka with his hands, or
old pictures which show the drum held under the arm and SELER does a Singhalese bis drum - unfortunately l have never heard an lndian
not mention his source, but if the information is correct it must be play a drum - will agree that the drumstick is entirely superfluous.
said to agree admirably with the above-described Central American One-headed tubular drums also occur
drums. On the other hand there are severa} old reproductions, for in many places outside of America. They
instan ce a clay figurine representing tbe god of musio, Macuilxochitl are, for instance, common in Oceania as
(fig. 84), which show how the drummer sits on his instrnment as on well as in Indonesia. SACHS (L2], p. 57)
a hobby-horse. plaoes the American drums side by side
Quite obviously the big Mexican tlapanwewetl is to be regarded with those of the rest of the world, although
mcrely as an enlarged specimen of this drum type. Several wewetl are he himself is of the opinion that »es scheint
still in existence. They are made of wood and are often very hand- gewagt, alle einfiilligen Walzentrommeln der
somely ornamented with sculptures in bas-relief. Usually they stand Welt in unmittelbare Beziehung zu setzen:
on three or four legs which are carved in one piece with the drum. die schlichte Forro ist naturgegeben und
Unfortunately l have not found any information as to how the verlangt keine Voraussetzung kultureller
membrane is fastened. From a number of pictures in the Me:1..ican Übertragung von einem Zentrum aus. »
codices (for instance SELER, op. cit. p. 699) one gets the impression As we see from the distribution (see
that a smaller drum whioh was placed on a stool or frame has table), the one-headed tubular drum is
formerly existed. This may represent an earlier stage in the deve- limited to Mexico, Central Amerioa, and
lopment of the large wewetl on legs. Speoial frames were also used northern South America. The Chiriguano
for the teponaztli. drum is obviously a type by itself. ln its Fig. 84. Macuilxochitl, the
The wewetl is still to be found among the Huichol. L UMHOLTZ proportions and in the teohnical detail that Mexican God of music bea-
(p. 00), who has observed it in this tribe, says that the membrane it is played with a stio kit is more olosely ting a membrane drum.
His necklace is of soa-shells
was stretched by means of fire which was placed under the drum. related to the Peruvian drum (cf. p. 186).
(oyualli). mi: 23.63. V:?·
To n 'HARCOURT ([l], p. 18) this incident explains why several As regards the shape - tubular or goblet-
Mexican drums are charred inside. formed - the remaining drums are considerabiy nearer related.
ln the Huichol territory there also occurs a smaller, one-headed From what has been said above it appears that the drums among
drum which, like the drum of the Chiriguano, has a hole on the side. the Chocó, ljca, and Cayapá possibly may be pre-Columbian and
l have seen similar boles on the drum bodies of other South American that only the ligature and the Schnarrseite are post-Columbian.
drums, but they ha.ve all been of the Europea.n type. Possibly this I have not succeeded in finding any evidence to the effect that
is a pre-Columbian idea., the fonotion of which is unknown to me. the one-headed drum has spread north of the Huichol territory.
On the other hand it may quite well be due to European influence. If we compare the distribution of this drum with that of the
On the drums of the 16th century we often find holes on the side of kettle-drum we find that the former to some extent completes
t hc drum -body. As regards a drum colleoted by SCHOMBURGK (DM the area of distribution of the drums. The kettle drum is missing in
193 l.), the catalogue informs us that these boles - there are two Central America, except among two relatively primitive tribes, the
- have the sarne object as flute-holes, i. e. of varying the tone! Lacandones and the Mixes. lt is not altogether impossible that the
With the exception of the Chiriguano drum the one-headed one-headed drum has forced out the kettle-drum whioh, to judge
] 84 K. VE'l'. O. VIT'J'ERH. SAMH. llA..."'DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l lZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL JNS1'RUMENTS 0 .F S. AMERICA 185

from the distribution, is evidently the older type. Nor is it impos- drums used in P eru were two-headed. H e considered tbese easier
sible that t he one-beaded drum was originally a reconstructed kettle- to produce tban the one-headed type. Moreover, with two mem-
drum. F or some reasou or other there was no need for a. bottom in branes the drum '~ould be closed completely and could contain
t he drum - perhaps it was considered unnecessary to fill the drum pebbles, which is also the case even in our ti.me. From a P eruvian
with wa,ter, or perhaps the sound was improved by removing the vase, SACHS (toe. cit.) concluded t hat t he drum was two-beaded and
b ottom ? We do not know. Obviously there was no object in co- also that t he membrane was fastened to it with nails.1 )
vering the bottom with a n extra membrane in those instances when The evidence I presented in my a bo\'e-mentioned article con-
only one membrane was needed, i. e. when the drum was held under the sisted of two excavation finds, one from Quillagua (at Rio Loa in
arm or between the knees northern Chile) and the other from H u acho. Tbe former drum
~
~c1~==::::===:;;:;:;;:;;;:=:::::;:::~=~ or stood on the ground. belongs to the Museum für
Võlkerkunde in Hamburg2 ) and
T w o - h e a d e d d r u m s. the latter to the m useum in
In a small article en - München.3 )
titled »L e tambour à mem- The Hamburg drum (fig.
brane a u Pérou » I have 86) is 10 cm. high and 26 cm .
shown t hat double-mem- in dia.meter. Since it is com-
brane drums were in use pletely covered witb skin i t
also in pre-Columbian times is impossible to make any
}' ig. 6. Two.headed drum from Quillagua.
in Peru . Up till then no detailed investigation of t he Rio L oa, K. Chile 10 cm . high , :?6 r·m.
finds J1ad been made of frame. Apparently it consists in cliumeter. Bl'\I.
drums - their existence was of a hoJlowed wooden cylin-
Fig. 85. Two.hcadcd drum of European type known only from reproduc- der. The two skins are sewn or tied together with a narrow leather
from the Chirig u a n o. Y.i· RM: E . 54!). tions on vases and through strip, at t he fastening point of which are two boles which continue
lt
references in the literatme. straight t hrough the wooden frame - snpposedly meant for the
No1tn.ENSJUOLD and v. HoRNBOSTEL1 ) were of t he opinion t hat handle. I cannot discover what sort of s kin has been used for t he
only onc-headed drums had existed, while n 'RARCOURT anel SACHS,2 ) tapado por ambos cabos con c uero ele llama, como pergamino delgado i se<>o. Los.
on the other hand , believed t hey were double-headed . mayorcs son como nuestras cajus ele guerra, pero mas largos i no tan bien hechos:
los menores como una cajcta pequeiia de consen·a. i los medianos como nuest ros
Thc modern drums among the Quichua and Aymara a re typical
tamborinos. •
imitations of t he European instruments with their Y - and W -ligaturn. 1 ) SACHS, [l], J, p. 227: •Eine Flac ht rommcl mit den Zügen der zwcifclligen

This is true also of the other regions in South America (cf. p. 165}. Rnhmontrommel einerseits und der Fasstrornmel nudcrcrscits nimmt unter den oslasia·
ln Nono.ENSKIOLD's (Zoe. cit.) opinion the only genuine Indian drum tischen ) lembranophonen eino wic htigo telle cin ... Die Flachtrommel hat de n 1\'eg
was t he kettle-drum, and the only drum type which was not so con- übcrs l\Ceer gefunden : )lenschen· und Tiergestaltigo Tom·asen der altpcruun is<'h('n
Trujillo· und Chimu.]{ultur stellen sie h!iufig dar (Ta f. 6, Bild 6). K ein Zweifel. das.o;
structed was t he Chiriguano drum (fig. 84) which was one-headed.
wir cs boi diesen Hildwerken rnit der osta.~iati schen Flnchtrommel zu tun hflbcn.
n 'HARCOURT (loc. cit.) drew his conclusion as to t he existence Es stimmon überein
of thc two-headed drum in Peru from a very vague statement by C rõsse )foss,·erhültnisse
CoBo,3 ) ad<ling thereto the observation that nowadays the only }'orm Schnurlosigkcit
EillS<'hliigelspiel;
NouoENBKIÕLD, [4), p. 164; v. HoRNDOSTEL, (7), p. !.
1) jn, auf einer Vase nus Trujillo in der Sammlung Jnhnkeo zu Lirna untcrsrhcidel
])'HAHC'OURT, ( 1), p. 14; SACHS, [2), p. 227.
2) mo.n rnit ziomlicher Sicherheit dio Ntigcl. •
3 ) Coao, T. IV, 1. XIX, chapt. XVIII, p. 228: •El instrumento mas general cs el 2) HM: B. 3696;
atambor, que e llos llaman huancar. Hacia nlos grandes i pequofios, do un_palo hueco i) l\JM: G. 2775.
 18() K. v~;T. O. VL'l.'TERH. SAl\1H. HANDL. SER. A. BANO 5. N:O l IZIKOWlTZ, MUSICAL 1NSTRU1\1ENTS OF S . AMERICA 187
membranes. Dr. Antze was good enough to have the drum sent both does occur on a number of objects in Peru besides· just this drum.1)
to »Zoologisches Mu eum » and the »lnstitut für Lederforschung» lo a previous article I have shown that the invention of nails in
but neither of them were able to determine to which animal the America is associated with the custom of stretching out skin with
s kin had belonged. The drum does not have any rattling contents. wooden sticks (IzrKOWITZ, [l ], p . 170). That the nails did not become
The Mi.inchen drum (fig. 87), like the former, is completely co- popular and common is roost likely dueto the fact that the Indians
vered with skin. Dr. DoE~G was kind enough to have it in- have not had suitable material anywhere except in Peru, and without
vestigated by Prof. KRTEGER, director ôf »Die zoologische Staats- d oubt metal nails were extremely valuable there.
saml 11ngen », who thought the skin was that of a llama. The con- ]'rom what I have already said about the appearance of the rattle
drum in Aroerica, it seems to me very likely that n 'HARCOURT is
correct in his supposition that tbe double-
mem brane drum has come into being by
adding rattling pebbles to the drum type
already in existence (cf. p. 176). That the
two Peruvian drums which 1 have just
described incidentally did not contain
pebbles does not disprove the existence of
rattle drums in pre-Colurobian Peru. The
rattling pebbles have in a way had the
sarne effect as the Schnarrseite on a. Eu-
ropean drum.
b
The vase pictures tell us that the Fig. 88. Peruvian vasa sh o-
drum either was played with one stick wing a man beating a drum
Fig. 87. Two-headed drum from Hua.cho. Diamoter 29 cm. 17 cm. high. with a cord ending in a lump .
MM. b = frame of the d1·um.
- as the Indians for that matter still
After MEAD.)
do - which was tied to the drum with
a cord, or the stick might be missing and the cord finish in a
s truction of the drum is rather peculiar. Due to the fact that it was lump, as shown on fig. 88. 2)
poorly preserved I was able to investigate it more closely. As will CoBo mentions that the drumstick was wound around with
be seen from fig. 87, the frame consists of two ring-bent osiers to many-colored threads.3 ) If this is the case it should have shown some
which 16- 17.5 cm. long wooden sticks have been fastened with resemblance to the Araucanian drmnstick on fig. 78. TESSMAN.Y
cords. The drum is more oval than round in shape. It measures (Ll), Taf. 68) portrays a druro of a European type from Jivaro. The
29.5 X 24 cm. in its axes. One of the skins overlaps the other and drumstick, however,appears to be genuinely Indian. It consists of a
t hey are fas tened to the frame by means of wooden nails - most bone which is fastened to the drum with a cord. Withoutdoubtthis
likely of the Ghonta palm - which go through both skins and into · is nothing but a variation of the Peruvian drumstick which still
the wooden sticks. The skins show evidence of painting. The drum exists among the Jivaro. As is known, this tribe has a nurober of
jg furnished with a handle consisting of a twisted leather band. c ulture elements in common with certain early Peruvian cultures.
Both drums agree in size with those portrayed on the vases. Since the drum is held by the handle in one hand or under the
It is interesting that SAcHs's observation about the nail-ligature
1 ) On this subject see NOltDENSKJ.ÕLD [!J], •On the occurrence of metal nails
proved to be correct. Because of this it is, however, hardly necessary
in South America>, pp. 113- 4.
to conclude that this drum has come from eastern Asia. Fastening 2 ) See for instan.ce MEAD, [l], pi. J r, 7 & !J; o ' HAltCOURT, pi. VII, 4 & 5.

by means of nails is, to be sure, rather rare in South America, but it 3) Cono, p. 229.
188 K. VET. O. Vl'ITERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND õ. X:O l I ZI.KOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 189

arm (M.EAD, LlJ, pl. II, 7), leaving only one h and free, it is not so i·att]e very r arely occurs in north-eastern Peru (cf. p. 123). There
strange that only one drumstick is used. Our modern drums, on are really only two tribes, the Bora and Muinane in the north-east-
t he other hand, are usually hung in such a wa.y that they leave e rn comer, which have it. Nor does it appear to have been parti-
both hands free. cularly common in Peru, at least it clid not occur in the Inca period.
At present it is impossible to determine the distribution of the The reason for tbis may possibly be that the membrane drum, with
drum in Peru, partly because the finds are too few and partly be- or without rattling contents, took the place of the gourd rattle in the
cause t he drum is portrayed only on vases from the central part of Inca empire and perhaps prevented the latter from becoming popu-
P eru (the Chimú culture). This should n ot, however, be regarded as a lar in the Peruvian and Bolivian lowlands east of the Andes.
proof that the drum has not occurred in other periods or other re- Let us now see what the old a uthors say about the Peruvian
gions, where we do not know of its existence. To take an ex - drunis. As n'HARCOURT has already made a thorough study of t hjs
ample: the fact that the drum is not portrayed on the Nazca vases subject in his work »La musique des Incas» I shall permit myself
is no evidence that it has not existed in this period or in this region. to review this briefly. I have already in a note (p. 187) quoted Cono's
How far the double-headed drum is spread into the regions east of statement that the drum was called huancar, and th~t three sizes
Peru it is difficult to say, since only European drums are found there were found, one of wbich was larger than the Spanish military drum
nowadays. These are, to be sure, almost of t he sarne size as the Pe- of those times, another tbe size of a small tin can (como una cajeta,
ruvian ones, but in t his connection we must remember that the drum 11equena de conserva), while the medium size was as la.rge as the Spa-
which is used together with Schwegeln (tabor and pipe) has t he sarne nish tambourines. One of the smaller drums was called huancar-
size as the Peruvian one. It is, however, possible that for instance t he tinya.1) l n another connection Cono mentions a large drum which
Jivaro Indians had a Peruvian double-headed drum, if one may was carried on a man's back. CrnzA DE LEO~ says that the Quechas
judge from t he drumstick (see above) and from points of resemblance h ad »muchos atabales de oro, engastanados algunos en pedreria» at
to Peruvian culture. TESSMANN [l] mentions tbat the greater part of their hatum-raymi festival.
the northeastern Peruvian tribes have drums of European types and The membranes of the Peruvian drums were usually made of tbe
with European names, but t hat a number of them still have t he na- 1 1
skins of llamas or the smaU Andine deer, but several authors men-
tive instrument. Aguano,1 ) for instance, have »scheibenformige Dop- tion drums made of the skin of prisoners of war.2 ) MONTESINOS
pelfelltrommeln deren Umschürung wie bei den Tschayahuita gebildet relates that when the Inca, Sinchi-Roca, made his triumphal march
ist. Es gibt übrigens auch langere, 18 cm. lange Doppelfelltrom- into his capital after having quelled Andahuailas's rebellion, a num-
meln, tampor, die aber ganz modern sind. » The ligature of the ber of soldiers carried six drums in human shapes, m ade of the skin
Tschayahuita2) drums »ist wie hei den Tschama3) », i. e. t he European of the chiefs of the subjugated enemies. The skin had been stripped
Y-ligature. The Andoa4 ) have »Doppelfelltrommel, die ganz ein- off them while still alive and had been inflated so t hat it took on
heimisch sein soll. » The same is true of the Tikuna. 5 ) Unfortu- t he appearance of human beings. They drummed on tbe stomach.3 )
nately TE "Sl\lA~N does n ot portray these drums. I t is, of course, )facabre military music in truth! n'HARCO"CRT is of the opinion that
not altogether improbable t hat two-headed drums should have ex- t hese drums, which occurred mainly in the northern parts of the
isted in t hese regions in pre-Columbian tllnes but have later been Inca empire, are associated with nortbern, perhaps ) foxican, customs
replaced by European specimens. and puts the question wbetber the tepona ztlis carved in human shapes
ln this connection it is interesting to ascerta.in that the gourd ha;ve not some relation to these. KRlCKEBERG ([2], p. 378) also
·w rites: »Diese Sitte war offenbar nõrdlichen Ursprungs, da sie sehr
1) TESS~fAN ( ! ), p. 262.
2
Op. cit ., p. :389.
) 1 ) D H AJWO"GRT,
0
p. 1.5. According to d 'Harcoilrt both these names are still used.
2
) T ESSMAN (2], Tafel 30 & 32. º) n· HAncouuT, pp. J 6 seq., cit. ÜARCILASSO DE LA VEOA CrnzA DE LEON BALOOA
4
) T ESSMANN ( 1], p. 273. F1mNANDO l\ioNTESINos.
6) Op. cit. p. 333. "l o ' HARCOURT, loc. cit.
 190 K. VET. O. VITTERH. S~WH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 191
an die Troph iien der E cuadorküste (s. 371) und des Caucatals (s. 347) beats it for a short time. ln M:ÊTRAUX' opinion this is done for tho
erinnert. » Perhaps the clay drum wit h huroan heads which ARMEXTIA purpose of exorcising evil spirits. Otherwise these instruments are
mentions, has some connection with these (cf. p. 167). used at dances. The big drum belongs to one of the two village
l have already in another connection (p. 172) spoken of the func- moitiés and plays an important role at the comadres festival, during
tion of the Peruvian drums. ln our times they do not seem to be which it is hung on a flagpole and receives part of the sacrifices and
associated with any specific cult or tbe like but have cha nged into prayers which the Indians dircct to the flag. ln the course of the
ordinary musical instruments which are used on ali occasions when ceremony meu and women group themselves around the flag and
music is wanted. dance before it. Leaving out a number
ln his studies of the Chipaya, a tribe living in the great salt of details of Christian origin which have
clesert n orth of Salares de Coipasa in south-western Bolívia, MÉTRAUX been added by the Chipaya Indians, this
arrives at the conclusion that they represent remains of the olq Ay- ceremony is strongly reminiscent of ano-
ther from about 1600 which Cono men-
tions from the lndians living on the
plateau further north.1 ) ln it a drum of
the largest size was carried on the back
of a man and played by a woman
while the rest of the participants danced
in two rows. On that occasion the
flag and the insígnia of the Inca played
.Fig. 89. Round two-headed drum from t he Chipaya. Aftcr IzIKOWJTZ [3]. ' Is· a certain role, the import of which is
not known to us. Dances of this kind
mara culture.1 ) ln an article2) concerning tbeir musical instruments are evidently still performed among
l have shown that their drums, with the exception of certain modem the Indians in the Sierras. GROEDER
constructive details, are »descendants » of pre-Columbian Peruvian AND PALAVECINO mention a similar Fig. 90. Two-heado<l drum
from the Choeó.
drums. Two sizes are found, the larger of which is common for an ceremony from the Araucanians at GM: 27.27.430. 39.5 cm. high.
entire village and has, like all Chipayan drums, two membranes. Lago Lakar, at which a drum and
It is about 40 cm. in diameter and 20 cm. high. The smaller of the flagdecorated staffs play an important role. 2 )
two (figs. 80 & 89) is usually square altbough round ones also occur.
') Coso, IV, p. 231: tEl baile propio de los Incas se dice Guayyayo; no l'ntm-
The side of tbe former is tO cm. while the latter have a diameter of ban on el tiempo de s u gentilidad sino solos los dei linaje de los Incas do sangrc
37 cm. and a height of 9 cm., i. e. they are quite flat. The skins real, y lle,·aban delante e l estandarte 6 gui6n dei Rey, con e l Oham1~i, que cran 183
are stretched over a wooden hoop and sewn together wit h narrow insigflias Reales. Bailábanlo a i son de un tambor grande que lle\'aba sobre las es·
strips. On one side the drums have a Schnarrseite in which a small paldas un indio plebeyo 6 ,·illano, y lo tocaba una mujer . El són y baile es gra\'e
y honesto. sin dar brincos ni saltos; hácenlo hombres y mujeres asidos de las manos
wooden pin is fastened. The drums do not contain pebbles or t he
y puestos en hilera, y a Yeces son doscientas 6 trescicntas personas. máa ó mf'nos,
like. The smaller specimens often have ha ndles and are held in the conforme la solemnidad dei baile. UnM veces bailan mezclados hombres y mujeres
hand while played upon, precisely as t hose early Peruvian drums of y ot ras di\'ididos en dos b ileras, una cio hombrcs y o tra de mujeres. Comf'nzaban
which we find reproductions on vases. The function of the drums is este baile apartados dei Inca 6 dei Cacique en cuya presencia lo hacían, y sullan
interesting. T o some extent the small drums have a religious function ; todos juntos y daban trcs paaos a compás, el primero bacia atrás y los otros dos
hacia adelante; y desta manern, yondo y v iniendo, iban siempre ganando tierrn pari~
during certain ceremonies the foast leader takes the instrument and
ndolante hasta !legar adondo ol Inca estaba. Algunns veces, en fiostas muy gr·a\'CK,
' ) MltTllAUX, [6]. e n t raba e! mismo Inca en estos b1iiles. »
2) TZ !KOW ITZ, [:1]. 2) Tz!KOWJTZ, [3]. PP· 264-70.
J92 K. \'E'l'. O. VlTTERH. SA..llll. HAXDL. SER. A. BAXD .;. :-<':O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 193

The Chocó Indians also have a pair of double-membrane drums. the influence of the bollow ratt]es, t hls drum, as well as the P eru-
t he types of which are not of Eurnpean nor hardly of African origin. vian type, have been given a rattling content, an occurrence which
One consists of a wooden cylindor completely covered with caout- , most likely has caused the production of two-headed drums. To
chouc. It is 23.5 cm. hig h and 7 cm. in diameter . NORDENSKIOLD judge from the widcspread use of the drums in Peru, particularly in
never . aw it in use. Naturally an instrumont of this size is capable of post-Columbian times, it seems to bave forced out and taken the
p roducing only very faint sounds. It should most probably be r e- ' place of other rythmic instruments, as for instance the gourd rattle.
garded as an experiment of the Indians. As I have a lready men- Special types, possibly pre-Columbian in origin, are the double-hea-
t ioned, t he Caripuna lndians also use caoutchouc membranes (cf. p. ded drums from Chocó a nd the Chiriguano drum. ln tbe Amazonas
l 67). The other drum type (fig. 90) is 30 cm. bigh and 10.5 cm . in dia- territory and, as a whole, in the greater part of the area east of the
meter. Its ligature is not quite like that of either a European or an Andes, the West Indies, and Tierra del Fuego, with the exception of
African drum. N OltDENSIITÜLD saw it in function at a dance when Chaco, Patagonia, and perhaps the eastern parts of Peru, tho mém-
it was played by women.1) brane drum was almost certainly unknown in pre-Columbian times.
After the Discovery, the Indians of these regions accepted the Eu-
P. S. Since this cbapter war written, Dr. S. LTNNÉ has had the ropean military drum and some African types. From Asia the arc-
kindness to call my attention to an a description by C. V. S. Roo- tic shaman drum - a skin stretched over a narrow wooden hoop -
S.EVELT of a double-headed drum from Huarmey in P eru. This drum carne into use and spread over great parts of North America.1 ) Ca-
is of the sarne type as that from Huacho (p. 87), entirely covered lifornia is, I suppose, the only area in North America, in which drums
with leatber. lts inner construction cannot be determined from bis .\ are missing.2 )
picture. Howevor , it is plain that the skin also in this case is fas-
toned by nails. The drum is very well preserved and is covered
K etae-drums
\vith painted designa.
Tribe Author (Collection) and Function
13 tt ui m ar y.
From the ab ove-said it appears that t he kettle-drum is the ol~ Choro t i NonDENSKJÕLD, (4 ), p. 164.
KAitS1'EN, [2], p. 155 seq.
clest of t he American drums. ln its original shape it apparently
Ashlushlay NOllDENSKIOLD, (4), p. 164.
consisted of a clay ves ·el, partly filled with water when in use, the KAUSTEN, [2), p. 155 scq.
orifice of which was covered with a skin membrane. It was played l\fataco ~OUDENSKIOLD, (4], p. ) 64,
either with a stick or with t he hands. Through its fonction it has KAUSTEN, (2), p. ] 55 seq.

probably originally been associated with masculine initiation cere- CA.Roús, p. 252: •AI efecto, cuando las bayas dei algarrobo em-
piczan á amarillear, ponen delante de las chozas un mortero
monies and has spread with tbese at a time when agriculture was
do paio, cubierto con una piel medio curtida de ovoja. 6 de
ak eady invented. ln Mexico and Central America - most likely otro animal. Uno de ellos, con un pedazo de cuerda. 6 de cuero
1
its centre of distribut ion - it has gr adually become rep laced by cenido (~ la cintura, dol cual penden una porción de conchas,
a one-hoaded drum, open in the bottom, t he distribution area of caracoles, cuernos y hucsos, pequenos, y otras cosas que pueden
whioh is bounded in the north by the Huicbol and in the sout h pro- hacor algun pequeno ruído, se pone á golpear con un palillo
dicho mortero, que ellos Jlaman pimpim y que hace ol oficio de
bably by the Cayapá. ln this latter place its construction has, how- '
tamboril; acompanando los golpes dei pimpim con varios movi-
ever, in post-Columbian t imes become influenced by t he African mientos de cuerpo, como m edio bailando, pero sin moverso dei
clrums. The Araucanians to the sout h have a drum type peculiar to lugar, haciendo do manera que los objetos que lleva colgados
them , wbich may possibly be a reconstructed kettle-drum. Under 1 ) BrnKET-SMlTH , [ll, Jl, p. 201, tab. B. 61.
1
) Ycrbnl in fonnll.tion t o the author personsll,v. 2) With the ·exception of Hup& (cf. p. 176).
i 13
194 K. VET. O . VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. DAND ó. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INS'l'RUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 195

Tribe Author (Collection ) anel Function Tribe Author (Collcction) and Function

á la cintura produzcan el ruído de unas sonajas d e hueso6de al- adelante siendo ya de fuerzas, y valiente. EI modo de recibir
gunas nueces vacías; cantando al mismo tie mpo en voz alta, pero este grado es en esta forma ......... L uego toma vn atambor ,
con una tonada triste y monótona: clirlaso que temen alguna que es vna h olla con vn poco de agua dentro muy bien tapada,
gran calamidad ó que piden socorro en un gran conflioto. Ello que suena bien, y con vn cascabel de calabazo vna hora antes
os quo dia y de noche, sin oesar, se han de hace r oir los golpes de amanecer comienza á tocaria, y juntamente á cantar hasta
sordos y apagados dei pinvpim, y los débilos choques de la las quarto, ó cinco de la tarde, quando toma siete hcssos de
silvestre son aja, y los gritos 6 lamentos dol afligido cantor: y vanado muy aguzados .. . •
esto, segun dicen, para hacer que la fruta deseada madure Bororó BM: VB. 2191.
más pponto y mejor. Por esto cuando se cansa e l que toca v. D. STEINEN, [(2)], p_, 496: »Eine Trommel, die bei d ers3lben
y canta immediamente se pone otro en su lugar.• Feier (burial ceremony) im Rancho gebraucht wurde, machto
p. 255: ~... cuando una muchacha llega á la pubertad, tiene den Eindruck der Originalitãt; sie war ein mit e inem Stück
que estar retirada durante cierto tiempo en un rincon de la Ochsenfell überspannter Holzmi:irser, ais Schlãger dienten
choza, tapada con ramas ó cualquier otra cose, sin hablar con ein paar Stãbchen aus Soribapalmholz. •
nadie, y sin comer ni carne ni p escado. Y mientras permanece Toba c.umús, p. 263 seq.: tLa ceremonia dei casamiento es un poco
invisible é incomunicada, uno de los ceremonicros dei rancho curiosa, pero algo pesada. Cuando el muchacho se cree ya
tiene que estar tocando el pimpim delante de la choza. Cuando con fuerzas y títulos suficientes para casarse, se dirige simplo-
una mujer pare, tiene que estar echacla a lgunos dias, y elj mente y sin rodcos a los padres de la muchacha que pretende,
marido durante mucho tiempo ... • p. 257. y se la pide para su mujer. Si los padres convienen en el!o,I
Lengua. GRUBB, p. 75: tDmms aro macio by stretching wet skins over forman entonces delante d e la choza una chocita de paja, eon
cooking pots, and are beaten with thin wooden sticks. s u pequena entrada. y un agujero en medio. Meteu la mu-
Le ngua GnuBB, p. 178: •The W ai n k y a takes its narne from the chacha aden tro, le llevan un poco de comida .á ciertas horas,
drums which are beaten day and night. These drums are y no puede salir de a ll í sino por necesidades puramente ur-
made by stretching wet decr hide over clay pote containing gentes. El muchacho, habiendo anteriormente h echo una sa1·ta
a varying amount of wator in order to produce different sounds. de los huesos do los diferentes anima.les que ha muerto, so la
One of the chief charactoristics of tho feast is tho bcating pone colgando al rededor de la cintura, se está parado clelante
of drums ( »wainkya»), and it is h eld to commornorate the de la chocita, empieza y s igue tocando una especie de tambo1·il
doming of age of a boy. R elays of mon scatod in a row, drum sordo, que llaman pimpim, moviendo el cuerpo de arriba abajo
incessantly from sunset to sunriso, ofton .for a period of six y de un lado á otro, á fin de que hagan ruído los huesos quo
or seven weeks: their weird tping, ping... can be h eard for llova. colgados, cantando ai mismo tiempo en voz alta una tona-
a great distance on a oalm night. • da acostumbrada. ontre elles y en semenantes casos. La much-
Pa.yaguá. AzARA, §. 594: •Los motivos de estas ficstas son el naciroiento acha. está adentro mirando por e\ agujero y escuchando á su
de algun hijo, el agujerearle las orojas o labio inferior, el ca- futuro marido. E I muchacho tiene que con tinuar la funcion
sarse, ó aparacer el menstmo la lavcz á una mozuela, la cual regularmente hasta. ocho dias, cantando parado, tocando el
e ntonces empieza á. ponerse las mencionadas pinturas perma- pimpim y haciendo contorsiones de dia y de noche, haga frio
n en tes, y finalmente culaquiora cosa ó nada es motivo de ó calor, llueva 6 haga. sol, descansando solomente lo preciso
fiesta. No se baila, ni jeuga, ni canta, ni hay más di\·ersion para las más precisas n ecesaidades. Si descansa demasiado, 6
que las que sugieren las fantasmas do vaco. Ade más de estas se cansa, sobre todo si á los padres no les agrada tanto, le
fiostas menores, en las inmodiac ionos de San Juan hacen una dicen que no sirve para casarse con su hija; y e l pobre diablo
mucho más solemna, cuyas vísperas se annuncian con tambo- tiene que buscar otra, y separar otra ocasion .... •
r itas hechos con vasijas de barro, y con pintarse todo lo mejor Kocx-Gn üNBERO, [ l ], p. 106, cit. Thouar, Baldrich, and Boggiani.
que saben ... » Chirigua.no NoRDENSKJÕLD, [5), p. 116: •A large drum is called by the Chi-
Guayctu·ú BoooIANI, [2], p. 295. riguano •angúahuasi & a ordinary drum »angúa& or »angúa-
LozANo, p . 69: »EI tercero grado mas olevado ontre ollos es e\ ra.i &. Liko thc Guarani in ParaguJly t he Chiriguano call a
de soldado veterano. ai qual passan desde cdad d e vientre afios mortar mngúa •·
196 K. VE'r. O . VITTE RH. SAMH . HAl" DL. SER . A . BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MlJSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 197

T r ibo Author (Collection) and Function Tribo Aut hor (Colloction) and F unction

CariptLna. l\1AltTWS & SPlX, p. 4 16. of wood carefully h ollow·ed out, a bou t 16 inches high by 12
vVM: A 653 (coll. Na.ttere r, 1817-35). »Trommel aus Tho nge- inches in cliameter at the base, gently narrowing toward t he
füsso bestehend mit e lastiscb e n Harza bespannt. • top . A p iece of rawhide is pemanontly attached a cross t he
T ohuolch e MusTERS, p. 81: tThe o rchestra consisted of a drum ma.de by bottom while the top piece is secured only by means of the
stretching a piece of hide over a bowl a lso a sort of wind instru- iron h oop fitt ing over it an.d arouncl the drum. About a quart
m ent formod of the thigh bone . .. • of wator is p oured into tho drum anel after tho drum head
La Paya. A~IB.ROSE=r, [3], pt. II, p. 488: tEn el invontario dei sepulcroe- had beeu t horough ly softenod by soaking, it is tight ly stre tched
núm. 72, junto á otras piezas, descrubimos tambien un tam- across the top and secured by the hoop. The d rum stick used
bo r formado p or un s implo tronco escavado, de seccion oval with tho drum con sista of a piece of wood curved downward
y de paredes m uy de lgadas; con el tam bor hal.la.mo tambien and forward a.t t he front ond, so that the point of percussiou
e l p a illso ornamen tado con dibujos gra.bados y partes escul- is but little largar than the top of the finger. On accotun of
pidas, cuyos detalles publicamos en la. figura. 77. » the water in the bottom of the drum, the sound, whon one is
District round AnMl-;NTIA, p. 138: »Dentro dei C h i p a. colocaba.n una esp ecie nearby, is merely ã. series of d ull thuds; but on a still night it
t ho Rio B eni, de tambor de barro. El que se encontr6 en Covendo tiene la is audible for tha distance of a mile or more. t
l\fojos t erritory forma de un florero con dos caras de hombres groseram e nte tra- Odjibwa HOFFMAN, [ I), p. 190: ~The midé drum d iffers from the drum
bajados. L o tapaban con el cuero de! S ar i ó A g u ti, que commonly used in dances in t he fact that it is cylindrical,
e llos llaman Cheti. P o r la n oche todos los hombres ent raban consisting of a.n elongated kettle or wooden vesael, or porhaps
en e! Chipa, y en el, el Cucucsl ó Yanacona bacia ciertas in- section of the hollow trunc of a trec about 10 inches in diameter
vocaciones supertiosas desnudándose, cantando y tocando e l a nd from 18 t o 20 inches in length, over both ends of which
tambor que llamaban P o g no, y convidando a! 1\fascha ó. rawhide is stretched w hile wet; so that upon drying the mem-
tomar chicha; la que le ponian cerca de i tambor... • brana becomes hard anel tense, producing when beaten a very
Araucanian cf. r eferen ces in chapter on the Araucanian drum. harcl, loud t one, which may be heard at a great distance.
:Frequen t ly, however, water is put into the bottom of the
Mandan STARR, ( ] ), p. 90. d rum and the drum-head stre tchecl across the top in a wet
Seneca SACHS [2], P · 17 5. st.ate, which appears to intensify the sound very considerably. ..
Pawnee SACHS, (2), p. 17 5. ......... and that it is used in tho Mida'wigan d uring tho ini-
D akota SlUNNER [2], P· 168. tiatio n of new members or lho ad,·ancement of a mido' from
Cherokee KM: (wood). a degroo to a higher one. »
• KM: Hc. 362 (o rdinary small cask). WINCHELL, p. 610.
Iroquois HourES, [2], p. 34, cit. LAFITA U.
Kio wa WAG~ER, PP· 111- 2.
• HM: 1257: 09 (wood) .
Southern Indians HoLMES [2), p . 34, cit. Jou TELS' J ournal o/ La Salle's last voyage
Nascapi CHAMBERLAIN, p. 129.
pp. 187-8. • .. . . , . on burial occasions: dances. . . some
Y uchi SPEOK, fig. 36, p. 61.
of them have a drum mad,e of a great earther n pot, on which
Me no mini DENSMORE, (8), p. 10.
t hey extend a. wild goat"s skin, and beat theroon with one
HoF.FMAN, [2], fig. 10, p. 77: •When the four m edicine men had
taken their proper s tations and were seatod on t he mats, the stick, like our tabors. •
Op. cit., fig. 4, p. 34, cit. B. DE LA P oTID:RIB.
usher brought t he foods that h ad been fornished by the can -
didate a.nd p laced tham before Niópet, the easternmost of tho Culture of t he $WANTON, [ !], p. 708: tThe ceremonial. musical instruments
four. The m edicine drum was then also placed bofore Kiópet, Southeast were a drum a nd r attles. T he formor was made by stretching
who re moved tha drum head, wet it, and after putting som e a dressed deerskin o ver an earthern po t, a cypress knee, or in
water into the drum - t o t ho depth of perhaps t wo inches later times an iron kottle. In Virgínia the skin was stratched
- h e r eplaced the drum head a nd tightened it down by means o,·er a wooden platter. »
of a cloth-covered irou hoop. The m itã' v drum differs from IndiansofCar o- Hourns, L2], p. 34, cit. LAWSON. •· .. eartbern porridge pot
that o rdina rily used in dances; it consista of a. cylindrical piece li na wit h det'rskin head as a drum. .. •
198 K. VET. o. VITTERH. s.um. HANDL. SER. A. BANO 5 . N:O 1 IZI KOWITZ, M USICAL INSTRU1\IENTS OF S . AMERICA 199
Tubular Drums
Tribo Author (Collection) anel J.'unC't ion
Tribe Author (Colleclion) and Function

Louisiana Incli- H ourns, [2], p. 34, cit. G. ~I. B t:TEL-D UMONT. tTho n ei..-t day
ans at dawn ali this troop sets on the march , h1wing at its head Chiriguano R)I: E. 550.
the cle,·erest among them, who carries the calumet, and as Cayap á BA1tnET, II, pi. CXXVIII, p. 390.
they approach tho YiUago all begin to sing and dance. One Jjca GM. see fig. S:l.
of thcm carries in the le ft hand an oarthe rn pot covered with BOLINDER, [2], p. 78: tDie Tjca habcn tromrneln aus rnit Feucr
a dressed deerskin stretched tig htly over it and fastened to ausgeholten 13.iumstãmmen, die e inseitig mit Haut übcrspannt
it hy a cord, a n d with a singlo drums tick in his right hand sind (Tuf. 24). Rio werden mit den flachen Hãnden gespielt
he beats t he tirne on this pot which sorvos as a urum. ~ und find e11 boi a llc rle i Festlicbkeiten Verwendung, jcdoch
Chichi macha SwANTON, [2], p. 350: ~Tho d rum was mado in ancient times n icht boi don goheimen Zer emonien . Heutzutage komrnt
by stretching a deerskin ovor tho top of a largo clay pot, but jeweilen oino Tromme l europãischen Typus vor, d ie doppol-
Inter the end of a hollow log took tho placo of the pot. • seitig ist und mit zwe i Schlegeln geschlagen wird. t
H avas upai SPnm, í2J, p. 264: 1Formerly a skin was Íl\Stcned O\"Or the mouth Chocó Gl\f. See fig. 90.
of a clay v&sel containing a Jittlo wate r . Turning the pot Guaymí l'rNART, p. 40: 1. .' .. un ta.mbour fait d ' un tronc d'arbre cre usó
o ve r the skin and caused it to shrink taut. TJ1is was carried et dont l' une des e xtrémjtés est r ecouverte d ' une pe au sur
in the dance slung under tho left arm. • üsccl at ttho annual Iaquelle on frappe avec la main ... •
dance• for •rain and prosperity. • T e rraba region JOYCE, [I], p. 146: tThe modem drurn found in tho Terraba
CrFFOJU>, p. 230: •The drum • runata., a word probably meaning r egion is of wood, and cylindrical in shape, with one end covered
originally •pott consisted of a pottery olla wrapped in buck- with iguana skin. In the cemetery at Buenos Aires pottery
skin, which was stretched tightly across lhe orifice. It was objects of similar pattern have been found wbich probably
rondered taut hy one man twisting the corners of the buck- were originally furnished with membranes of a like material. •
skin together at the bottom of the olla, whilo o thers beat the Chiriqui Houras, [l], fig. 236, 237.
head stretched over the orifice. A small amount of water and Costa Rica HoLMES, [ I ], p. 160: t A druro recently brougbt from Costa R ica
somo charcoal fragments were in the bottom of the olla. The was made by hollowing out a cylindrical p iece of wood stretch-
bigger tbe olla the more booming was the sound. The d rum - ing a p iece of snake-skin across t he top. T he shape is nearly
stick was a h a ndled Joop or ring of oak w ithe. T he sk in head ide ntical w ith that of t h ese earthern specirnens. •
of the drum was struok with the edge of tho ring. Two or Talamanca L onmor, LI], II, p . 27õ: &The latter form is especially charao·
thrco singers, each provided with a drum-stick, beat the drum toristic of N icaragua and Costa Rica, and is used to tbis day
together as accompaniment. • by me I ndiana of Talamanca. •
Navuho SPIER, [2], p. 274: t . . . . the Navaho use o nly a cooking pot LOTHROP, [ ! ], II, p. 448, oit. FRANCISCO DE SAN JOSÉ. •In
wit.h a skin stretched over its rno ulh. • '.l'ozzcr [2), p. 338. their burials they have various ritos. . . In the island they
tranapo rt lhe bodies walking at short intervala, day and night
for nine days, with rnournful chants, and the sound of drums;
and the wife und claughter are left to crying ali the rest of
their lh·cs. •
BOVALLIUS, p . 252: •B ered,· illigt lãto dãremot invânarna mig fá
en trumma gjord av e n urholkad trãdstaro tsabak • (fig. 10),
hopknipen àt ena ãndan, den andra õverspãnd rned ett onn-
skinn; trumman hade dãrfõr i det nãrmaste samma form som
en tj ockhalsad butelj. Inga trumpinnar begagnades, blott
hande n ... •
Costa Rica GAnn, p. ó l 7: tT ho drum is their greatest favorito. lt is from
Ou aj iquer os twenty inches to two feot Jong, cylindrical for h a lf its length,
with a dinme te r of aix or seven inch es, it then tapers convexly
to nenr tho other ond and then widens ou t a little. T he pattern
200 K . VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HAND L. SER. A . BAN D .;. N :O l
Tho bow: mate r ia l nnd
Tribo T he string Hcsonán
le ngth
1 1
T ribe A uthor (Colleot ion) anel Func·tio n Klamuth • .. . la ck a 11y spc-cial form l hold in mo uth
but som otimcs with an
o rdinnry bow. •
is a lways t he sarne, and th e s ize varies but a few in ches. The Pomo (on ly Jake people) • · . . , ·iJJow wood ... abo ut • . .. two sinew strings •:.m o C'nd of bow
Ja rger e nd is tigh t ly cove rcd with t he skir1 from the belly of :l feet in le ngth, un inch n bo ut u q uarter of a n iho moulh •
t h o iguana lizar d. It is glucd on by fresh blood, boing he ld a nd approximalely a inch apart •
q uurtc r anel !ln inch
in p laco wit h s t ring until dry. A cord t ied ar ound cach e nd thick. •
Sllilpends it loosely from the left sho ulder , and it is h e ld under
the left arm , being beaten wit h t ho tipa of tho finger s of the
---- l
rig ht ha nd. It is used principa lly to a ccompany and keep time N \\' Mnid u spec·ial
to s inging and is a n inclispe nsable p art of every fcast or gather -
ing of whate ver kind . •
Sout hern Me xi- BANCROFT, I , p . 664: Anot her instrurnen t is t he tunkul o r drum,
s. Ma itlu spocia l (Sp ior ) »key on l he i ll t,ho mo ut h
ca ns m a do of a h ollow log wit h shcepskin stretched ovor t he end . ond •
It is struck with the fingers of the rig ht h a nd, t ho per former
ho lding it under h is left a rm. •
'
~E ~l a.idu regu la r hnnt ing how
P aya s CoNZEMIUS, (2], p . 390: tE l t ambor es hecho de u lliL sola p ieza
uhuecada de caoba o cedro; está a bior to p or u n oxtrem o y Yokul s specia l bo w Jmoul h r·csonan ce
tapado po r el otro con una pie i de sup o estirada, sobre la cua l
dan golpes con la mano. •
Blac k Carib (Ga- CoNZEMIUS, [l], p . 192: •'fhe ir native drwn o r, garáw1111g as t hey
r if) co.11 it (locally called 'tom -tom ' in E nglish and ºtango' in Spa-
nisb ), is m ade out of a s ingle piece of mahogany or cedar t runk. IYuki
--- --
It is of cylindrica l shape, h aving a ctiamcter of 12 to 20 inches,
Ho.vosu pai ordinnry bow 1 •H e holds the bo w
-
anda. heigh t of 20 to 30 inches. Over one cxtremity is stretched tally betwoen hi
a. doer skin; it is bea ten wit h t he h a nd. This is t he ir principal o nd und taps t
musica l instrumen t . t with l\ll arrow
~ l ichoacan •in l ho mouth •
KUNIKE, p. 282.
Sout horn D iaguorio
-
ordinary bow
--- - - -
•Tho g rip in h is
Azt oc SELER, [ l ], II p. 677: tVon don Fellp auken odor 'fro mmoln,
u euetl, gab es g rossere, tlapanueuetl, die a uf don Bode n geste llt
Sali na n Jndians (San or clirrnry bow mouth suppliod
w u rden (Abb. 2c) und kleinero, die m a.n untor dem Arm hie lt A11t-011io) na nco c ha m bor
oder zwisch en die B eine k lommte. Die e rst cren sie bt man be i Coro.
--
der z we iten F igur des Codex B ocker (Abb. 1) und in dcn Abb . 3,
4 & 5. Dio a nderen bei dem musiz iereh den Coito d er Abb.
6, etc. •
Tho Nayar it re- Hl\1: 1540; 07.
gion 1
Hui<'hol
Uuichol L u MBOLTZ, II p . 29. - --
IT epehua nes =:]
Maya (Y ucatan ) two foe t tbetween t hC' s tring a nel t he •lho moulh C0\"01
bo w a piece of woocl is does no t t ou<'h
p la ced in such a mo.nrwr forming a rC's o11
t hat it may be prcs.~C'cl
again st l ho string o r
laxed at will. • ro-,
~layo. (San Anton io, honcqucn cord ~10 <.'o rd is
Hrit is h H o nduras ) t ho mo ut h wh i
a8 a rPsonator,
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendajú howover , tou<:I
http://www.etnolinguistica.org p a rt o f it. » (Ir
\"ariut ion a gou 1
lo r )
Hmw o • · • • 1111 arco mus ical hecho ... encor·van con una
con la osp ina do un pes- c ue rda
c·ado ... • 1 1
 '1' h e 1n u s i ea l /J o w . ~

1
•w: material anti Tho string Hesonance :Mannor of playing :Function Nam( Autho r Tone varia tion
longth
1 1 1 1 1 1 !1
l !\ny s pocial fo rml h c ld in mouth •tapping with a stick • ... a play thing... SPTER, [1], PP· 88, 90.
m e timcs with an
rv bow. •
b~ wood ... about • ... two s ine'v t rings
in length, an inch ubout a quarter of an
. t::me end of bow placed in •the string being slruck •)len used lhe musical bow pitjol c:unud,
the mouth • with a rotmd stick of in t heir h omcs or in with-stick bo' )
(strike Lorm. p. 190. »Tho notes va.riod a.ccord-
(Obs. p . :345. note J. l';y11m. ing to the d cgreo to .
approximatoly a inch apart• ash p orhaps a foot in sweat houscs. The m u - a cc. to L oEo, says \\". w h ich tho p layer opened
. anel an inch longth • s ic was very fa int a nd P O)!O la ck instrnment) 01' closed h.is moulh. •
the instrume nt was play-
ed me roly foi· amuso-
me n t. • J
tappc<l wi th a sma ll Lwig. 11sed by l ho shamnns to ÜJXON", P· U:!. The notes ,·arierl by opcn·
cOJ1\'(ll'SO with tho spirit8. 1 ing or closing the mouth'
1 to a greater or less de·
1 gree, . . .
--- ---
r ;O<) 1>key 011 1ho lin
the mou th Shamans - to (;OllVOl'SO 1 F AYf:, P· 38. .
with t ho spirits (8pior ) SPl F.lt, L2J, p. 341\.
»only by tho modfoino-
mon • (Fayo)
- amusement D1xoN. p. 2-2:.l.
hun t ing b o w ·--
)OW mouth rosononce chamber s. Y okuts m cn sometimes niawu or nuiwu oi Kno 1~1rnii,
LI ], p. 542. •The melo dy, aud iblo t o
p layed thc m. b. after himself o nly, \YUS p ro -
sottling thcmsol ves Íll duced by chungcs in tho
bcd; tho ChukchanAi in size of tho rcsonance
m o urn ing t ho dead. chamber formed by the
playcr's oral cavity ~
to converso wit h p orsonal l{ROEU.Elt, [l], p. 198. •
spirits
bow •H e h old s t ho bo w hor izon- tnps an ow ... at plnys [p. 3:38] SPIF.R, L2J, p. 338.
tnlly betweon his lips one
end and taps the Rtring
with an Ul'l'OW [p. 3:!81
»in t he m o uth • [p. :!44].
bow »The grip in h is m o uth ; »tapping with a flat stick SPIBU, L3J, p. 349.
or his finger. 1>
bow
- mouth supplicd t ho 1'0 $0• MASON, p. 157.
nanco ch amber
»••. bei d en ~'esten, bei P 1n:uss, (2], PP· 13!), 219,
d e non man die a llen re- 223, 367.
ligióson Oosi:ínge singt,
wird freilic·h kcine r dieser
1nstrumont(' Rnndorn der 1
)lusikbogen gobraul'h t. •
í!
- SELER, (6]. p. 143.
BASSAURT, p. 73. 1
t betwoon the string and the •t he m o uth C0\ '01'8, but •tapping the string • jul BASSAURI, p. 48. Tho differe n t notes are pro-
bow a p iece of wood is d oes not t ouch the stri ng llool SAVJLLE, [ 2] duccd b y the pressure or
p la cod in such a manncr fo rming a rosonalor • 1·e laxtion of t hc stick
that it may bo prcssod upon t he string, a~1d by
agai11st lhe dtring o r 1'0- lho opening anel partia!
laxcd nt, will. • closing o f t he mo u th over

honequen co rd .... t.ho cord i8 placcd i11 &struc k with a sma ll stick »
Lho mou th wh ich SOl'V('S
-
. pastse ERIC THOMPSON, p. 101.
the sarne.~
1
1

as a r esonato1·, 'fithout.,
ho wovor, touc hiDg any
part of it. • (ln another 1
varia t ion a gourd l'esona·
tor)
arco mus ical hocho . . . CJlCOl'Van co11 una

..
ospina d o un pes- CUOJ'tla

.1
•la Locan con otrn ospina » la zampoiia BASSAURJ, p. 40 .
 -
=
" =

'P h e mu s ica l b o U'. (Coni.)

T he bo w: mate ria l and

'l'ribe Tho string R esona nco :'.lanner of playing l•\mclion X ame Aut ho r
length
1 1 1 1 1 1

L onca (Honduras) special gourd bumb-um (acc. o Balfour 13ALF0Ul [3), p.

r esembles 'l>U um-bumba cit. MASO::s'.
of the Ki-bun tia of\Rost
Africa).
Xicaquos (Elondurus)
Mosqu itos gourd . tnpped with a s hort stic k Used by H uloros - cnout- w rimba
DALFO Ull
BALfºOIJH
[3], p.
[3~
1 chouc ~a t. hol'OrS v\T. J>AlnlY.
San Salvador five feet long and abon t gourd wrimba B,\u·oull L3J, p.
an inch a nel a half thick

K e kchi (Cua t emala) six feet t bospannt m it cincr zãhon. tho m o uth s truck wiU1 a small wooden arpa-ché SAJ>PER, PP· 312·
tlünnen Schlingpflanzo stick Narimba-ché
odor c iner Schnw·. • 1 Caramba
Costa Rica quijango BAT,FOUR [3], PP
J. F. F•:llllAZ.
Xicarngua 1 clay vosso! struc k BllIXTON.
B usintana 1 tomangu BoLINDER [1]. [2;
Goajiro fricti on trompa BOLlNOEll [3]. p .
Jivaro »Wic cino Qucrflüto vor dom •S ie winl mit einom Stãb- tomângu T.t::SSMA:NN, [1], l
Mund a bgohalton uml chon angeschlagcn. B oi
zwar mit dem Ilogon- don Chi.varo-M akas wi.rd
onde, so class dio Sehno dol' Musikbogon (n ach
vom Mundo abgowo,ndt l<arsten) mit clen Fingem
ist. » gez upft. »
Kichos »d io Lã.nge des B ogen s be- »wi.rd mit dom broitorcn •· .. und die Schne mit dcn trompa TESS)!ANN, ( lj, ]
trãgt 1,40 c m. » Endc vor don )1w1d go- Fingorn gezupft. »
h altcn. - .
K andoschi tdas E ndo dos B ogens wird •Sehno mit der F ingem ge- kambaua (condoi bone ) TES S)1ANN, [ l ], l
vor . . . dem l\lund go- zupft. •

Kunibo tAuf eine1n a u s :H olz ge- .... halten. - -

von Ot\VQ 30 cm. tDabei nahm er das oin e •Strich cr mit oinom feinen
maohten Bogen, mit e incr L iinge bospannt. t EndedesBogenszwischen B olzs llibchen atú und ah
REICH, p. 134.
Sehne. t die Zii.hne, das ande re tuet nach Art eines Yiolin-
e r mit der auch glcich- bogens. •
zeit ig d ie oinzige Sai te
vibricrte. t
Chama made of a small, flat r eed cotton string - rarely of one end stuck in mouth struck _ .. bow of palm - h6noroate TE<;SMANN, [2]. l
A11trocaryum co rd very thin. Stuck into 30, fig. 4, pi.
mouth severa! times be-
fore playing.
Oroagua »D as B ogen ende wfr<l in »angesch lagen » kanutit~unanik6) klo 'l'ESSMANN, [ !),
clen Mund genommon

r
 1

T h e m u s i e a l b o w. (Cont.)

male r ial a nd 1 'J'he string H esonancc ) la n nc r o f playing !\a m e Aut hor '.l'one variation
•ngth

gourd bumb-mn (acc. o B alfou.r B AU'O l !l{ f:l], p. 40.

r esembles vu um-bumba cit. MASON.
of t he Ki-bnn:la of W ost
Africa ).
--------1 -c---c~--.,------- 1-------+---- BALl'"OUR PJ. p . 40 .
gow·d la pped "it,h a short stick lJsed by H uleros - c:-aou t· carimba J3ALFOUJt [3], p . 40, cit. E .
chou c gathorcr s vV. P AJUO' .
:;;;g-;nd a bou t gourd carimba 13ALli0li!t [3), p. 41, cit . T wo tones because of
u1d a half t h.ick »stl'ing-divide r •
T ones varied by shul ti ng
or covering the gow-d r e-
1 son tor with t he 11and.
•bespannt m.it eincr zãhen. the mout h s truck with a s ma ll wooden arpa-ché SAPPEn , pp. 3J 2-3. T on es varied by opening
diin.ncn Schlingpflanze stick Sai·imba-ché 1
or closing the mo utb .
oder cincr Schnw-. • 1 Cammba
quijango 1
BALFOUit l3), PP· 42-3, cit.
1 J . J?. FElll<AZ.
clay vcssel .------ st r uck 1
Bm NTON.
tomangi, BOLJ"?-.J)r,)R (1). f2]. 189.
friclion trompa 1 ~ J30U NOr~R (3). p. 79.
- - - -- -- l - -- - - - - - - -- -l-»
-,-v,-·c_e_in
_ e_Q
.,.-
u-o-r f'""l-õ -tc-- ,·-o -r -d-e-m »Sio wircl m it eincm Stiib - tomángu 'l'ESSMANN, ( 1), p. 3õ6.
1

Mund abgoh a lton u nd c hon a ngesch lagen. B ei '

zwar rnit de m Bogen- ·clon Cbivaro-'Ma kas wird
on de, s o dass d.io Sohne de r Musikbogon (nach
v om Munde abgowa ndt J<a rsten ) mit dcnFin gorn
is_t_._»_
1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1__ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ 1 _~g_e_zu_p
~ft_._•-,------,-- ------------i--------t----- i -,------------i-----------~i
dos 13ogen s be- »wird mit, cloro bt•oitoron »••. uncl d ie Sehne mit den tromp a I 'l'E SS'.\fANN, [ 1 J, p. 243.
O c m .• Endc v or d en Mund go- )?in gem gezupft . »
h alt en ...
; elas E n do dos Bogcns wircl •Sehne m it del' l~.ingern ge- kambaua (condo b one) 'fE SS'.\fANN, ( ! ) , p . 287.
vor . . . dom ) lund go- z up ft. t
h alten . . .
1 a us H olz ge - t . . . von clwa. 30 cm . •Dabei n ahm er dns oino tStrich e r m it einem feinen R E!Cll, P · 134.
Bogen , m it oiner L üngo bcspannt. t EndedesB ogenszwischen H olzstiibche n a uf und a b
d.ie Zãhne, clas a n dorotuct nach .Art ein es Violin-
e r m it der a uch gloich- bogens. t
zeit ig d ie e in.zige Sa ite
,;brierte. t
small, flat r eed coUon string - raroly of one e nd s tuck in m ou th struok . . . bow of p alro - h6noroate 1 TESSMANN, (2), p. 105, pl.
Astrocarymn oord very thin. S tuck into 30, fig. 4, pi. 34.
m ou th severa! tirnes ba- '
fore p laying.
»D as Bogcncntlo \)'i.rd in »angesch lagen * kanutit6unaniko1a 'l'ESSMANN, [J ], p. 56.
;-- - - - - - - ' - - - - -·- - -- - - -'--d_e_n_ i i und gonom_m_o_n___·_ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _~t---------------------------~
 ---- --
-
--- -· ..... -

T h e m u si e a l b o w. {Cont.)

The bow : material and

Tribe The string Resonance Manner of playing Ftmction Naroe Auth<
length
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Kokama •Die Sehne wird mit einem •zu beliebiger Zeit gespielt • turúmba T ESSMANN, (1),
Stock goschlagen, nicht
gestrichon. »

l
Kampa t46 cm. lang, 1,6 cm. breit tEr wird wie bei den Tscha- tnur von Mii.nnern ge- ibi.gumbiri TESSMANN, (1),
und recht flach (1 bis 2 ma. mit einem Blattstief- spielt . t
mm. dick). » streifen der Scheelea.
Tessmannii gestrichen, . »
P ánobo spec1al bow tstring-divider t •Die Sehne wird in Mund ... die Linke hii.lt den tzum Vergnügen gespielt. t trunvpa T ESSMANN, (1),
genommen... t Saitenteiler, die Rechte 12, p. 115.
schlãgt mit einem langen
Stãbchen die Saite. »
Kaschibo tziemlich grossen Bogen • teinfach in der Hand (nicht .. . und mit rechten Zeige - tEr wird nur von Mãnnern kandiroé TESSMANN, (1),
vor dem :Mund.. .) ge- finger tmd Daumen ge- zum Vergnügen gespieltt
halten. • zupft wird. t
Amabuaka Chama type einfachen Pflanzenfaser al11 .. . &wird gestrichen ... • •N ur von den Mãnneru z um yóeri TESSMANN, [1],
Sehne Vergnügen gespielt. t 1
Nokamá.n tder ziemlich kleine und t .•. wird so gehalten dass Dann wird die Sehne mi t wánamigi TESSMANN, [l]'
flache Bogen . .. » die Bogenflii.che etwa einem ziemlich kurzen
zwischen d er Mitte und Stãbchen gestrichen in
dem ein en Ende vor dem der W eise wie die Tacha-
Mund liegt. t ma es tun.•
Lengua un p etit a.r chet courbe ... »•• • une seul corde & the mouth DE WAVRIN, p .
Choro t i small bow horse-hair beld b etween the teeth with a bow (friction) N ORDENSKIÕLD
Ashushlay
Cbané 1

Cainguá. »Es ist ein kantiger und »Die Sehne ist aus Philo- tEine dwme Palmsippe von gualambo (Obs. r.robe. call ZELLER, P· 109
knorriger aus einfach ent- dendromfasern. • 30 cm. Lange dient zum jew's h arp ~ lualamban)
r i ndedem Holz gefertigter Anschlagen der Saite (Bo- (Kalumba : Ila Mrica).
Bogen von 180 cm. t gensehne) .•. das dickere
Stabchen daas dio rechte
Hand hii.lt, entspielt den
'Steg'.t
Tehuelche 30 cm. string of h orse-hair. held between the teeth stroked with a long condor- koh'l<> H. TEN KATE,
bon e fig. 91.
Central Brazil bow of string stretched •The bow being h eld beaten witb a. small stick. umcunga BALFOUR (3), !
aginst the throat or vocal MASON, p. 380
cords. t (Cf. Brahman in·
struments. Not found in
Africa..)
 ..
-·

T h e m u s i e a l b o w. (Cont.)

JD&terial e.nd Tho string Resonance Manner of play ing Function Na.me Auth or Tone ve.rie.tion
mgth 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

•Die Sehne wird mit einem •zu beliebiger Zeit gespielt • turúmba TESSMANN, (1), p. 75.
Stock geschlagen, nicht
11 geskichen. »
g, 1,6 cm. bre it •)Er wil'd wie hei den T sche.- •nu:r von Mãnnern ge- ibigumbiri TESSMANN, [l), p. 92.
~
) ..
flach (1 bis 2
f 1 ma mit oinem B!e.ttstief-
streifen d er Scheelea
Tessmannii gestrichen, . •
spielt. •

tstring-divider • tDie Sehne wird in Mund ... die Lúlke hiilt den »zum Vergnügen gespielt.» trompa TESSMANN, ( J], pi. 8, fig.
genommen ... ; Saitenteiler, die Rechte 12, p. 115.
sch lãgt mit einem langen
Stii.bchen die Saite. •
rossen Bogen • teinfach in d er Hand (nicht . . . und m it rechten Zeige- »Er wird nur voo Mãnnem kandiroé TEssMANN, [ l ], p. 139.
vor dem Mund ... ) ge- finger und Daumen ge- zum Vergnügen gespieltt
halten. t zupft wird. •
B einfachon Pflanzenfaser aL~ ... »wird gestrichen... •
•Kur von denMãnnemzum yóeri TESSMANN, [ l ], p. 166.
Sehne Vergnügen gespielt . •
eh kleine und •· .. wird so gehalten dass Dano wird die Sehne mit wánamigi TESSMANN, [l], p. 178.
gen.. · • die Bogenflãche etwa einem ziemlich kurzen ,,
zwischen der Mitte und Stãbchen gestrich en in
dem einen Ende vor dem der W eise w ie die Tacha-
Mund liegt.» ma es tun.•
~het courbe... t . . . une seu! c0t·de• the mouth DE WAVRIN, p . 56.
horso-hair held between t he teeth wit h a bow (friction) NORDENSKIÕLD [4], 164 with the mouth

' 1
11kantiger und •Die Sohne ist aus Philo- tEine dürme P almsippe von gualambo (Obs. ~oba. call ZELLEll., P· 109. tder spielende summt die
auseinfach ent- denclromfaser n. » 30 cm. Lãnge dient zum jew's harp G ~lamban) Tone in die Sa.ite. •
Holz gefertigter
>n 180 cm. •
Anschlagen derSaite (Bo-
gensehne) . .• das dickere
(Kalumba: lia. Africa).
.
Stãbchen dass die rechte
Rand hãlt, entspielt den
'Steg'. t
string of horse-ha.ir. held between the tceth stroked with a. long con dor- koh'lo H. TEN KA.TE, P· 93. see
bone fig. 91.
string stretched tThe b ow being held beaten with a. small stick. umcunga BALFOUR (3], p. 48.
a.g inst the th:roat or vocal MASON, p. 380.
cor da.• (Cf. Brahman in-
struments. Not fou nd in
Africa..)
 Fig. 01. Patagonian playing the koh-lo, a musical bow. After TEN KATE.

CORDOPHONES.
On cordophones or stringed instruments sound is created through
the vibration of a stretched cord. This may be clone either by the
wind or by plucking, striking, or friction (BALFOUR [l], p. 10). As the
sound which results is very faint a resonator is often added to the in-
strument in order to intensify the tone.
ln our times the Indians use different kinds of stringed instru-
ments, many of which are of Spanish origin, as for instance the harp,
the mandolin, guitar, etc. (cf. n 'HARCOURT, l1], p. 84 seq.). These
are found mainly among the »civilized »Indians. Among those Indians
who have been less influenced by modem civilization we come upon
other stringed instruments of a considerably more primitive type, such
as a simple inst rument made from coarse bamboo or the like (fig. 92)
and the musical bow. The former is, as I shall show later, undoubt-
edly an Indian attempt to copy Spanish or other instruments, and
whether or not the musical bow is of lndian origin is a question which
has been the subject of quite lively discussion. If this instrument
is pre-Colombian it would in that case bo the only stringed instru-
ment known in America before the arrival of Colombus. Considering
the simplicity of the instrument and t he fact t hat the Indians were
acquainted with use of bow and arrow, from which the idea of the
musical b ow is easily derived, t he probability of its pre-Colombian
occurrence in America is · fairly large. On the other hand a number
202 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, M U SICAL lNSTRUMENTS OF S. A111ERICA 203
of scientists argue that the musical bow was introduced to the In- tive form of violin, »Kurzbalslaute » or the like. Thus among certain
Çl.ia ns by the negroes. The discussion about this problem has been Indian tribes we find three-stringed bamboo- or reed-violins with
very lively, particularly in the years 1897- 8 when scientists such screws and bridge. Such are found, for instance in Guiana and among
as BRT -To~, SAVILLE [l ], TEN KATE, ~ÍASON (1], SELER ([1], vol. the Guarayú and Kaingang, and in M:exico among the Mexicano,
00, p. 000), and others all gave their contributions. The climax was and Huastecos (fig. 92).1 ) Most likely these indians copied the sarne
reached in 1899 with the publication of BALFOUR's well-known mono- type of instrument.
graph, »The natural history of the musical bow », a comparative study But before we continue the discussion let us glance at tbe musi-
of the musical bow tbrougbout the world. Later LEHMANN-NITSCHE cal bow itself. As the name suggests the instrument consists of a
(l], BOLINDER (1], NORDENSKIOLD [4] D'HâRCOURT [l], SAOHS [1], and single bow on the string of which the musician plays. An ordinary
others hMre made detailed or comparative studies on the subject of the bow, as used in hunting, serves the pUl'pose and these are also used in
musical bow in America. No conclusive proof of its origin or origins certain parts of California (see table), but the rule is that a specially
has yet appeared and I myself can add nothing new to the solution of constructed bow is used
the problem. The difficulty is mostly due to the extreme simplicity for this purpose. Usually
of this instrument. I shall, however, merely call attention to certain the material is wood, only
details and refer to the abovementioned authors, of whom BoLINDER the Huave lndians use
and SAOHS are most detailed, for more comprehensive accounts. fish bones. The length
Important evidence of the pre-Colombian occurence of the mu- of the bow varies with b
sical bow in South America would have been references to it in the the tribes: Goajiro, for in-
oldest literature. SAVILLE ([1], p. 280), to mention an example, iden- stance, have very small, Fig. 92. Nati,·e-made tviolins •. a = Cuarayú,
tified as a musical bow an instrument in tbe well-known drawings of short bows (22 cm.), and RM: 995. b = Mexicano, CM: 21..5.74.
Maya musicians in Manuscripte du Cacique. This was, however, re- tbose used in the Chaco
futed by SELER (Zoe. cit.) who explained tbat the instrument territory are lik:ewise quite small (30 cm.). Large bows, on the
depicted was the so-called tortoise idiophone and tbat nowhere in other hand, are used in Central America and in South America
the old literature on Mexico was there any reference to the musical among the Kichos and Canaiguas (see t able). Usually the strings
bow or any other stringed instrument. NoRDENSKIOLD (op. cit. p. are made from some vegetable matter. Exceptions are the Pomo
168), who considers the musical bow to be imported by negroes, who use siiiew strings, and Goajiro and the Chaco and the Pata-
also points out the sarne absence of references in the old literature gonian Indians who use horse hair. The rule is to have only one
on South America. On the other, he calls attention to a statement by string to each bow, but here again the Pomo occupy a unique posi-
ÜRELLANA from his journey in 1540 to tbe effect that a three-stringed tion in that they use two. The string is tied to the bow.
musical instrument was used by the lndians living around the lower As regards the manner of playing we find that the musical bow
Amazon. ÜRELLANA calls it arrabe/,. Tbis word is obviously the in North and Central America is always played by striking the string
sa rne as rabel, the Spanish name for a three-stringed instrument of with a stick. ln South America this occurs among a number of
Arabian origin.1 ) I may add at this point that MARTYR (p. 384) also tribes in north-eastern Peru, although other methods are also used.
mentions a three-stringed musical instrument from Chiribicbi. Tbus, the Jivaro and Kichos play by plucking the string with a finger
Thc occurrence of these instruments is evidently doe to a very or a stick, or by rubbing it with a stick precisely as though it were
early Spanish influence and are most likely imitations of an primi- a fiddle-bow. This latter method is also used in the southern parts
1
of South America in Chaco, Patagonia, and among the Araucanians
) R . A CADEMIA E s PANOLA, D iccionario de la lenuua E spanola, p. 1016: RADEL

- - - - - . Instrumento músico pas toril, pequeno, de hechura como la dei laúd and Caingua, and this so-called friction playing is also found as an
y compucato de tres cuerdas solas, que so tocan con arco y tienon un sonido muy isolated phenomenon among the Goajiro. These latter first moisten
agudo. ') w. RoTH ([l], p. 462), Kaingang (coll. Fmc. Prague), BASSAURI, (p. 42).
 204 K. VET. O . vr,rTERH. S.AMH. HAN DL. SER. A . BAND õ. N :O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSlCAL INSTIW11fEN'l'S OF S. AMERICA 205
the string with saliva and t hen rub it with a slender stick. ln Chaco, D ER ([2], p. 191) has shown that this instrument is of African origin,
011 tbe other hand, a regular fiddle-bow, consisting of a bow with a a nd in this connection quotes BALFOUR who considers the above-
horse-hair string, is used. The Tehuelches use t he wing-bone of a mentioned melodies to be of African origin.
condor. An odd detail is that on the middle of this bone three holes 1
The names used by different tribes for the musical bow fre-
are bored, giving it the appearance of a flute. ln othe1· words, we quently point to a n African origin, for instance bumb-um (Lenca},
find t hat severa! different modes of playing the musical bow prevail carimba (Mosquitos and San Salvador), gualambo (Caingua). On the
in outh America and t hat these have become mixed in north-eastern other hand such na mes as trom-pa and zampogna are obviously Spa-
Peru. nish. The latter is the name of certain wind instrumonts and the
ln this connection I migbt mention that W. RoTH ([l], p. 462, 1 former that of various instruments such as the Jew's harp and also
seq.) portrays a stringed instrument from Guiana which is played by a kind of musical bow, according to the vocabulary of the Royal Spa-
the wind. It is made of stalks of the ite palm leaf and the strings are nish Academy (p. 1204):1 ) »Instrumento músico de una sola cuerda
simply lifted up from among the outer fibers and held in this posi- ' muy gruesa, que se toca con arco, apoyando sobre ella el dedo pulgar
tion by means of a bridge. Rorn quotes several authors on tbe oc- d e la mano izquierda. » Whether or not this refers to an original Spa-
curence of this instrument in various places in Guiana a nd mentions nish musical bow cam1ot be ascertained from the Vocabulary. H ow-
t hat the Makushi have two bridges on their type. ln this way t he ever that may be it appears that at certain festivais in Spain today a
instrument looks somewhat like certain stringed instruments in south- species of musical bow is used , between tbe strings and bow of which
1
eastern Asia. It is stuck upright in the ground or is said to be fas- an inflated bladder is placed1 ) . It is therefore not impossible that
tened upright to the tops of the houses. The strings are made to some of the South American musical bows, i. e. those called trom-pa
vibrate by the wind. I am not acquainted with this aeolian instru- 11 or those which are friction-played, may be t he result of Spanish in-
ment from any other part of America. It is hardly of American origin. fluence. Unfortunately th.is problem cannot be exami ned any fur-
Perhaps it is an Indian modification of t he three-stringed violin. ther as the Spanish folk culture is as yet very little known. Pla-
But let us return to the musical bow. ln order to intensify the ying the musical bow with a fiddle-bow is not common in Africa.
extrcmely faint sound which is created by t he musical bow the usual SACHS and BALFOUR mention onJy two places where it is practised2},
way in America is to use the mouth cavity as a resonator. One end that is among the Bushmcn a nd in Loango. ln the former case the
of t bc bow is stuck between the lips in such a way that these do not informant doubts that the fiddle-bow is indigenous to these people.
tonch the vibrating string. Even then the sound is so faint that it Tbe most usual manner of playing the musical bow in South America,
really can be hearcl only by the musician himself. Although this is i. e. by striking the string with a stick, is also most common in Africa,
t he most common way of playing the musical bow ther e are excep- a nd the mouth-resonator also occm s there in most cases when it is
tions. 1'hus tbe Lenca, Mosquitos, a nd thc India ns of San Salvador not a case of a complex musical bow ''ith the gourd r esonator.
and Guiana use a gourd, and the Nicaragua India ns a clay vessel as The use of horse-hair strings and friction playing coincides in South
resonator. The K aschibos have no resonator at ali. America and it is t hese instruments which , in contrast to the rest,
Thc Indians t hemselves generally look upon the musical bow as app ear most un-Afücan. It is, however, possible that the friction-
a plaything; only in Californ.ia and in northern Mexico among the Hui- played musical bow is more common in Africa than we know. l\fost
chol and Cora is it used as a religious instrument. ln California it is likely its territory of distribution inclu<le those parts of Africa which
played during certa in ceremonies when spirits are being addressed. The h ave been influenced by Arabian <'ulture or perhaps even Spain. The
Tehuelches, who received t he musical bow from t he Araucan.ians in 1 problem is of some interest as its solution would contribute to a bet-
tbe l 9th ccntury play melodies on it which are supposed to imitate ter understanding of the histor y of the ficldlebow and of the friction-
t hc wind, the paces of a horse, etc. The Busintana Indians play played stringed instrumen ts as a whole.
similar melodies on their curious »musical bow » which is not really 1) see note p. 202.
a stringed instrument at ali, but a notched stick (see p. 160). BOLIN- 2) SAC.ELS ( 1), p. "87; BALFOVR, op. cit., p. 29.
!J
206 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1
1
From this short survey it becomes clear that in most details tbe
American a nd African musical bows are similarly constructed and
played in tbe sarne way, and since the musical bow is not mentio-
ned in the oldest literature1) - those mentioned are, as I have
shown, obviously imitations of Spanish stringed instruments - we
are obliged, for the time being, to regard tbe South American ' 1
musical bow as p ost-Colombian. If we study ita distribution we
A E R O P H O N E S.
find t hat it occurs in South America in those territories ·where
negroes were imported as manual laborers, that is in Guiana, 1

Colombia, Brazil, the rubber forests of P eru and - this may sound Aerophones are instrumenta which are made to sound by di-
curious - Chaco and adjacent territories. For the latter piece of in- recting a jet of air against the edge of an orifice, or through a
formation I refor to ScHMIEDE:R.'s statement (p. 147). We sbould also ' valve, in such a way as to set up vibrations producing musical
take into consideration tbat a certain amount of distribution into tones. (BALFOUR, p. 6). In this group we accordingly have two
adjacent territories has taken place from those tribes who have ac- series of instrumenta, f 1 u te s and v a 1 v e i n s t r u me n t s.
cepted the instrument. BALFOUR includes among the latter shawms and similar tongue in-
A more difficult question to answer is whether the musical bow strumenta, trumpets, and also the bullroarer. SACHS AND v. HORN-
is also post-Colombian in northern Mexico and western U. S. A., BOSTEL place the bullroarer in a series of aerophones called by them
where it is used in several places in religious ceremonies. It has f r e e a e r o p h o n e s. Trumpets, flutes, etc. all have a closed
often been said that objects incorporated in a cult are ancient culture space in which the air vibrates, but in the free aerophones this is
elements. This is, however, not accepted as a law and as far as I lacking and the surrounding air is made to vibrate instead. NORLIND
know we have not yet had any study of the process of assimilation regards buzzing whistles, wbistling spindles etc. as members of this
into a religious ceremony of a new culture element. A detailed in- series, but the vibrating air is in this case undoubtedly enclosed,
vestigation by a scientist who knows the old literature of the west and their principie is that of the flute. For this reason I have
coast of U. S. A. and northern Mexico would therefore be of great included these instruments among the flutes. The only free aero-
interest. On the other hand it is not at all impossible that the mu- phones among the South American instruments are in my opinion
sical bow might be post-Colombian in South America and pre-Colom- the bullroarers and the buzz-disc.
bian in the north; the notcbed stick provides an example of this.
• We accordingly obtain the following subdivisions among the
aerophones:
1) Free aerophones
2) Valve instrumenta.
3) Flutes.
Furtber eÀ'"}llanations are given in t be text for each group of
instruments.

'
1
) BARnErm's statement is the earliest regarding tho musical bow in South Ame-

ica (W . ROTH [l], p. 462).

1
 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL 1NSTRU1\1:ENTS OF S. AMERICA. 209
in truth be admitted that there Me many resemblances bet.ween the
uses of the bullroarer in Oceania, \Vest and East Africa, and the Cent-
ral Brazilian Bororó. ln thcse different parts of the world it is used
at male initiation rites or by ecret societies, and may not be seen
by women and children. Lowrn points out that there is no psycholog-
FREE AEROPHONES. ical principle which would bar women from the sight of the instru-
ment in ali these place . The bullroarer bas this trait in common
with several other musical instruments, for instance wi.th those used
The bullroarer.
at the Yuruparí festivals in thc Rio Negro territory and in other
BALFOUR ([1], p. 302) has the following definition: »Thin elon· places in Amazonas. This belief regarding these instruments may
gated wooden blades (rarely of other materials), to one end of which possibly be very ancient and have lived on while the original instru-
a string is fastened, the other end of the string is frequently attached
to the end of a stick. The wooden biade is whirled round at the end
of t he string, so as to drive it against the air and cause it to spin very
rapidly, and so to present its sharp edge and its flat surface to the
afr resistance in rapid alternation. An effect is produced analogous
to that produced by a valve alternately closing and opening, and the
intermittent checks set up vibrations creating sound which varies in
pitch with the rapidity of the spin of the blade. » Fig. 93. Bullroarer from tho Apinayé. GM: 31.40.266.
Details such as the form of the biades and t he fact that the bull-
roarers sometimes are fastened on sticks reveal no clues to the history ments were exchanged for others. ln that case the question would
of the instrument. Bullroarers aro commonly attached to sticks arise which instrument or instruments were originally connected with
throughout the whole of America. ln some tribes the blade is deco- this belief. LOEB is of the opinion that the bullroarer belonged to
ratec'!, in others it has a characteristic shape, for instance that of a the oldest stage of South American culture, a theory criticized by
fish (the !purina, Nahuquá). According to COLBA.CCHINI (p. 31) the KRICKEBERG ([4], p . 333), who emphasizes its connection with cults of
paintings on the bullroarers of the Eastern Bororó tribe have some- the manes and of agriculturc. Bosides, it is not found among the
thing to do with the totems of special clans. They are painted· with southernmost tribes, but principally in Amazonas, as wm be seen
urucu, a red pigment, and with black resin. These colours are evi- from my table of distribution on page 211. Its distribution in South
dently magicai since they are used only for two objects, namely bull- America is on the whole rather strange, since it is not found in Guiana
roarers and a kind of ornamented strips of palm, which are given to or the West Indies and is rare in t he Rio Negro territory. where only
the young men at their initiation ceremonies. the Baniwa have it . Nor do we find it along the Andes or in Pata-
The size of the bullroarers varies greatl.v. Those of the Eastern gonia or Tierra del Fuego. It occurs among the Chocó and in the
Bororó are both large and small, and some of the former have a length lowlands to the east of the Andes, where it goes down to Chané-Chiri-
of a meter or more. guano. The resemblance betwcen Chocó and northeastern P eru is
J3ullroarers are found in severa! parts of tbe world, and their remarkable, since severa] other traits are also common to these tribes.
distribution has been studied by LoEn (2) and SACHS (2). According Among the Guaraní tribes the bullroarer seems to be uncommon.
to the former they are a very ancient culture elemcnt, in his opinion Besides the Chiriguano, only the Guarayu, Brazilian Chipaya, and
connected with tribal initiations and secret socicties. He calls this Curuaya have it, but thcse tribcs may have obtained it from their
the »builroarer complex » and, like Lowrn ((2], p. 313), he believes neighbours. ln the east we find it among the Timbíra peoples, and in
that this complex has been diffused from a common center. It must Central Brazil· among the Karayá, some of the tribes at the sources
14
210 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HA~DL. SER. A. BAND 5 . N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, M USI CAL I NSTR UMENTS OF S. AMERICA 211

of the Xingú, and the Bororó. Among the Chaco t ribes only the bullroarers at this ceremony is a n interosting topic on which I dare
Ma taco and K adiuveo have it, and t hey m ay have obtained i t, like not speculate.
certain other culture elements (the Mataco whistle p. 333, the cera- Among the Apinayé the bullroarer is nothing but a toy. But its
mic of t he Kadiuveo}, from Amazonas. It is accordingly found n ame me/galó - is interesting, since it a lso means t he soul of t he de-
m ainly in Amazonas, where it seems to be a very old cult ure element ceased. I cannot decide whether the use of the bullroarer a mong the
occurring principally in tribes with ancient cultures. It distribution Bororó describe<l above is connected ";th its original function or not.
reminds me in a way of that of the simple manioc press which con- I believe, however, t hat an in vestigation of the belief that women
sists of a plaited mat. According to MÉTRAUX (carte 5, p. 114), this m ay not see certain musical instruments, compared with a study of
prcss is found only among the Uitoto, Yamamadí and Kayapó. It t he ceremonies at which these instruments are used , if sufficient ma-
has evidently been forced out to the border territories by the better- terial on the subject were availahle, might reveal which instrumont
constructed tripiti, the ordinary manioc press. or instruments were originally connected with this belief and at what
ln most parts of South America the bullroarer is nowadays only ceremonies it found expression. The bullroarer may first have been
a plaything, but it h as probably once had a more serious function , connected with the spirits of t he clead, other instruments may then
like so many other playthings. ln northeastern Peru it is used as a h ave been substituted, a nd it may then havo lost its function and
toy by some tribes, but by others to frighten children with. W AS- boen degraded to a toy.
SÉN,1) who recently spent some months a mong the Chocó Indians at ln Central America the bufüoarer is found nmong the Guatoso
Isla de :Munguidó, states t hat the bullroarer is used tbere to scare (KRICKEBERG [3] p. 217) and Lacandones (TozzER, p. 77). It also
away evil spirits in the forests, and if a n Indian goes t hrough the occurs in scattered places in :North America and seems to be common
forest at night ho always has a roarer with him for t his purpose. It to all Eskimo tribes (K. BmKET-S:mTH, Ll], IT, p. 205). ln sout h-
is painted red and this colour is said to have a protecting power. On western U nited States and t he Basin it is found comparativoly often,
t he other band, it is also used as a toy in this region. but in California it is rare, (• PTER [2] p. 288). This also indicates
Among t he Bororó it is an important instrument. CoLBACCHINI t hat it is not one of t he very oldest oult ure elements in America as a
(p. 31) statos that not until after the male initiation ceremonies - whole, whereas, as I have already said, its distribution leads me to
p articipation in which is, of course, strictly confined to men - may the believe that it belongs to onc of t be oldost cultural strata in Amazo-
mon without danger of punishment see an aroe, a mask ed man who nas. It may possibly have come to this territory ·w ith one of the ear-
represcnts the soul of a dead man, and t hc aige, the bullroarer. Aige liest culture cnrrents from northwcstcrn South Amer ica, a current
is a lso t he na me of a mythical animal resombling a »hippopotamus», w hich did not follow t he Andes or the west coast, but, so to speak,
which at burial ceremonies is represented by a man smeared in clay went directly clown to the lowla nds east of tbe Aneles.
a nd walking on all fours. No information is given regarding the be-
liofs associated with t his animal. The burial ceremonies of the Bororó
The Bullr(xit·er.
are very complicated and lengthy. Among them a social hunting
plays a n important part. Hunters choson by the relatives of the Tribo Author or museum
1
deceased go out into t he woods to kill a dangerous animal, as a kind
Chocó NonDENSKIÕLD ( 1), p. i2 .
of revenge on t he evil spirits. After this t he masked man is the aroe
Omagua. 'l'"ESSMA NN [ l ], P· 6". •fo frighten the chlldren and
maiwo, the new soul, and represents the dead man as living at the as a. p laything •
burial rites. H e is dressed one morrúng in a ceremonial attire of
feather1; and palro Ieaf strips and with a mask, while Iaments or dirges
K ampa • p. 99.
Kaschibo • p . 152.
are sung and the bullroarers buzz. Tben he is led dancing to the Pioché • p. 219.
place where the bullroarers are (op. cit. p. 159). The function of the Pánobo • p. 115.

1) Ve rbal information . ') Information from Mr. Nrn:U.END AJ ú's catalogue of his collection s at the GM.
 212 K. V.1!:1'. O. VJTTERH. SAAIH. HA N OL . SEU . A. HAND 5. X:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, i\lUSlCAL J NSTRUMEN'l'S OF S. A11ERICA 2 13

Tribc
- - - - - ' - - -- - - - - -
Author or muS('11m
- --
ever, it is found in thec
Roroima territory, which
c======----Âr---
Y - -========)
TESSYA::<N ( 1). p. 19 . may be said to hM-e a
La misto p. 22 . very ancient culture for
Bora p . 273.
Chamikuro G uiana. Tbese instru-
p. 404.
I purimi Emn:xREICH (2], p. 71 . ments seem to be nothing
Cuaray11 (lllisiones) NonDENSKIÕLD (4), p. 162. but toys. KRAUSE (p.
Clmcobo 312) writes that it seems
Itonama
to have something to do
Api n11y6 GM: 31.40.265.
C11nella (Ramkok11mokra)
with the mask dances,
GM: 31.41.400.
Chipay11 MtTnAux (2), p. 218, c it. N imuondajú.
but this is by no means
Curuo.yó. [2], p. 2 16, c it. Snethlage. a definitely ascertainecl
i\Ie hino.ku K. V. D. STElNEN [2), p. 327. fact. Like the bull-
Knhuquil roarer, the buzz-disc is
Bororó CoLnAccnnn, p . 31, 159. K . v. o. STE!NEN (2), p . 497. Fig . 94. Buzz.disc
Karayá
founel in places all over from the Canelln.
KRAUSE,p. 312.
Chiriguano NORDENSKIÕLD (4), p. 162.
the world (see BIRKET - G )I: 31.41.409.
Chané MI TH, [1 ], II, p. 205).
Yuracaro
K adim·eo )faXIZER ( l ). p . 329. 'l'he buzz-disc.
::\fotaco Information by )Ir. S. Rvo{;N.
'fri be Aut hor or museum

Fork-sling used as roarer. Chocó Information by H . vVASSf:N.

Omagua 'l'ESS MANN f ll , P· li6.
RYDÉN [2] mcntions a curious implement for magica} use which Panobo p. 11 5.
may b e classified as a sort of sound instrurnent. It was made of two Kichos p. 244.
stick s, onc of which js forked at one end. ln this fork a little stick Boro. p. 27:3.
was squeczed, anda cord wound round the stick was fastened at the Mui nane p. 33:3.
Chnmikuro p. 40·1.
fork. The forked stick was used to sling out the other stick, whlch
Omurana p . 4i>O.
t hen rotatcs in t he air and produces a buzzing sound. It was used Andoa p. 532.
by the medicine man of the Toba to prevent t -00 much raining. Zo.paro p. 5-ll.
inúJar objccts are known from the Arapai (op. cit. SPEISER). ln the Okaina p . :1;;2.
1
latter ca e, however, t ha implement is a real stone sling and not a Chama T ES~ )IA '1'.'I [ 2]. p. 4 l.
Itonama. Xo1rn1;~s K10L1> [ã]. p. 11.; .
magicai instrument.
Cavina
Yuracnre
The buzz-disc. Chirig uano
Thc bnzz-disc is a round disc usually n otched at the edge, and Chané
with two holes in the middle through which a string passes. When J<ad iurno M A'1 1Zl'H [ 1), p. :J:HJ.
T nuli pang Korn ·ÜR( ~REIW, (41, ITI. l ·Hl seq.
t he disc on the looped string is »wound up » anel the string js then
l\fakushl
stret ch ed out, t he disc rotates anel a sounel is produced . Apinayé GM: :J t.40.209.
ln South America tbe buzz-disc has a distribution which is Cancllo. Ol\1: :3 1.4 1.401).
highly reminiscent of that of tbe bullroarer (see table p. 213). How- Kara.v{i. KRAl'S~:. p. =~ 12 .
 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 215

Within the above mentioned group of instruments there are

also other series, but these have never been used by the South
American Indians.

TRUMPETS.
VALVE INSTRUMENTS.
»The trumpets are sounded by blowing air through a relatively
The valve instruments are aerophones whose primary sound is large aperture into which the lips are tightly pressed. The air-
caused by the action of some kind of valvelike mechanism which current in passing throws the edges of the lips into vibration (the
c~us.es a very rapid succession of checks to the free passage of the
' lips being elastic membranes), the lips performing a function analogous
air Jet, a-nd thus sets up vibrations which are communicated to the to that of a valve which in rapid alternation allows and checks the
column of air inside the tube (BALFOUR, p: 7). free passage of an air-current» (BALFOUR, [1), p . 9). The sound-
J n this group of instruments we have two sub-groups, trumpets orifice - either simply a hole in the tube or a specially formed
and tongue-instruments (reed-instruments, Schalmeien.1) mouthpiece (embouchure, see fig. 110) - may be placed either in one
The special characteristic of the trumpets is that the lips forro end or on the side. ln the former case the trumpet is e n d b 1 o w n,
t~e valve. ~n the tongue instruments the valve consists of a spe- in t he latter s i d e b l o w n.
01al mecharusm, the mouthpiece or the reed. This may consist of Ali Indian trumpets are so-called natural trumpets,1 ) i. e. they
a s i n g 1 e flexible tongue, which alternately opens and shuts the do not have any special mechanism for tone variation, but are ca-
blowhole in one end of the tube, and the instrument is then called p able of producing only the so-called natural notes, i. e. the basic
a c 1 ar i n e t. 1Vhen the instrument has a mouthpiece of t w 0 t one and theover tones. The latter are achieved by tightening the
curved tongues or reeds which open and shut a little orifice in the lips. The natural tones are dependent ou the material, size, and forro
top of the reed the instrument is called an o b o e. The s 1i t-v a l v e of the tube. The tone may be changed by putting the hand into
s e r i e s and the o s c i 11 a t i n g r i b b o n r e e d also belong to the orifice. Whether this occurs or not among the Indiana l do not
the ~ongu~-instruments. ln the former the sound is produced by know. The method is, at any rate, used on certain flutes (cf. p. 280).
b~owmg. al.l' thl'Ough a very fine slit (or series of slits) cut longitu- N ORDENSKIOLD has studied the distribution of trumpets in South
dinally lll a reed stem or grass-stalk. In the latter case the sound is America but has madc the mistake of including t he clarinets in this
achieved by blowing upon the edge of a thin blade or ribbon-like group (NoRDENSKIÜLD, (5), p. 119 seq.). Trumpets occur in South
band which is strained between its ends. The pressure of the air America along the entire Andine territory as far south as the Arauca-
causes the ribbon to oscillate alternately one way and the other in nians. ln the most southern parts, among the Fuegians and Pata-
rapid succession, setting up vibrations producing the sound.2) gonians and even among the Chaco Indiana, it is missing. ln Matto
We accordingly have the following series of instruments: Grosso and the wholc region south of the Amazon it seems to be
A. Trurnpets. very common, nor is it missing north of th1s ri ver although it is not
B. Tongue or reed instruments. quite as usual there as south of it. Strangely enough t he trumpet
1. Oscillating ribbon-reed. is rather rare immediately east of the Andes - in Mojos and north-
2. Slit valve. eastern Peru, for instance, it occurs seldom. T:EsSi\IA..."'< [2) mentions
3. Clarinets. the trumpet from only two tribes, the Muinane an d Bora. ln the
4. Oboes. West Indies it was rare among the Tainos (LovÉN, p . 496 ), while
1 the l sland Caribs, on the other ha nd, were familiar with it. ln the
) SACHS and v. H o 1uiaosTEL use this name, whero!U! othors uso tho old English
namo s h a w m s (see KAUDERN, p. 247). most nortbern parta of South America and in Central America and
2) RALFOtm, p. 9.
1) SACHS AND v. H onNDOSTEL, p. 588.
 216 K. V.ET. O. VlTTERH. Sábffi. ~~DL. SER. A . BAND 5. N :O l IZIKOWJTZ, ~1US1CA L T ' S'L'R U1\1EN T S OF S. AMERICA 2 17

Mexico it is common. As for North America, t he trumpet appears The Indians of tbe R oroima territoTy use a kind of endblown
to be known in the southern parts, but is otherwise, wit h the excep- trumpets of Cecropia tubos (fig. 96). They do not have any spocial
tion of p ost-Columbian trumpets, missing in this great territory, in mouthpiece or tbe like, nor is this necessa ry. since the t ubes are so
spite of access to suitable materials, about which N ORDEXSKIOLD n arrow (ab. 1,5 cm.). On t he distal end are fastened slabs of wood ,
" Tites ((5], p . 123): »It is of great theoretical interest that North carved in the shape of an animal. These t rumpets are used at the
Am erican India ns did not use the horns of t he bison for trumpets, Jl'l urw:í dance and are always blown in pairs, being meanwhile swung
t hough they werc very suitable ... » from right to left (table, p. 244). The sarne trumpet also occurs
Trumpets are much less important among South American among the Kobéua, but instead of the former arrangemcnt t hey
musical instruments than, for instance, flutes and rattles. This does
not, however, prevent it from exhibiting a great variety of forms.
In systomatizing the trumpets I shall ÍÍI'st of ali make the distinction
between s im p l e and e o m p l e x trumpet s. 'The fonner consist
of only one single tube, straight or bent, while the latter have a
funnel-shaped bell (pavillion) whicb is n ot part of the tube itself but
is fastened on to i t.
Within t bese groups I shall discuss t he different types, according
to t heir material, etc. A detail such as t be position of the mouth-
orifice will be treated separately.

Simple Trumpets.
Sim p l e s tr ai g h t t rum p e t s.
In the chapter on flutes we shall find tha t thore is no real scar-
city of na tural tube material in South America. For trumpets,
Fig. 95. End-blown trumpots of bamboo from the Canella (Rarnkokamokm) . a =
which demand thicker tubes, we also find plenty of natural mate- t he blow-hole in the sop t urn of b. b CM: 31.4 1.319; lengt h = 42 cm. e = GM:
rials. As a rule the Indians use species of bamboo a nel other reecl- 31.4J.32 l; length = 35.2 cm. d " cross-soct ion of e. See tcxt p . 216.
pla nts, Cecropia, palm trunks - which are generally easily hollowed
ou t - L agenaria stems, etc. have the car vcd distal-slab placed at the side of the trum pet . It is
E nd-blown trumpets in these materials occur among the Karayá, carved in the shape of a fish, an animal which seems to play a certain
Ca nella, Apinayé, Warrau , and Carib. The tube is cut in such a role in the mytbology of t hcse Indians. It is used at a dance which
way t hat a n ode is left in one end anel p ierced for t he p urpose of is performed a t the endo-cannibali tic ceremonies fifteen years after
blowing into t he instrument. The other end is either open altogether t he funeral.
or ha · a similar pierced node. The C'anella trumpet is furnished The Parintintin anel Tucuna (fig. 97) have sideblown trumpets
with a small, tail-like excision for the suspen ion cord. Usually t he of coarse bamboo. A node covers t he proximal end. One of t he
Ganclla carry theso trumpets about with thcm. A trumpet from P arintintin trumpets is decked with feathers, a detail which is also
the Canella (fig. 95 d ) ser ved at t he sarne t ime as a receptacle for found on a number of flutcs.
a number of small objects.. The Karayá decorate the distal end Lagenaria fruits are in general very suitable for trumpcts. Tl~e
of t his kind of instruments precisely as in the Rio Negro terri- shapc of the tube is conic. 1 f tho lowcr half of the swelled part is
tory (Suisí, and according to specimen from Rfo Apaporu, see table). cut away, the remaining half forms a natural bell. The gourd trum-
The K asajá trnmpet lacks the node and the uppor p artis conically cut. pet is mentioned from the Andine plateau already by Gono and
 218 K. V.ET. O. VITTERH. SAl\IH. HANDL. SER. A. DAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, ~1 USICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 219

BERTO~'TO (see ta ble p. 244). It·is therefore quite con ceivable that it excavated in Puna de Jujuy and Quebrado de Toro, although the
a.lso existed in pre-Columbian Peru, although as yet no archaeological mouthpieces of these latter consisted of a bone wound around with
evidence t :> t hat cffect has been found. According to BERTONIO the t hread. Presumably there had also been a wooden ring around the
Aymara name is phusa1ia mati. mouthpiece. The Guayaquí do not blow these cow-horn trumpets like
The Wapishana, Karayá, and 'avajé do not cut off the top of ordinary trumpets. Instead of blowing out the air they suck it in.1)
t hose gourds which are used as trumpets, but make a hole in the It is, to be sure, possible to produce tones in this manner, but the
side into which the musician blows. l\foreover, they let the swelled question is whether they are n ot also acquainted with the accepted
part of the gourd remain whole and only m a ke a hole in the bottom method of playing trumpets.
of it. These trumpets are thus sideblown. Among Wapishana this The Botocudo do not have cows' horns but instead they use the
trumpet is used for the purpose of luring jaguars; the sound resemb- tail of the giant armadillo which has the shape of a horn (fig. 98).
ling thc roar of the jaguar. The instrument is endblown. ln the Copenhagen catalogue it is
defined as a »calling tu be ».
Possibly they do not know how
to blow a trumpet but use it
l•'ig. 96. End-blown trumpet of Cocropia from Roroimo. torritory. instead as a sort of »Heultute »
After v. HonNBOST.t:L. or megaphone. Whether this is
the original function or whether
it is due to some misconcep- F ig. 98. •Calling t ube t (trumpet!) of the
tion of the proper use of the tail of the gia.nt armadillo from the Boto·
instrument it is difficult to say cudo. Kllf: H c. 689.
(cf. p . 241)
Fig. 97. Si<lo-blown t rumpet of bamboo from t he Tukuna. Gl\:1: 30.40.126. 1/6. The Indians h ave a)so made trumpets of amorphous materials,
such as wood, clay, metal, b ark, etc., most of which are horn- or
Trumpets of cows' horns occur in several places in South Ame- cone-shaped.
rica. There are both end- and side-blown forms. Since this material :E'rom Peru the only specimcn I know of this type is a fragment
has existed only in post-Columbian times all these trumpets must of a wooden trumpet found at Chanchamayo. Only the lower part
n ecessarily be of post-Columbian origin. This does not imply, how- rcmains and tbis is shaped like the bell of an _o rdinary trumpet.
ever , th at those tribes which nowadays use trumpets of cows' horns n 'HARCOURT ([l], pl. XIII, p. 145) reproduces three objects from
were not familiar with the trumpet before the arrival of the Euro- Cajamarquilla and Pachacamac which he considera to be wooden
peans. As we see from the table several of these tribes also have trumpets. It would seem more probable tbat they had been used
trumpets of other kinds side by side with the aforementioned. We as smoking-pipes or t be li.ke. They are only 20-31 cm. in lcngth.
have evidently here a case of change of material in post-Columbian Smoking-pipes are, however, very rar e in Peru. Those trumpets
times. On the other hand it is not easy to determine whether those which the Indians at Rio Tiquíé use really look like smoking-pipes
tribes which n ow have only the cow-horn trumpet also knew about the and are perh!tps comparable with tbe Peruvian specimens. KoCR-
trumpet in pre-Columbian times. The cow-horn trumpet has undoub- GRüXBERG affirms that they really are used as trumpets and that
tedly been introduced by whites as well as negroes. Most likely the they are blown in pairs at a particular dance during which tbe
latter have introduced the sideblown cow-horn trumpet. time is marked with gourd rattles ([3], I, fig. 14, p. 261). The
The cow-horn trumpets from Chiriguano and Chané are fur- Peruvian specimen from Chanchamayo had in some way or other
nished with mouthpieces which are carved into the horn. We notice been hollowed out, by moans of fire or some ~d of tool. According
the sarne detail on those instruments which v. RoSEN ((1], p. 49, 88) ') According .to t he calnloguo of SM.
220 K. VET. O. VITI'ERH. SA:MH. HA~DL. SER. A. BAND õ. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, ~fUSICA L INS'rRUMENTS OF S. A-'llIERICA 221
to PREUSS the trumpets of the Huichol the course of tbeir migra-
Indians are hollowed out, although they tions towards tbe west.1 )
are more tban a meter long. It must According to the Dresden
require considerable work to hollow out a catalogue tbe Y urimagua
trumpet of t his length. were living in P eruvian
The lndian. at Rio Amazonas have, territory at the time when
F ig . 101. Clay trumpet from tho Cone los .
however, solved this problem in an excellent C:\I: 20.7.100. the trumpet was bought.
way. They make thei.r large and often very Evidently this t ype of
well-constructed trumpets out of t w o trumpet is a relatively late phenomenon to judge from its con-
1 o n g i tu d i na 1 w o ode n h a 1 v e s. The centrated distribution.
joints are covored with wax or a resin-like
mixture and strengthened with a swathing S t r ai g h t e l a y t r u 111 p e t s I am only acquainted with from
of switches, bark leaves, etc. (fig. 99 and pre-Incan Peru and from the Jivaro (fig. 101). The Jivaro trumpet
100). These trumpets may reach the con- may be an imitation either of a gourd or a cow's horn. Like the
siderable length of up to t wo metera (see other three trumpets known to me, which were found at Nasca, it
table). Tbe mode of constru ction is familiar ]acks a mouthpiece. The Nasca trumpets are conic in shape (fig.
and can be observed on the large Bakairi 102). The two that h ave mouth-pieces have bells in the shape of
flutes (cf. p . 217) and on flutes of the type animal heads. ln Dr. GAFFRO 's private
shown on fig. 209. The sarne metbod is collection in Berlin l saw a trumpet from
used for making blow-tubes among a num- Peru - no definite finding place known
ber of Indiana, such as tbe Chocó, Tukuna, - the bell of which has the shape of a
etc. The distribution of thesc wooden trum- man playing a panpipe. The tube of the
pets is interesting in that they only occur trumpet is slightly bent. The instru-
among the A pinayé, at the mouth of the ment is made of light brown clay and
Amazon river, among the Mundrucu, is unpainted.
Yuruna, Anckutercs, and Yurimagua (see STEERE (p. 378) mentions »trumpets
table), i. e. mainly around th e Amazon river of earthenware » from the Paumari lndi-
(see table p. 246) . They are all sideblown a ns, but as he unfortunately does not
and usually havc a definite bell of either give any description of their appearance
conic or double conic shape. Obviously we or reproduce them, I do not know to
have here a uniform type which has spread which group I shall r efor them. As we
towards the west from the region about sball soon see (p. 230) there are also bent
the mouth of tho Amazon. Most likely it trumpets of clay.
is a Tupí people who have spread them in
ln ancient P eru there were also
Fig. 99. Trumpct of two longitudinal wooden halrns
t r u m p e t s o f m e t a 1. The first
from the Amnzon tE>rritory. Aftor British l\foseuro's Augustine chronicle tells that the Indians
Hondbook. used fourteen trumpets of copper and
Fig. 100. '.rrumpet of two longitudinal wooden holves. silver in connection with the cult of the
Probably from th o mouth of ltivor Amazon. From Fig. 102 . TrumpeL of pottery
Fig. 99. l•'ig. 100. an old collection of t ho 17t h contury at KM. from Nasca. M)f: 1388.
1) MÉTUAUX, 12], p. 29.
 222 K. VET. O. Vll'TERH . S.illll. HANDL. SElt. A. BAND 5. N:O I IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. il1ERICA 223
1
god, Tantazoro. ) ln the Baessler collection (B)1) there is a trum- t hem in at this museum. Unfortunately , in spite 1
pet of copper-plate from Pacasmayo (BAESSL1m , fig. 506). It is of energetic search, I have not been able to
77 cm . long and has a funnel -shaped bell. Most likely is has had locate these · instruments either in that or any
a mouthpiece, as it would otherwise be rather difficu]t to blow. other museum or in thc literature.
The bark trumpet is mentioned from
Bar k l r 1t m p e t s.
Guiana already by G u MILLA and GILIJ. The
To my knowledge t rumpets of spiral-twisted bark occur only in former portrays an instrument (fig. l 03) which
r.=::==õ===:::=::="=:rr===9r==":;P;::~,::':'i."'=".,"",J:;,
the Amazonas terri tory and is two varas (ca. 170 cm ) long and consists of spi-
among tbe Algonkin and ral-twisted bark. Along the sides of the trum-
Beaver Indians in N orth pets two sticks are fastened for the pm·pose of
America. 2 ) These North holding the instrument together . As this is evi-
American specimens are dently very heavy it is supported by a man,
the only trumpets of any upon whose shoulders the sticks which jut out
kind in this continent with at either side rest. GILIJ (II, p. 284 seq.) men-
which I am acquainted. tions these trumpets from t he Maipuri in connec-
They consist of a conic tion with a dance called clieti , which means animal.
coiled piece of bark and They pretend that the snakes come to the village
are used for tbe purpose of bringing drinks with them and that they dance with
luring the moose (moose the men. The women are very much afraid of
call). The Algonkin spe- t hem. At these snake dances t hc funnel-shaped
cimen is 60 cm. long. bark trumpets of marano bark in different sizes
Tbe bark trumpet is, are played together with clarinets (see p. 260).
as is kriown, a very com- W. Roru reports si-
mon instrument in large milar instruments from
parts of Europe 3 ) In Swe- other Guiana tribes, such
den it is made of birch as thc W apis hana, Taruma,
bark. It is not impossible P arikuta, and Waiwai.
that it is a post-Colum- W ALLACE1 ) and Kocn-
F' ig. 103. Bark and clay trumpets from the bian phenomcnon inNorth GR~B"ERG describe trum- Fig. 104. Bark trum-
Orinoco. After GlnIILLA. America and that it has pet of this kind from the pet from the Uaupés
been introduced by North Uaupés territory. The te rritory. After Bri.
European immigrants. Its distribution in South America is in former says that there tish i\Iuscum's Hand-
the main concentrated around the nort hern a nd western parts of book.
were four different sizes
the ~m~zon territory (see table). S.ACHS ((2), p. 84) mentions of these trum pets and that t hey were all
that 1t lB also found among the Araucanians and Tehuelche. He played together fig. 105. It was extremely
refers to the Museum für Võlkerkunde in at Berlin and to informa- dangernus for the women to look at these
tion by v. HORNBOSTEL, who in his turn told me that he had seen instruments for if they did so they would
1) SACU S (2), p. 152.
Fig. 105. Tuyúka Indian
be p oisoned. KocH-GRüNBERG's trumpets
2
(2), p. 215.
play ing a bark . trumpet. from Rio 'I'iquié are of the sarne sort as
) ÜODOAUD
8
) SACH S (2 ], p. 84.
After KocH·GnüNBEno . ) R OTH, ( l J, § 668, cit. W AI.LACE.
1
 224 K. VET. O. VTTTERH. S.ot:H. HANDL. S J<:R. A. BAND ó. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL I ' STltUJ\1ENTS OF S. Al'llERlCA 225
those described by WALLACE. They are played neighbors, the Cavina and Itona ma , use certa in strange trumpets
in pairs together w~th t he large flutes (fig. (fig. 106 and 107) which t hey blow during t he Christian service which
00) a t the Yurnpari festivals l O{ 105. h as eYidently absor bed a num ber of lndia n ceremonies.1 ) The instru-
From the Tikuna ~ThtUE~DAJÚ ([2], p. 193) m enta consist of a series of 11 t rumpet of different lengths arrnnged
mentions trumpets of spiral-twisted bark four in the sarne manner as a pa npipe. They ai-e also played in p airs
meters long. Since these India na live in p reciscly as the panpipes. The dimensiona of an instrument of this
»Einzelsiedlungen » lying r ather far from one
another, these inetruments are used by the
Indians for signalling on such occasions when
they want to collect people for a festival.1)
According to TBSSMANN ([l], P· 273 seq.) the
Bora, who live not far from this territory,
have large trumpets which are blown when a
special house is built. The women are shut
up in the house and t.h e trumpets are blown
outside of it. It may be that these instru-
menta are bark trumpets.
EDER's description (p. 338) of the Mojos
Indiana' alligator dance is interesting in that it
resembles the Yurupari festivais in the Uaupés
territory as described by KocH-GRÜNBERG.
W omen and children were not permitted to
witness this dance or they would be eaten by
alligators. Quite a large orchestra was used
at this occasion. Special Indians carried twelve
trumpets, three ells long, in the shape of
truncated cones, and made of the bark of trees, Fig. 107. Cavina boys play ing series of bark lrumpe ts . Aftor Ü E R SnlANN .
»such as our shepherds use tbem. »2 ) Witb tbe
help of oblong gourds four other Indiana imi- kind from tbe Itonama, which is found at t he Gotbenburg museum,
tatoo the barking of dogs, while two others a re as follows: 1.50, 1.38, 1.21, 1.06, 0.88, 0.76, 0.66, 0.56 0.50, 0.46,
with gourd rattles in the rigbt hand imitated 0.38 m.
the wailing of the claves by blowing into a Since these instrumenta are so largc and clumsy tbat it is diffi-
Fig. 106. Se rio of ele,·en
small hole in an enormous cocoanut (1) which cult to hold them in t he hands when they are blown, they rest on
bark t rumpet s from the
ltonamal CDI: l ó. l.1 270. they held in the left hand. The various t he ground by mea ns of a stick which is fastened along the longest
musicians marched in a certain order , and tubc. The individual trumpets consi t of two layers of bark or
last in tho orchestra carne the t welve trurnpet blowers with their leaves, one twisted longitudinally and the other at right angles with
bark trumpet s. thi , or rather in spirals. ln this way the tubes become quite firm.
At t heir church festivais the Mojos Indians .of today and tbeir They are slightly conic a nd in the upper narrower aperture there
1) Ve rbal 1·op o rt . is a mouthpiece of reed which is slightly carved to suit the shape
2
) En:im was a nat ive of Hungary where the s hophords use b tu k t.rumpets. 1
) C M: 15.1.1 270; ÜER S TMA N1'' , P· 186.
1 .)
226 K. VE'r. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND õ. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, M USlCAL INSTRUi\IENTS OF S. AMERICA 227
of the mouth. Instead of having twelve men to manage the or- begieb t sich oinC'r dorsolbcn. an d cn b etroffenden See und h ohlt
che tra, as in EDER's time, they have in this way rationalized the die Zaubcr t rom pctP.n a us Rpimlig gedrehte r Rinde d os Juta hy -
work and apportioned it to two men. As we see from fig. 106, the baumes (aankuana kamati!i, fig . 47) od cr a uch Flôten a us Ta bo-
instrument is joined together by means of a transverse lath, precisely carohr (koit~i) mit cingefügtem t ift, der ais Pfiegfcnzunge dient.
In ihncn bcíinde n sich clie Knmutsi gcistcr.
as on the panpipe, an instrument which is a lso known in these Die l\Iiinner ha b1>n Rich nnterdessen in einiger Entfcrnung
regions. vom Doríe im \Va lde Y<'n<ammdt und n ehmen die 'l' rompctcn ,
Evidently the Indians have borrowed the idea of joining these fünfzehn bis zwnnzig An <kr Zahl, jo n ach ihrem Ton v on vcr-
different trumpets and blowing them in pairs from the panpipe. But schiedencr L ã nge, im Empfu1ig_ Sio zichon nun m ehrmnls ver-
I wonder whether tbe church organ has not provided the original idea scbied eno W eisen blascnd hin und hcr , wobei jed er <lE'n r cch tcn
Ellbogen a uf dio Sohullc r eles Vordormanncs logt. Dic Trompe-
for tbese instruments. First of all they seem to be a substitute for the
ten sind stets nftoh links unL<'n gorichtct, b oi jodcm Stoss b ougt
organ and secondly it would be very difficult to blow a panpipe with d ie ganze Schaar dio KniP. Zwoi Vorbliiser goben dcn Ton a11 ,
tubes as large as an organ. Therefore, if the Indians wanted to imitate indem sio m it wildC'n Ucstikulationcn , ah und zu kurz ins Horn
an organ, which to them is merely a big panpipe, then trumpets stossend, einigP Maio vor und hinler der Front auf und niodor
were the only Indian instruments which were suitable for this pur- tanzen. l\Ian nNult s io dio &Wildschweine » weil ihre Gebcrdcn
an solchc, wenn sio nc bcn ihrc n Jungen hin und b er laufen, er -
pose. The question whether it is an Indian who has modified
innem. •
the Indian orchestra or not I will leave open. EDER mentions
that he changed one of their big festivals so that it might serve for From EH&E::-."BEICH·s comparative study and from what I have
t he celebration of the birth of Christ, and that be at the sarne time said abo\e, it is evident that among the Tamanacks, the Uaupés
changed their reed flutes (probably in order to suit them to the tribes, Ipuriná, and )fojos the bark trumpet is associated with pa-
European church music). This was very much appreciated by tbe rallel feasts. We might even make a guess tbat the Bora also have
Indiana (EDER, p. 229). The big series of trumpets is also blown something similar, although this unfortunately cannot be determined
in the chureh to European music.1 ) Thus it is obviously a post- on the basis of TESSM~.N's vague information. It is, then, probable
Columbian instrument which was invented in post-Columbian times. that the bark trumpet has spread together with these festivals. If
If it had existed in EDER's time he would almost certainly have we should want to drive the investigation fmther it would therefore
mentioned it, in view of his great interest in Indian musical instru- be necessary to take this complex of feasts and ceremonies as a
ments. starting point. But that is beside the object of the present study.
Bark trumpets also occur among the Mura and I purina. Among As I shall presently show, not only t he bark trumpet but also other
the ln.tter , an Arowak tribe at R.io Purus, it is used at the so-called typcs of trumpets are used at thesc fcasts. We sball have to study
kamut~i festival which, as EHRE1'""1'tEICJI has shown, resembles the t hese latter before we can determine anytbing about the relative age
Yurupari feasts at Rio Uaupés, and those feasts which HnrnoLDT of the former. To judgc from the occurrence of the bark trumpet
mention from the tribes at Rio Atabapo held in the honour of Cachi- a mong the Ipuriná and Mojos I should, however, consider it likely
mama, the g ood spirit who rules over the sea.sons and causes the that it has originated somewhere north of the Amazon river and
fruits to ripen. At all these ceremonies the trumpets play an im- from there has spread southwards t ogether with thc Arowak tribes.
p ortant r ole. The trumpets contain the Ka111i1t8i spirits, which are
da ngcrous for ali uniuitiated, including men. »Doch werden letzere 1' h e s h e l l t r u rn p e t.
vorkommen falls von Zauberern gerettet, wahrend den \Veibern ihr The shell trumpet is an instrument wlúch occurs everywhere in
Anblick sichern Tod bringt. » EHRENRIHCH ((2], p. 70) continues: the world where there is access to large shells. ln America its <li-
Dor Aufenhaltsort der Komuts í, eino Lag unc, ist nur gc - stribution is relatively wide and is concentrated around Mexico and
wissen Schamanen· bekannt. Soll das F ost gofciort werden, so Central America from which it has spreacl along the west coast and
- -')-]Ü--
~LLl:: R· LJ::L'SCHfNOER, P· 132.
the Andes down to the Araucania ns.· It has evidently spread into
228 lC VET. o. VJTrlrnH. s.nrn. HAJ.~DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL lNSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERlCA 229
the interior by trade. Thus, we find it east of tbe Andes a mong t he sharp edges. BoLINDER ([2], p. 78), who brought this trumpet
the Jivaro and Mayoruna, and it bas even existed in Calchaqui. ln back with him, explained that it belonged to an orchestra of
Colombia it is a common object far into the interior of the state. twelve shell trumpets. Unfortunately he gave no information as
RE TREPO (p. 106) mentions tbat from the coast it was carried along to how this orchestra played. He succeeded in obtaining tbe
from tribe to tribe into the inland and that it fetched a high price. specimen in question because it was broken. A genuine mouthpiece
In the eastern parts of South America we find it in Guiana and is illustrated on a specimen which MEAD portrays ([1], pl. III, 1).
on tho ooast near tbe orifice of Rio Orinoco, but from tbere we It is made of copperplate. MONTOYA AND FLOREZ mention shell
must go a far as to Tupinamba before we find it again. Outside of trumpets enchased in gold from the Indians living around Rio Sinú.
the afore-named tribes in the western parts this instrument is missing The trumpets were from Urabaibe. Possibly tbis enchasement refers
in the Amazonas territory as well as in t bo ontire South American to a mouthpiece.
area, Ch aco, Patagonia, Tierra del }?uego, eastorn Brazil, etc. (see The shell trumpet is in the main u sed as a signal instrument
table). ln the West Indies it is found among the I sland Caribs, but in war. In Mexico it was blown when the warrior leagues were about
is strangely enough not mentioned in the literature from Taino ·. Still, to prepare for battle (SELER, [J ], II, p. 613), and JOYCE (p. 72} a.ffirms
if we may judge from HATT's (fl], p. 35) excavations of St. Tho- the sarne from central Costa Rica. He quotes MARTYR (p. 147), who
mas, it seems to have been used by the Jndians there. ln a says that the inbabitants of the Atlantic coast of Veragua used trum-
Taino stratum in Coral Bay he found a trumpet of the Stromlnt8 pets of certain fishes wberewith they encouraged themselves in
gigas, a species of shell which is quite common in the West Indies. the wars. \Ve have similar information from all parts of northern
HATT mentions that tbe inhabitants of this island still use the shell Sonth America (see table). The trumpets are, however, also used
trumpet. SACHS (L2], p. 34} mentions a shell trumpet frcm Nassau, for signalling intimes of peace. The Mayoruna in north-eastern Peru
an island in the Bahama archipelago (Turbinerla). 1 ) InNorthAmerica signal to collect people (TESSMA~"'N, [l], p. 374). The Cuna signal when
its distribution q,ppears to be limited to the southeastern and south- they return home or when a hunter has been separated from t~e
western states. 2 ) otbers in the woods (L. E. JoYCE, p. 99, note). En route to tbe1r
The American shell trumpets are, with two exceptions, all end- great feasts, t he Guaymí Indians blow shell trumpets when they .pass
blown. Information about one of tbese exceptions is given by KocH- anyone who tives near the route to give information about the J~ur­
GnüNBERG who mentions tbat side-blown trumpets are used by the ney's goal (PINART, pp. 33, 117). Thus it is also among these lndia~s
Yekuaná, as well as by the so-called civilized people, on boating a sig nal instrument which gives expresslon to a form of ~ourtesy m
excursions on the Orinoco. It is possible that these Indians have t hat they announce their arrival. Certain flutes are used m the same
received the instrument from the whites (v. liORNBOSTEL, [5], p. 402). way. Among thc Paez Indians there is a special sort of sea-shell
Tbe other side-blown trumpet is mentioned by HuTCHINSSON (p. 134), dance (baile de caracol) at which they play on two shells, one of
a ccording to whom it was excavated at Ca:õ.ete in P eru. which produces a higher tone than the other. The! blow them
I show this trumpet to Dr. Nrr.s ÜDHNER, the expert on molluscs alternately for whole nights (DE FABREGA, p. 324, cit. C~sTILL.O) .
at the Riksmuseum in Stockholm, and he was kind enough to inform ln Peru the shell trumpet is evidently u sed not only for s1gnalling
me that this sea-shell was a Triton tritonis which is never found at the but also at a number of feasts, among othcrs the Capac-raymi (n'HAR-
Sout h American west coast. COURT, (1] p. 25 seq., cit. various authors.)
On the end-blown trumpets the blow-hole is formed by breaking From the above one may suppose tbat the shell trumpet was
off the point (apex) of the shell. Usually tbere is n o mouthpiece, originally a signal instrument, used in wars and ~n other sim~lar
but on a specimen from Ijca the edges of the blow-hole are covered occasions and that it has spread from Central Amenca and Mexico.
with wax, perhaps partly to prevent the lips from being cut by Most likeiy its function at the various ceremonies is asso~iate~ with
1) Soo Lovf:N, p. 496. the magic conception of the sound of trumpets and of musical rnstru-
2) Hnntlbook of Amorican Indians, II, p. 540. ments in general.
230 K. VE'l'. 0. VTTTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSI CAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 231
B e n t ela y t rum p e t s.
The representatives of the Chimú culture are known for their
skill in handling and shaping clay. Their pottery vases are accepted
works of art! It is also within their territory that we find imita-
tions of shell trumpets in clay which in their detailed execution pro-
vide further evidence of the craftsmanship of these artisans. W e
find t hem in Moche, Trujillo, and Chimbote (fig. 107). They all have
mouth pieces to facilitate blowing. ln Mexico the Indians have also

Fig. 109. Clay trumpet in form of a sea-shell. Mochica.. 20 cm. National

Museum, Uma, nr. 1/ 2624.

'.11 .....

Fig. 108. Clay trumpet with form of a sea.-shell. SM: L. 1039/704. Chimbote.

known how to imitate shell trumpets. A specimen from Colima,

portrayed by n ' HARCOURT ([l], pl. XIII, 2), shows one such imitation.
From the same territory we have also bent clay trumpets. All
are furnished with mouthpieces, and they usually have bells in
the shape of animal heads. Fig. 109, which shows a trumpet from Fig. ll O. Ilent cla.y~ trumpet from Chicama. GM: 20.9.27. 1
/ ,.

Chicama now in the Gothenburg museum, is a veritable work of

art! The mouthpieces are often too large for these small trumpets.
Animal heads similar to the afore-mentioned are also found on the
straight clay trumpets. The bell usually represents a jaguar head
or the like, but occasionally also has the shape of a statuette re-
presenting a human being.1 )
The bent clay trumpets show a certain rescmblance to Eurorean
metal trumpets, and one might well question from whence they have
come. o ' HARCOURT {[l], p. 26) gives a very acceptable answer to
this question in suggesting that the volutions of the shell trumpets
m clay imitation inspired the lndians to bend the tubes. It seems
l
Fig. 1 11. . B e n t cay •rtimpot.
• "~·loc hica. National Museum, Lima
') See M. S CRMIOT, (2], p. 543. 11r. l / 2736. 35 c m.
232 K. vEr. o. vrrr~R:r. S.AMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5 . N:o i I IZIKOWITZ, :MUSICAL INSTRUME'NTS OF S . A:MERlCA 233
reasonable that such a n idca m igh t occur t o them
when they imitated the she!Js in clay. r should
think it likely t hat both thcse types of bent clay
trumpets are bound up wit h local craftsmanship in
the art of treating clay.
Lu rs ARAXGO (p. 138) mentions a find consisting
of a bent trumpet (una corneta de una sola vuelta)
from Huasanó in Cau ca (Colombia). U nfortunately
he does not give any dctailed description of this
interesting find.

Complex Trumpets.
To this group I have counted those instruments
which at one end of the tu be have a resonator or
beJl consisting of a gourd, a piece of coarse bamboo,
or some other suitable materia l. Thus the trumpet
consists of two pieces - t he tube a nd the bell.
The tube is often madc of some species of bamboo
or reed-plant or something similar. On the B aniwa
t rumpets (fig. 1l 2) it is m ade of a hollowed out trunk
of the Paxiúba pahn. Tho Hua nyam use so m acabre
Fig. 113.
a material as human bones (fig. 113).1) ln Calina-
gasta DEBE~EDETTI found a complcx trumpet, the
tube of which was also a bone, although he does not
mention whether it was from an animal or from
a human being. Even the huma n cranium h as been
used in a trumpet. Grnuou ([2], p. 198) describes
an end-blown t rumpets of this sort from the Yuruna.
lt is nsed iJ1 battle and consist of at bamboo t ube
with a human cranium as a bell. The tnbe is
wound around with cords of clwmhira, and decorated
wit h featbers and Thevetia fruits which r attle when
t hey beat agamst the cranium. The tube is fastened
Fig. 114. Fig. 115 a-h.
to the bell with wax and t he oye-sockets and the
nasal cavity are filled with t his subst ance. For
1
) Flutes of this material are on lhe w ho lo not uncommon
:Fig. 113. Trumpot of human bono from Huan y am. The bell is o f wax. OM:
in Sou t h America. 15.1.592.
Fig . l l 4. Trumpot with bell of cow-h o rn from tho Canella. CM: 31.4100.
Fig. 1 12. Suribí-trumpet wi~h be ll of waxed and paintccl
Fig. ll 5. Complex trumpets. a = Iluunyam, C M: 15.1.593. 61,5 cm. b = G-ua -
basketry. Baníwa. GM: 28. l.l.'i9. L cngth 130 cm.
rayu, UM: l 5.l.846. 84 cm.
234 K. VET. O. Vl'l'TERH . SA:MH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRtiMENTS OF S. AMERICA 235

eyes it has a pair of Thevetia fruits. The adornment of the tube the barnboo bell which is to be fastened to the tube, two juts
as well as t he method of filling the openings of the cranium are left , which are pressed against and lashed to tbe tube in such
remind one of the head trophies from Mundrucú 1). a way that the bell is securely fastened. Fig. 116 shows this con-
The most usual bell types are, however, the large gourds (fig. struction, which occurs among the Juri, Mundrucú, and Bororó.
113, see table). These are often very large and oblong and may ln post -Columbian times gourds have become excbanged for
have a length ofup to 100 cm. Naturally these gourds varyinshape. cow-horns. ln particular the Ges and Tupi tribes south of the mouth
As a rule they are not cut so as to make a large and wide distal of the Amazon make use of this material. Cow-horns have the sarne
opening but only a small hole is made. Usually the bell is fastened shape as the long nairow Lagenaria fruits which these people otherwise
with wax and swathings. On a number of trumpets, for instance use as bells.
from Uairivait and Yuruna at Rio Tapajoz, a sort of b ast skirt has The complex trumpet seems to be a culture element the distri-
been put on the bell, precisely as on the Palikur clarinets (see p. 259). bution of which is in tbe main centered around Brazil. Thus it is
Quite possibly gourds provided the original material for the bells found among' the northern Ges tribes and among severa! Tupi tribes.
but were later exchanged for some other material. The Baniwa It is very probable that the Tupi-Guaraní brought it with them
Indians, for instance, have basketry bells on their large Suribi -0n their migrations, and t hat, therefore, it had a somewhat more
trumpets (fig. 111). The exterior of the basketry is coated with wax
or some resin-like mixture (lackered), upon which ornaments in red
and yellow are painted.
e. .....: ,,e,; jl )

A trumpet belonging to an old collection in the museum in Fig. 11 6. Side -blown trumpet from the l\lundrucú. British Museum,
Vienna, reported to be from the Coroados (Kaingygn~), has a unique Coll. Sl'lx: & l\lARTrnus no. 8731. Length 0.95 cm.
bell consisting of a spiral-twisted skin, most likely that of an ar-
madillo. I t is fastened upon the tube either with wax or resin. eoncentrated distribution south of the Amazon some time be-
The above-mentioned Huaynam trumpet (fig. 112) of human bones fore tbese took place. N orth of the Amazon it does not occur
has a bell of wax at the edge of which red seeds are stuck. These frequently; there are only a few tribes in the west (see table) which
Indians also use another trumpet (fig. 115), the tube of which is only have this instrument. To these trumpets should also be counted
1 cm. in outer diameter. As it is necessarily very difficult to blow the clarinets of the Palikur Indians and a number of other tribes
into so narrow an opening they have added a mouthpiece of fruit- in Guiana (see p. 257}, which, aside from the mouthpiece, bave the
shell. The bell is a bamboo tube 61.5 cm . long and 3.2 cm. thick and sarne construction as the trumpets. The farthermost points of distri-
the tube is slid into i t through a hole in the septum which has been bution to the south are among tbe Tupinamba and, strangely cnough,
left in its place, and is thereupon fastened with wax. The trumpet at Calinagasta in San Juan (Argcntine), i. e. in the Diaguita terri-
is quite open in the distal end. It is not uncommon to use coarse tory. ln my opinion both these instances show which people have
bamboo for bells. We find it among severa! other t ribes, such as contributed to the distribution of the complex trumpet. The first
t he Caingang (Kaingygn}, Boror ó, Mundrucú, and J uri. The trumpets instance points towards t he Tupi-Guaraní, as I have already men-
among these tribcs are however quite large in comparison with the t ioned, while the other probably indicates the Arowak migrations.
above-mentioned Huanyam trumpet (see figures in table), which As will be seen from the table the complex trumpet is found among
means that a considerably more stable method of fastening t be heavy the Arowak tribes living around the tributaries of Rio Madeira (:Mo-
bamboo bell to t he t ube is required. Tbe Indians h ave therefore jos, Paressi) and among tbe Tereno. We know now tbat the Diaguita
made use of a special construction. Above the septum, on that part of territory was influenced by the Arowak cultures1 ) and it is therefore
1 ) In this connoction I may mention that the Cuna Ind.ians have a sacred trum-
probable that t he Calinagasta trumpet is a representative of tbis
pet consisting of a. jaguar's head. Information givon by t he Cuna [ndian, RUDEN influence. The complex trumpet most likely did not exist in pre-
PEREZ KA ' TUT, E. 1) MÉ'.l'RA ux [i).
23(3 1{. VET. O. VlTTF.RH. SA)ffi. HA..i.~DL . S Jfü. A. 'BAND ó . N:O l IZIKOWITZ, ~IUS íCAL J NS'l'ltu1\1ENT S OE' S. AJfERICA 237

Colum biao P eru since ali evidence to the contrary is missing. ln played like a trumpet. Jt is quite clcar that the clay vessel serves
modem times, on t he other hand, in the valleys of the Bolivian and the sarne purpose as a bcll, i . e. of inten ifying the tone.
Peruvian Andes, there is found a very strange trumpet which has The sarne instrument occurs among the )fisquito Indians in ~i­
been described by d 'HARCOURT ([1] p. 2 , pl. XIV, 1). I t consists of caragua, according to verbal report by :i\Ir. O. BRAl:'TIGAM who has
thTee or foul' tubes, about 80 cm. long, which are combined with 1 Jived among these Indians for the greater part of his life. These
skinsca rves or joints. The trumpet is sideblown and the bell con- lndians play on a short bamboo tube as though it were a trumpet
sists of a gourd, a horn, or the skin of a <hied ox-tail. The instru- and th~ tub~ is hel~ in an iron pot. They blow it to Jure the jaguar.
ment portrayed by n 'H .IBCOURT is from Bolivia and consists of only lt is qmte obv10us that the Indiana have observed the resonator
two tubes, each about 2 m. long. Thc tubes are split longitudin- phenomenon and that they have made use of clay vessels for this
ally in order to remove the nodes, and thcy are then tied together purpose. Nor is it impossible that t his discovery has given the im-
with leather bands. Tubes of this sort exist which are up to 7 m. long pulse to the complex trumpct, in that t he heavy clay vessel has bcen
and d 'HAlWOURT points out their resemblance to the colossal Euro- exchanged for a gourd or some similar material easier to tra.nsport.
pean alp-horns. When these are being played they are stretched ln fastening the gourd t o the tube it became necessary to make a
out, but when not in use they are bent together. Of course those distalhole for the air to escape through.
instruments which bave stiff joints cannot be stretched out and GILIJ mentions a similar resonator jar, but in tbis instance it
must be played in tbeir bent condition. There are also such instru- eYidently is a clarinet (cf. p . 260).
ments which merely consist of one tube; they are then about 3 m.
Jong, sideblown, and with bells of horn. Their name is erque in
, i cl e - b lo w n t r it ni p e t s.
Salta, trutruca in Chile, and clarin in Cajamarca.1 ) d'liAncolJRT The age and origin of the sidc-blown trumpet has been the
is of the opinion that these are not pre-Columbian, and calls attention s ubject of some discussion . On his map of the distribution of thc
to the fact that they are not mentioned by the old authors, but trumpet KoRDE:'.'l'SKIOLD ([õl p . 121) showed that the distribution
first by FREZIER in t he beginning of the 18th century. of the side-blown instruments was very limited in comparison with
Outsidc of South America the complex trnmpet also occurs in the end-blown ones. ln his opinion the former was very much yo unger
Yucatan, according to LANDA. Strangely enough this trumpet is and possibly first carne into being t hrough influence from thc negro
never portrayod in the codices, nor does it appear to h ave been used trumpets. Among other motives for t his hypothesis he pointed out
among other Mcxican peoples. that side-blown trumpets h ad nevcr bcen found archaeologically and
that therefore n o proof of their pre-Columbian origin existed. A
T r ]) e t s w i t h e la y v esse l s as r e sona t o r s.
it m fact whicb, according to NoRDJrnSKIOLD, might be considered as
PATER GuMILLA (I, p. 182), who bas provided us with so many c vidence against the African origin of the side-blown t rumpet is its
excellent dcscriptions and reproduct.ions of musical instruments from occurren ce in the territory around the sources of the Xingú. H e
the Orinoco territory, portrays a couple of interesting wind instrumenta d efends his hypothesis by empha izing the wide-stretched trade con-
which are probably trumpets (fig. 103). They are used in connection n ections which existed among the Indian tribes in South America and
with t he Saliva burial ceremonies. These instrumenta consist of one quotes K. v. d. STEn'EN on finds of certain European objects in the
or two long tubes stuck in clay vessels. To tbe instrument with a bovementioned territory. Mf:TRAlJX ([2], p. 220) opposes this theory.
two tubes there belongs a specially constructed clay vessel. KoCH- ln his opinion it holds for a number of instances but is incorrect for
GRÜNDERG ([3] , J, p. 135) found these strange instruments again in a number of others, for example the upper Xingú territory and
the environs of the upper Rio Negro. They consisted of a single Parintintin. On the othcr hand, he is of the opinion that the
tube stuck into anel tied to an empty clay ves§!el and were used Pauserna have changed the position of their blowholes in recent
at mask dances to imitate the jaguar demon. The instrument is times. Unfortunately MÉTRAUX does not state the reasons for any
1
) 1J'HA1ic·o1:m·, [l ], p. 29. of his beliefs.
1
238 K. VET. O. VITT.ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER . A. DAND 5. N:O 1 ' IZIKOWITZ, 31USfCAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 239
If we take a look at the tables we find that the distribu- is possible that they in la.ter time took over the side-blown trumpet.
tion of the side-blo\\'ll trumpet is in the main conccntrated to a Finally, as regards the simple side-blown trumpets it is impossible to
territory lying around and south of the Amazon. ln the Rio Negro determine whether the. e are simplified complex instrumenta amona
o
territory there are no side-blown trumpets. Those which NoRDEX- the Tupi or 'l\·hether they are original. As their construction i cer-
SKIÕf,D on hi map indicates as trumpets are really flutes. 1'he ta.inly very simple they have always cxisted side by side with the
side-blown trumpcts from Guiana are the genuine negro trumpets more complex types. It may be that the Indians had both simple
from the bu h negroes, the cow-horn trumpets from Roroima, and. and complex trumpets at the time they introduced the sidc-blown
finalJy, thc shell trumpets already mentioned from the civilized type, since both types are found cven beyond the territory of distri-
Yekuana. Without doubt we are here confronted with negro influ- bution of the side-blown trumpots.
ence. The cult trumpets among the Indians in these r egions are a.U :From what I have just shown it is evident that the side-blown
end-blown. Tho side-blown trumpets are used only for signalling. trumpet is a relativoly recent phenomenon which in all probability
Wc may furthermore observe another detail. On negro trumpets originatecl in the territory around thc lower Amazon and from there
t ho blow-hole is usually placed slightly further up the tube from spread with the Tupi people. To judgc from MÉ'rRAux' ([2] p. 312)
the proximal end than on the Indian trumpets south of Amazonas. investigations, it would seem a though these tribes were already in
On the cow-horn trumpets the blow-bole is placed practically on the pre-Columbian times scattered 0\7 er t he territory where the side-blown
middle of the tube. trumpet occurs if so this instrument should be pre-Columbian in the
The Motilon Indians also have the side-blown cow-horn trumpet region around and south of Rio Amazonas. There is, on the other
which is certainly also due to influence from th~ ncgrn population, hand, a certain likelihood that to the north of the Amazon it is a
and I suppose the same is true of a trumpet from thc island of Aruba. product of post-Columbian inf/uence (i. e. from the negro trumpet)
Of the remaining side-blown trumpets, by far the la.rgest part are while I am inclined to think that to the south of this territorv thc
eit her complcx or consist of two longitudinal wooden halves (fig. 99). lndians probably got the idea of placing the blow-hole on the si~le of
Since this latter type has a very plainly carved bell it is likely that the trumpet from the side-blown flutes. These la.tter are found just
it has developed from the complex trumpet, as I have alrea.dy sug- in these regions and are thcre, as I shall show (cf. p. 276), without
gested (p. 220), and should consequently be younger than this. Another doubt pre-Columbian. Whcthor la.ter the northern Ges tribos or the
intcresting fact is to my mind that all these wooden trumpets are Tupi-Guaraní invented tho sidc-blown trumpets is difficult to say.
side-blown and therefore should have originated in a period and They both have side-blown flutcs. Even the Parintintin, a tribe livi11g
region whcre complex side-blown trumpets afready existed. We far away from the accepted conter of distribution, have mostly side-
should also observe that the side-blown trumpet mainJy occur among blown flutes and only sidc-blown trumpets. Furthermore, there are
the Tupi pcople and the northern Ges tribes. It is therefore very in eastern Amazonas certain rather heavy flute types (cf. p. 278)
likely that the side-blown trumpets have spread with tbe Tupi people wh.ich, like the trumpets, are used for signalling. With regard to such
- probably from lower Rio .Amazonas. Of ali the Tupi tribes using simple bamboo trumpet as for instance those used among the Parin-
the trumpet there are really only a few who have the end-blovon tintin, the difference between thcrn anel the side-blown flute is of so
trumpet: the hiriguano, Yuruna, and Tupinambá. The first-named little consequence that the sarne instrument may be used both as
has one gourd trumpet aud one made of a cow-horn. N°ORDENSKIOLD, a flute and as a trumpet.
([5], p. 124) a sumos that these Indians received it from »the western
area. of civilizat,ion », which is indect quite probable. The Yuruna P o l y globular t rum p e t s.
have the end-blown as well as the sideblown type, and the Tupin- PATER GmIILLA portrays n, pair of peculiar clay trumpets
ambá evidently only the end-blown. Probably thc Tupinambá emi- (fig. 103), which are straight and cnd-blown and have a number of
grated from the common Tupi territory after the side-blown trumpet globular swellings. They m·e blown in pairs. One of these instru-
had come into use there, and as far as the Yuruna are concerned it ments have twq globos, thc other three. Both have mouthpiece:::;
240 K. VE'l'. O. VJ'l'TERH. SAJ\ffi. HA~ DL . SElt . A. BANO 5. N:O l
IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. Ai"'lERICA 24 l
a nd bells. Gl:lmLLA found them among the Saliva Indians where
thev wcre used a t funeral ceremonies. . dance together "rith a gourd rattle. Apparently the Bororó gourd
· \\' . HOTH ([I ], § 556) found that instrumcnt of this . type are trumpet is a predecessor of the poJyglobular clay trumpets in
, 1 in our t iines in Guiana among the Caribs and Akawa1, and re- Guiana and tbe Orinoco territory. But how they have come upon
u secd ces a pair of them from the )foruca river Caribs (op. cit. pl. 159) the idea of making these peculiar instruments 1 cannot say, and it
p ro u . b . th . is equally difficult to explain their curious distribution. Possibly
who ».·peak of them as kodi, the prescnt gcnerat10n remem enng e_ir
elders using t hem for signalling purposes. » These are also ~lown m similar trumpets have existed in the territory between Bororó and
p au· .s, and onc in ·trument
· is two-bellied , the ot her three-bellied. He Guiana which either have not been observed or are extinct.
also portrays three specimens from the same Another possibility would be that the Bororó lived further north
tribe one of which has two bellies and is and were in contact with the Carib tribes, which, to judge from
exac~ly like one of Ü UMlLLA'S trumpets, with the distribution of this instrument to the north, are the people
bell and mouthpiece. RoTH also makes a which mostly make use of it (see table p. 250) . MÉTRAUX ([2], p. 312)
compilation of the occurrence of these instru- advances the hypothesis that the Caribs once lived south of lower
ments in the literature o n Guiana. :My table, Amazonas an"d were in contact with the Tupi-Guaraní tribes. But the
which to some extent is an extract from problem whether the Bororó have come from the north and as a
RoTH, shows thefr distribution. HmrnoLDT, whole their position in relation to other tribes and cultures has not
for instance, mentions them from Rio A tabapo yet been investigated. As a first step in this direction an analysis
and Cassiquiare. At Atabapo they are used at based on COLBACCIDNI'S study of the eastern Bororó would be well
a festival to the honour of the gocd spirit, worth while.
Cachimama, who reigns over the seasons and
causes the fruits to ripen. They are kept by »Roarers ».
certain old lndians who are initiated into the SACHS ([2], p . 32) and NORLIND (p. 109) make a distinction
mysteries. During the feast the trumpets are between true trumpets, blown by lip vibration, and the so-called
J~ ig. 117. Polyglobular
blown under the palm trecs to make them roarer (speaking trumpet, megaphone; Heultute, S.; Sprechtrompete,
t rumpet from fü. Oni- bear much fruit. W omcn are not allowed to N.), which are only used for spcaking or calls. According to these
ana. AftervV1LsoN. ~ - be present at thesc ceremonies. KocH-GRüN- authors the latter is a precursor of the former. SACHS (loc. cit.) ex-
BERG ([3], I , p. 189) and RoTH (Zoe. cit.) , who plains:
guotcs H u MBOLDT, compare these feasts and ~he function of th_e tlm Anfang s teht v iclmehr d er Braucb, zur bewussten Ver-
trumpets with the Yurupari festivals at the R10 Negro. At Cass1- schleicrung und Verschrecklichung der m enscbliscben Stimme
quiarc t he e instruments are not sacred but are used as signal nacb Kinderar t in geeignctc R õhren hinein zu h eulen odcr l\uch
nur zu sprechcn, also nich t m it gcstrafften Lippen zu blasen. •
in truments t o collect the people when a hostile attack is feared
(R OTH. Zoe. cit., cit. H c-:llBOLDT). , This view is probably quite true, and 1 have severa! times
't rangely cnough we find a similar trumpet among the ~ororo. m ade the sarne observation in connection with other instruments.
Accordina to CoLBAccm:"I (p. 96) it is called pan na and cons1sts of H owever, it is not easy to decide in what cases we really are
t hrcc or f our gourds joined together with black wax and perforated d ealing 'vith trumpets or with roarers. Only seldom are wc in-
in the p oles s o that the instrument is open straight th_rough. An formed how an instrument is blown, and even in cases when an
instrument of this sort consisting of four gourds deckecl w1th featbers author uses the word »Heultute » it is not always certain that the
is found in the Museum für Võlkerkunde (BM:VA.5332) in Berlin. instrument is a roarer or a t rumpet. This a matter which remains
RATTRAY HAY (p. 48) describes the sarne trumpct from this tri~e, to be cleared up through the researches of field workers. I have
consisting of two gourds. It is used by the leader at a spec1al therefore included all these instrumenta under the trumpets, although
some of them may perhaps be roarers. Most of the instruments 1
16
 li
'
242 K. VET. O. VTTTERH. SAl\IB. HANDL. SER. A . BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, l\llJSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S . AMERICA 243
have seen in museums must in my opinion in all probability be The complex trumpet is evidently a relative]y late culture element
real trumpets, for the simple. reason that thcy cannot be used as wbich bas spread from nortbern Amazonas through the migrations
roarers. The roarer from the Botodkudos mentioned above and that ., of the Arowaks and later of the Tupi tribes. According to SACHS
shown on fig. 98 (p. 219) are probably exceptions. ln itself the roarer (loc. cit.) it originated through a combination of a trumpet-tube and
is not a musical instrument at ali, but simply a resonator wbich a roarer, i. e. a resonator. This theory is supported by the trum-
inten ifies and changes the timbre of the voice. It is evident that pets with a vessel as a rcsonator, wbich represent an idea older than
an invention of tbis kind is easily made. However, we know en- that of the complex trumpet. Kocn-GRüNBERG's instrument is
tireJy too little as yet of the distribution of tbe roarer in South Ame- probably a roarer. In the period immediately following the be-
rica, and of its connection with the trumpets. ginning of the migrations of the Tupi it has evidently, like the
simple trumpet, been changcd from end-blown to side-blown. lt
Summary. has then been widely spread by Tupi migrations over the southern
From my study of t he instruments which l regard as trum - part of the Amazon territory from a center at the mouth of the
pets, and the distribution of the various types, it · appears that Amazon. The lates.t phaso of its evolution may be the wooden
the shell trumpet, in view of its extended distribution, is one of the trumpet made of two longitudinal halves, which is also side-blown
oldest. lt has evidently spread from Central America to northern and has followed a Tupi migration to the west. To explain the
South America, and from there with the Arowaks first out to the origin of the polyglobular trumpet is a difficult task. It may have
Antilles, a fact wbich in turn proves its great age. From the west been made originally of one or two connected gourds wbich disguised
coast it has spread as far down as to the Araucanians. Its distribu- the voice or imitated that of a demon. It is exclusively a religious
tion dependa in large mea"'ure on natural conditions, but it is evi- instrument.
dent that it has been widely spread through trade. Its original ln several places the original trumpets have been copied in
function was that of a signal instrument, and as such it has been amorphous materials such as wood, clay, metal, etc. The skilful
used b oth in peace and war. This function still remains also in modellers of the Chimú tcrritory have accordingly produccd the
other types of trumpets.
The val'ious simple trumpets of bamboo stems or gourds are
1( bent trumpet, which has in addition becn furnished with a mouth-
piece, a detail found also on some of the polyglobular trumpets and,
certainly quite as old as the shell trumpet if not older. Unfortu- in another material, on t he Huanyam trumpet (fig. 114). These are
nately their distribution in Central America is too little known to probably independent inventions. The above-mentioned type of
permit any definite conclusions regarding their origin. They may ' trumpet with two longitudinal halves is also a transformation of
possibly h avc been replaced by the shell trumpet, wbich is widely the combined trumpet in an amorphous material.
used in these parts. Its material lies close to hancl in tbis narrow 1
ln post-Colurnbian times a new material, the cow horn, has
part of the New World. The bark trumpet is certainly a compara- been introduced and has partly replaced the Lagenaria bells.
tivcly rccent type, probably brought by tbe Arowaks from nortbern The Indiana ha,·e ne\'er advanced beyond the stage of the na-
Amazonas to the Mojos territory. To some extent it seems to be i\ tural trumpet. Variations of tone through stops, slides or pistons
connected with religious ceremonies related to economic life, and in are unknown. Instead. two different trurnpets "\\ith different pitches
this function it partly corresponds to thc complex trumpet (Parresí). have been used.1 ) The trumpet has therefore never become a
Like the bark trumpet, the latter may also have been brought to musical instrument in the European ense, like the flutes, but hai>
southwestern Amazonas by the Arowaks. had the function of a signal or a religious instrument, used on ac-
It is difficult to determine the conter or centers of distribution count of its characteristic sound. An exception is the remarkable
of the complex trumpet, also on account of our slight knowledge set of trumpets, similar to a panpipe, which is used in tbe Mojos
of the ethnography of Central America. A direct connection be- territory, and is . certainly a post-Columbian invention.
twcen Yucatan and the Amazon territory may possibly be found. 1
) Pair blowing. S<'e summnry of lhe pan-pipos.
 'l
244: K. VET. o . vrrrERH. SAllm. HANDL. SER. A. BA.i.~D i). N:O 1 lZIKOWITZ, :IIUSICAL D<STRIDIENTS OF S. Al."\-IERICA 245
Gourd Trumpets Tribe 1 Side-or 1 :Materia l
endblown Sizo Author (collec tion) and functiou
Side-or Aut hor (collec tion) and function
•rribe end-blown 1
Canella e. bamboo 35,2- CM: (coll. NIMUENDAJÚ); DM: 863, 864.
H onduras e. BA."'CROFT, 1, p. 738. 42 cm.
Karayá e. KRAUSE, p. 316, pi. 58, fig. 9.
Kagabá e. BoLINDER, (2), p . 268, cit. DE B RETTES.
Yurúna o. BM: VB. 1725.
PREUSS, (4), P· 113.
s. Bl\C: VB. 1726-7 (coll. v. d. STEcm:N).
U itot o e. BM: VB.
l\fisquito e. bamboo Mn. o.BRAUTIOA.M (cf. text).
Ay mara e. BERTO.NIO, p . 95: tBocina de calabaça : phusaiia
Kamayura. s. bamboo B:M: VB.
mati. t
Tukuna s. GM: 30.40.126
P eru e. Cono, IV, 1. XIV, chapt. XVII, p. 228.
Parintintin s. 45,4- GM: 23.3.253-6.
n 'HARCOURT, [1) p. 25
Huanyam o. GM: 15.1.596 36,5 cm. 60,7 cm.
1

Payag wá o. BM: VC. 992.

Chiriguano e. RM: E. 5 11. Tribe Side-or
Wapisha na. s. WM: 1993. The swelled part ha.s been left in endblown Author (Collection ) and function
,~~~~~'-----=--=--.:..:___._!~~~~~~
place. To iroitate tdie Unzen t . Cow-horn T rwnpets
K a r ayá s. KRAUSE, p. 316.
MotiJon s. B OLINDE R, (2), p. 235.
Savajé s. KRAUSE, p. 365, fig. 208.
Jibaro RIVET, [!), p. 53 .
Boro ró Coox, p. 52.
Desana K ocH-Gni.iNnEno, [3), I, p. 345.
Pure kramekran PoHL, II, pp. 202, 207.
Roroima lndiaus s. GM: 12.1.50.
Kayapó PoBL, 1, p . 401 .
Kroa.pinkateye 8. D:\I: 431 .( coll. NWUENDAJÚ).
Pikóbye s. DM: 56l (coll. NntUENDAJÚ).
Trumpets o/ bamboo and similar materials. Ka.yapó s. BM: VB. 8386.
Tribe Sido-or 1 )foterial 1 Size 1 Author (collection ) and function Karayá. KRAu SE, p. 316: •· .. wie die bra.silianischen Schif-
1e ndblown ferknechte boi s ich fübren. t
'Varrau o. bamboo R oTH, ( 1), § 559: •· .. s ignal truropet which . Caingang
Indiana of Sta.
s.
s.
'fESCHAUER, p. 000.
Caribs of the is but the cut-off sturop of a compara.- BLEYER, p. 83.
Moruca and tively large bamboo, open at one extre- Ca.tharine
uppe r Pomc- mity, the septum at tho other being pier- Gua.té e. MAX SClil1.IDT, p. 309, fig. 149.
r oon Rivor ced for a m outh-piece. lt is practica.lly a Guayakí e. MM: N S, 19202 •· . . the tones are formed by
woode n trumpe t or tube c ut very short. s uoking in t he air. t
The Warrau ca.IL it horésemoi and the Chané o. NORDENSKJÕLD, (4), p. 119.
Ca rib m atábo. • 1 Chiriguano e. RM: E. 97. Wit h a m out h piece carved in t he horn.
R oroima lnd. e. RoTH, ( 1), § 559: tUsed at the Parishara Casabindo e. v. R oSEN, p. IM, figs. 146-7. Wit h m outhpiece.
' Vapishana and other da nces, thoy are waved from l
T ail o/ armaclillo
llfa k11.ahi s ido to side, and front to back, simultane-I Botokudo o. KM: H c. 689 •calling tubc. &
P atamona ously as they are blown, and the resulting
1 $)1: IC. 36037.
Y ckua ná sound is very charac teristical.
Taulipang Cecropia 93- lOScm. V. H ORNBOSTEL, [5). p. 402. B one trumpets
13r. Guiana o. hollow R OTH, (1), § 559: •An interesting examplo Morohuasi e. v. R osEN, p . 20.3 seq, figs., 220--1. 4 trumpe t s
Jeaf s talk of o f a natural forro applied to trumpets ... of tibia of guanaco, one of which has a wood en
Papaw tree lndian childre n blow(ing ) truropet-wise. t m outh piece.
K obóua o. Cecropia r
K ocH-GRfurnERO, l], 1, p. 88. U sed at Nicaragua OVIEDO, IV, p. 52. Huroan bones.
mask dance~ - doath coromonies - b lown Coroado E scRWEOE, p. 127: •Von don Knochen des Armes,
Ítl pai1·s. die sio a ushõh lon, machen Einige ihre Kriegs·
S uis l o. Cecropía 33 cm. Koc H-GniiNrnmo, [ J], J, p. 88: $ • • • s ie h õm cr; auch dor $chã.dei des Feindes dient ihnen
die nte ais Mus ikins lrume nt bei F estlich - zuweilen zum niihmlichen Zwecke. • (Cf. table
keite n und ais Signaltrumpet auf de r for complex trumpe ls.)
H eise. t
246 K. VET. o. VITTERH. s,um. HANDL. S.ER. A. BANO 5. N:O 1 lZIKOWlTZ, M USICAL lNSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 247
.Jfetal Trumpets
Side.or Author (collcction) and fundion
T r ibe endblown
Placa Side-or
endblown Metal Author (Collection ) and funct.ion
1 1 1
Woo:len Trumpets .
Huic hol PltEuss, [6), p. 156: •Eigonthümliche gel- Pacasmayo e. copperplate BM: VA. 2 1759, 21762 (coll. BAESS·
lendo Laute, mit dcnon sie einander zu- L ER).
rufen, oder der trompctenartige Blaseton BAESSI.ER, fig. 506, pi. 33.
auf einem meterlangen ausgehõhlten Holze P e ru copper, silve r o'HAncoURT, [l), p. 27.
1
geben manchmal dio Anwesenhcit von In-
dianern weithin kund . t
Mich oacan K UN rKE , p. 284.
SELER, [ l l, III, PP· 33- 156.
LANDA , p. 125. Bark Trumpets
Yucatan
Suis l (Rio Tiquió)
Kobóua
KocR-GNüNnEnQ, [ I), I , pp. 88, 198; p. 261,
fig. 143; p. 136; II, pp. 58, 158, 167, 31 l. I Tribo 1 Size 1 Author (colleetion) and function
Katapolitani
Rio !cana Algonkin (River De- 60 cm . KM: H. 1907.
Mura TASTEVL"f, p. 21.
sert, Prov. Que-
Mundrucú s. B:\i: VB. 136 (coll. H oFFMANN, 18 18).
bec)
Chanchasmayo B~:l: VA. 3377. On ly lower part.
Beaver Indians GoooARD, [2], fig. 6: t .. m oose call of birchbark. •
(arch .) Saliva GUHJ.LLA, l , pp. 192--6. At Yurupari feasts.
Appiacás SILVA GUIMARÃES, pp. 299, 307. Taquara.
W ALLACE, pp. 241-2.
Chi beba BoLINDER, [2], p. 78, cit. SmoN.
Maipuri GILIJ, II, p . 284 seq.
Yuruna e? BM: VB. 1725.
Parikuta )
O/ two longitudinal halves. Wapishana
Waiwai RoTH, (1), § 558.
Y urimagua DM, Cf. WAlTZ, III, p. 387; MARTIUS, p.
Taruma
(Peru) 435.
Uaup és terr. RoTH, [l], § 558, cit. w ALLACE.
Apinagés s. WM: 676 (coll. Po1n). 1.46 cm.
Rio Tiquié Kocu-Gni.iNBERO, [l), l, p. 314 seq., fig. 196.
Mundruc ú WM: 1212. Swathed wiLh cord & braided
Tukuna 4 m. NIMUENDAJÚ, [2), p. 193: •· .. eine bis zu 4 Meter
work; WM: 1220. coU. SILVA DA CASTRo's
longo, lii.ngsgeblasene Rindenstreifen. •
RM ab. 2 m.
Ipuriná BM: VB. 3829. a-g-h tUsed at the kamút6i feast. •
Tembé s. B.UlBOSA RODRlOUEZ, [ l ), p. 43.
(Hypurinas) (Acc. to cat.)
Anckuteres ÜSCULATI, P· 275, pl. XV, fig. 8.
94 cm. w:\I: 47688 (coll. EmtEl>"REICH).
Coast of Brazil KM: Gc. 18.
ERENREICII, [2), P· 189.
STEERE, p. 378.
l\fojos EDER, pp. 337 scq.
S traight Glay Trumpet,q
Mura TASTEV!N, p. 5 1!).
Tribo or place Author (collcoLion) and function Yuruna. V. o. STE[NEN, [ l], PP· 244, 266.
Chipaya l\H:TRAUX, ( ! ), 285 cit. NnroENDAJÚ.

Trujillo o'HARC-OURT, [l], pi. X, l , wiLh mouth pieco; p i. X, 3 & 5 Played li ke panpipes
without mouth piecc; pi. X, 4, with mouth piece.
Itonama (San R e-
Nazca o 'HARCOURT, [l ], pi. X , 2 & 7, without mouth piece.
mon) GM: 15. 1.1270
LM: 3/ 6699.
Cavina 1 0 .1ms·1·~fA NN, p l. 86.
MM: 1388. ~~~~~~---:-~-'-~~~--'--~~~- -~~~~~~~~~~--"

Caneles GM: 20.7.100.

24-8 K. VET. O . VJTTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A . BAND 5. N:O l / l~OWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 249

Shell Trumpels
Tribo ar Placo Aulhor (coUection) and function

Tribe or placo Autho r (colJoetion) and function

Aragua (Venezuela) MARCANO, p. 68: •· .. conques militaires; t p .
72: tParmi les coquilles marines des cerritos
Nativos of eastcrn states and lIA..'<DBOOK OF AMERICAN JNDlANS, JJ, p. 540:
un Triton varicgatus de 162 millimetres de
southwost • · .. and th.-i conch were employed by the
longueur, importé de la cote... t
na.tives of the oastern states a nd the south-
Rio de Huaypari (lower Orinoco) ÜVIEOO Y VALDES, II, p. 219: t .. y con muchos
west for trumpots nnd also on occnsion in
pena<'hos he rmosos é sus bocinas de caracoles
ceremony and of votive offering. •
que so oyen é suenan mucho. t
Huichol SELJ::R, (6), p. 143. Cumanagotes GOMAJlA, I, p. 195, 197.
Aztoc SELElt, (1), TI, PP· 613, 1027. Yekuaná v. RortNBOSTEL, [5], p . 402. Sideblown.
Michoacan K UNIKE, II, p. 284. Taulipang KooH-ÜRÜNBERG, (4], I, p. 319. Strombus?
Taraskans Loc. cit. 'puuagua.'. Island Caraibs (Trinidad) Lovf:N, p. 4()6, cit. various authors.
Mayo.s BASSAUBI, p. 46. Paria ÜVJEDO, II, p. 2 19.
CoDEX BonnoNICUS (SELER, [6], fig. 2). Coral Bay (St. Thomas) HATT, (1), p. 35.
Lacandonos BASSAURI, p. 48. Nassau (Bahama islands) SACHS [2), p. 34.
ToZZER, p . 74. •· . . used in rites. • Azuay (Ecuador) o ' HAitcounT, [l], pl. IX, 4. Nerite.
Pipil (S. Salvador) HABTMAN, [ 1), p. 296. Jibaros RIYl.'T, [l), p. 53.
Misquito BELL, P· 99. Zaparo! ÜSCULATI, p. 273: •No. 36, keracka, grande!
Bribri (Talamanca.) KRJCKEBERO, (3), p. 217. conchigua. t e rrestre (Bulimus catagallanus).
PINART, p. 40. de lle. qualo forandola tirano un ranco suono.
G uaymi
Gue tar (Central Costa Rica) JOYCE, p. 72. che serve !oro per chiamarsi a. Yicencla ncllc
ALlantic Coast of Voragua. JOYCE, p. 147, cit. l'lfAnTYit. forest.e o nella. caccia dei pecaria. •
Poru D' HARCOURT, [1], p p . 25 seq., oit. Cono.
Cueva. KnICKEBEllo, [3], p. 346.
1 MEAD [l & 2], With mouth piece of copper.
Cu na L. E. JoYCE, p. 99, note.
Mocho D'HARcounT, [1) p i. IX, 1. Strombus.
Chocó GM: 27 .27 .00.
Trujillo Op. cit., pi. JX, 2.
Antioquia., state of POSADA ARANOO, p. 25.
Palapasco Op. cit., p i. JX, 5. Fasciolarie.?
Ijca BoLTNDER, [2], p. 78; 165.
Ica Op. cit., pi. JX, 6. Strornbus.
Titiribies MONTOYA Y FLO.IU:?..
Chancay CM: 21.1.13.
Vallcdupar CASTELLANOS, I, p. 356: •. . . cornetas y tor- BERTONIO, p. 05. tBocina de caracol: 'phusa1ia
Aymara.
eidos caracoles usados i11 guorreros modmi-
ochulu'. •
entos. • TESSMANN, [ l ], p. 374: tTuten aus Schne<'ken-
Ma.yoruna.
Chibchas CASTELLANOS, JJ, p. 106. scha.len dient zum Herbeirufen der Lcutc. •
RESTREPO, p. 106: •grandes caracoles. . . se Araucanians MEDINA, p. 301.
t-0caban en las principalos fiestas y en los LERMANN-N°ITSCJIB, (1), p. 934.
combates. Eran dichos caracoles muy esti- Calchaqui BoMAN, II, p. 488.
mados, los traian de tribu cn tribu desde la Tupinamba SoABES DE So\;SA., p. 298.
costa, y daban por e llos alto precio ... • Island of Cabo BANCROFT, J, p. 763.
Paez PITTIER DE FABREOA, P· 324: ·- .. síta-ko {sea-
shell dance, baile do caracol) in which two
sea-shells (bocinas), the one giving a low tone
(bajon destemplado) and lho other the t rcble
were played altornatoly for whole nights,
remembering (a los c ristianos) la noche ele
baile i maldades que 0jecuta11. *
 250 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5 N:O 1 / IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 251

Triba Siza 1 Autho r (collcc tion) and function Complex Trumpets

.. ,. l
Author (collection) and function
Shell Trimip€ts fo Clay.
)lcc hica 19 cm. L'.\I: 1/2623.
basketry o. Gl\I: 28. 1.159. Suribí trumpets.
• 20 cm. Llf: 1/2624. ,,
Kobéua. • o. GM: 28. l. I 6i. t •
Ecuador! JOYCE, p. 71. I!
'l'rujillo 15 cm. D' HARCOURT, pi. IX, 2. Rio Iça.na • e. Kocn-GnüNDERG. I, fig. 116, p. 198: •Tanz-trom-
21 cm. Op. cit., pi. IX, 1. 1
Rio Aiary • e. peten: kulirlna. •· Tube of Paxiúba wood. 1Boim
Tanz stehen die Musikanten nebonoinander,
Chimboto SM: L. 1039/ 704. With mouthpiece.
Chibcha schwingen die Instrumente gle ichmtlssig nach
16 cm. RESTREPO, Lamina XXXV: •caracol de color
negro.» rechts und links und ... ~
Colima. o'HARcounT, [l ], pi. XIII, 2. 11 Girara. gourd R rv1mo, p. 114.
1
Juri coarse ba.mboo a. RATZEL, I, p. 559.
Bent Olay Trumpet8 Ma.yoruna. gourd s. TESSMAN, [ ! ), fig. 16, p . 374.
J\focha o'HARcoURT, ( l ], p i. XII, 1 & 3. Huari • s. Info rmation b y NORDENSKIÕLD.
Op. cit., pi. XII, 2 & 5. Pa.ressí· • DA SILVA RoNDON, p. 40.
Trujillo Op. cit., pi. XII, 4 & 6. Ka.besi • e? MAX Scm.u.DT, [3), fig. 145, p. 238.
BM: VA. 17590. Statuette of squatting old man ba.mboo e Op. cit., fig. 146, p. 238.
a.s mouth pieca. )fojos gourd ? CASTILLO, P· 358. EDER, p. 334.
Lamba.yeque D'HARCOURT, [I], pi. XIII. Tereno • e. BM: VB. 962. 117 cm.
Chicama G'.\1: 20.9.27. Huanyam bamboo e. CM: 15.l.593. With fruit-shell mouth piece.
•l\fochica.t 17 cm. Ll\f: 1/ 2736. wax or harz e Gl\f: 15.1.592. Tube of human bones.
35 cm. LM: 1/ 2741. Pauserna gourd 8. Gl\l: 15.1.847 (coll. NoRDENSKIÕLD).
Mauhé • s. MM: 523: RATZEL, I, pi. P. 497 .
Yuruna. • s. WM: 71961. BM: VB. 1725-8 b.
skull e. 01GLIOLI, [2), fig. 45, P· 198.

Polyglobular Trumpets :'

il
Mundrucú gourd,
ibamboo,
8.
e
WM: 1228, 1227.
WM: 1224.
. wood in one BM: VB. 136; WM. 1212; MARTIUS, p. :191.
Triue 01· p la co 1 Material No. of 1 Autho1· (collection) a nd function
globes piece with tube,
1
ba.mboo s. DM: 2784 (coll. NATTERER). See SPlX & l\iAJ:tTIVS,
Caribs clay 2 p. 1313.
ENc. NED. J No., p. 495.
Guajajara. horn 8 DlI: 738 (coll. NIMUENDAJÚ).
DE GoEJE, [3), p. 159: tTrompette en terre: kúti.t
(Tanetchára.)
WM:: 2607 (coll. ScaoMBUROx). tk~ti t.
Tupinambá gourd 1 e STADEN, II, k. XXVII.
IDf: B. 816.
Sali\·a clay SOA!IBZ DE SOUSA, p. 347; LERY.
2 or 3 GUMILLA, I, 192.
armadillo or WM: 131. 188 cm.
Rio Atabapo
• ROTH, [l) § 556, cit. HUMDOLDT. 1
Coroado
crocodile & s.
• CMBiquiare
Carib
• Loc. cit.
wax or harts.
('.\Io ruca R.) skull 1 EsCRWY.OE, p. 127. (Cf. ta.ble on bone trumpets.)
RoTB, [ l], § 556.
Akawai Catngang bamboo ? l\IANIZER [I ), p. 332, fig. 11 A.
Loc. cit. (
\Varrau ! ? TuNAY n'EsCRAONOLLE, pp. 260, 263.
2 BM: VA. 34524 and VA. 34523 (coll. DoKRN).
Surinam Kara.yá gourd 8. KRAUSE, pi. 58, fig. 9. 1Signa.l with Iong and short
2 RoTa, LI), § 556, cit. KAPPLER: • · .. double-funnel
tones.•
shaped clay. • 11
Bororó gom·d . » s. DM: VB. 3899 .
2 RATTRY HAY, p. 48. »Un itod with bee's wax. •
~ orienta.li » Kayapó ~ s. W:M: 652 (coll. PonL); Pom,, [2], I , pp. 400 soq.
3 or 4 COLBACCHlNI, p. 97.
1:3M: Vll. 8384.
t )
 252 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HAN'DL. SER. A. DAND 5 . N :O 1
IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 253

Author (colloction) and function twisted grass-blades as toys (fig. 118). They are open in both ends.
ln the smaller a per ture a transverse blade of grass is blm.vn upon .
T he sarne inst rument is fo und among Cayap ó. They a re from 7.7
cow-horn s. Bl\I: VB. 8385 (coll. KJ8SENBERTH). Tube braided
over. to 28.5 cm. long and produce a n asal tone. The Indians call tbe
Kapickra gourd s. BM: VB. 8480. instrument waikoko, which m eans tobacco pipe. A simila r in-
(Canella) G'.\f. D'.\f: 860-1 (coll. NmUENDAJÚ). strument is port rayed by
KISSENBERTB, p. 5 1. M.-rnIZER ([l] p. 348) from
Crahãos t
? PoHL, II, p. 216 •· .. mit Papagayenfedern ge- t he B otu cudo.
ziehrt t.
Pikóbyo gourd KRAUSE (p. 316) descri-
s. DM: 560 (coll. Nnr u ~~N DAJ Ú ).
Krepimkn.teyo horn s. DM: 429- 430 (coll. N 1 ~1UEN D AJÚ). bes similar instrumenta from F ig. 11 8. Oscillating ribbon.reed from tho
Krikateye horn s. DM: 343, 346-7 (coll. NíllWJ~NDAJÚ). the Carajá and Savajé, which Chocó. GM: 27.27.462 .
Apinages horn s. GM: (coll. NIMUENDAJ Ú); DM: 91. are called adjulona by t he
gourd s. WM: 7190. Tubo braidod over. Cara já. They likewise consist of a narrow blade which is spiral-
• s. WM: 676 (coll . PoaL). 1.46 m .
t wist ed a nd t hereupon flattened ou t:
Trumni
Bororó
• o. B'.\1: VB. 2846 a .
bnmboo s. STEINEN, (JJ, II, p. 496: •· . werden bei dem tB urity-Blattpfe ifen (MjüloniÍ) besteben aus einem schma·
Totenfest geblasen und ais die Knochenkõrbe len Bu.rityb lattstre ifen, d er spi ra lig a uigewickelt und dann flatt
nach dem Hause zurückgetragen wurden. • gedrück t is t. D urch ein darum gescbl ungenes schmales Bast·
• orientali • s. CoLBACCHn.<, p. 97: •· . riti religiosi e alcune band wird dio Pfeife in ihrer Form erbalten. Solcb e Pfeifen sind
azioni funebri. • etwa. 3 cm. bre it und J- 2 1/ 2 cm . hoch und h a ben zuwcilen eine
l:auirivait gourd s. Wl\I: 1187. With 'skirt'. To imitate tUnzenge- ) Iittelzunge, w ãhre nd dieso ande ren Exempla.ren fehlt (Abb.
(Rio Tapajoz) brülles t . (Coll. NATTERER, 18 l 7- 2õ.) 179 b ). Angeblasen werden s ie, indem man d ie P feife m it d em
Calinagasta. • o. DEBENDETTI, (1), p. 62. Tube of bone. einen Ende flach in Mund stcc k t. •')
(San Juan)
Yucatan gourd 0. LANDA, p. 125. These are t he only dat a I h avo fro m South America regarding
{ 1
this curious instrument, a nd I a m inclined to agree with SACHS ([2J,
p . 19) when he says tha t »genaue F estlegungen sind schwer , weil das
Oscillating ribbon-reeds. unscheinbare Gerat oft gar nicht oder nur unzureichend beschrie-
These instrume nts are very common in Europ e as t oys. I sup- ben ist». These are indeed n ot object s one would observe at the
pose most people are acquainted with the t rick of p lacing a blade of first gla n ce.
grass between t he t humbs and blowing on t he edge whereby a dis- Are these instrumen ts of Ind ia n origin or n ot ? I t. is, of course,
agreeable, screeching sound is produ ced . T his is t be simplest form of q uite p ossible t h at for instance the Gua ja jara borrowed their little
oscillating r ibbon-reeds . Precisely the sarne instru men t is used b y simple instrument from t he Europeans. On the other hand, we find
t he Guajajara in n orth -western Bra zil, according to inform ation by the oscillating ribbon-reeds also in Nort h America and n or th-eastem
R ev. liARBY FosTER, who has lived a mong these t ribes for a rather Asia. In t he museum in Copenhagen t bere are such instrumen ts from
long period. K ocH-GRÜNBERG says of t he Taulipa ng: ».. . wenn t he Cree, N ask apé and Penobscot India ns, which are very like ~he
man von einem gewissen Schilf rnit fingerbreiten Blattern ein Blatt Carajá specimen. T hey consist of t wo pieces of bark between w b1ch
abbricht und es b eblast dann kommt es R egeu .» SACHS includes a thin r ibbon -reed of birch -bark i p laced. GoDD.IBD ([2], fig. 134)
this among oscillating ribb on-reeds. It is, of course, p ossible t hat m ent ions similar instruments from the Beaver Indians, and according
t he India ns b low so as t o produce sound, but t here is no information to BIRKET-SMITH2) su ch are aJso fo und in W est Greenla nd. THAL-
t o t h at effect .
1 ) B'.\1: VB. 8363-7 (coll. KISS"ENB EllTJl).
The Ch ocó childron use a sort of instruments made from spiral- •) Acc. to letter fro m D r . K . Dil'kot.Smilh.
254 K. VET. O. VJTTERH. SAl\lli. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. -:o l IZIKO\'VITZ, "MUSICAL INSTRU1\1ENTS OF S. AMERICA 255

BITZER1) speaks of them from East Greenland, and BooORAz1 ) from slits and has a string wound around the midrlle. The tube is stuck
the Mackcnzie delta. They are further mentioned by BooORAZ1 ) and into a gourd with four holes in the side. The gourd is covered with
A. E. NORDE- SKIOLD1 ) from the Chuktches. The peculiar North West feathers which are glued on. The .Bororó call this instrument noari.
American instmments of two wooden halves with a blade placed The construction and name of this object is reminiscent of their cla-
between them should without doubt be included in this group. Un- rinets (cf. p. 00), which are called r><>ari or boali. The only difference
r
fortunately l have no further data from North America, although l is really that on the ordinary Bororó clarinet the piece between the
feel sure tbis instrument must be found in other places in this con- two slits is carved out.
l
tincnt besides those mentioned abovc. The Northwest American MAx ScmrrDT describes a curious instrument from the Paressi-
instrum.cnts are not ali of exactly the sarne construction as the one Kabe.. íl) which is to some cxtent related to the slit-valve instruments.
from the Cree, but the principle is always the sarne. These are called i ãnlÍ and consist )}aus einem unten offenen Stück
Bambusrohr, dessen Mantcl bis auf die beiden Enden dünne geschabt
Oscirtating Ribbon R eeds ist und an der dünnen Stelle ringsherum mit Langsspalten versehen
ist. Es wurden in das Rohr von den Mannern und J ünglingen in
Tribe or locality Author or collection
besonderem Tonfall Gcsprache hineingesprochen, die dann in dump-
fen geisterhaften Klang aus dem lnstrument herausschalten.)} lt
Chocó Gi\1: 27.27.462. is typical that womcn are not allowed to see the instrument. lt is
Taulipang Koc n -GRÜNBERG, [4) III, p. 276.
Guajajara. Verbal report by R e v. HA.R RY Fos TER.
not a musical instrument in the ordinary meaning of this term as it
Carajú.} KRAl:SE, p. 316. l ., does not produce tone itself. It is rcally a »tone-coloring instrumentl)
Savajé p. 365. somewhat like our mirlitones (cf. p. 164). SACHS ([2]; p. 95) points
Cayapó (Pao d 'Arco) BM:VR 8363- 7 (coll. KLSSENBERTH) . out that its role is that of »einer akustischen Maske zum Verschleiern
B otucudo MANIZER [ I) , fig. 20, p. 348.
der Stimme .. » As this instrument is so little known it is impossible
~:kap6
0
} IL\f
to arrive at any conclusions regarding its origin. ln this connection
P onobscot I wish to mention also a closcly rclated )}instrument» which is used
Boa.ver Indiana GooDARD, [2), fig. 134. by the southern Tehuelche. lt consists of the trachea of a bird
Wost Groenlancl BmxET-SMITn, soe t ext. (SACHS L2], p. 109) .
.8 ast G roenland l'HALDITZER,
Mackenzio d elta BooouAz, . The Clarinet.
Several types of the clarinet occur in South America. They may
Slit-valve instruments. be divided into two main groups according to whether the tongue
l have come across only a few slit-valvc instruments from South constitutes a part of the mouthpiece, in which case they are called
America and none at all from North America. 1\liNIZER2 ) describes i d i o g 1 o t t a 1, or whether the tongue form a part by itself wlúch
an interesting instrument from the Botucudo. It consists of a reed is tied over (covers) the orifice of the mouthpiece, the h e ter o-
tube which is closed in one end. This tubo has been crushed on the g 1 o t tal .c larinet. The idioglottal moutbpieces consist. of a narrow
middle whereby it has burst open into longitudinal slits. In playing reed, the upper end of which is closed by a septum of whicb the lower
this instrument an air current blown through the open end passes end is open. On the side a small strip slit off constitutes thc tongue.
out tbrough the slits thereby causing these to vibrato and produce This mouthpiece is placed with the lower open end in a bell of horn,
a tone. The Bororó have a similar instrument. 3 ) Jt h as only two bamboo, gourd or the like. ln blowing, the greater part of the
1
) Acc. t o lotter from Dr. K . Ilirket-Smit h. tongue should be insidc t he moutb, or else the mouth-piece should be
') M:A N fZER, [ l l. p. 332 fig. 10 A.
3) nM: vn. 2132_ ' ) MAX Sc1rn10T, [3J, p. 240.
256 K. VET. O. vrrrERH. SAJ\IB. HANDL . SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUl\iENTS OF S. AMERICA 257

placed in a separate wind-chamber. The tube in which the mouth- among the Yuchi Indians in North Am.erica (SPECK, p. 28, fig. 5),
piece is placed may also be furnished with stops. al though the tongue here is made of brass. It is used in hunting
Proceeding from these details I shall go on to discuss the diffe- as a deer call and SPECK believes t he instrument is »probably a
l'ent typcs. borrowed one, at least in its present form. »

I di o g lo t tal e lar in e t s wi t ho ut s tops. To ré c l arine t s

Clarinets consisting only of a mouthpiece occur in South America This term applies to clarinets made from a bamboo (taquara)
a mong the Chiriguano (NORDENSKIOLD [5], p. 119). The only tube in which a septum has been left in place and pierced. ln the
example of this type of instrument that I know from North America hole the clarinet mouthpiece is fastened. The upper part (fig. 121)
is from the Caribou Eskimos (BmKET-SMITH [1], vol. I , p. 291). It thus constitutes a sort of wind-chamber while the lower part forros
:is made of a quill and in the lower end a long piece of the feather the resonator. The longer tbis is the lower the tone. These clarinets
has been left in place. oécur among several tribes in Guiana and also along the Amazon
and its tributaries (soe table). Among certain tribes tbese instru-
']
1
h e s outhern typ e.
Clarinets with gourd bells are found among the Bororó, where "'! º - o 4!i@Q$ 5"45LCDC Ut

t hey are used at burial ceremonies (ÜOLBACCHINI, p. 158). The gourd Fig. 120. )fouth-pioco of the Palikur-clarinet on fig. 121. Length 26 cm.
is covered with gummed
featbers. The Mojos and
Mbaya have similar instru- ments are played in orchestras, each musician hav:ing an instru-
ments to judge from the ment which is different from all others. ln this way different instru-
descriptions given by EDER ments complement one another. RICHARD ScHOllrnURGK (I, p. 152)
SANCHEZ LABRADOR. Other- describes how this is done among the W arrau:
wise, among the Bororó as »Eigentlich besitzt jedo W anau -Niederlassung ihren eigo-
well as among the Mbaya n en Musikleh1·c r, H o h o-h i t, dor die jungen Knabon und Miin·
n or des Ortcs auf einer Art Hoboo blasen lebrt, das aus cincro
F•1.g. 119. c 1armeo · 11 b e 11 o r cow- h orn rrom the bell usually consists of
· • w1t
lãngern odor kürz<>rn Stück Bambus-Rohr b esteht, an dessen
Ashlushla.y. RM: p_ 106. 'f.. a cow's horn. Clarinets of ob<>rem Endo oin diinnes Mundstück von Rohr mit einer lüngern
this type fig. 119 are also odor kürze ren Stimmritzo eingefügt ist. Die Tõne, die auf die -
found among a number of other tribes such as the Guaná, Kadiuveo, sen Blas instrumont hervorgerufcn werden, h aben viel Aehnlich-
Choroti, Ashlushlay, T oba, Lengua, Suhin, Chané and Chipaya (see keit mit donen der russiseh en NationalinstrumE'nte. Fnst jcden
Abend versammeln sich dio jungen Lcuto um ihrE'n Musiklehrer
table), a ll of them tribes that live close to one another geographica.Uy.
und fiihren untor sC'iner Leitung in d er :\1itto eles Dorfes Con certe
DoBRIZHOFFER (II, p . 386) also mentions a clarinet from the Apibones auf. Je nach der G rõsse des Bambusrohrs und seiner Oeffnung
with a bell made of the tail of an armadillo. These Indians use the g iob t das J nstrumcnt E'inen hõhern oder tiefcrn Ton an. Eine
instruments in war and, according to the a uthor, often h ave more Bewegung mit der Hand, E'Í n :Kicken mit dem Kopfe oder ein
»trumpeters » than soldiers. Ta ktsehlagon mit dom lnstrument von Seiten des Hoho-hit ge-
gen d en untor den Mus ikern, welobcr b eginnen oder oinfallE'n
Below the lower part of the tongue on t he Chipaya clarinet a
soll, regelt elas ganze Conccr·t. Obsohon nun, wie ich eb en bc-
t hread is strung to keep the tongue a little away from the orifice so m orkte, jccles Tnstn1roent nur einen Ton bes itzt, so kennt dor
tha~ this is not altogether closed. On the Aslushlay clarinet (fig. 119) )fosikclirektor die Tõne der gesammtcn I nstrum<'nto doch so
the lowcr part of the hom is cut like a saw, a feature which is also genau w1d g ibt sein Zoioh e n so riohtig. dass wirklioh ein Grund-
often met with on European clarinet types. This type also occurs zug von H armon io in dom Lãrm h cr rsoht, wie auoh jt>ne rus-
 258 K. VE1'. O. Vl'l.'TERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. :SAND 5. N:O 1 IlIKOWlTZ, MUSICAL IXSTRI •fEN'l.'S OF S. A.."\IERICA 259
s icho picle t· dic schwicrigsten Tons tücko mit iht·c u Rohrcn aus- /l
führe n. Sind nun die \Yarrauindianer odct· dio Russcn die Er-
findcr dicser Instrumente? Eine Fragc fiir d io Forsche r in der
Ce c hicbto de r Tonkunst. •

ln 1926 NnroENDAJÚ found the same kind of instruments played

in the same manner among the Palikur and Uaça. As regards the
construction of the clarinet-mouth piece the small bast-sling a (fig. 120)
a sort of t uning-wire, the function of which is to shorten the tongue,
should be observed. NIMUENDAJÚ mentions that the clarinets were
only used now and then and that they u sually were made of green
bamboo. These clarinets are caUed toré, the name I have chosen to
designate this type. NIMEUNDAJÚ ([4], p. 55) writcs:
$Bci dom Torétanz am 4/5 Juni waren 5 T orés (alamtema)
in Gcbrauch, die mit verschicdcncn Namcn benannt wurden: Fig. 122. Clarinet with tho
Alaní, Páukano, Analú, Inalke-rulió (die Chorflõtc) und Ri-narú tongue in thc gourd bell.
1'
( •so gra.nd'mama•) die von dem lcitenden Zaubcrcr geblasen Apinayé. Gi\l: 31.40.247. YJ.
wurdc. S ie waren folgende rmassen gestimmL:

with it by means of a
o small tube (fig. 121) and
Ri -narú Inalkc-rulió Ana lú Páukano Alani the different parts are com-
bined with wax. Most
Inalko-rulió war in acht Exemplaren vorhandcn. Die :.\Ielo-
dio soll von d en drei ersten l<'lõten dadurch h evo.rgcbracht wer-
of the gourd is covered by
dcn, doss jeder Flõtenblãser mit scinem Instrumont einfãllt, a sort of »mantle » of bast
wonn dosson Note gefordert wircl. Dann folgon oin paar kraftige strips like those on certain
Noton auf der Ri-narú, und der Chor cle1· l1111lko-I"ulió füllt ein. trumpets (cf. p. 234). On
Doch orrcichen die Palikur i.n dicscr Art von Flõtcnspie l lãngst
Lhe whole this instrument
nicht clio Sicherheit und Fertigkeit wio z. D. dio Aparí oder die
Sipáya. ~·>
reminds one of a complex
trumpet. The Palikur call
These clarinets are also used by the Yehuána-Ihuruána. who it katiuni and it is used
play them in pairs »wãhrend eines nachtlichen Tanzfcstes zur Weihe »bei dem Feste des Haar-
eines Neubaus in einer dem Festhaus benachbarten Hütte ». We find schneidens zur Erinnerung
also similar instruments among the Parintintin,1) l\Iura,2) Atorai. an Verstorbene ... » (NI-
Wapishana3) and Ipurina4 ). MUENDA.TÚ (4], p. 55). We
There are also Toré clarinets with gourd bells among the Pali- find similar functions for
kur. The gourd is not attached directly to the tube but is connected similar clarinets as early as
1) Q )f: 23.3.240.
in 17 45 when they are des-
~) v. HonNOOSTl:L [5], p. 405, cit. MAnTrns . cribed by Father GUMILLA
Fig. 12 l. Toré-clarinct from the Palikur.
3) op. cit. cit. Al'l'UN. (I, p. 222) from among the Longth 120 cm. See fig. 120.
') ibid. cit. EmiENnEtcn. \Varrau . CM: 26.3.145.
 260 K. VET. O. VlT'l'E[{fl. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1
IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Ol' S. Al1'IERICA 261
Olarinets with a clay vessel as re s onator.
H e t e roglottal clarinets.
From t he 18th century GILIJ (I, p . 285 seq.) mentions that the
Ta manacks during cer tain dances blew clarincts which were stuck According to W. RoTH ([l], p . 460) the modero Warrau clarinets
into a clay vessel. 'l'his r eminds us much of the trumpets described are considerably more complicated in t heir construction than those
by GmIILLA (toe. cit.) from the sarne region. used in the time of GUMILLA. The function, however, seems to be
the sarne; that is, they are used at funeral ceremonies. Their con-
struction (fig. 125):
Goajiro c larin e t s (with stops).
The Goajiro clarinets differ from
the rest of the South American types,
among othor things, by having four
stops. The types within this group
vary somowhat (fig. 123). They
are found with and without gourd
bells. As will be seen from the repro-
duction t he gourd may be placed
in different ways. That shown on
fig. 123 b-a has two boles, a detail
which reminds one of the holes in .

~'
the bellls of the Italian shawms.
On these clarinets with bells the
mouthpiece is stuck into the tube
and fastened with wax. On the
more simple clarinets mouthpiece
and tube are made in one piece. Fig. 125.

On some of theso tbe tongues are

pointed downwards. These Goajiro
Fig. J 23 a-b. Fig. 124 a-b. clarinets unquestionably give the Fig. 126.
l•"ig. 123. Clarinels of roed from the impression of being imitations of Fig. 125. H eteroglottal clarinet from lhe W arrau. After W. RoTH.
Goajiro. a = GM: 24.2.394; b = Arabian clarinets. In l\forocco Bo- Fig. 126. H eteroglottal clarinet from tho W ai-wai. GM: 27.7.22. J4.
G:'tf: 2 i .2.395. 1/1. ~DER saw clarinets which were
•Tho present da.y \Varrau, on t h e other hand, uscd it at ali
Fig. 124. Goajiro-clarinets with bells very like the Goajiro instruments
or any of their dances. ThC'y call it serór-e, and manufacturc it
of gourcl. a = G:;}I: 24.2.391; b = he had collected and points out
as follows (fig . 238): A c ircular wooden pencil (p.) about 3 or
O)[: 24.2.388. Ab. 1 / 3 •
that there are many Arabian traits 3 1/ 2 inches long and ono-half inch in diameter is gouged in a
in the Goajiro culture.1 ) Pre- V-shaped groove for about two-thirds of its length, the arca
sumably these have entered via Spain. Similar clarinets with a long which this cut is mado b oing s ubsequently planed down
flat. A thin delicate bamboo strip (b), som e 7 or 8 inch es long,
gourd bells also occur in the neighboring tribe, the P arauhano
is then ticd onto the gouged e xcavated surfaco and along the
(GM:: 24.2.30).
flattened edgos of this p on oil, the proximal extremity of the strip
being purposely b ont slightly upward. A pear-shaped gourd,
1
) VorboJ inforrnation. pedoratod at oither oxtr emity, is now fixed at its larger cnd
with a ring of booswax (w) over the pencil, its smallor end bcing
262 K. VE1.'. O. VITTERH. SA!tffi. HA N DL. SER. A . BAND 5. N :O l IZIKOWIT Z, M USICAL INSTRUM.ENTS OF S . Alt1ERICA 263

rende r ed funnel shap ed by Jneans of a noth or. ring of the sam <' t hat just this type is post-Columbian and was brought in from Eu-
m a teria l. That portion of t h o p oncil projecting outside the rope, since the old Spanish commercial routes passed not far from
gourd is nex t inclosed in a 2 or 3 foot len gth of a trumpet wood these regions (see p. 147). Unfortunately, t he oldest history of t he
(t), w hich in t u1·n is attach cd to t he b ase of th e base of the gourd,
indep endently of the penei!, aga in with beeswax. »
clarinet in Europe is still unknown, in spite of BALFOUR's excellent
work »The old British 'Pibcorn' or 'Hornpipe' and its affinities. »
The Waiwai clarinets are similarly constructed (fig. 126). On these However, an investigation of old Spanish folk instruments would
instrumen ts the mouthpiece is of a bird's bone and has the proximal probably solve this problem. BALE'OUR is nevertheless of the opinion
end covered with wax. The bone is attached to a gourd by means that this type, called by him the Chaco type, »is a derivative from
of wax, and the latter is enlarged downwards to form a bell of wax. Europe. »1 ) He also points out t hat »I nstruments like this, exactly
The t ongue is a thin split of reed which covers the opening on the like the Chaco type, with serrated opening to the cow's horn, are
side of the borre. It is drawn out so far that it is seen below the bell. used by t he shepherds in Estremadura, Portugal (the stop is an ad-
Without doubt this type of clarinet is more like the southern type dition not usually seen on such horns). » We may compare the Por-
consisting of a m outhpiece of gourd or horn. t uguese clarinet with the Ashushlay type (fig. 118). This clarinet
is found in several variants in Europe and is often double (see BAL-
FOUR [2]). The mouthpiece is often protected by another piece of
ln South America the clarinet is never found archaeologically, horn, which in this manner forms a windchamber. In the Museum
nor is it mentioned in the old literature from Peru. I have not found für Võlkerkunde in H amburg there is a similar clarinet from Europe
information earlier than the 18th century from other pa rts of South (No. 28: 166: 125) with a bell of cow's horn. ln BoNNANI's book
America (EDER, DonRIZHOFFER, Gm nLLA, GILIJ, SANCHEZ LABRADOR ~>Gabinetto armonico » (pl. XL, p. 86 ), printed in Roma 1722 a
etc.). It is therefore possible that the clarinet is a post-Colombian man is depicted blowing a tromba di zucca, a clarinet of t his
instrument in South America.1) kind wit h a bell of Lagenaria. Small clarinets of straw or quills
It is impossible to decide whether these ~vere real flutes of the without stops were also made in several parts of Europe and
sarne type as tbose of the Chocó Indians (see p. 281) or clarinets. used as playthings. It is probable that these clarinets are very
What BARRÊRE called a flute may well have been a clari11et. old in Europe, the forerunners of later European clarinets, and
Further confirmation of this possibility is obtained from the that tbese simple types were brought to South America by the
following. The idioglotta1 clarinet with a bell of cow's horn, gourd, P ortuguese or Spaniards. The quill clarinet of t he Caribou eskimos
etc. is spread throughout South America from the Chipayas in the rnay accordingly probably be regarded as post-Columbian.2 ) The
west to the Bororó and Apibones in the east.2) It is not impossible Caribou is the only Eskimo tribe which has such a clarinet and
1) BABRE.RE (p . 200) mentions from t be first half of the 18th century a kind of BmKET-&1ITH who is familiar wit h t he E skimos and t he North
»flute • played in orcbestras by t he Caribs in French Guiana in t he sarne way as the American Infüans affirms he has seen none like it from other tribes
toi·é clarinets of the vVarrau and Palikur: either in the literature or in museums. The Caribous also have
»L e ur flutes, qui son t faites d ' un m orceau do r oseau d 'en- a sort of flute which is unique (BmKET-SMITH, [l ], I , p. 271 ).
v iron trois pieds de long , étoien t ornées d e differen tes Pla n tes, &
r endo ient un son assez harmoniem'; & comme elles sont grosses
It is quite obviously an imitation of a European duct-flute. Quite
à propor t ion les tmes lcs a ut res, de même q ue les t uyaux des likely the Caribou-Eskimos got t he idea for t heir clarinets from
Orgues, elles faisoien t ensomble les huit tons. U ne, pa r ex erople, Europe.
é toit le R é; l'a ut re le Mi; uno t ro isieme, le l<' a; & a insi d es autres. Since I have already discussed the possible post-Columbian ori-
L cs Joue llrs s'accordaie nt parfaiteroent bicn, chac un s 'a rrêtan t
& r epren ant asscz j uste. » 1) lnformation in Jetter dated K ov. 21, 1934.
') See t able p. 264. Ot her t ribes in North America besides the Yuchi have 2) Information regarding the E uropean clal'inets has been placed at my disposal
also had cla.rinets of the Chaco type, usually with metal tongues (Catalogue of the t hrough tho kindnçss of Dr. T. NonLIND, cl irector of the Museum of Musical History
Crossby Brown-collection of mus. instr., no. 617, p. 128). in Stockholm.
264 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BA..~ D 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL TNSTRUJIJE~TS O.F S. A.."\fERICA 265
I dioglottal clarinets without stops. heteroglottal tongue is an invention of tbe Indians themselves or a
The Ohaco type. European idea.
We see therefore t hat with the defective material at our dispo-
Tribe Material of tbe bell Author or collection sal and our small present knowledge of Spanish folk instruments it
1 1
is extremely difficult to solve the problem of the origin of the South
Ch ipaya horn I ZIKOWITZ, [3], P· 271, fig. 6. American clarinets. However, the facts given above seem to show
(Bolivia) that the clarinet may be a post-Columbian culture element in South
Chan6 NORDENSKIÕLD, (5), p. 119.
America. Had this not been the case, it would be an old culture
l\fojos gourd EDER, P· 334.
Suhin liAWTRY, p. 293. element, judging from its total distribution, and should in that case
Lengua • also have been found in other parts of America, for instance in Mexico,
'I'oba GM: 33.1.082. Peru and northwestern Brazil. There is also a possibility that the
Chor o ti NORDENSKIÕLD, (4], p. 175. clarinet idea may have been obtained from the slit-valve instrument,
Ashlushlay
Kadiuvoo horn
•
MANTZER, ( l ), fig. 5.
but regarding the origin of the latter instrument we know nothing
at all at present.
Guana
Mbaya
•
horn or gourd
\>\7?>[ : 940.
SANCHEZ LADRADOR, (vol. 2, p . 4).
Kaingang bamboo tube MANIZER, 1, p. 322, fig. 10 a .
The oboe.
Bororó da Campanha horn WM: 894, boali.
• Arawira • WM: 924. The oboe is not an Indian instrument. It has only recently
• Eaatern
Apibones
gourd
tail of the armaclillo
COLDACCHJNT, p. 158, poari.
DODRIZHOFFER, vol. II, p. 386.
come into use in Peru. TELLO (p. 530) mentions that it is used at the
Yuchi SPECK, P· 28.
ceremonies and feasts which are celebrated in connection with work
on the fields and the digging of canals. The oboes are here called
chirisuya and are, as TELLo remarks, very like the Spanish-Arabian
gin of the Goajiro clarinets, there remain ·only the toré clarinets, oboes. The name chirisuya resembles somewhat the Spanish name
clarinets with a clay vessel as a resonator, and the heteroglottal in- for this instrument, chirimia. This name is also used by the Indians
struments. The toré clarinet is found within a limited territory in Guatemala who nowadays make use of it at festivais and the
around the Amazon and Guiana. It is impossible to determine like, evidently instead of some kind of Indian flute (TERMER, p. 445).
whether this clarinet is an original Indian invention or a modifica-
tion in bamboo of some European clarinet, for instance with a wind-
chamber or protection for the mouthpiecc. Judging from its distri-
bution, the instrument can hardly be old. H ad it been pre-Columbian
it would probably have been spread through larger regions by the
migrations of the Tupi-Guarani peoples.
Clarinets with a clay vessel as a resonator, t he Palikur clarinet
(fig. 120), and the Warrau clarinet (fig. 124) give the impression of
being transformed trumpets. ln the first case the trumpet with a
clay vessel resonator (see fig. 103) has been the model, in the other
a n end-blown complex trumpet. The Yuruna have also a bast
girdle on their trumpets (see p. 23õ). The Waiwai clarinet (fig. 125)
with its mouthpiece in a gourd bell belongs in its main idea to the
»Chaco type ». I have not been able to determine whether the
 IZIKOWITZ, l\IUSlCAL lNSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 267
I.
Humming tops, nub and whist~g-arrows.

Usually an air current is blown into the flute itself to pro-

duce sound, but in some instances the air is pressed against the
F L U T E S. instrument by this latter's movements, as is the case with the
humming-tops and nuts and the whistling-arrows.

Humming top s.
l t is no exaggeration to say that there is no other group of in- Humming tops consist of a gourd or some otber fruit-shell, e. g.
s truments which has caused so many difficulties for etbnographers (A strocaryum), which is pierccd by a stick. The top is put into
as flutes. Even when tbe investigators classify the instrument so
for correctly that they use the term fJute for instrumenta which
Teally are flutes we are not much helped, since tbere are innumerable
flute-types and variations of these in Arnerica. I should be inclined
to maintain that there are more flute types in America than
in Europe. But before classifying these I shall explain what the
term f l u te signifies. The principie is simple: an air current strik-
ing the edge of a vessel is deflected and, for certain acoustic reasons,
caused to vibrate in the vessel. This vessel may have different
shapes: more or less globular, cylindrical, conic, etc. The air current
may be produced either by blowing or through the movements of
tbo instrument itself which causes the air to press against its edge.
ln the former case the musician must either form anel direct the
Fig. 127. Fig. 128.
ali· current against the edge of tbe vessel with bis lips, or this
mn.y bo done mechanically in that the air current passes through Fig. 127. Humming top from the Apinayé . GM: 31.40.273. Y2·
Fig. 128. Humming top from the Pnlikur. G1I: 26.3.275. Yi·
a small canal - the airduct - which forms and directs it against
t he sharp edge. By means of this classification we get the following
main groups: rotation by quickly jerking out a cord which is wound around the
I. Flutes in which tbe air is pressed ngainst the cdge through upper part of the stick (fig. 127). The end of the cord which is
the moYcments of tbe instrumcnt itsclf. held in the hand often has a »handle» consisting of a wooden tablet
II. Flutcs into which an air currcnt is blown. or peg. As the hollow gourd is furnished with holes it whistles when
A. Flutcs without nirducts. put into rotation. According to my data this instrument is always
B. Flut-cs with airducts = ductflut<>s. used as a toy. It has a rather wide distribution, occt1rring mainly in
north-western South America, Central America, and to the north
Within each one of these groups it is possible to distinguish sub- among the Kekchi Indians in Guatemala. ln South America it is
groups accorcli.ng to whether the shape of the vessel is more or less found as far south as among Chimane in the Mojos territory and
globular - t hese are called resonator whistles or globular flutes - Karayá and otber tribes at Rio Araguaya and towards the east in the
or cylindrical. The distinction between the conceptions whistle and Roroima territory. Evidently it is a culture element which has spread
flute is often that whistles produce only one tone, flutes severa!. from the north-west along the tributaries of the Amazon. This is also
268 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, l\IDSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 269

suggested by its occurrence among the Karayá, which is or was a Humming nuts.
river pcople who migrated southwards (KRAUSE p. 312). According To my knowledge humming nuts occur only among the Makushí,
to RoTH ([l], § 614), the Warrau make the top spin by letting the Patamona, and Warrau in Guiana, 1 ) the Tukano Indians at Rio
string run through a ring which is slipped on the thumb of the Tiquié2 ) and the Motilon lndians. 3 ) It is made of two hollow nuts
left hand. with the apertures oppos(te to one another. From each of these a
string proceeds, and these are twined together. When they are
Humming Tops stretched out the nuts rotate and whistle or hum. ln other words,
the sarne method as on a buzz disc. The instrument is used as a toy.
Tribe Author or colloction

Whistling-arrows and darts.

Kekchi SM.
Cu na GM: 27.27.1196-1200.
\Vhen an arrow whizzes through the air a whistling sound re-
(Ke.ynore.) sults. This may be intensified by placing a small hollow nut or
Chocó CM: 27.27.435-437. the like on the arrow. Many peoples, and
(Docordo) among these the lndians, know this little
Uitoto BM: (Coll. Preuss). trick. NORDENSKIOLD ([9], p. 244) has made a
Cú.ue. KOCH·GRÜNBERG, [4], I, p. 275.
Vanane. Gi\I: 28.I.241.
study of the occurrence of this custam of
Be.niwe. GM: 28.I.35. fastening a globular whistle on arrows or darts.
l\le.kú G?i!: 25.6.96. Thus it is found in large parts of Amazonas,
ltio Aie.ry Kocn-CnfurnERG, [4], I, fig. 68, p. 121. towards the south as far as Guayaqul, and in
Te.ulipang Op. cit., ill, p. 149. the north on the lsthmus of Panama. Fig. 129
Palikur CM: 26. 3. 275.
Apine.yó CM: 31. 40. 273.
portrays the whistling instrument on a dart Fig. 129. Tho whistle
Chame. T ESSMANN, (2], p. 44, pi. 8, figa. 6 & 7.
from Suyá. According to TnALBITZlm whistles on a dart frorn Suye..
Omagua TESSMANN, [IJ, p . 56. 1 • of bone beads were also used by the Amas- After RYoÉN.
Koknmn. » p. 75. salik Eskimos on their old-time bird darts.
Kampa )) p. 92. From this evidence NoRDENSKlOLD concludes that the whistling
Pánobo & p. 115.
Kascibo
arrow was invented independently in two places in America. ln bis
• p. 139.
Noknmán • p. 179. review of NoRDENSKIOLn's book, FRIEDERICI, however, criticizes bis
Koto • p. 198. treatment of these objects and adds that whistling arrows also
Pioché • p. 216. occurrcd among the Aztecs, the Indians of the Mosquito Coast, and
Lamisto • p. 228. among the Mojos.4 ) FRIEDERICI points out that since the Mongolians
Tschaye.uita • p. 389.
Tschamikuro
and .Burjats use whistling-arrows for the sarne purpose as the Aztecs,
• p. 404.
Chobero • p. 429. and the Chinese use dispatch-arrows with or without whistling me-
Omurana • p. 450. chanisms »so dürften die amerikanischen Schwirrpfeile auf asiatischen
Yogue. • p . 466. Einfluss über Beringstrassc zurückgchen ». This supposition is, how-
Ssimaku • p. 502. ever, not easily proved. Many gaps and very large ones are found
Ikito • p. 520.
Záparo
between Central Asia, Eastern Greenland anel MeÀ'"ÍCO.
• p. 541.
Tikune. • p. 561. 1) Gl\1: 12. I.208. RoTH ( 1), p. 497.
Yamoo • p. 571. 2) KooH-GnüNBERG, (3], I, p. 274, fig. 153.
Ce.mjó. KRAUSE, p. 312. 2) GM: 16.3.245 . .
Chi mano GM: 15.1.938. ' ) .FnrnDElUCI, p. 362.
 270 K. VET. O. VlT'.rERII. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1
IZIKOWITZ, :MUSICAL lNS'.rRUMENTS OF S. Al\1ER1CA 271
We have still one addition to make. RYDÉN [l] describes some a ccording to the so-called »key-principle », i. e. exactly in the manner
interestiog copper objects which almost certainly have been heads in 'vhich we blow in a hollow key. On r esonator whistles the diffe-
of whistling-arrows or darts from Ecuador and Peru (Hacienda de rence is, however, not very great if the flute has an opening. The
Sta. Clara). He also advances a theory about the origin of these transition is gradual and wc may regard these as one group. This
arrows: •> is, however, as we shall see, the transition to the so-called transverse
tTho whistling arrow may, however, havc come into b cing
flutes.
b y once, e. g., nutsbells with natural boles having come into
11so for tho thickened h ead on bird.arrows. Among the Ka- Globular flutes without stops.
mayura, for example, arrows aro us<>d - discharged by means
of throwing sticks - in which tho th ickc-ned hc-ad consists of a. W h i s t l e s o f h ol l o w / r u i l s.
m1tsholl d esigned to make a whistling or booming noiso in its The invention of blowing into hollow fruits has no doubt been
ilight (fig. 20). ln this connoction it; sh oultl bo mentioned
that Soler has published a piotUl'O of a clay vessC'I from Nazca
made more than once in the world. In the museum at Gothen burg
in which are roproduced some whis tling arrow-heads, from which there are whistles of this material from Huan-
it is oviclent that these weapons wero known in P eru long b e- yam (fig. J 31). I do not know from which
for<' tho Inca periocl. •' ) plants thcsc fruits bave been taken. ln the
Museum für Võlkerkunde in Berlin there is a
II. fruit-shell whistle from Na-
huquá which is made of a
Flutes without airducts. solid nut in which two
cavities have been bored.1 )
The large group of flutes without airducts may first be divided Fig. 131. Whistle of h l h
hollow fruit from the
The w ist e is, in ot er
into fintes with stops and. those without it , since this diffcrence con- Huanyam. After words, double and produ-
stitutes the important step from the ordinary whistles to what I NonDENSKri:iLD. ces two <liffercnt notes, i. e.
should term musical instruments, i. e. as far as flutes are concerned we have hero the first stage
instruments on which melodies may be played. But thcre are also 11
of the panpipes. TESSMANN montions single
other means of varying the tone and one of the most important of whlstles of this sort from the Omagua, Koto,
these is the principie of combining several wbistles to form one in- Lamisto.2 )
strument, each individual whistle producing a tone different from
the others. An example of this type of instrument is the pan-pipe.
Although this flute really belongs to flutes without O o n e h s h e l l s a s w h is t l e s.
airducts I have placed it in a special chaptcr at the Conch shells are also admirably suited as
end of my discussion of the flute group, since it can a material for whistles. One may either bore
better be treated separately and in relation to the rest a hole in the side of the shell or simply blow
of the flute types. through the opening itself if it is not too large.
Flutes without airducts may further be divided It is therefore often impossible to determine
into resonator flutes and tubular flutes. When a whether the side-hole has been used as a stop
resonator whistle or a tubular flute has no stops and or as a blow-hole. I am therefore including the
Fig. 130.
is completely closed apart from the blowhole, the conches which have side-holes arnong those with
'l'he manner of
blowing a fluto method of blowing is quite different. In this case the stops. Fig. 132. Copper
wlüstle(?) represonting
a ccording Lo the musician blows straight over the flute {see fig. l 30)
•) BM: VB. 24!lS. a conch, from Colom-
•koy •princ ipio. 1
) NORDENSKIÔLD, [ 10), PP· 120- 1. 2
) TESSMANN, (1), PP· 56, l!JS, 228. bia. BM: VA. JO:J60.
272 K . V E'r. O. VJ'l'T.ERH. S AMH. HAN DL. SER. A. BAND 5 . N:O 1 IZIKOWlTZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. A.1\1.E.RICA 273
1V h is t l e s o f anima l s k u l l s. the deer-skull whistle is spread over the continent. Going south,
Skulls of small mammals constitute a strangc material for whist- we find that the Indians have skulls of other animals as tbe material
les. As far as I know such whistles exist only in America and there, for their whistles. Among t be Parintintin it is the Aguti (Scurus sp. ),
to my knowledge, only south of the P anama can al. As may be seen among the Chimane the ant-eater, among the Mataco the Galictes,
from tbe map t heir distribution is directed towards the west. To etc. All openings, such as eye-sockets, nasal cavities, etc., are filled
judge from n'HARCOURT's quotations 1) from a number of early a uthors with wax while the bole at the neck is left open and used as a
these whistles must have been very common in the Incan empire blow-hole.
and in the era before the Discovery. The animal which in Peru The most n orthern tribe which to my knowledge has this type
usually provided skulls for whistles was t he small Andine deer, the
veruja. According to TscHUDI guanaco skulls were also used, althougb
tbis was less coromon. The sarne author gives tbe narne of the

F ig. 133. Clay whistles from the Paliku r represen t ing deer skulls. Gi\I: 26.3.137. ~·

instrument as Suxéa. CoBo mentions that it was used ata special Fig. 134. Tede, a. fluto of a.n a rmadillo sk ull a nd a bird-bonc. Cun a.
dance, guaray turilla, and that both men and women danced to tbe CM : 27.27.12 17.
n otes of this pipo.2) Such a dance is portrayed in POMO DE AYALA's
ma nuscript. In apite of eager search I have not been able to discover of whistle is the Cuna. ln this connection, however, I wish to point
either the function of this dance or the significance of the dcer-skull out that the fact that finding placcs farther north are not known to
whistlcs. me may simply be due t o the fact that this instrument has n ot been
MEAD portrays a clay whistle which is obviously an imitation collected, and perhaps not even observed . If we look at the table of
of a deer-skull whistle. On a whistling double-jar from Nazca there distribution on p. 274 we shall notice that about one half of my data
is t he fig ure of a man blowing a deer-skull whistle (soe fig. 240. are from the Gothenburg Museum , where these collections have been
M.Ax ScmuoT, [2], p. 271). made systematically. Without this material we should really only
E ast of the Andes there are a number of Indian tribes which know of this instrument from Peru and north-western Brazil.
use whistles of animal skulls. The Chassutino (TESSMANN, [l], p. The Cuna whistle of animal skulls, t he fede, occupies a special posi-
236) and Tukano (KocH-GRÜNBERO ([3], I , p . 302) use whistles of deer tion. Tbe snout h as been elongated by means of a tube of a bird's
skulls for signalling, and farthest towards tbe east the Palikur children bone which is eitber quite opon in the distal end or else half-
blow clay whistles ropresenting deer skulls (fig. 133). ln other words, covered with wax (fig. 134). The skull is that of an armadillo. The
1 ) D'H AncounT, [ 1], p. 77, cit. AnI.AOA, Cono, and t ConBtilucioneB Bynodales .. . • zygomatic arches have been left in place and serve as a hold for a
publishe<l in 1614. strap of glass beads. Strangely enough the whistles are tuned to
2
) Cono, V, L. XTV, chapt. XVIl. practically the ·sarne pitch. By covering the distal end with the
'' 18
274 K. VET. o. VI1.'TERR. s.um. HANDL. SER. A. BAND õ. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA

finger t'"º different notes may be obtained from the ins trument. The becomes greater. At first the material formed by nature itsclf is
two bones are united with black wax which on a number of speci- imitated - a stage of which I have given several examples - but
mens covers the whole skull. soon individual fancy comes in and determines the shapes. For this
Aside from the Cuna the function of the animal-skull whistle reason we find wood and clay whistles in a variety of shapes.
is not known to me. Among these Indians according to information The Yanaigua have a square whlstle of hard wood in whicb they
given by themselves, the whistle is used at the girls' puberty cere- have merely made a small dcpression. Its shape resembles somewhat
monies (NORDENSKIOLD , [8], p. 90). the Tsirakua whistles which are, however, furnished with two boles
in the lower end (fig. 135). NORLIND1 } is of the opinion - and
Animal skulls without doubt rightly - that these cannot be stops since they cannot

'l'l'ibo or placo 1 Species Autho1· or collection.

Peru deer n 'H.wconiT, [ 1), p. 77. a

• cit. Cono.
guanaco • cit. TSCHUDI.
clay imilation of '.\lEAD,
deer skull ~
Cuna. armadillo G'.\I: 27.27. 74; 27.27.1216-1220.

ººº
Chassutino deer TESSMANS, (J ], p. 236.
Makú rodent G)f: 25.6.91. b

~
Tukano deer Kocu -Cttl' NBERO. [3], IT, fig. l 4 e. p.
302. BM: VB. 6373.
Kobóua Cuatí Op. cit., fig. 184 a-b. Fig. 135. Fig. 136.
Rio Yapurlt. WHH'l'JW, p. 211. Fig. 135. Wooden whistle from the Tsirakua. RM: Z. 19.
Rio Içlt. Loc. cit. Fig. 136. Wooden whistles from the Wai-wai. a = 27.7.30. b = 27.7.31. y;.
Chimane ant CM: J õ.1.999.
? GM: 15.1.1000.
be used as such, but that they are meant for the suspension cord
Parintint in agutipul'ú (Sciurus GM: 23.3.257. Nimuendajú, 151, p. 242:
sp.) tUm brinquedo musical para crianças
to run th.rough.
consisto num craneo do agutipurú ln Guiana a number of different types occur. RoTn's collection
(Sciurus sp.), transformado em apito, in the museum of Gothenburg includes a couple of peculiar ·w histles
tapandose as aberturas com cxcpcào from the Waiwai and Parikuta. Like the Yanaigua instrument they
do furu occipital con cerol. •
consist of a piece of wood. They are shaped like a semi-circle,
i\Jataco Galictcs G:\1: 13.1.516.
Ashlushlay (Los Es- mammal G:\f: 13.1.445.
in the center of whlch i<i a cavity which is the air-cbamber.
1
teros) On one specimen (fig. 136 a) the h ole is bored obliquely through
Palikur clay imit. of dcer G:\I: 26.3.139. the wood but is on one side covered with a small fruit shell
Samucoa d eer BA'.\I: (information by RYDÉN. ) which has been fastened with wax. Rorn ([l] p. 459 Plate 165 D)
Ayomanes (Ve nezu- JAHN, p. 244.
describes and portrays a pair of similar »whistles, carved out of wood
ela)
(to represent a savanna plovcrlike bird, the purukuri, noted for its
characteristic whistling note). » They are used »at the Makuari
W h i s t l e s o f w o o d. funeral dance of the Arowak » and >>Were blown to signal each new
As soon as objects are produced in some sort of amorphous mate- arrival at the landing stago up to the house. »
rial, such as wood , clay, metal, etc., the variety of forms at once 1) Verbal informat,ion.
276 .K. VET . O. VIT'l'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER . A . D AND 5 . N:O l IZIKOWITZ, M USlCAT, l NSTl'l.U:MENTS 0 .F S . AME RICA 277

lV h is t l e s o/ e l a y. vol. I , p . 110). A similar flute, although consisting of only two parts,

'lay-w hi t les are used as toys among t he P alikur Indians. Most is found among the P arintintin (cf. p . 300}. The Suisí flute is played
Jikely t hey are supposed to represent some sort of animal. They are by five men simultaneousJy and is used at a special dan ce.
called makukzi wbich is t be name for Nictybius grandis (NThIUEJS"DAJÚ, The Baniwa Indians, living somewhat further n orth , have a
[4), p . 47 ~. One of t hem in tbe Gothenburg Museum is furnished transverse flute which to some cxtent r esembles the N okamán flute,
with a sort of hoop . with the difference that it has a small excision at t he distal end (fig.
The Carib children at the upper Moruca river have clay whistles
representing »turtles and frogs. »1 )

Transverse flutes without stops.

ln South America there is a whole group of transverse flutes
.. •
b
which h ave no genuine stops, altbough a number of tbem h ave other
means of varying t be tone. These
flutes vary among t be different
tribes. ln certain instances they
:Fig. 138. Trans,·erso fl utes. n = Yurune, Blll : \ 'B. 1728 b. Length 22 cm.
forro a transition to t be genuine b = Baniwa , C~I: 2 .1.4 1. Length 19.7 cm.
flutes wit h stops. T his is for in-
F ig. 137. T rans\·erse flute from t he stance t he case with a flute from
Campo.. UM: (coll. R o oHE). t he Nokaman I ndians (TEss~,
[1], p . 179) consisting of a single
b amboo t tJ.be, open in one end and closed in the other with a n atu-
ral n ode. The blow-hole ü~ in the middle of the flute. The note is F ig . 139. T ro.nsvorso flu to from t ho Aro.pai. After D EUBElt. Y.i·
varied by striking t he open end of the flute with th e hand. The
Campa h ave a similar flute which is used »zum N achnahmen eines
138 b) . The flute is madc of some kind of black palro wood and is
Rebhuhns » (BM: coll. R oDHE). Inside this flute there is, however,
19.7 cm. long. The proximal end is closed with black wax. There
a piecc of plant marrow which causes t he tone to r oll as on a
is no information as to how this instrument is played. If the note
p olice whistle (fig. 137). T o prevent t bis marrow from falling out,
can be varied t his is n ot likely to be don e in t he sarne way as on t he
t he open cnd is closed with grass. ln GAF.FRON' priva.te collection in
Nokomán flute, for in t hat case it would bc necessary also to close
Berlin t herc is a vase of black pottery from P eru representing a group the excision at t he distal end. If. on the other hand, t his excision
of men playing flutes, which evidently b ave the same construction is made larger or smaller with t he hand t he pitch of thc tone would
as the Nokam án flute (SACHS, [2), pl. 8, fig. G3).
1
be varied accordingly.
The Suisí in north-western Brazil have a very peculiar transverse
D E UBER (p. 320) describes a similar flute from the Arapai,
flute consisting of a J. 70 m. long bamboo t ube w hich is divided into
its distal end having on a tail-like excision. Most likely there is no
five par ts by the n odes. E acb of t hese five parts has a square blow-
note v ariation on this flute. This type of distal end is, as wc shall
h ole. Thus t he instrument really consists of five t ra nsverse flutes
see, a characteristic of certain Guian a flutes of another construction
which are closed at both ends and lack stops (K ocH-G&ÜNBERG, [3],
(fig. 139). The sarne flnte is found among the Oyana, although
1
) ROTH , (1), p . 459, p l. 166, A- D. Comparo w hiatlea o f clay r epresent ing the description given by Dl1l GoE.rn ([1], pl. VII, fig. 9) is r atMr
conches, p. 287. p eculiar.
 278 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SA.l\ffi. HANDL. $1'.:.R . A . :SAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUS!CAL lNSTRUMENTS 0}' S. Al\IERICA 279
'1' h e h a n cl - s t o p f l u t e. concerned only with the distal excision at present. This was diffe-
ln Guiana the transverse flute \vithout stops is common and of rent on four flutes which belonged together. One was carved, as
a, type which to a considerable extent deviates from and is techrúcally will be seen from fig. 207 b. prccisely as on the open pipes on ccrtain
upcrior to that described above. It is usually made of very coarse Peruvian pan-pipes. Another was carved as show non fig. 207 c, i.
bamboo. One end is always closed by a natural node while the e. a semi-concave aperture cxactly like the hand-stop on the flute
other may be either open or closed. The blow-hole has the shape of with this name. It is therefore quite likely that this curious contri-
a vcry clongated rectangle. The flute has sometimes peculiar exci- vance originally simply was a method for carving the distal end:
sions in the onds. Sometimes bits of the side-branches are left in I should therefore consider it probable that the Baniwa also, as I
placc (fig. 140 a). These are probably left for the purpose of have already said, varied the notes with the hand.
The hand-stop flute
:is often very beautifully
ornamented. For the study
of this detail I refor to =------~
STOLPE's »Studier õver na-
turfolkens ornamentik » in
wlúch he portrays several
ornamenta ou this type of
f!ute.
The hand-stop flutes
Fig. 140. Ilnnd-stop flutes. a= Palikur, CM: 23. l.ll. Lcngth = 37 cm. occur only in Guiana mostly Fig. 141. The ma.nner of blowing a hand-stop
e = Galibi, GM: 23.1.l l. b, d = the hund-stops. among tbe Caribs, but are flute. After RoTH.
found there among a num-
hanging up the flute in the but. The strangest detail about this ber of tribes. 1 ) It is evidently a relatively late type of flute, the
flute is, however, the mecbanism for tone-variation. - a semi-con- model of which has become standardized.
cave aperture which is meant to be covered by the wbole hand
(fig. 14-0 e, d). NIMUENDAJÚ {[4], p. 57) describes how this flute
which I have termed the »hand-stop flute » is p1ayed among th; 11 h e Tim b í r a f l u t e.
Palikur Indians: »Der Bliiser setzt stets mit einer hohen Note ein Among a number of the Timbíra tribes, such as the Apinayé,
s?lnvankt eine Zeitlang um diesen Grundton, steigt ein paar Tõn; Krepinkateye, Pikóbye, and Canella there occurs a certain type of
t1efer, schwankt und tremuliert wieder und lãsst den Schlusston t ransverse flute wlúch is usually made of gourd, wood, or horn2 ). The
langsam abstcigend ausklingen. » wooden ones are conic in shape and are most likely from the begin-
Accorcling to N:rnroE~AJÚ (loc. cit.) the Galibi are the inventors ning intended as imitatio:1S of similar instruments of Lagenaria stems.
of t~is flute. It is not difficult to guess how they bave come upon The length of these flutes varies between 10 and 15 cm. (fig. l 42).
the 1dea of making tbis strange »hand-stop. » We noticed how the distal The mode of playing is interesting. Accorcling to information
excisions of tbe Baniwa and Arapai transverse flutes differed from from DR. HEINRICH SNETHLAOE, who has collected such instruments
one an~ther and we shall also see ali the other ways in which himself and seen thcm in use, tbey are played in such a manner
the Indians treat the distal ends on otber flute types. As an tbat the note is varied by putting a finger into the open part, pre-
example I might take a peculiar flute from SILVA DA CASTRo's col- cisely as is clone with tbe hand on certain trumpets (fig. 143). ln the
lcction in Stockholm (fig. 207). The blow-hole construction which is 1} See RoTH Ll ], p. 561.
described on p. 345 is of no interest in this conncction as we are 2) Coll. NrMUENDAJÚ and SNF:THLAOE at GM, DM, B:.\1.
280 K. VET. O. VIT'l'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL TNS'l'RUl\fENTS OF S. AMERICA 281
museum in Gothenburg there is an object of cow-horn from P atamona flute forms a transition to the flute with stops and may ·w ith equal
in Guiana, which is evidently meant to be a flute of this sort (G)f: rea.son be ascribed to t he sarne group a.s a number of wooden
12. 1. 52). whistles from Chaco (p. 293). It is also closely associated mth the
transverse flute of tbe Chiriguano (cf. fig. 161).
We bave now discussed a number of <lffferent types of trans-
verse flutes which Jack stops but wbicb, in spite of this, have other Simple closed pipes.
methods for varying t he notes. Most likely they ali rever(to a ln various places in outh America simple closed pipes are utilized
as musical instruments. They are blown in the sarne manner as a key
or a hollow nut. The instrument is therefore very
simplc and can easily be made of any hollow reed or
tubc. ln spite of this it is foun<l only in a few places
in South America and I do not know of it at all
from countries north of t he Isthmus of Panama.
We must also remember that the pan-pipe, which
is spread over large parts of outh America, is a
set or series of several cio ed pipes. The occurrence
of the pan-pipe does not make the u e of its simple
basic instrument impossible. The Cuna Indiana, for
instance, use both the pan-pipe and the simple
closed pipe, and the sarne is true of other tribes.
The Cuna Indian PEREZ stated that the Cuna have
Fig. 143. special dances "ith sixteen simple bam boo pipes.
Each participant has his own pipe. A t t he Gothen-
Fig. 142. Timbíra.fJuLe of gourd
burg Museum there is a collection of su ch pipes.
from t he Apinayé. 'fhe proximal end is often reinforced by string. Fig. 144. vVoodon
0 1\1: 3 1.40. 224. y,.. The pipes in the orchestra are alJ of different sizes, whistlo. Araucano,
Fig. 143 . Thc mannor of blowing and they are played alternatcly, like the toré clari- Cautin (Chile).
n Timbírn-flute. Apinnyó. nots in Guiana (see p. 257). Thc (;hocó have similar After Bo111AN.
Fig. 142. Q;\l: 31.40.228. pipes which are said to be played in the sarne way.1 )
KoCH-GRÜNBER02 ) states that tho mcn in the Roroima district, at the
simple bamboo wbistle and the different means of varying tbe note hummingbird dance tukui, which was alwas connected with tbe
have no doubt originated more or less independently in more t han parischera, blew simple elo ed pipcs now and then. ln the Roroima
one place. It is, as I have shown, quite reasonable to suppose that territory t he pan-pipe is not used.
the mechanism for note-variation has come into existence by chance Tbe simple elo. ed pipe is u. cd by theLengua3)andChiriguano,4 )who
through the different methods of carving the distal end. have no pan-pipes, and also by tho Parintintin,5 ) who bave t be pan-pipe.
Thcse flute types, of which the Nokamán flute must be considered
t hc oldest, are pcrhaps older than the transverso flute with stops. 1) I nformation from the late Baron P,nr.AND NORD~~NSKIÕLD.
2 ) V. HORN1lOSTEL [5], p. 402 scq .
ln ancient times similar flutes may also have existed in Mexico,
3) BM: VC. 1854.
although they r eceived a later addition therc: »the attached air-
' ) RM: P. 173.
duct. » (Cf. fig. 233). As I have already remarked, the Nokamán 6 ) GM: 26.5.5.
282 K. VET. O. VCTTE.RH. SAl\IB. HANDL. SER. A. BAND ó. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, 1\IUSTCAL INSTltUMENTS OF S. A.)'fERICA 283
ln Peru archaeological finds of simple pipes probably used as cross-section of the shape shown in the sarne figure. The shape of
whistles have been made. They are not made of small reeds, although thé bore is slightly conical. According to NORDKNSKIOLD (Zoe. cit.)
s uch whistles have also been found , but thc lattcr were evidently the whistle when blown is held verticaUy from the mouth, and the
containers for pigments or other things. Tho e which I believe to be lower hole is covered with the finger. He does not say which is the
whistles are three in number, all from Pachacamac. Two of them are Jower hole, but evidently the mall bole is meant. However, the
of clay (BM: VA. 39136; length 11.5 cm. anel BM: VA. 31125: 13 cm.). whi<>tle can also be blown when the small hole is open, because the
Both are cylindrical; the proximal end of one of them is shaped like large hole is so big that it reaches to the end of the pipe, which is
t he head of a llama and that of the other like a hurnan head. Both therefore rather sharp. The length of the whistle varies from 1 J cm.
have an attachment for suspension. The third pipe (BM: VA. 39215) to 55 cm. ln the middlo of one side there are two holes for the sus-
is mado of bone and the greater part of it is covered with a black
waxliko substance in which small bits of sea shells have been stuck
as decorations. It is 13.7 cm. long. This pipe is in some respects
similar to an object often found in archaeological collections from
Peru, made of two tubes of bone joined together or else of a clay
and a bone tube and covered with black wax and decorated with
shells. It is impossible to determine whether these objects really
were whistles or not. ln any case it does not seem to be possible to
produce sound on them. Some of them have variations in design.
for instance a little tube at a right angle to the proximal end (BM:
VA. 45196), which leads me to believe that they were not used as
sound instruments at ali.
The Araucanians used a simple closed pipe cut out of a piece of :Fig. 145. Scrérc-whistles from Chiriguano. a = Cl\I: 23.14.69. b = R"M: E . 6. ~'.1·
wood. One of these, which is in the Museum for Võlkerkunde in
Berlin (VC. 608) is 27 cm. long, but is bored only to a depth of pension cord. The pipos are borne on the breast in a horizontal
18.2 cm. It has two pierced »ears »for the s uspension cord. MEDINA position, and they are often beautifully decorated, (fig. 145). According
(fig. 80) and BOMAN (see von RosEN [2], fig. 2) depict similar Arau- to NoRDENSKtOLD the serére whistle indicates a connection with the
canian pipes. BOMAN's pipe (fig. 144) is an archaeological find from high culture to the west. He also shows apipe found at Pachacamac
Cantin in Chile, and consists of a wooden tube 27.5 cm. long which on the Peruvian coast. ~1Ax SCHMIDT ([1), p. 544) depicts a number
is bored through. The distal end is closed with a thimble, and there of serére whistles the Peruvian coast.
is a little wad of wool attached to the pipe by a string. According N°ORDE~SKIOLD (Zoe. cit.) has an extraordinar y theory regarding
to Bo:MA.N" this wad is used to close the opening of t he pipe to keep the origin of the serére whi tles. He believes that they were origin-
out the dirt when it is not in use. The Araucanian whistles are some- ally scales, which for some reason have lost their original function and
what similar to the animal skull whistles of the Cuna Indians (see have come to be used as whistles. 'ro prove this theory he points out
fig. 134). a Peruvian find, where a serére whistle evidently has been used for
weighing. However, v. ROSEN [2] has shown in a paper that this use
T h e S e ré r e w h i s t l e. of a serére whistle was probably accidental. The Peruvian scales are
The Serére is the Chiriguano name of a whistle used by the Chaco quite different in type from these whistles, and v. RosE~'s observa-
tribes around the Pilcomayo and by the .Chiriguano and Yuracare tion is undoubtedly correct. From later investigations by NoRDEN-
farther north (NoRDENSKIOLD [4], p, 179). The serére whistle, as is SKIOLD of Peruvian scales and weights it is evident that weights
seen from fig. 145, consists of a rectangular piece of wood and has a were measureci quite accurately, and the serére whistle with its two
284 K. VET. O. VITI'ERH. SAJ\ffi. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S , AMERICA 285

holes for suspension and its unsatisfactory balance system would be made of conches or gourds. W hen playing tbem one must alternately
quite unsuitable for this purpose. It is accordingly in ali probability suck and blow in the bole. The Canella is the only tribe from which
a true whistle and nothing else. It is also evident that it has come I know this whistle. ln Europe they are used as toys (fig. 146).
to Chaco from Peru and that it is connected with other simple whis-
t les. It may be assumed that both tbe serére whistle and the other Buc c al whistles.
simple wbistles of clay and bone :from Pachacamac are derived from A peculiar instrument is portrayed on fig. 147. It consists of a
a simple whistle of reed or some similar material. When the latter trapezoidal or square slab of bone, clay, etc. in tbe middle of wbich
carne to be made of wood or clay, only their appearance and a bole is bored straight through. The dotted line signifies the con-
shape were changed, bl.!t not their principle. Bo:MAN's whistle is fines of its hollow part.
undoubtedly most similar to the serére type. Nor is it entirely im- It is known only :from four places in South America (Palikur,
Chocó, Cuna,1 ) Colorado. The Palikur Indians2 ) make theirs of clay,

n 6
the Chocó3 ) of vegetable ivory, and the Colorado of bone.4 )
The P alikur blow them to lure the Cutias. The instrument is
.
.. p laced with the point in the mouth and is held between the lips so

u Fig. 146.
~\
.

Fig. 147.
that the transverse boles are open inside the mouth. The Chocó use
it in hunting the Agitlis, a rodent like tbe Cutia. NoRDENSKIÕLD
mentions t,hat the tone produced on these instruments is very sbarp
and piercing. I have tried to make it sound but wi.thout success.
PEREZ, on the other hand, succeeded in bringing forth a sharp whist-
Fig. 146. The Canella duck·whistle. GM: 31.40.252. Yz.
ling tone. ln .lús opinion this instrument is used by the negroes and
Fig. 147. Buccal-whistle from the Palikur. Gllf: 26.3.132.
is not an Indian invention. To judge from the distribution tbis is
possible that the Araucanians have obtained their simple whistles, not impossible, but I have never seen it described in African litera-
like so many other elements of their culture, from the high cultures ture.
to the north. The serére whistle must certainly on the whole be
regarded only as a standardized type of tbe simple closed whistle. Globular fintes with stops.
We have accordingly seen that the basic instrument of the The group of flutes now to be treated usually have two stops.
pan-pipe, the simple closed pipe, is used in various places in South ln South America these instruments are very com.mon and have a
America. This instrument is probably very ancient, since its prin- wide distribution, while in Central America they are found only as
cipie is as obvious as that of blowing into a hollow nut, and it can far as Honduras (see table). Like the simple whistles without stops
have originated in any place where some suitable material was to these are also made of various sorts of material and consequently
be found. 'rhat it was so little used is probably to be explained show a great variety of form.
by tbe fact that it was forced out by other wbistles and flutes of
improved types. Its continued u se in places is probably connected Fru i t she ll whistles.
with its funotion as a religious instrument.
Whistles of fruit shells are quite usual. Fig. 148 a, b shows
some specimens from the Goajiro. Similar ones are port rayed by
T h e C a n e l l a d u e k w h i s t l e.
1
) Ver bal informaLion by PEREZ.
,The Canella use a curious whistle at some oeremonies in order 2) GM: 26.3 .1 32 (coll. KnroENDAJú).
to imitate a duck. It consists of two round curved pieces g ued ª) GM: 27 .27 .426 a.
together with wax each of which has a hole in the middle. They are 4) Gl\1: 20.7.403. AJso: Rio Napo Indians acc. to letter from )Ir. BALFOUR.
 286 K. VET. O. Vl'I"J'ERH. SiliH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL lNSTRUMENTS OF S. .A..>IERICA 287
v. HORNBO TEL from the Schiriana (fig. 148 c), and by Iú.RL should find just this type among such primitive tribes a,s the Ges and
v. n. STEINEN from the Bororó. The Tukano wear seYeral such Schiriana.
flutes in their necklaces. The fruits are about 9 cm . long and haYe The Kayapo (Pao d'Arco) have small gourds with only one stop
three boles in a row on one side. The middle one of these is the (Bl\f: VB. 8387). Inside the whistle is a small wooden ball which the
blow-hole. The Colorado also wear similar whistle in their necklaces. blowing causes to roll in such a way that a tremulating sound ensues,
Towards the south, in ~fatto Grosso, tho Nambicuara and Pa- exactly as in our police or signal whistles. These are also worn in
necklaces. According to the catalogue they are used at »Gewítter-
beschwõrung ».

e on eh f l u t e 8.
I have already pointed out that in wes-
tern South America conch shells are quite
commonly used as wbistles. The Colorado
Fig. 148. Fig. 149.
Indians in Ecuador make small flutcs of
Fig. 148. Fruit shell whisUcs with two stops. a. b = Coajiro, G:i\I: 24.2.3i.3. anel
659. e = Schiriana, aft.er v. Ilon:snosn~L.
conch which they wear in their necklaces
Fig. 149. \\'histle of Lwo gourd hal..-es from tho Parcssi. Afte r )1. ScamnT. together ''ith the fruit-sheU whistle described
a bove. The opening of the conch is closed
with wax in which three or four holes are
punched for the fingers and one for the
moutb (GM: 20.7.16-7.). To my knowledge
no other living Indian tribe makes whistles
Fig. 151. Two conch whistlcs
of conches, but such whistles are found from Chancay.
in the Peruvian graves. At the Gothen- CM: 22.3.10. I~.
burg Museum there aro somo from Chan-
cay, which have a holo on the side. The idea was evidently
a b
that the natural opening was to be used as blow-hole and the side
F ig. 150. Flutes of small gourds. a = Canella, 01\1: 31.41.331. b = Apinayé,
G:\I: 31.40. 230.
bole for note-variation. A couple of these conch whistles were múted
with a narrow band (fig. 151).
ressí (fig. l 49) bave whistles made of two round, slightly com·ex slices
of gourd whioh are cemented together with wax. On one ide there are C lay whistles.
three holes, whioh, so to speak, forro the three angles of an isosceles A beautiful specimen from Chancay is shown on fig. 152. The
triangle. One of these is the blow-hole, the other two are stops. conch is very beautifully and correctly modelled and it is easily
These whistles are not blown with the mouth but - strange to say seen that it is meant to be a Fa ciolaria. The spire of the
- with the nose. This curious mode of playing is found in other ooncb is pierced in the apex and there are also two holes on the
parts of South America in connection with tubular transverse flutes. side. I suppose that the natural opening also in this case constitutes
I shall return to this subject in another connection (of. p. 327). the blow-hole, although it is rather large. With some difficulty I
The Timbfra tribes use small gourds for whistles (fig. l 50). did, however, succeed in producing sound. n'HARCOURT ([l) pl.
Usually these also have two, occasionally four, stops. Typical for XXVIII, fig . 2) portrays onc specimen of this type from Huacho.
them is that they are worn in necklaces. It is intoresLing that we and MEAD has ·severa! from the coast of Peru, though he does
288 K . VET. O. VITTERH. SA!>ffi. H.ANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL lNSTRUMEN'TS OF S. A.l\IERICA 289

not m ention where they were found or whether or not they had en la base, desprovisto de la última espira y con dos agujeritos suspen-
stops.1 ) sores en el borde. »
F arther to the north, in E cuador, conch wbistles of clay are very SAVILLE ([2], vol. I , p. 77 seq.) mentions that »in the interior
common. n'IIA.RcoUB.T and RIVET A1''D VERNEAU describe and por- of E cuador, pottery whistles are not common. None were found in
tray a large collection of these instruments.2 ) Neither D 'IlA.RcOURT nor t he region of the Puruhás, near Riobamba, but they occur in the
RIVET AND VERNEAU regard them ali as real whistles: »Il ne faut pa-s, Imbabura district north of Quito. Along the coast a number of them
cependant, ranger toutes ces copies de coquilles dans la categorie des have been discovered in E smeraldas, Dorsey has figures of several
sifflets, ta.nt en raison de leurs dimensions parfois considerables que
de la disposition des leurs orifices impropres à former une embou-
chure... »3 ) R1vET is of the opinion that the conch formerly had a
religious and commercial func-
tion in E cuador. In RIVET's
collection two speciesof conches
are r epresented - the Fascio-
laria and Oassis - the latter
have one, two or no holes,
while Fasciolaria have three.
The whistles are handsomely
Fig. 152. Clay whistle ropresenting a conch.decorated with black figures
Chuucay. Q)I: 2 1.10.28. }'2. on a painted brO'wn back-
ground.
A beautiful collection of congeneric conch whistles - also from
E cuador - is found in the National Museum in Copenhagen. Some
of them are rcproduced on fig. 153. UHLE portrays a conch -like clay
whistlo from Cuasmal in Ecuador. It has only one hole for the finger
and on o for the mouth. The end opposite tbe spire is modelled in the
shap e of a man blowing a pan-pipe. 4) UHLE5 ) refers t his instrument
F ig. 153. Clay whistles representing conches. N. Ecuador. •
Copenhagen )luseum .
to the »tipo m ayoide (Civilizacion, no. 3) ». I do not know the reason
for this as these instruments do not exist in the Mayan region. JIJÓN
Y 'AAJ\fJ\ ~0 6 ) describes two whistles, one a clay imitation of the bird-shaped whistles from the I sland of La Plata, off the coast of
Bitlimu a nd the other in the shape of an Ampularia. This latter Manabi, and Suarez also depicts severa! from the vici1úty of Cerro
J1a-s a holo for suspension. He found a similar one at El Quinche de Hojas. » SAVILLE portrays two interesting whistles (pl. XLIX,
(Imbabura,7) and others, though smaller, from Urcuquí »perforado figs. 13 & 15). Both are round and plain. The blow-bole is placed
at the edge and the stops - tbere are three on fig. 13 and two on
1
) )IEAD, 12), pi. VllT, figs. 4, 11, 12.
fig. 15 - are on one side. Fig. 15 has an incision in the form of a
2) o ' H AllCOU RT, [ l ), pi. XXTX, p. 72; RrvET & VERNAU, 2c fosc., pi. XLI ot XLII. spiral which suggests that it is supposed to representa conch, presum-
3 ) o ' H ARCOV RT [l], p. 72 cit. RrVET, 1e fase., p. 262. ably of the sarne flat species as among the Colorado (fig. 154).
4
) U11LJ~, [5], fig. 2. The Indians of E cuador were evidently very fond of modelling
º) Op. cit., p. 29.
6 ) JJJÓN y CA AMANO,
and their imagination and sense of form seems to have been excep-
[l ], PP· 108, 110.
') Op. cit., Lamino. XVIII, fig. 1-a.
tionallS well developed. Thus we find both sin1ple globular clay
J9
290 K. VET. 0. VlTTE:RH. S..L"\IH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL L"ISTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 291

o~
whistles - presumably imitating various indicates clearly the cord by which they have been suspended. They
. sorts of fruits - and whistles in the shape of have two stops (fig. l õ5).
8 animais - birds. quadrupeds, etc. - and V. BucHWALD (Lamina X, fig. G) describes a globular whistle
. .... ...
many other forros. (The cylindrical clay
whistles I have classified together with the
from Durán, province of Guayas, Ecuador): >>en un lado hay dos hue-
quitos y en el otro tres para regular el sonido.»
F ig. l 54. Clay whistles
representing conches. transverse flutes.) The clay whistles are ln GoNZALES SuAREz' »Atlas »1 ) we find reproductions of whist-
After S AVJLLE. almost aJl archaeological finds. lt is strange les from Ecua<lor in the shapes of frogs and birds, but it is impossible
that so few should be in use among the living to determine whether or not tbey have airducts. ln the southern
Indians. ln Manabi (Ecuador) SAVILLE found several other forros parts of Peru these whistles are rarely met with, whether this may be
besides the conch-like whistles just mentioned. On pl. XLIX1 ) there due to poorly executed excavations or because they belong to a very
are reproduced a number of whistles, some globular, as for instance old cultural stratum. There is, of
fig. 8, some in the shape of birds as fig. 14. Of seven whistles on course, also the possibility that they
this plate six have two stops and only one has three. A characte- were not so very common in Peru
ristic detail is that if the whistle is of an elongated type it is always ln GAFFRON's private collec-
side-blown and the blow-hole is placed in the middle of the instrument. tion in Berlin there is a globular
On pl. L2) whistles »of the human figure type » are reproduced. whistle with four stops from N asca.
No. 4 shows the head of 1>a human figure with two distinct mouth- MEAD [2] portrays some Peruvian
holes, as will be noted in the cut. Two corresponding vent-holes whistles ou pl. VIII but it is im-
are in the back of the head. » SAVILLE portrays several such whistles. possible to decide whether or not
No. 4 is obviously double. Typical for this group is that the blow-hole these have stops. ln the Gothenburg Fig. 156. Clay whistle representi.ng 8
is at the top of the head and that the instrumenta as a rule have i\fuseum there is a small whistle dog(!) Pache.camac. B)1: VA. 39117.
t wo stops. from Nasca in the shape of a flying
On pl. CVIII SAVILLE portrays a whistle in the shape of a quad- bird.2) It has two stops. Whistles in the shape of birds are very
ruped. The blow-hole is o~ the back and the whistle may therefore be common, although most of them have airducts. KARL v. D. STEINEN
termed side-blown. lt has four stops near the legs, two on either side. mentions two bird-shaped specimens in an article concerning an
Fig. 11 on pl. LXXXIV portrays a whistle in the shape of some sort excavation at El Zamuro, Venezuela.3 ) It is, however, irnpossible
.of animal. The blow-hole is also here on the back and it has only to decide whether or not these have stops. MARcANo portrays a
one stop at the small of the back. It shows a certain likeness to couple of these instruments, but he does not mention in what part
some wooden whistles from Chaco. Similar whistles are found also in of Venezuela they were found. One of them has rattling contenta
Imbabura, Ecuador.1 ) Usually they are more or less globular. - small balls of clay - but is nevertheless most likely a clay whistle
ln R1VET'S collection from Ecuador in the Trocadéro museum with two holes. The other - in the s hape of a parrot - also has
there are a couple of small clay whistles from El-Angel. D'HARCOURT two stops (fig. 33, p. õ6). From Colombia, at Hoya del Quindio,
[1) reproduces them on pl. XXIX, figs 3 & 4. They are 4 cm. long Patia (Cauca), the distinguished »huaquero», Lms ARANGO, men-
and, according to D 'HARCOURT, have the tions some »ocarinas », also with two stops, which have »la forma
shape of a sling-stone - »en forme de de un trapo». But if these are without or '\\'ith airducts I do
pierre de fronde. » Most likely they are not know. An ordinary globular clay whistle '\\'itb two stops is
imitations of fruits like those from the found in the Calchaqui collection m the Gothenburg Museum (GM).
Colorado (cf. p . 286). A groove in the center Fig. 155. Cla.y whistle 1
) GONZALES S U AREZ, (3).
1) Op. cit. wit h two stops from 2
GM: 69.32.20 h.
)
2 ) J1JóN Y CAAMA~O, loc. cit. E cue.dor. KM: 0.1349. ª) v. d. Steinen [3].
292 K. VET. O. VTITERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l
IZIKOWITZ, )1US1CAL JNST.RUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 293
North of South America these clay whistles are very rarely found. around the neck and are used at certain dances. NoRDENSKIOLD ([4],
D ' HARCOURT ([1], pl. XXX, fig. 4) portrays one from Chiriqui, where p. 181) has studied these instruments and made a map of their
all whistles otberwise have airducts. Besides tbe blow-hole it has the distribution. ln bis opinion these whistles, together with many
two typical stops. On the body of the whistle a modelled figure re- other culture elements of the Chaco Indians, have come from the high
presenting a pelican with outstretched wings is applicated. These cultures in the west; and this he maintains in spite of the fact that he
whistles do not occur farther north than in Honduras. A whistle has not found one single specimen from Peru, although he has gone
from Rio Ulua in this state is found at the Gothenburg Museum through the large archaeological collection from this state in the Mu-
sewn for Võlkerkunde in Berlin. This opinion is probably correct
since we have whistles of precisely the same construction in Peru,
although made of clay and of a. somewhat different shape (cf. p. 297

~-

8
Fig. 158. Round woode11 whistles without airducts from Chaco. a = Churapa,
Fig. 1!;7. Clay whistles without airducts from Rio Ulua, Honduras. 11 = GM: RM: 'J'j. 71. b = Chiriguano, HM: E. 91. e= Choroti, GM: 13.1.88.
23.6.708. b = GM: 23.6.707. f = Oi\f: 23.6.706.

and fig. 160). The instrnmcnts which are most like the Chaco whist-
(fig. 156 a.) It has an interesting construction. lt is double, con- les are, however, the flat clay whistles made in imitation of flat
i ting of two globular whistles, each with two stops. The whistles conch shells found at Manabi (fig. 154). The Chaco whistles are
are united and open out into a joint airchamber which has a blow- ornamented ''ith wedge-shapecl incisions along the edges of the two
hole in the top (fig. 156 e). The exterior is modelled in the shape concentric ellipses. Thi custom of marking the edges with wedge-
of an old man. ln the Museum for Võlkerkunde in Berlin there is a haped ornaments also suggests that they originated in Peru where
fine collection of these whistles. Another whistle. from l\fayogalpa, tbis is common (cf. ~fAx cmnnT, 12), p. 238). I should consider it
is in black pottery and lias three stops. They have been depicted by likely that these wooden whistles were originally imitations of flat
GORDON. conch wbistles like tho e of t he Colorado and from Manabi.1) It may
be that the ornaments refor to this origin - the concentric circles
are perhaps »rudiments » of the conch spiral. Nevertheless, it is rather
li' o o d e n w h is t l e s.
odd that corresponding whistles have not been found in Peru. As I
ln Chaco and the adjacent territory the Indians use whistles of have mentioned above, resonator whistles without airducts werc on
wood. Some of these are round and flat and have a blow-hole in the
edge and two stops on the side. They are always carried on a cord 1
) Cf. SAVILLE, [2], II, pi. J~XXX I V.
294 K. VET. O. VlTTERH. SAMH. HAN DL . SER. A. BAND 5 . Y:O l

t he whole scarce. One may speculate whether t hey perhaps occurred

in Peru during a period when whistles were not la id down in the
\ Fruit shells
IZIKOWITZ, MU SICAL INSTRU'ME~S

»Globular» /lides with stops :

OF S . AMERrCA 295

graves.
Xo. of
The eastern Chaco tribes, such as the Chamakoko and the Ka- Tribe :\fate rial Author or collection
diuveo tribes, h ave square whistles instead of round ones. These are ·I sto ps

identical for the two t ribes, and consist of a n elongated piece of wood. Goajiro 2 GM: 24.2.375-377.
the horizontal crosssection of which is rectangular and the vertical Schiriana 2 v. H oRNeosTEL. p. 40:3.
cut oval in shape. The blow-hole is placed laterally, i. e. in the Tukano 2 K o CB- GRtNBERO, (3], mi. 1. p. 302,
fig. 183.
middle of one long side. They have only stops on one of t he short
Kapie kra gourd Bl\I: \ 'B. 8486 (coll. KISSE N BERTH ).
sides. Like the other whistles these are also worn in necklaces. (Canella) Bl\f: VB. 8492.
The globular flutes with stops might Apina.yé 2- 4 G l\1 : (coll. Nrnu ENDAJÚ) :
just as well be termed »resonator whistles» Kre pinkat eye DM: (coll. NnJVE:t>DAJÚ).
as transverse flutes. We have noticed that Pikobye D'M: (coll . Nmt:EJS"DAJ(;).
as soon as the resonator whistles take on a
Bororó lv. D. 8TEIYEN.
Kaya.po (Pao go urd Bl\i: VB. 8387- 8391 (with wooden
m o•e or less elongated form the blow-hole d ' Arco) balls inside).
is always placed on one long side, which ~ambicuara ROQ'["ETTO-P11'""TO,fig. 6 5 . p. 143.
means that the whistle becomes a trans- DA SILVA R ONDOIS". p. 55.
Fig. 159. Cross.section o f verse flute. I shall shown la.ter (p. 297) Paressi gourd :l!Ax Sca~tIDT. [3]. fig. 149. p. 24-0.
ª whistlo on fig . ! 58. how nearly related whistles without stops at Lima 4 BM: VA. 37424; 37608; 37610: etc.
Colorado nut 2 C ll: 20.7.402: 20.7.415.
are to transverse flutes without stops, and
how uncerta in the boundary is between them. All is in fact a
matter of change of material; instead of fruit shells, conches, etc. the
Indiana have used bamboo for flutes. Similar to this is the relation Gonches in clay imitation
between the resonator whistles and transverse flutes which have
stops for note-variation. Both these groups are intimately related, Place Species imit.
No. of Author or collectio n
holes
although, as we shall see, the development changes direction in
t hat a change of material takes place.
Ecuador Bulinma & JtJÓN y CAA.llASO. PP· 108, 110.
As we shall see later, the resonator whistles without airducts are Ampularia
a n older cuJture element than t he whistles with attached airducts. Fa;tciolaria & o ' H A.Rc ornT, ([ I ], pi. XXIX. p. 72.)
This is clearly evident in P eru, where the latter probably ha ,-e forced Casais RITET & VERNEAL 2e fase. pi. XLI
out the former. Resonator whistles without airducts are found on - X LII.
Si'.\'ILLE, (2].
the southern Peruvian coast and they are common in t he highlands. JIJÓN y CAAMA XO, [ L]. p. 10 ' 110.
Urc uqui
Whist les with attached airducts are commonest on the coast. This Cue.smal Ua.LE. (õ]. figs. l & 2.
explains why t he wooden Chaco whistle is not found here. · The ele- EI Quinche JtJÓN Y CAA.llAS°O. Lam. X\ºJII. fig.
ments of adva nced cuJture in Chaco are usually derived from the la.
highlands a nd not from the coast. The fact that wooden whistles El Ange l fX.
Ecua.dor) 0- 2 KM. see fig. 153.
have not been found in the highlands is not strange a nd does not ' Peru( ?) in black c lay Bl\1: \' A. 61338.
necessarily conflict with what I have said, since t hey couJd not have Peru, coast of F<UJCiolaria l\IEAD, [2), pi. VIII. figs . 4 , li , 12.
been preserved on account of the climate. Ancon :l Bl\1: (c oll. BAESSLER ).
Trujillo 2 BM: VA. 32548.
296

Gonches
K . VET. O. VITTERH. SA.1'1H . HANDL. SJl:R. A. BAND 5. N:O 1
/ lVood.
IZIKOWITZ, MUSI CAL INSTRUMENTS OF S . ..'L'1ER1CA 297

Xo. of
Tribe .Eth. o r Arch. Autho r or collection Tribe or place No. of
1 stops Size A uthor or collection
1 holes
1 1 1
Colorado E. 2 GM: 20.7.16-7. Chaco tribes 2 NoRDENSKIÕLD, [ 12), p. 25.
C11ng11hua A. JIJÓ:-< Y CAAMANO, Lam. XVTII, fig. Cha ma.coco 1 B:lf: VA. 7i34; ' ' C. 2733; VC. 2736
211.
(coll. Booou.NI).
A.
Chancny
/ P11chac11mac A. l?
GM: 22.3. 10.
BM: VA . 392 ll ; 40075.
J Kadiuveo 8 x 6,õ l .BM: VA. 4848.

/ Casma & Huarcz A. 2 BM: VA. 2345.

Transverse fiutes with stops.

Characteristic for many wbistles in the
Clay whistles
former group was that the blow-hole was
~.e
.::: e Tribe o r 1
S ba pe
X o. of
Author o r collectio n placed between two stops. This detail is also
;;.;< p lace
1
holes
1 typical of a small group of transverse flutes
E. Toba-Pilaga globular
which are closely related to tho resonator
3 BAM: (information by RYDÉN).
A. I ca 3 B M: VA. 45069.
whistles. ln Peru these are made of e 1 a y
A . Pacbacamac animal 2 BM: VA. 39117. 39127. and meta 1. ln GAFFRON's private collection
A. Nnzca human (?) ? BM: VA. 3911 6. in Berlin there is a sma ll flute of unpainted
fable animal BM: VA. 39109. clay from Pachacamac. It is 8 cm. long
A. Chimbote 2 BM: VA. 13426 (length 4,7 cm .).
and the cross-section, which is round, is 3.5
A. Mnnabi globular, birds, l, 2, 4 SAVtLLE, [2], vol. I , p. 77 seq.
etc. cm. in diameter. The blow-hole is placed Fig. 160. Peruvian clay
A. E l Zamuro birds V. D. STEINEN, figa. 25 & 27, p. 107. transversely and on the long side are two flutes. a = Pachacamac.
2 stops. There are, furthermore, two other Length 8 cm. Coll. GAFFRON.
A. E cuo.dor fruits b = Cuzco, BM: VA. 8368.
2 D'HARCOUUT, pi. XXIX, p. 324. boles, one on either of the short sides. These Length 9.2 cm.
frogs & birds ? GoNZALES Su AnEz, L am. XIX, 3 a &
may of course also be used for noto-varia-
4 a..
A. Durán (prov. globula r 2- 3 v. B u cHWALD, Lam. X, fig. 6, p. 23.
tion. The flute also has an arrangement for suspension (fig. 160 a).
G uayas, Ecua· A flute almost identical with t he ono just described is portrayed
dor) by JrJóN Y Ü AAMANO from E J Quinche (Imbabura),1 ) and anot ber
A. Venezuela 2 fig. 33, p . 56.
'.\!ARCA.NO, from Cuzco closely related to it is found in the Berlin l\fuseum.
e.t Tacarig ua bird 2 REQUENA, p . 145.
A. Hoya. de i Qui
As will be seen from fig. 160 b, this Jatter has precisely the sarne
Quintio t<>earinas • 3 (2?) AliANOO, p. 124.
arrangement of holes, but is slightly different in its shape, which is not
A. El Quinr he 4? J1JÓN Y CAAMAXO, Lam. XVIII, fig. quite cylindrical but narrows a bit towards both ends - that is, it
(Ecuador) 4 a. resembles a double-truncated cone. Such fJutes ha>e been found at
A. Ca lch aqui 'g lo bular 2 G:II. Huacho2 ) (12 cm. long) and at Ollacbea3 ) (7.5 cm. long). These latter
Chiriqui ·11.ppl. birdform 2 n 'HARcounT, [l), pi. XXX, fig. 4.
A. U lua , ·alley double globular,
both Jack the lateral boles. The sarno is the case with a 4.5 cm.
4 GM. see fig. 156.
LOTHROP, II, p. 273 .
long Peruvian silver flute (HM: B 295). On one side of it a small
GORDON. 1) JJJÓN y CAAJl!ANO, Lamina x rx, fig. 4 a.
Travesie. 2x 2 2) D'HARCOURT, [ J], p i. XXVllf, fig. 14.
A. Mayogopln GORDON. 3) RM: 06.1.450.
298 K. VET. O. YITTERH. SA.:\lH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKO\HTZ, )tUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 299

animal fig ure is applicated. East of t be Andes I know of only one flutes with six carefully fitted boles are never to be found in the
specimen of tbis flute. It derives from Cochabamba or Sta. Cruz.1 ) old graves in Peru. nor a mong the Iodian tribes that have been
It bas no lateral boles. untouched by the ci,·ilization of the whites. They are presumably
post-Colum bian.
A couple of flutes. directly analogous to the above-described but The only point of interest to us is to establish when they carne
made of b a m b o o. have been found, one among the Chiriguano from Europe, where the transverse flute first became common as late
(fig. 161), the other among the Botucudo (fig. 162). The for- as during the 17th century.1 } The Indians make these of bamboo
mer consists of a long and altogether open bamboo tube which or other tube material. They leave the distal end open or pierce
has a blow-h ole in the middle. The open ends of the tube serve the node, and the proximal end is either covered with a natural
as stops. These are alternately opened and closed. There are no
lateral holes. The specimen from the Botucudo is reproduced by
a.
t he Russian explorer MANIZER (p. 332, fig. 10 a). It consista of tube

,
which is closed at both ends by means of the natural nodes. On the
b.

Fig. 161.
Fig. 161 . Fig. 162.
Bamboo flute from the Chiriguano. Both ends are open and used as stop s.
.
•
..
e.
-
.
-
.....
...,.._ 1 ~

The blow-hole in the middle of the tube. OM: 30.30.30. !i'4·

Fig. 162. T rans,·erse flute of reed from the Botocudo. After M.unZEll. d.
Í' t 1 1 .. - ...1 JI ...,~ 1 •

side are three boles, the middle one of which is a blow-hole, while
the other two are stops. Obviously these flutes made of natural Fig. 163. Side-blowu flutes with two stops. a = Kaingang, BM: VB. 8500. b =
Kaingang, BM: VB. 8499. Longth 95 cm. e = Chancay, BM: VA. 22431. Longlh
materiais are predecessors of the clay flutes in E cuador and Peru. 82 cm. d = Poru. KM: 0.5645. Length = 79,8 cm.
That they are so scarce is probably due to the fact that they are
very old culture elements which have been forced out by other flute
node or with a dab of wax. The first stop is placed on the middle
types. Their occurrence as far east as among the Botucudo, who,
of the flute and the otbers at equidistant intervals between this and
as we know, on the whole have a very old and primitive culture,
the distal end.
also suggests tbat their origin lies far back in time. Whether the
We will now learn t hese instruments which are almost certainly
Chiriguano got their flute at their arrival at the place where they
post-Columbian and continue our investigation of the other flutes.
are now living, or whether they had it already before they started
There are several different types. I am acquainted with only three
on their migrations I cannot say.
from Peru (fig. 163 c-d) - the finest specimen of these belongs to
The transverse flute is by no means as common in America as
the National Museum in Copenhagen (fig. 163 d) and the other two
the end-blown flutes. They do not occur north of South America.
were the only ones I found in the old Peruvian collections in the
I will at once eliminate ali those transverse flutes with six boles,
Museum für Võlkerkunde in Berlin. It can evidently not be said
which have t he holes placed on t he lower or distal end of the flute,
that this flute is common in P eru, compared with the large number
a feature which is not found for instance on the pre-Columbian Pe-
of end-blown flutes which have been found. The two specimens in
ruvian end-blown flutes (see NoRDENSKIOLD [5], fig. 36 A.)
Berlin were found at Chancay and Marquez (BM: VA: 22431 , 24401),
NoitDENSKIOLD ([6]. p.192) says quite rightly, thattheside-blown
---
1) HM. 1) SAcHs (3]. ér. p. o. cit. EoEn.
300 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SA)UI. HANDL. SER . •<\. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, M USI CAL li'iSTRlJ1'11ENTS OF S. AMERICA 301
while the specimen from Copenhagen has no record of any definite proximal end, near the blow-hole. Which one of the two boles at
finding place. The construction of the flutes is as follows: They the proximal end is meant to be t he blow-hole is not always easily
consist of tubes which are closed of both ends. At. the proximal end· decided. The Palikur (fig. 164 a), for instance, do not blow
i the blow-hole, at the distal end two stops. We have a fourth through the outer hole. but through the next one.1) This t ribe does
example of this old Peruvian flute on a vase of black pottery, not, howe>er, blow with the nose like the majority of the other
belonging to GAl'FRON's private collection in Berlin-Schlachtensee1 ) tribes. If blown with tbe no e I suppose it would be necessary to
which r epre ents a man playing a transverse flu te. blow through the outer hole. The majority of the tribes who
As rega rds t be Indians now living, the first place where we have this flute blow it with the nose, and I suppose it would be con-
find this flute east of the Andes is in E cuador among the Jivaro ceivable that the others have done likewise earlier, although they
(fig. 164 e). have now forgotten the art. Mr. THULIN, who visited these tribes
TESSMAN also mentions the transverse flute with two stops
flute from among the Jivaro and gives the interesting information
that these Indians sometimes play it with the nose. According to
the sarne author the Kampll., Panobo, and possibly also the Kandoschi
have this flute. Unfortunately he does not reproduce it or mention
whether or not it is played with the nose in the e latter tribes. b.
·- .
l
To find thi'3 sarne flute farther towards the east we must go as
far as the Kaingang. They have more than one meter long flutes,
often covered with basketry, as shown on fig. 163 a. The Kaingang r. 1mt 1
also use another type of flute which is blown with t he nose, and it e.
is not impossible that tbe flute in question is also blown in this Fig. 164. Side-blown flut es. a = Palikur, GM: 26.3.147. Length 57 cm .
manner (cf. p. 303). b = Pata.mona, G)f: 12.1.101. Length 70,5 cm. e = Jivaro, GM: 20.7.254.
ln the collection at t he Gothenburg Museum from t he Parintintin L ength 63,5 cm.

at Rio Madeira there are several kinds of transverse flutes, partly

simple with a blow-hole atone end anda stop at the open proximal in the inner parts of British Guiana in 1912 and brought with
end, and partly double transverse flutes 100.5 cm. long. On these him from there a large collection for the Gothenburg Museum, also
latter each half of the flute has a blow-hole and a stop. They are, secured a nose-flute from the Patamona. This was said to be very
however, closed in bot h ends. NrMUENDAJÚ, who has collected these old and no one could blow it with the nose at that time.
flutes, does n ot mention anything about their use in bis article on That these flutes also are closely related to the »resonator whist-
the Parintintin. les with t wo stops» is quite clear. They are closed at the ends (with
Among the primitive Schiriana we find a transverse flute which t he exception of a Parintintin specimen and may for this reason be
is very like the one described-above, but which has three stops regarded as a sort of elongated resonator whistle. The two stops
instead of two. It is also closed at both ends.2 ) ln Guiana this which are so common on tbe resonator whistles reappear often in
flute is common. The Indians there have long, narrow flutes, closed t hese flutes. The arrangement of b oles in t he Guiana flute is pe-
at both ends. The position of the holes3 ) is curious and identical culiar. The position of the blow-hole on tbe Palikur flute makes it
for all Guiana tribes which have this type of flute (fig. 164 b). necessary to hold it like t he Botucudo flute portrayed in fig. 162,
Besides the two stops at the distal end there are al so two at the which has a blow-hole between t wo stops. It may be that this bole
system originated as a sort of »hybrid » between the Botucudo flute
1
) Now in Miinchen.
2 ) V'. l lOllNUOST EL, [5], P· 404. 1
) Ve rbal information from Mr. N tM UENOAJÚ, t he collector of this fluto which
3 ) JtOTff c11lls iL bilate ral. is at the GM.

1
302 K. VET . O. vrrl'ERH. SA:\IH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND .). N:O l IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL INSTRUME~TS OF S. A~ERICA 303

and the one with only two stops at the distal encf. I should there- No. of
Tribe or place Size .Aut hor or collection
fore consider it likely that all these transverse flutes have deve- h oles
1 1 1
loped from the ordinary »resonator whistle », in that the fruit shell,
P e ru 2 101 : 0.5645.
etc. have been exchanged for a bamboo tube, closed at both ends. .
Chancay 130, 8 cm. 2 BM : V.A. 24401; VB.
At first the boles were placed in the middle of the tube, as on the )!arquez
elongated resonator whistles, and later a change took place whereby Ica 44 cm. 2 B 11: VA . 5313.
the blow-hole was put at one end and the two stops at the other. Chimú 2 Coll. GAFFRON. Clay vessel in shape of man
What the reason for this change may have been it is difficult to say. playing a transverse flute.
Parintintin l GM: (coll. NIMUENDAJÚ). Double.
It might possibly have· some connection with the custom of playing
Schiriana 3 v. HOllNBOSTEL, [5), taf. 66, 3.
with the nose, since in that case the blow-hole must necessarily be Akawai 60- 70cm. 3,4 RoTH, [1), § 560.
placed at one end of the tube. Taruma, Wai-
We have observed that the transverse flutes were very rare in wai, Oyana
*
Peru, and that one of the finds was located at Chancay - a finding Carib •
place for very ancient culture objects. We have likewise seen that Parikuta
Yekuaná
•
V. HoR~BOSTEL, [5], p. 404.
t he centre of gravity for these flutes lay in Guiana and that they
moreover occur among such primitive tribes as the Schiriana and Kain-
Taulipang
•
Wapishana
•
gang. Thus th eir distribution is to some extent reminiscent of that • RoTH, [ 1), § 560.
of the resonator whistles with stops (cf. p. 295), although these latter Makushi
Patamona
79 cm.
i0.5 cm .
3 •
DM: (coll. SCHOYBl:"RGK. 1840-4) .
must be regarded as somewhat older since they go as far north as GM: 12.1.10 1.
Palikur 5i cm. Q)l: 26.3.14i.
Honduras. We should, however , bear in mind, that we do not know Oyampi Information by X o b . A. :\IoRDLVI.
whether or not the transverse flute may have occurred in these
regions. A t any rate, to judge from the distribution of this flute Other materials.
type it has a very respectable age. Perhaps this explains why the
Place No. of
different specimens, like the resonator whistles, vary so much. It 1 Material / Siza Autho r or collection
stops
1 1
would be difficult to ascertain where the transverse flute with stops
originated. P ersonally, I should be inclined to believe that it Cochabamba or
occurred within the area of the Peruvian high culture. Sta. Cruz clay 2 ffif.
Peru silver HM: B . 295.
Cuzco 6,5 cm. 2 Bl\l: VA. 8368.
Transverse /lutes without airduct~ and with stops
Barnboo
9, 25 • B lí: V A. 8370 .
Huacho clay 2 o ' HARCOGRT, [ l ], pi. XXVIII,
fig. 14.
Xo. of Pachacamac
Tribe o r place Size Author or collectio n clay 2x 2 ColJ. ÜA.FFRO~.
boles 1
1 1 1 E I Quinche (Im- JIJó~ Y CAAllAXO, Lam. XIX,
babura.) fig. 4 a.
Chiriguano 2 G~I : (coll . MÉTRAUx ).
B o tucudo 2 MANlZER, (1 ), p . 332.
Jivaro GM: 20.7.254. Flutes with a blow-hole in the septum.
Kampa } The Botucudo and Kaingang-Kamé have a sort of flutes on
Pano bo TESSMANN [l), p. 92.115.287.
which the blow-hole is placed in the septum of the reed which has
Kandoschi
Kaingang (Rio 2 BM: VB. 8499 (coll. FRIÕ). been left in place. They are blown with the nose and are held ob-
Ivahy) liquely, as shown in fig . 187. The H.ussian ethnographer, MANIZEB,
304 K. VET. O. \Tl'TERH. SMIH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, M.USICAL TNSTRUM ENTS OF S. AMERICA 305
who has gi ven us an excellent 1; =nê ; S-â--'WU 5) •ri-W iíã?
1
Indonesia, and on :M:alacca where, oddly enough, t hey are also blown
description of t he musical instru- with the nose. I shall, howcver, return to this phenomenon in
menta among certain East Bra- connection with a discussion of the nose-flutes (cf. p. 327).
zilian tribes, explains how the
stops, etc. are placed: l)The flute
Fig. 165. Nose-blown fin tes with the blow- End-Flutes.
is twisted and blown until sound bolw in the septum from t he Botocudo.
is produced. The point wbere Aftcr llfa.NIZER. The tube of the end-blown flutes is open altoget her and is blown
t he flute to uches t he nostril is by making the lips shape an air current which is directed against the
marked a nd from this a narrmv strip is scraped off the length edge of the blow-hole. This latter should, however, be covered par-
of the flute and at a suitable distance two holes, one for the tially by tbe lower lip or with wax or the like, in order to prevent the
forefinger and another for the little finger, are bored. » (MANIZER, hole from being too large, for then it will not be possible to produce
[l), p. 347.) . ., sound (see fig. 167). By making the blow-hole
The Kaingang flute portrayed by MANIZER derives from FRic s larger and smaller, and by regulating the force
collection. I saw such a specimen at Mr. FRic's in Prague, consis- of the air current the tone may be changed . That
ting of a meter long tube w ith two stops at the distal end and one at is one reasou why one cannot measure exactly the
the proximal end . It was relatively simple to make this instrument tones produced with t hese flutes. Personally I
sound by blowing with t he nose. If one blows stronger the overtones was able to vary the tone slightly more t han half
also come into use. The interesting point about this flute is that a note by changing t he position of the lips. Thus, Fig. 167. The
like the side-blown nose flutes in Guiana, it has a proximal stop. the tone system achieved on t hese flutes is to some mannerofblowing
ln NrnuENDAJú's collection from t he Apinayé in the Gothenburg extent dependent upon the skill of t he musician. a que na.
Museum there is also a nose-flute which is closely related to the
Another way of blowing is to place the flute partly between the
instrumenta rnentioued above. It is 19.5 cm. long and consista of an
lips in such a manner that only a portion of the blow-hole is open.
entirely open tube (fig. 166). An excision at the septum marks the
ln this case the flute must be held at a n angle. The air current then
point where the nose should be held. It is very easy to blow the
p asses one corner of the mouth. This method of playing is some-
flute in this manner. It lacks stops altogether but the tone may
times found on the simple end-flute, for instance in California.
be varied by opening and closing the open distal end.
The sharper the edge against which the air current is directed
Flutes with blow-holes in the septum also occur on the old Pe-
the easier it is to produce sound. For this reason a number of flutes
ruvian pan-pipes. These have as a rule their pipes i.n two rows and
h ave the proximal end of the tube carved thin (fig. 168 e). Taking
one set h as closed. the other open pipes. The latter h ave a piece
the shape of the proximal end as a ground for classification, this
of t he septurn left in place. Only a faint air current is required
group of flutes may be divided into t wo types. Either the tube
to make them sound (see furt her on p. 391). Whetber the pipes of
is cut more or less straight, or a special n otch is carved in the edge
thesc Peruvian pan-pipes and the East Brazilian flut.es bave a
and against tbis t he a ir current is directed. The two types are:
common origin it is difficult to say. T o judge from t heir distribution
towards t he east t his is a very ancient blowing-construction which, 1) end-flutes 'vith straight edges. We may call these s im p 1 e
as 1 shall presently show, e n d - f l u t e s.
has been the source of 2) end-flutes with notches. BALFOlIB calls them not e h e d
otber mechanisms. Out- f 1 u te s, SACHS, and NoRLIND after him, K erbfliite. ln mo-
~~ti!.• ' - ,.,, . íl.. ''t' ' "' , .
' side of South America dem Peru where this flute is very cornmon, it is usually
:E'ig. 166. Nosc-blown flute with blow-hole in such flutes are found in ca.Ued the quena, which name I shall use alternately with
t he septum from Apinayé. GM: 31.40. 239. 11
3•
certain parts of Oceania, note h e ·d f lute.
20
 306 K. \ ET. O. Vl'l'TERlI. Silill. llA~DL. SER. '\. BAND 5. :N":O 1
IZIKOWITZ, )llJSICAL INS1'Hl')1ENTS OF S . .UIERICA 30i
bably to simplify the work (fig. 168 a, e). On a photograph
a.
taken by :\IR. RYDÉS, a member of the staff of the Gothen-
burg Museum (fig. 169) of a Ai;hlushlay playing the simple end-
flute. we notice that it is not played like a quena (cf. fig. 167),
but that the flute is held in the mouth in a very curious manner.
It hi interesting that this same manncr of playing also occurs among

Fig. 168. Two r:;imple end-flutes and a section of rood usod as holdor for feathers.
a Choroti, Gl\1: 13.l.80. Longth 50.7 cm. b fonlhor-holdor, Choroti. Gl\f:
13. l.l:H. Le ngth 63.9 cm. e = Ashlushlay, JlM: A. 1800. Lcngth 63,8 cm.

S i 1n p l e e n d - / l u t e s.
Simple end-flutes occur very spora.dically in 8011th America. ln
Chaco. for in~tance. they are very rare and appear to have been forced
out by thc quena. the construction of which makes it easier to blow.
ln (;haco the simple end-flut.es are all made of bamboo tubes wlúch
are usually somewhat longer than the qucnas from the sarne region
(cf. tables). On C'ertain of these
flutes the proximal end i'3 sharpened
from the inside (fig. 168 e). As the
bamboo found in Chaco evidently
belongs to a species with relatively
short intervala between the septa,
the Indians have found it necessary
to include in the flute a couple of
these septa, if a longer instrument
is wantcd than can be made bet-
Fig. 170. Cuna Indian.s playing the kammu - a simple end-flute -
ween two of them. These septa and a gour<l rattle. ..\ft<>r DF.xsMORE.
must be removed, wlúch on these
flutes is done by boring holes
through them, in such a way that the Cuna (fig. 170). These lndians c·all the flute kammu1 ) and
the greater part of them still it iR played by the l·ant1íle.' (thc professional singers) together with a
remains. The flutes have three gourd rattle. At certain intervale:; ihey inte1Tupt the song with a
stops which are incised and usu- melody on the flute to the accompaniment of tbe rattle. Unfor-
ally rectangular in shape. Be- tunately PEREZ could not play thi~ flutc himself and was thercfore
fore carving out the holes, the unable to demonstrate its technique. These flutes consist of long,
Fig. 16!1. A~hhtBhlay boy playing a part of the tube on wlúch they are 1) Thjs word is very similar to th1it u8C'd in Guiana to denote transverse flulcs
simplc Pml-flut('. l'hoto. l~YDÉN. to be placcd is planed off, pro- with holes on both sides (fig. 163), thn ltummna, which means bamboo,. It ia diffic-11lt
to determine whether this similarity iR ar<-identul or riot.
308 K. VE T. O. VlTI'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A . BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL TNSTRUMENTS OF S. Al'llERJCA 309
narrow bamboo tubes - usually 70 cm. long behind for tbe thumb. This thumb-hole is almost always placed
- the distal end of which finishes mth a between the two upper finger-holes. Occasionally there are four
pierced septum. The proximal end is cut holes on the front side and there may even be two thumb-holes.
straight, is not · thinned, and often has win- On a couple of flutes there were five and six holes on the front side
dings of thread. Near the distal end are two (Ica, BM: VA. 45191 and Chancay, BM: VA. 22453 - both with
stops. two thumb-holes), but these are exceptions. On severa! of these
Formerly the same flute must have been flutes there are a grcat many holes, often quite irregularly placed.
found in Chlriqui, to judge from a small some of them filled with wax or stops of gourd. They may possibly
figure in gold portrayed by MAc CURDY (pl. J1ave been a sort of experimental instruments on which the Indians
CFhi~ . . 17 ~· Ohold.figuro from XLVIII e fig. 171). Thefigure - a man-holds
1r1qu1 s owmg a man . .
worked out the most suitable arrangement of the stops. The refilled
holes would then be unsuccessful experimenta. Inside the flute there
with f luto und rattle. a rattle m one hand and w1th the other
Aftor MAc CvnoY. Y2· sticks a flute into his mouth, precisely like the is often a diaphragm (fig. 172 a, b) consisting of a slice of gourd or
modem Cunas. wax. It is difficult to say what function this may have had. As
The simple end-flutes are not used in modem Peru, and whether
they were ever used there in historical times or not it is difficult
to say, since the various flute types have not been carefully de-
scribed in the old literature. On the other hand we come across Fig. li3. Simple end-fluto of bone from the Jivaro. B)I: VA. 32729.
them frequently in grave finds, although they are not as numerous Leng th 16.5 c m .
as guenas. Thus we find them along the coast towards the south,
in Arica, Ica, and in the region around Lima (Pachacamac, Lima,
these diaphragms are also found on guenas I shall discuss them in
Marquez, Ancon, Chancay) towards the north, and in Tiahuanaco
that connection.
(fig. 172 c). Most of them are, however, found in Pachacamac (for
my own part I have seen about a hundred specimens), while only a On most of the flutes the cord for suspension has been tied
few are met with outside of the Lima region (see table). Aside
around the middle of the instrument.
from the Arica specimen all these flutes from the coast of Peru The Arica specimen has been described by Um.1~ ([2], Lam. XII
belong to a very uniform type. They are ali made of ulme of deer, fig. 1). It is a 21 cm. long tube of bireis' bones with four stops on
slightly flat, i. e. with oval cross-cuts, and are somewhat bent in the lower part. The Tiahuanaco flute (fig. 172 e) is made of bone
form. The proximal end is usually and has three stops. It is 14.5 cm. long and the proximal end has
straight or slightly saddle-shaped (fig. an inner diameter of 2.8 cm.
l 72), evidently to follow the curves of In Urcuqui and El Quinche in Ecuador JIJóN y CAAMANO ([!),
t he lip, and the edge is cut thin. The p. 146) found flutes of the tibia of the llama and deer. They all haYe
distal cnd is usually cut straight, three stops. The only tribe which in our times still use these bone
although I have seen one exception flutes seems to be the Jivaro (fig. 173). On the whole this tribe has
to this rule in a flute from P achaca- maintained a great many ancient culture elements which in many
mac (BM: VA. 39203), on which the respects point towards a connection between them and for instance
distal end had a hook in the shape of • the Nazca and Ica cultures. Their flute - I have seen only one
a bird's head. Some of them are specimen - consists of a 16.5 cm. long bone, open in both ends, and
handsomely worked. As a rule they Fig. 172. Simple end-flutes of with the proximal end somewhat saddle-shaped on the front side.
bone . a & b = J?achacamac, CM:
have four stops, three of which are 16.9.149- l õO. e = Tiahuanaco, tt has tbree stops, two in the front anda thumb-hole placed between
placed on the front side and one CM: 31.15.209. 1 / ,. Ihese two (coll. FEYER, BM: VA. 32729). ln the Amazonian territory
 310 K. VET. 0. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BA~D 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S . ..UlERICA 311

tbese flutes are missing altogether, other t ypes are used here instead. The simple end-/lute
The next place we come across them again i in the "\Vest Indies. 1
Tribe o r place S tops 1 :\Iaterial 1 Aut ho r o r collectio n
I t may be for t hat mat ter the only flute of Tainian origin known 1
to us. lt consi ts of a 13.5 cm. long tube of bone. cut straight in ---
both ends, and wit h four stops. It was found by HATT (p. 35) at Ashlushlay 3 bam boo R:'ll: A . 428; A . 1 00.
1
~iagens Bay on St. Thomas. According to LOYÉN it belongs to a
Choroli 4 • RM: D . 714.

stratum representing a backstream current of the Taino culture from

Cuna • C M : 27.27. 1206.
Jivaro 2,t bono BM: VA . 32729.
P orto R.ico .1 ) A rica 4 • U HLE, [2], Lam. XII, fig . J .
The distribution of the simple end-flute in South America indi- . Ica 3, t • BM: VA. 45194.
cates clearly that we have to do with an exceptionally old culture
Magdalena ( at
5, t,, t ,
4,t
• ,
BM: VA. 45191.
BM: VA . 37214.
element, as is proved by its occurrence in a Tainian culture stratum, *
in Arica, and lca, and Tiahuanaco, and - last but not least - in
Lima) 3,t • BM: VA. 37213.

Chaco. The sarne is true of its occurrence north of South America,

At Lima 3, t • BM: VA. 37636.
)farque z 3,t • BM: VA. 45194; 36183.
Chancay 4,t • BM: VA. 22451.
6,tl,tl • BM: VA. 22453.
Chuquitanta 3 •
Pachacamac 4,t C M: 16.9. 149- 52. With d iaphragm a.
Fig. 174. Simple e nd-flute from the P o m o. California.
3,t Bi\l: VA . 39202 (cf. "'.\Ll.x Sc aJtroT).
3,t BM: VA. 39160.
Ancon 3,t RM: 05.17.90.
particularly m California and the southwest. Here the flutes are Cajarmarquilla D' HARCOURT, [ l ], p i. XXIY. 3.
made of elderwood and usually have four stops. J ust as in Chaco 4,t Bl\1: VA. 37008.
these latter are often placed in special carved grooves in the wall of S. Pedro Pacas- 4,t BM: VA . 12141.
t he flute. The flute is open straight through 'vith the proximal end mayo
Tiahuanaco GM: 3 l.15.209.
sharpened just as in Chaco, but on the outside (fig. 174). According
Tehuelche M \JSTEl\S, P· 81.
to WILSON (fig. 211) the Indiana also have bone flutes and double Urcuqui 3 JIJÓN Y ÜAAMANO, ( l]. p. 146.
flutes of wood which may have the sarne construction. EI Quinohe 3 »
The flute is held a little to one side when played (LOEB, p. 190), St. Thomas 4 HATT, p . 35.
i. e. just as among the Cuna and like the nose-flutes in eastern
Yavapai cane IÜ IFFORD, p . 231.
Brazil. They are used partly for amusement and partly for courtship
Achumawi DE ANOIJLO and n ·HARCOCRT. p . 193.
a nd magicai love songs (GIFFORD, p. 231 ; LOEB , loc. cit.) . J. DE :\Iiwok & Yakuto 4 GM: pho to-dep·t. 15-27i5.
AxoULo mentions that severa! Indians hold the flute horizontally Wailaki 5 0 1\1: photo-d ep ·t . 6628.
(as we do t he transverse flute), and that they blow with one comer
of the mouth .2 ) Yurok )
)faidu 1
Yuma

1
) Verbal information by LOVÉN. ln his book Lovf::o< (p . 496) writcs about this
Yukuts
)liwok
1 KROE BER,
•
Ll), p . 96.
' pi. 43.
flu to: *But this flu to can have easily been obtained by thc B orique íia11 Tainos from Karok
t he i..t· I g ne rian noighbo urs, so that it is not at ali oertain if such instruments consti- Pomo .
tutecl a p a rt of Tainan oultttre. • • 4 LOED, p. 190.
2
) DE ANOlJLO & n 'HARCOURT, p. 193, n ot e. Cahuilla KnoEBER, ( l ], p. 70i"í.
 312 K. VET. O. Vl'ITERH. SAMH. HA~DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1
IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 313
The Qu ena (The )lotch ed Flut e).
consista of two parts, in t hat an extra tnbe is sJipped into the distal
The manner of blowing the quena is shown on fig. 167. The end (fig. 175 a). This extra tube has one, tbe larger tube six
opening at the proxjmal end is covered partially with t be lower lip stops. I have noticed the sarne detail on severa! other f!u tes in
and an air current is directed against t he notch. On tbis flute the the Museum for Võlkerkunde in Berlin, alt hough the lower parts
djstal end is always open. ln tbe new world its distribution is h ave been missing on some specimens. The flutes whicb n 'HARCOURT
confined to Sout h America and is there, as will be seen from table portrays from Cajarmarquilla have four stops and also a diaphragm .
p. 323, in the main directed towards the west. Thus it has been found 1 have not found diaphragms on t he other Peru-
in Peru both in pre- and post-Columbian times. Great numbers of vian reed flutes. These instrumenta a re always
quenas have been excavated from the old graves on t he Peruvian open in the distal en<l. Usually the proximal end ,J.
coast . Furthermore it is found in Chaco, Mojos, along the Amazon
river anel its tributaries to the north as far as Motilon , anel towards
is cut off straight, but on some of the flntes
from Pisco (BM: VA. 44419) the cut is oblique, li
•!
the east as far as Guiana. On the other hand, it has n ot been found most likely in order to make the Jower lip rest .~
in or mentioneel from t he vVest Indies, nor among the Ges or Tupi- better. The notch is always more or Jess round. .,11
Guaraní tribes. To some e;xtent this distribution resembles that of
the pan-pipe (cf. p. 405), but there are nevertheless severa} deviations.
Among the descendants of thcse old cultures,
t he Quechua and Aymara, the notched flute is • 1:
The reason for this I shall attempt to analyse in my synthesis of still a popular instrument today and is called the • 1

•
•. ~i
t he flutes. quena, as 1 have already explained. Nowadays
For the t ime being we shall examine the variations or different it is made exclusively of r eed, chuqui (Arundo

'
forma of the quena, a nd to do t his we shall cboose tbe material as a donax).1) The quena has different sizes and ac-
basis for classification. Thus we have quenas of reeds bone clay cording to these it is also called qquenaclw and
gou.rd, and metal. Reeds and bone are the most comm'on ma~rial~ qquenali.1 ) Usually these modern instrnments .. ,
and both occur in ancient Peru. The Chaco Indiana, on tbe otber have seven stops as well as a thumb-ho]e and
hand, use reeds and the Indians of t he Rio Negro territory bone
exclusively .
occasionally a stop for the little finger on the side
at the distal end.2 ) The top hole is p1aced in the ~r
Numerous r e e d flutes are found in the graves on the Peru- middle of the flute. These instrumenta give ap- 1

vian coast, in I ca, Nazca, Chancay, Ancon, etc., as far as Cajarmar- proximately our diatonic scale. It is quite probable
quil~ a to tbe nortb. They are as a rule made of Cecropia, are open that their hole-system ha.s been inf!uenced by a. b
stra1ght through, and usually have seven, occasionally six, st.ops post-Columbian flutes since it does not occur on Fig. 175. Peru,·ian
which are either distributed evenly over t h e entire flute (fig. 175, the archaeological quenas. On t he modern quenas quenas. a. = I ca, Cl\l:
cf. table) or otherwise placed at about the middle of the t ube. the notch is always square-cut (fig. 176), a detail 16.9.146. Length 29.6
There are, however, exceptions to this rule. I have, for instance, whfoh, according to n 'HARCOURT, is also due cm. b = Chancay,
seen flutes from Chancay and Huacho1 ) with as many as eight to post-Columbian influence from the modern GM: 24 ·6 · 13 · Length
17 cm.
stops, and there are individual specimens from different places airduct-flutes (cf. p. 349, fig. 212). The quenas
whích have four (Ancon, Chancay, Ica), but these are, as I have had and still have an impor tant function in Peruvian music
already said , clearly exceptions. On the majority of quenas from on festive occasions as part of the dance music, to accompany
these regions the stops are round and have t be sarne diameter, but individual lyrical meditations, and not least important, as a love
on severa! of t hem their size varies considerably (fig. 175 b }, which instrument. ln this latter function it reminds one of tbe North
evidently is an attempt t o regulate the pitch. A flute from Ica 1 ) PAREDES, p. 205.
2
1
) See tableg. Nowada.ys1 thJJ Quechuas and Aymaras
) u 8e quenas of different sizes according
to various kinds of music (GONZALE8 BRAVO).
 314 K. VET. O. \ 'ITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l
IZIKOWITZ, ~l USICAL INSTRUME~TS OF S. AMERICA 315
in Mojos ha>e precisely the sarne hole-system on their wooden quenas
F ig. li6. Quena of reed from tho Tapiete.Yuquircnda, R~f: L. 212. as is found on the modem quenas from the Bierra. These lndians are
Length 43,8 cm . no doubt strongly influenced from the highlands as far a-s their musi-
cal instruments are concerned. Thus they also have the modem plateau
American flutes (cf. p. 346). ln thjs connection I cannot refrain pan-pipe (see fig. 25-1). 1 should consider it likely that the Chaco
from including a well-known quotation by GARCILA so nE LA VEGA1) Indiana likewise obtained their quenas, a.is well as a good many other
t o illus trate its suitability for Indian love magic: elements of their culture, from the highlands, but that they received
~c:uda canción t enía s u tomula conocida. por s í, y no podían them at a relatively late period, perhaps as late as in post-
d ccir elos canciones diferentes con una tonada; y esto era por- Columbian times, since their hole system is highly reminiscent of
que .cl galan enamorado, dando música de noc he con su flauta, that of the plateau fintes, which latter 1 consider due to influence
por la tonada que tenía decía a la dama y a todo el mundo el
contento o descontento de su ánimo, conformo ai favor o disfa-
,·or que le hacía: y si se dijeran dos cantares difer entes por una
tonada. no se supiera c uál de cllos e ra cl que 411erla decír el ga-
lán. D e manera que se puedc d ecir, que hablaba por la flauta.
Un espa iiol topó una noche, a deshora., en el Cozco, con un in-
dia que é l conocía. y queriendo volver a su posada, le dijo la
índia: se1i.or dejame ir donde voy, sábcte que aquella flauta que
oyes 011 aque l otero m e Jlama 0011 mucha pasi611 y tenura, de
m a nera que me fuerza a ir allá; d éjame por tu vida que no pue<lo
dejar de ir allá. que e ) amor m e lle va arra.strando para que yo
sea s u mujer y el mi marido. t
;;;µ ..~
ln Chaco we find two types of the quena. One of these (fig. 177) •
__.__
occurs among the Ashlushlay, Choroti, and Chané. ln appearance,
ma terial, and the position of its stops it is entirely like the simple Fig. 178. Quenas of reed. a = Wai-wai. Gl\I: 27.7.167. b = Taruma.
Gi\'I: 27 .7.155. e= Wai.wai. GJ.\11: 27.7.158.
end flute which is found in these regions (see p.
306). The difference between them is really that
the quenas have a notch and are somewhat smaller. from the European flutes. This is perhaps true only of the quenas
Otherwise we recognize the characteristically of the type under discussion, the others being simply converted forros
cut, narrow, rectangular stops and thumb-hole, of the simple end-flutes. The change may quite well have taken
the carving around these, and the pierced septa place as early as in pre-Columbian times. On the other hand, we
inside the flute and at the distal end . do not refind the hole-systems which occur on the assuredly pre-
The other type has no planing or carving Columbian quenas in graves on the coast of Peru, either in Chaco
but has a stop for the little finger which may be or Mojos. We know nothing of the bole-system of the plateau quenas
a b placed either to the Jeft or the right, evidently before the arrival of the Spaniards.
Fig. 177. Quenas depending on which hand the musician holds The notched end flutes of reed in Guiana have already been
of rood from Chaeo. nearest the distal end (fig. 176). lt has six stops, described so well by W. ROTJI ((l], § 563) that I prefer to quote him
a = AshJus hlay, CM: the top one being placed at the middle of the flute . on the subject:
13. l.301. Len g th These flutes are found in the Rio Pilcomayo
16,6 cm. b = Choro ti. ~The Ta.ruma., Waiwai, and Parikuta fla.geolet type of mu-

GM: 13.1 .80. Length

tel'ritory and also as far as theChurápa. The Cavina sical instrument, cut from a cane or bamboo segment, a.nd de-
20,8 cm. 1 ) PAREDES, p. 185, cie. Caroilaaso de la Vega.
corated in various pa.tterns by scarifying with a glowing hot winc-
rope - not paintcd like their flutcs - are of two sha.pcs ao-
 316 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SA1\1H. HANDL. SER. A . BAND õ. N:O I
IZIKOWITZ, ::IIC'SICAL l NSTRUl\1EN TS OF S. AMERICA 317
corcling as the distal encl is truncat<'cl (fig. 236, C D )') or carved
into a •tail • (A, B )'). ln tho fonncr ca&'. which is so cut that have four stops, although three, and occasionally even six, respectively
a septum is left in situ about its CC'nter, thc SE>ptum is carefully nine, (Pachacamac. BM: VA. 39151 ; Ancon, n ' HARCOURT, [l], XIV,6)
perforated anel the ventholes drilled bC'low it. ln the latter there stops may occur but these latter are exceptions (cf. table) . On
is a wa.x p artition inserted within the ins trmncnt between the
the flute from Ancon there are several closed holes which were
sec?nd anel third Yentholes. This artificial diaphragm has either
evidently mistakes.
n, smglc la rge central perforation, the general condition, or occa-
sionalJy (Ta ruma) a small central onc surrounded by four others. On the back of the proximal end there are often a couple of
Sor~e of ~he Parikuta instruments (fig. 236 D ) hM·e two longi- boles for the suspension cord (fig. 179) which on these flutes is never
tudinal sbts, one on each sido, n ear thC'ir distal <'xtremities. ~

Fig. 180. Quena of bo ne fro m Nasca. GM: 29.32.4 g. %.

fastened to the middle of the tube as on the simple end flutes of

bone. Quenas of bone are often planed off so that they get a
rectangular crosscut and it is not unusual for them to have an oma-
mentation of incised rings filled with black paint, which give a
striking effect against the white bone exterior (fig. 179). On a number
of flutes (for instance in BM.) we find remains of black wax in
Fig. 179. Quena of bone from Xasca. Q)I: 29.32.4h. Le11gth 16 cm. the proximal end. Evidently this latter has been partially covered
with wax in order to make the opening smaller, because if this is too
His expression »flageolet » should not confuse us. Several large to be covered by the lower lip the instrument cannot be blown.
authors use it about all possible Indian types as soon as these do not The wax cover on the proximal end is met with again in the modem
conform with the European. The term is, however, incorrect as far quenas in northwestern Brazil (fig. 182). Thumb-holes and dia-
as it r~fers to a specific European airduct flute. Reproductions of phragms are not common, on the contrary rather rare, on the Peruvian
those flutes he calls flageolets inform us of their blowing-construc- bone quenas. On several flutes of this type part of the bone has
tio~. It i~ rather strange that there should be two types in Guiana. been left in place in the distal end.1 )
It is poss1ble that the type with three stops is an imitation in reed The modem bone flutes from northwestem Brazil are practically
of the bone quena (cf. fig. 182 d), which also has a diapbragm, and that all of the sarne type.2 ) and they usually have
the four-hole type is due to influence from the airduct flute which three stops. Four stops are unusual. The C-- ~
usua lly has four stops (cf. p. 352). These latter are in Guiana covered material is taken from various animais, such (::"~ "1• - ~~
wi.th. a septum and the lowest stop serves as a distal opening. The as the tapir, deer, and jaguar. ln some places
Fig. 181. Quena of bone
tatl-Jike excision is common on flutes of other kinds in Guiana they are made of human bones. An example from Peru.
(cf. fig. 277). is the quena from the Motilon, which is the Q)J: 31.15.210. 1 / • .

1) Sf. MEAD, pi. IX anel d ' HARCOl:llT, pi. XXIV, 9.

Quenas of b o n e are more common than tho e of reed, as is ') Whether these are also found iu northea ste rn Peru I unfortunately cannot say.
proved from finds in the Peruvian graves. In Peru these flutes usually TESSMANN does 11ot portray ono single specimen but mentions severa! &end flutes•
') Fig. 178 a . from practically every tribe, without dcscribing them in detail. It is therefore alto·
2
) Fig. 178 b, e. gether impossible to know anything about their blowing construction. Evidently so-
veral of them are duct flutes.
318 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SA~ffi. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRU1\1ENTS OF S. AJ\lERJCA 319

only specimen with only one stop. This flute i also wound around excision for the distal opening (fig. 182 a. <:). ln north-western
with brown, black, and red threads. Brazil, on the other hand, the distal end of the bone is usually
As the proximal opening, due to the shape of the bone. is often truncated so as to produce either a natural 1>septum » of the bone
very wide, it cannot be covered by the lower lip. The lndians have itself or else the distal end is closed \dth a piece of wax in which a
therefore, as on the Peruvian instrumenta of this type, filled the bole has been bored (fig. 182 d, e). This is an excellent example of
how the Indiana copy all details on a musical instrument which are
necessitated by the material itself. 1 imagine that the sarne holds
true for the wax diaphragms which are often found on bone quenas
in the territory north of the Amazon and also in Peru, although
in this latter place they are more usual on the simple end flutes of
bone. On the modern bone quenas the diaphragm consista of a
piece of wax - never of gourd as on the archaeological specimens
from Peru - which is perforated by one or more boles. 1 should
think this is a derivation from the bamboo flutes, which often
contain perforated septa, usually because the distance between these
sometimes is too small. When the quena is »translated 1> into bone
• even the detail of the perforated septa in the tu be and the distal
•• end is accurately copied. Whether the Indians later on had any
specific ideas about this diaphragm as regards musical-acoustic
principies is not clear. Judging from the many misplaced boles
they would seem to have experimented a great deal with the position
of the stops (see for instance fig. 182 e). n 'HARCOURT ([l), p. 57)
e. has also studied the function of the diaphragm and has tried to get
closer to the problem through experiments. He writes: »Quel róle
était-il reconnu à ce diaphragme1 Une expérimentation sommaire
nous apprit qu'il abaissâit la note correspondent au trou au-dessous
duquel il était placé, et cela d' une maniere d'autant plus sensible que
Je disque é.tait plus fermé. Des lors ne peut on croire légitimement
Fig. 182. Quonaa of bone. Patarnona. a = of jaguar·bone. GM: 12.253. b =
que les constructeurs recherchaient ainsi à corriger les erreurs de Jeur
d iaphragm of wax. e = of <leer-bone. Patamona. G)l: 12.1.389. d = Tukano
(Tareaná). 0):1: 25.6.199. e = cross·section of d. }'2. perce plus au moins empirique? » This is unquestionably very inte-
resting but whether the lndians really were familiar with such a
corners of the often triangular proximal end with wax. Several »trick» by which the pitch was regulated it is difficult to say. Since
tribes in Guiana, such as the Makushí, Arekuna, and Pata.mona, have no field worker so far has investigated this detail it is necessary first
gone still further and covered the entire opening with a flat piece to find out which tone system the lndians wanted to produce on
of wax, except for the part immediately above the notch. This their quenas, and this we do not know, nor can we find it out by
piece of wax is often so fashioned that the lower lip rests comfortably examining the flutes, for the reasons mentioned above. One may
a~ainst it, th.ereby making it easier to get the correct blowing posi- ask why the Indians did not use the diaphragm on flutes with other
tion for the hps (fig. 182 a). The distal end of the bone quenas from blowing constructions than the simple end flute and the quena.
these tribes (Guiana) have a characteristic shape, for the Indiana do lt is lacking in all duct flutes, in the modem reed quenas among the
not truncate the bone but leave it complete and simply make an Quechua and Aymara, and in the ancient reed quenas from Peru.
320 K. VET. O. \ ' ITTERH. SAMH. HA.......,DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 TZIKOWITZ, :MUS ICAL J:'<STRl' M EN'l'S O~' S. AMERICA 321
Another thing is that among the Roroima tribes the possible. It is hardly likely to be due to direct influence from Peru,
position of the diaphragm is always above the middle Rince ~ORDE:-< SKIOLn's investigations would rather indicate that the
stop. and among the others always a bove the upper- Poruvian culture elements have come by way of Chaco. But in this
most stop (fig. 182 a, b, e). Does this mean that region there are no bone quenas. \\' hether or not they were used in
the Indians constantly bored the holes wrongly and ancient times it is impos ible to ay, as we have no archaeological
then only on flutes of this sort? Furtbermore, it is finds. But the Yuracare may. of course, have changed the material
worth noticing that the stops on the bone quenas of independentl y.
the Roroima tribes are always placed much farther Quenas made of gourds, m etal, and pottery are found only
up than on those in north-western Brazil, i. e. the on the coast of Peru and they a,re all archaeologicaJ. n'HARCOURT ([l],
position of the diaphragm is approximately the ]>l. XXXIII,11) portrays a gourd qucna with six stops. Itisev idently
same .and does not seem to have any direct connec- made from tbe tubular
tion with the stops. If the diaphragm in these tribes stem of a Lagenaria. The
were to influence the pitch of the flutes then it neck constitutes the distal
should, according to n ' HARCOURT's experiments end. Fig. 185 shows
which are no doubt correct, be placed above or another example of gourd
below the hole which is misplaced, in which case quenas. He also portrays
the diaphragm almost certainly would not have so a 13 cm. long s to n e
constant a position. quena with three stops.
Fig. l 83. Quenn The area of distribution of the bone quena is in It has two perforated
of bone from the the maio limited to the Peruvian coast and the
Yurncare. RM: Y.
»ears », which are evi-
territory north of the Amazon rivcr. It is not found dently meant for the sus-
21. )4.
farther north than among the Motilon. Thus it is pension cord. The me· )cig. 18.5. QuC'n11s of gourd from Nasca. l\1useo
not found in the neighboring tribe, the Ijca, which has altogether tal quenas are of si 1- ~ncional, J,ima: 32/ 149.
different types of flutes, pointing towards Central American in- v e r. One specimen is
fluence. The Motilon is a Ca,rib tribe which has most likely come found in the collection of the Musical Academy in Berlin and is a
from the sonth. as is also indicated by the quena. reed quena coated with thin silver-plate. Judging from the shape of
both spccimens they are clearly imitations of reed quenas.
The most southern tribe in which the bone quenn. occurs is the The quenas of b la c k-w ar e p o t ter y are peculiar. They
Yuracare (fig. 183). Their flutes are made of the are all alike in shape, have five stops, and an obliquely cut proximal
bones of birds and have two stops in front and end. Usually the part of the flute which is immediately below the
a th umb-hole immediately behind the upper stop. notch is formed into a face and the whole flute is ornamented with
Diaphragms and other refinements are missing. In incised patterns. As will be seen from fig. 1 6 the distal end narrows
this tribe the quenas are worn in necklaces as »male and is bent in such a way that the distal opening is placed trans-
ornaments* (fig. l 4). On a specimen, (RM: Y. 33), Yersely. I should imagine that the pottery quenas are inütations
five of them are tied together in a bunch. Carry- in clay of gourd quenas, and that t he bent distal end representa the
ing flutes in necklaces is not unusual in South Ame- neck proper. How late these pottory quonas may be it is difficult
rica; it occurs for instance in Chaco.1 ) To deter- to say, since t.hey occur only on the Peruvian coast. They seem
Fig. 184. Quenns
mine from this one specimen how the Yuracare of bone from the to be a rather highly developed, standardized model.
obtained the quena is. I suppose, practically im· Yuracare. RM: Y. 1f we now compare two flute types as closely related as the
1 1 / ,.
) See fig. 190. 33. simple end flute and the quena - the difference between them is
21
322 K. VET. o. VJ'M'ERH. s~m. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZTKOWl'l'Z, MUSlCAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERlCA 323
really the notch - their distribution tells us that the former is con- Peruvians began to use reed quenas, tbe idea of the notch had pro-
siderably older tban the latter. Quite likely the simple end flute has bably already spread from Peru to tbe Amazon tribes. Yery likely
existed in those regions in South America where the quena is or has Peru is tbe center from which the quena has spread, which is also
been found. \Ve can ascertain how the quena has more or less forced indicated by the distribution. Another roatter is wbether this flute
out the simple end flute in Chaco. Evidently the lndians made use was invented by the Peruvians themselves. We know that the quena
of simple end flutes of reed and bone at the same time, but it appears type of flute is quite common on the islands in the Pacific Ocean
to me as t hough the reed flute were the older of the two, not only (SACHS, [2], p. 81) and in other parts of the world, especially in
because the Indians of California have tbese exclusi vely but a lso be- China and Japan. lt is conceivable that if a connection has e},.-isted
cause the material is more natural. As a rule the stops on simple between the two shores of the Pacific, the occurrence of the quena
end flutes aro three or four and the ihumb-hole was common in Peru in South America is a result of this rela.t ion. On the other hand the
as well as in Chaco. Typical is also the diaphragm, which in Peru invention is not so very peculiar. It comes by itself when the simple
seems to occur more frequently on the simple end flute t han on cnd flute is already known. The Indians must havc observed rela-
tively soon that it was sufficient to sharpen the edge of the flute
only at the point thc air currcnt was to touch; the result of a shar-
pening of this sort wouJd be a. slight notch. But most likely the
tra.nsition has been more complicated than this. The Indians pro-
bably blew the simple endflute in the sarne way as the Ashlushlay,
Cuna and the Californian Indiana (fig. 169, 170), in which case it was
Fig. 186. Quena of black pottery. St. Ramon. B~l: VA. 1590 1. Lcngth :?0.6 c-m. fi:rst necessary to come upon the idea of covering the proximal opening
'vith the lower lip instea.d of putting it into the mouth like the
the quena. It, a nd also the three stops, are, however, the rule on ashlushlay. This is quite an important difference in the manner of
quenas from the Amazonian territory. Likewise the three stops. It blowing. On the other hand the quena method of blowing is similar
is therefore possible that these instruments originally were end fintes to t hat of the resonator whistles. These are blown partly according
converted into quenas. This would provide a connecting link with to the »key-principle» and partly 1ike the quena. The transition is
the Tainian flute from St. Thomas. Otherwise, as far as Peru is here gradu al.
concetned, we unfortunately have no data in descript.ions of excava-
The Quena or notched /lute.
tions etc. which might give us some conception of the age relation
Bone.1 )
between the different types of quenas. Still, it appears to me as
though in P eru simple end flutes of bone were used exclusively - Place Stqps 1 Dia.
phragm 1
Author o r collcction
none of reed have been found - and that the transition to quenas 1 1

therefore has taken place in tbis material. Usually these have only A. Archaeological
four stops and some of them have a diaphragm. Reed quenas, on Ica 4 o ' HARcouuT, [ 1], pi. XXII, 9.
the other hand, usually have seven stops of different sizes, a number BM: VA. 45192.
of them have the proximal end cut obliquely, a detail which must Nazca 4 o'HA.llCOURT, [1], pl. XXII, 1:5.
Chancay 4 wax B:'.11: V A. 22446.
be considered as an improvement, and they lack the diaphragm
4 Bl\I: VA. 22447.
altogethet'. These reed quenas are supposedly a later development 3 2 BM: VA. 33703.
and are, as a matter of fact, the only ones still in existence in the 7 SM: IC. 53488 a.
modern Peruvian cultures. The greater antiquity of the bone quena Pachacamac 4 Bl\I: VA. 39200.
does not, however, prevent it from having kept on existing side by 6 DM: VA. 39151.
side with the reed instruments. Therefore, at. the time when the ') t = thurnb-stop.
324 K . VE'l'. O . VI'.r'.rE.RH. SAMH. HANDL. Sl.!:lt. A. B AND 5. N:O l
IZIKOWITZ, :MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 325

Dia-
p~~~m 1
Tribo or pluco Stops Author or collcction
Place Author or collectio n phragm
1 SLo ps 1 1 1 1
--
Mauhé 3 WM: 1363.
Lo. Magdalena 4 n 'HAncoinn , [ LJ pi. XXII, 2_
Aparai 3 SPEISER, p. 320.
<le i Mar
:Hua cho 4 n 'HAncounT, [ l] pi. XXII, 13- 4.
Purukotó 3 + WM: 1977.
Y ekuaná 3 + BM: VA. 61088 (coll. K ocn-C1<i 'KaEn c ).
• 7 MM: G. 2781.
MM: G. 2780.
Makush í 3 GM: 12.1.250.
t 9,t
BM: VA. 6 10 16.
Ancon 3,t BM: V A. 4892.
Fr. Guiana 3 WM: 8493.
3 BM: V A. l 15988.
Arawaks (Lower 3 BM: VA. 7615.
4, t FM: E. 1373.
Guia11a)
Chuq uita n ta 4 MM: G. 2788.
6 MM: G. 2798.
A. A rclweolog·ical R eed
Lau ro (at Chan-
ca.y) BM: VA. 33702. Jca 7 1 ln'H A.RcoonT, Lll. p i. XXIIT, l , 2.
3
Cuzco 4,t BM: VA. 8638. 6 RM: VA. 45312.
3 BM: VA. 8639. 4 IBM: VA. 16096.
S. Podr o 4 BM: VA. 12139. Nazca 7 D'HA.RCOURT, (l], pi. XXIII, 14.
Pacnsmayo Ancon 7 BM: V A. 4290.
Cajamarquilla 2 n'HARCOURT, [ll pl. XXII, 7. 4 Bl\i: V A. 23872.
5 n'HAncounT, [l ] p i. XXII, 5. Chancay 7 BM: V A. 22439; Musik. A kad. Coll. Bor lin .
3 B M : V A. 37009 . 3275.
:\[arquoz
A t L. Tacarigua 3
4 2
I
BM: V A. 24400.
REQUENA, PP· 149--51.
4
8
BM: V A. 22435.
BM : VA. 22435.
Huaoho 7 n'HABCOURT, (1), pi. XXIJI, 3.
1 B . Etlmographical
8 BM: VA. 31482.
Yuracaro 2,t RM:' Y. 22.
Pisco 7 BM: VA. 44419.
2 RM: Y. 21.
4 BM: VA. 44411 .
l,t RM: Y. 33. Maio adornment on neck lare.
Huanney 7 n 'H ,rncomtT, [l ], pi. XXIII, 6.
Bunch of s ix, ab. 10 cm. long fl utes.
Jauja 7 n 'HABCOURT, (l ], pi. XXI II, 5.
Ui to to 3 SM: IC. 70342.
Cajarmarquilla 7 n'HARcoun.T, [l], pi. XXIII, 4.
Tuko.no 3 \V&X GM: 25.6.197.
Cajarroarquilla 4 Op. cit. p i. XXIII, 7, 8.
3 GM: 16.5.62.
Ch uquitanta 6 BM: VA_ 24800.
)Ja kú 3 wax GM: 25.(i.90.
Vanáno. 3 \vax GM: 28.1.240.
B. Etlmographical
Kobem~ 3 wax GM: 28.1.1 68.
Chané 4, 1, 1 Rllf: P. 37.
3 B M : VB. 6311.
2 RM: P . 30.
C:aupés torr. 3 WM: 172 1.
3 RM: P . 28.
Musnc AKAD., Bor lin: 2727. Hmuan boncs.
Ashlushlay 4, 1, l RM: A. 430.
Baniwa 3 CM: 28.l.33.
3, 1 RM: B. 307.
3 wax GM: 28.1.96.
Choro ti 4, 1, l RM: D. 715.
1 l' alikm· 3 GM: 26.3.144.
) Jotilon 3 RM: D. 7 16.
l GM: 16.3.241. Huroan bone ? \ \ 'oundaro-
uud wit h black thread (waxed), r ed, and
Mataco 4, o, l RM: 560.
Tapie to 3, 1, l RM: L. 212.
white.
Arecuna 3 BM: VA. 29891.
3 + CM: 12.1.388.
Toba 4 BM: VC. 3550.
'l'al1lipang 3 BM: VA. 60897.
Patnmona .3 BM: VA. 30328.
1 3 wax GM: 12.1.93.
326 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIXOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 327
Nose-Blown Flutes.
Tri be S to ps Dia- 1 Autho r o r collcction
phragma 'Ye have on various occasions noticed that rnany di//erent kinds
1
of flutes are blown with the nose. Nose-blown flutes occur amçmg:
Sunupa nH. 3, t B)I: VC. 3438.
the Jivaro, K aingang and Botucudo, Paressí and Nambicuara, Api-
3 SM: IC. 30484.
Anga y t ó 3 BM: VC. 4235. nayé. and in Guiana and C"alifornia .1 ) Furthermore, PEREZ informed
Lengua :1 BM: VC. 462. me that the Cunas blow with the nose, although not in a flute but
K a ingang 4 BM: VB. 8501. in the bands. How this is done I do not know.
Cavina 6, GM: 15.1.1461. H as nose-blowing been invented in severa! places in America,
Ay acucho (at L.
6, l o'HARCOtrnT, [ ! ), pi. XXVII.
or is there any connection1 If so, one should be able to find some
Tit icncn)
Makush i 4 BM: VA. I lO (coll. S CHOMBU ROK). connection also between the flute types.
v\laiwai {! GM: 27.155.
Apa rni 3 SPEISER, p. 320.
T a ruma 3 GM: 27.7. 166.
4
Cnribs (Dr.
Guiana) 4 (?) + IBM: VA. 34519 (coll. DoBJm).
Br. Guia na 5 BM: V A. 34521.
4 BM: VA. 34520 (coll. D o u11N).
Churapa 4, l , RM: Tj. 29.
b e
A rclweo/O(Jical Ston e
f 'ig. 187. Tbe manner of blowing with the nose o n flutes witb the blow-hole in the
Boli\·ia 3 jo ' HABCO URT, pi. XXlV. 12.
septum . a = Kaingang-Kamé. b, e = Botoc udo. After M.ANIZER.
A rchaeologiwl P ott e ry
k a 6 MEAD,_[21, fig. 6, p. 340. ln our investigation of t bis problem we notice first of all tbat
5 BM: VA. 45051. the flutes of the Jivaro and Guiana Indians are all transverse flutes.
Chi cuma 5 SM.
R a mon
lt is, however, uncertain whether aU transverse flutes in Guiana are
5 BM: VA. 1590 1.
P isco 5 Coll. GAFFRON.
blown with the nose, as I h ave no information about tbis matter .
Gourd
Since, however, in these regiona even the flutes which are blown
A rchaeo/ogical
with the mouth are precisely like the nose-blown ones it is quite
Chnncay 6 n ' HARCO URT, [ 1), pi. XXIII, 1J. p ossible that they are also blown with t he nose.
N azca 3 LM: 32/ 149. The Jivaro type of nose-flute is found in Peru and among the
M e tal Kaingang, but I have no information as to whether the Ka.ingang
Archaeological blow this flute with the nose, as it exists only in the collections. I
1Chuquisantn s ilver B.AESSLER, fig. 508, taf. 34. have, strangely enough, not seen it mentioned in t he literature.
1Cha nca y 6 l\fosik. Akad. Berlin : 3 274. With wooden Since, on the other hand, the Kaingang blow the flute type which
re mains inside. has a bole in t he septum with the nose (cf. p. 303 and fig. 187), it is
not improbable that they have also blown t he Jivaro flute with the
nose. As regards tbe arcbaeological flutes from Peru (Chancay), we
11aturally know nothing, but those culture elements whicb existed
1)
See pp. 286, 301, 303, 304.
328 K. VET . O. VITTEJtH. SAMH. HANDL. SKR.. A. BAND ;;. N:O l IZIKO\VITZ, M USICAL INSTRU1\1ENTS OF S. AM:ERICA 3:29

in Peru in very ancient times are often refound among the J ivaro. the Butocudo flutes. Both are end-blown and both have the two
lt is thercfore possible that these flutcs, which are so scarce in P eru. characteristic stops. The blow-hole is not placed in the septum
were blown with thc nose. eyeral tribe adjoining the Ji,·aro hM·e as this is cut away. But the Cunas blow t his flu te with the
a similar transverse fJute but we have no information about the mouth. It is curious t hat they s hould practise a sort of no e-
manner of p laying. blowing, with the hands as a substitute for the flute. It ecms to
The Paressí anel Kambicuara (fig. 1 ) nose-flutes are resonator me not altogether improbable that they actually have once blown
whistles with two l1oles. a flute with the nose and if so the one described above, (the Botucudo
I have already shown how closely related t he transverse flute. flute) obviously the oldest and the one most reminiscent of t he nose-
are to resonator wlústles with stops. flutes. At this point we might observe that the Curta flute is held
and likcwi e how the curious Botu- in t he mouth almost in t be same m anner as if it were to be blown
cudo anel K aingang flutes with a with the nose (p. 307, fig. 170).
blow-hole in the proximal septum. The Californian nose-flutes present two t ypes: 1) the Ma t a c o
are related to these genetically. w h is t 1 e (see p. 333): »The dancing is accompanied by chanLings,
Further I havc ass umed that the clapping of hands, blowing on pipes of two or three reeds and played
peculiar Apinayé nose-flute 'dth- with the nose or mouth. ».1 ) »Some had whistles or double flageolets
out stops is also very closely of reed which were stuck into their noses. »2)
related to the Botucudo flute (p. The fact that these whistles are double or triple speaks for their
304). Here we have an indubitable being Mataco whistles, which are the only instruments in California
connection between the South Ame- having this attribute (see p. 335). They are also easily blown if . tuck
rican nose-flutes. They aro evident- into the nose.
ly very old flutes which all derive 2) T h e C a 1 i f o r n i a n e n d f 1 u t e: »lt was blowu cliago-
from the sarne pristine instrument ually across tbe end. If a man could sniff a melody into it with his
- the resonator whistle with two nose, he was r ated a virtuoso. Ma ny did not even learn to play it
Fig. 188. N a mbic-uura Indian blowing
a rosonator flute withou t aird uc t with
stops. Most likely the actual cir- with t he mouth ... »3)
t ho noso. Aftor RoQn,;T'l'E·PINTO. cumstances have been that nose- It is quite clear that the l\fataco whistle blown like a nosc-flu te
blowing was practised more or less has no connection with t he South American nose-flutes. The (.'ali-
on all t hose instruments wbich derive from t his pristine instrument, · fornian end-flutes, on the other hand, are clearly associated wit h
s uch as certai.n transverse flutes and flutes with a blow-hole in the the South American simple cnd-flu tes (cf. p. 310), as I have s hown
septum. \.Vhy they have ever come upon the idea of blowing with above.
the nosc I cannot explain. According to S.ACJlS ([2], p. 116) it has vVe have observed how closely related the South American cnd-
syrnbolical significance, but we have no evidence of t his from the flutes blown with the nose are to transverse flutes and resonator
Indians. whistles of the same kind. It is therefore, as I have already pointecl
The centre of distribution of the nose-flutes is without doubt out, quite probable that end-flutes have their origin in tramwerse
t he eastern p art of outh America, particularly Guiana and the Ges flutes and resonator whistles, which are undoubtedly older. I. hould
tribes. This fact together with their scarcity in Peru constitute therefore consider that nose-blowing on the Californian end flutes
still another point in favor of t he t heory affirming their old age. probably has some connection with the South American flutes. That
Their distribution is to some extent similar to t hat of other culture it is considered en evidence of great skill in California to blow with
elernents which t he Ges once received from the west, such as for 1) BA..'<CROFT, I , P· 393.
instance ear -p lugs a nd carrying nets, etc. 2) Loo. cit., note.
One type of flute from the Cuna Inclians resembles somewhat 3) KuoEBm~. ( 1); p. 96.
330 K . VET. O . VITI'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, 1\1U SCCAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 331
the nose is not surprising, since these flutes are clifficult to blow DUCT FLUTES.
even with the mouth.
(Flutes with airducts.)
If we compare the clistribution of the nose-blown flutes with
t hat of the pan-pipe (see p. 405) we soon discover that the former Tbe duct flutes are characterized by the following constructive
a re the oldest, even if the South American flutes have had no detail: through an ai r d u e t (a on fig. 189) the air current js di-
connection with the North American ones. ln South America the rected against a sharp edge which forros one side of tbe incision in
nose-flutes are really an eastern rather than a western phenomenon the wall of the flute tube which J have called the sound orifice
and t he pan-pipe obviously bas its center of gravity towards the west (s on fig. 189).
and in northern Amazonas. It has never reached the Botucudo. The South American duct flutes may be divided into two main
SACHS ([2), p. 117) and others - amongthem PATER W. ScHMIDT groups according to the construction of the airduct. This may either
- are of the opinion that the nose-flute has been introduced consist of part of the flute waJl itse]f together with a mechanism inside
from Oceania, and I must admit that the Polynesian and South
American nose-flutes have much in common. The former are alter-
nately transverse and end flutes, occasionally the blow-hole is placed
in the proximal septum as among the Botucndo and Kaingang, and
severa} (on Tahiti) have a bilateral position of the stops as in Guiana
and among the Kaingang and other tribes. The variations between
these clifferent blow-hole positions, etc. presumably have the sa.me
object as in South America, that is of ma.king nose-blowing as easy
as possible. Foy who made a study of tbe distribution of the
nose-flu te in southeastern Asia and Oceania considera it a very
late instrument in Polynesia, belonging to »einem jüngeren Strome
Fig. 189 a-b. Fig. 190.
der malayo-polynesischen Kultur, der Melanesien nicht mehr
! ) Fig. 189. Diagram of duct flutes with defloct.ors. a = the airduct. b = the blow-
überflutet bat. » SACHS ([2], p. 116) includes it in bis eleventh
hole. d = the deflector. a = the sound·orifice. e = the lower edge of the sound-
stratum, which is the sarne as GRAEBNER's »spatpolynesische orifice. f = the upper edge.
Schicht». Fig. 190. Diagram of a flute with attached airduct.
According to GRAEBNER the pan-pipe belongs to »die Zwei-
klassenkultur », which is equal to SACHS' (loc. cit.) »Melanesien- the flute which causes the air current to deviate towards the sharp
Amerikabegrenzte Schicht. » This culture is older than tbe former edge - in German this mechanism is called a Kern. ln default of
a nd the Oceanian pan-pipe sheuld consequently be older than a better terra I have called it tbe de fl e e to r (d on fig. 189), since
t he nosc-flute in the sarne area. If we are to accept these conclusions, it usually consists of a. wax plug which deflerts the air-current. The
t he nose-flute would then be younger than the pan-pipe also in otber possibility is that the airduct consists of a separate small tube
America, "but we have just found that the opposite was true. which is either fastened to the body of the flute ata suitable angle
Besides, according to the methods of these two scientists the Califor- (fig. 190) or is made in one piece with the airchamber, in those in-
nian nose-flutes should belong to the South American type, which stances when both airduct and airchamber are of the sarne material
adds considerably to tbe age of these latter. The only solution is ( figs. 225-234).
to assume that at least one of these flutes has been independently According to SACHS AND v. HoRNBOSTEL's systematization of
invented in America. On the whole, the chronology must agree if musical instrumenta, the duct flutes should be divided into flutes
we are to presume a pre-Columbian »transpacific trade » of culture with ex terna 1 and interna 1 ai r d u e t s, depending on
elements. whether the duct is placed inside or outside the airchamber. This
, )
 332 K. VET. O. VITTERH. S A")ffi. HAJ.~DL. SER . A. BAND 5. N :O 1
IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL l NSTR U:\fENT S OF S. A-""1ERICA 333
basis of classification is very convenient for instance in t he case of
Indone ian flu tes (cf. KAcn:ERX), but is unsuited to American con- ln this way we obtain the following divisions within this group:
ditions. J. Flut es wi tho 1Ll s t ops.
\Ye shall instead divide the duct flutes into the following two 1. Flutes with opcu sound orificc. ACUS ((2), p. 25) has called

groups: . thesc 1)Iitte lkernflõten1, but as the sound orificc is not always
1) )!'lutes on which the airduct is eithcr formcd by the airchamber placcd in the middlo o[ the flute I sbould prefer a. m ore ge-
neral name. ln dcfault o[ a better te rm I h avc c hosen the
together with the deflector, or is found in this deflector. Thei:e we na.me .Mataco whislle, as it is called by this name in thc mu-
calJ duct /lutes with de/lectors. scum in Gothenburg.
2) FJutes on which the airduct consists of a separate tube, or 2. Whistles with parlly-coverecl sound orifice.
dnct /lutes with allached airducts. II. F ln te s w i t h stops.
These two groups may be divided into sub-groups according to 1. Tho Mataco /lute.
whether their shape is more or less globular Ol' cylindrical, with still 2. Tho Uaupés /lute.
further sub-divisions depending on whether or not they have stops. 3. Plutes wilh parlly·covered soimd 01-ifice.
4. Tho plug /lute. ln this tlw deflector h as the form of a ~lug,
as wide as thc boro itself and usually placed m the proximal
Duct flutes with deflectors. c nd. As a rule this flute has four stops. To a ccrtain extent
it rcsemblcs thc old E w·opean /lute douce or Blockflole. I
Within t his group there are different type depending on the havc, to get a short n amc, introduced the term plug /lttle.
position of the d eflector and the size of the sound orifice. Whether
or not the flute has stops is also important. ln this way we get D u et f lut es w i t h ou t stops.
two groups, one mth and one withont stops. Within each of these 1' h e Jl.1 a t a e o w h i s t l e.
groups there a re two constructions of the sound orifice, closely related
The most simple of these flutc
but still different. The instrurnent on fig . 189 a illustrates how the
types is without doubt the Mataco
air current is deflected towards the sharp edge e. If the sound
whistle (fig. 191).
orifico is made too large, so t hat either the upper edge at / is too ''
far up or the lower edge at e too far down, the air current will Usually the sound orifice is
not touch e but will go t hrough the sound orifice at / with the result placed in the m.lddle of t he flute.
that no sound is produced. T o avoid this, the sound orifice is iu ] f t he deflector is placod in the
part covered with a leaf or a leather band, or a piece of bamboo is middle of the sound orifice anel has
placed at / or e, so that tbe air current is given the right direction, t he right shape it is possible to
as for instance on fig. 199. To be sure, we have here an instrument blow this flute from both ends.
which in its principle is identical with flutes without such covering, It is, however, quite usual that
but, as we shall see, the Indians have seized upon t his detail and the entire sound mechanism, that
developed a specific type from it. The deflector as well as the atten- is the sound orifice with deflector,
dant sound orifice may be placed anywhere on the flute. When it is placed at one of the two ends,
is placed at tho very top of the proximal cnd it forms a K ern - a and this variation may even be
sor t of plug - a nd fills the entire bore, and the airduct may then found within one and the sarno
be conveniently bored obliquely through t he plug (fig. 194). T his is, tribe (fig. 191). The material of d
b e
however, simply a variation of the deflector which on more simple which t he tubes of these flutes
Fig. 1!)1. Mataco-whistles of birds'
flutes is of small importance but on a certain type (fig. 216) has are made is usually bone anel tbe bonos from the ){ataco . a = GM:
become standardizcd. deflector is of black wax, in Cali- 16.2.42. b = RM: M. M7. e= GM:
fornia often asphalt. But Mataco 17.11 .5. d = R}I : )f. 550. V2·
 334 K. VET . o. VITTERH. s~m. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 336

generally ornamented, but the Kayapó and Bororó wind white

cotton threads around theirs and decorated them with red feathers.
The Huari, Nambicuara, Desa.na (fig. 194), and Kayapó have
double whistles and among the Parikuta we find even tripie speci-
mens (see fig. 195). The Chama.coco (fig. 196) wear two or more
Fig. 192. l\fot.uco-whistle from the Bay of Angeles, Lowor California. After \\"rLSo~. wbistles tied togetber in a necklace. They are tied together only

whistles of reed a lso occur (cf. table). There are some very
int~resting specimens of these latter, found in a few places, ou
which both the tube and the deflector are made of reed, i. e.
they are so constructed that the deflector consists of a septum
which has been left in place (fig. 192). Th:íit type is in my opi-
nion the original one and suggests how the Ma.taco whistle has
most likely come into existence. The Indians bave 11eeded tubes
for many different purposes and have found excellent materiais in
reed and bone. As regards reeds the septa have, however, been in
t he way and have been removed by severa! different methods. They
h ave either been perforated, or the tube has been cJeft lengthwise
and the septa removed. This latter method has, as far as I know,
never been used in America. A third method was to remove the
septum from the outside by making a hole in the wall of the tube.
I have seen the sarne method used on a feather-container from the
Choroti Indians (fig. 168 b). Having bored the hole the artisan pro-
Fig. 194. Fig. 195. Fig. 196.
ceeds to blow away the sawdust whereby sound is easily produced
and the Mataco whistle is invented. Fig. 194. Double mataco.whistle of bone from t.he Desa.na. GM: 25.6.144. ( Y2.
Fig. 195. Tripie mataco-whistle of reeds from the Parikuta. After W . .RoTtt.
The wax deflector and the bone tube should be regarded simply Fig. 196. M:ataco-whistles of bone in a necklace from the Chama.coco. BM: VC. 2741.
as substitutes for the original material. The simple Ma.taco whistles
with a natural septum I have found only among the Bororó and in in the proximal ends. It is difficult to say what is the reason for
Lower California, at the Bay of Angeles (fig. 192). tbis doubling, etc. since the whistles usually produce the sarne note.

• As a rule the ~fataco

whistles are quite small.
The length usually varies
between 5 and 1.3 cm. Ex-
It has, however, been natural to employ the pan-pipe principie by
giving the different pipes different tones, as the Huari have done
(fig. 197). Doubling of pipes is also common in California (see table),
and an archaeological specimen found in E1lis Landing Shellmound
ceptions from this rule are outside of San Francisco provides an example of a tripie whistle.
found in a sort of large This undeniably suggests a connection with the South American Ma.-
1\fataco whistles from the taco whistles.
Apinayé wbich are made The table on p. 340 shows the distribution of the 1\fataco whistle in
Fig. l03. Mataco-whistle of palm-wood from from the Paxiuba palm America. ln South America it is found only east of the Andes - in
tho Apinayó. Cl\I: 31.40.242. 1 / 8 • (fig. 193). The whistles are Chaco only among the Mataco, in the southern parts of the Ama-
3:~(i .K. VET. O. VlTTERH. Sflffi. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 lZIKOWITZ, MlJSTCA L INSTRl)111ENTS OF $. A111ERICA 337

zonian territory, espccially among the tribes living around the sources T h e f l it t e w i t li a p a r t l y - e o v e r e d s o u n cl o r i f i e e.
of the Jarge tributaries to the Amazon River, among the Apinayé, ln the introduction I have already explained how this flute
anel north of Amazonas among the Parikuta, and in the Uaupés type was invented. Naturally this must have taken place at the
territory. ln Central America we find it cropping out in a few sarne time as t he invention of the Mataco whistle, which is also
·i:attered places, such as among the Cuna, Aztec and Cora, while it is confirmed by its distribution, in tbe main similar to that of the
considerably more common in North America. Here Mataco whistle.
it is found not only in California on the islands, but ln South America, flutes with partly covered sound orifices anel
also further north, as far as Vancou,·ei·. Among the without stops are never made of bone,
Indians of the the north-west coast it is evidently but only of wood, either of reed, bamboo,
the prototype of tbe well-known wooden whistles or the t runk of the Paxiuba palro. They
which are sometimes also double (cf. GALI'IN L2)). are often considerably larger than the
Mataco wbistles also occur in the interior. 'fhus tbey usual Mataco whistles. The flutes which
are used by a number of Plains Indian tribes,1) are used at the Yurupari festivals in
usua1ly in association with tbe dances and cere- the Uaupés territory (fig. 198) are the
monies of the societies. To the north the area of largest flutes in South America. ln South
distribution extends to Manitoba. ln the south we America this kind of flute is found only
find them in Georgia and as archacological finds in two places - we are still speaking of
among the Basketmakers, a proof of their high those without stops - namely in the
age. On the whole it appears to me as though Uaupés territory and around the upper
the center of gravity of its distribution in North Xingú. On the specimens from Uaupés
America lies towards the west and south . (fig. 199) the sound orifice consists of
It is quite possible that the Mataco whistle a relatively long rectangular incision and
does not occur as spora<lically in the regions north the deflector i<> of wax. 'fhe upper and Vig. 198. Tuyuka Jndian from
Rio Tiquié p laying a b ig fluto
of South America as my table indicates. My know- lower edges of this orifice are covered by with par t ly covered sound ori-
ledge of the North American literature is naturally two leaves which are tied to the flute. f ice at t he Yurupurí-fosth·al8.
rather limited in comparison with the South Ame- Before blowing the instrument these After KocH-GnüN0E1w.
rican. I do, however, believe that the type of distri- leaves must be adjusted to their correct
bution as such is relatively correct; otherwise it seems position, otherwise the air current may pass out through the orifice
to me that I sometimes should have come across before it is bent by the deflector. The Pirotapuya flute (fig. 199 b)
Fig. l !li. Triplo the whistle in the literature concerning other parts has two excisions in the distal cnd, the others are truncated. These
;\lllta<'o-whistle of of North America. With regard to Mexico and flutes are painted in different colours and adorned with feathers and
rocds from the Central America, ethnographical research is there down. They produce a very agreeablc tone. Without doubt the
Huari. After
"'ono};::<sKiõLo. yet in its infancy because t he investigators have timbre is somewhat influenced by the vibrations of the lower leaf.
almost exclusively dealt with the magnificent I suppose this explains why the Indians have retained this covering.
arc·hitccture and an intricate calendar system with its hieroglyphs. It seems hardly necessary that tJ1e sound orifice constantly should
.Jmlging from the distribution in general it does, howevcr, appear to be made too large. There is stiU another flute of this sort, although
me that the Mataco whistle is a rather old instrument, but before much larger. It is made of the Paxiuba palro and varies in length
drnwi11g any further conclusions let us study an instrument which between 0.9 and 1.65 m. T he blowing construction is placed in the
"is practically identical with it. This is: proximal end (fig. 200). A common characteristic of these flutes
1 ) Lown~, [ 1]. - aside from the size - is that t hey have two leaves tied ovcr
22
338 K. VET. O. VJTTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND õ. N:O 1 IZTKOWITZ, M USICAL TNSTRUMENTS OF S. Al\lERICA 339
the sound orifice. The deflector on the exterior wall of the tube, is directed against the edge of the lower
Siusí flute (fig. 200) is made of black hole. Obviously this is nothing but a. variation of the flute with
wax and the sound orifice is triangular. partly covered sound orifice, where the leaves have been exchanged
Placed above the deflector is a bunch for a piece of bamboo and the deflector for a septum. lnstead of
of bark which probably sen·es to perforating the septum itself, a hole has been bored on either side
diminish the width of the blow-hole. of it. This flute type occurs among the Suyá. and Mehinakú,
Another construction · is wben the both of which live around the upper Xingú. It is interesting that
airduct goes obliquely through the these Indians have t h r e e such flutes tied together like a pan-
wax plug. The Tariana flute (fig. 201)
bas a plug of chalk or some other
..' pipe and that the pipes are of different lengths and produce different

such material. The upper part of this

flute is covered with a leaf which is f
fastened to the chalk. These large
flutes are used at the famous J'Urll]Jari
ceremonJes celebrated by the secret '
men's societies, together with tbe large
bark trumpets described earlier in the
'
text (cf. p . 222). It is dangerous for
women and children to see both the
flutes and the trumpets, and the Fig. 200. Fig. 201.

former are kept in the bed of a :Fig. 200. Construction of a Siusi flute with partly covered sound orifice. a = bunch
small watercourse (CARL ENGEL, p. of bark. b = wax. e = leaf.
Fig. 201. Construction of the proximal end of a. Tariana flute with partly covored
66 sq.).
sound orifice. a = leaf. b = the blow-hole, e = chalk or white clay. d = les.f.
1 ,.. The flutes with partly coverecl e = corda. s = the sound-orifice.
sound orifices from the territory a-

~
• round tbe upper Xingú are somewhat tones. KARL v. D. STEINEN mentions that the Suyá flutes were
• different from those from Uaupés . respectively P / 2 , 1, and 1/ 2 m. in length while on the Mehinaku
They are made of taboca reed. ln flute (VB. 26611) the corresponding measurements were 156.5, 124
the upper part of the tube is a sep- and 109.5 cm. Flutes of the sarne construction but with stops
tum and above and below this there also occur. SACHS ([2], p. 213 seq.) has called them Vorsatzfliite ,
are two square holes in the wall of a term which we may employ to indica.te this specific variety of the
a b the tube1 ). The top one of these is flutes with partly covered sound orifice.
Fig. 199. Flutee with partly co,·e- covered by a convex piece of bamboo,
ln North America we come across the South American types
red sound orifice. a = Piro Tapuya,
about 10 cm. long, which also partly again. The Mandan, Hidatsa, and Teton Sioux, for instance, have
GM: 2õ.6. 166. b = Piro Tapuya,
C M: 25.6.167. 1/ 1 •
covers the lower hole. The bamboo flutes which are very like the small flutcs, adorned with feathers,
piece is fastened to the tube by means from the Tukano and Pirotapuya (fig. 199). These North American
of wax so that when the musician blows into the open proximal specimens are also painted and feather-adorned, and are used at cer-
end, the blow-hole, the air current goes out through the upper hole· tain ceremonial dances. A number of tribes have the simple Mataco
and, following the airduct formed by the bamboo piece and the whistle of bone or cane with the sound orifice covered with narrow
1
) Comparo fig. 207 which is a flute of the sarne construc tion but with stops. strips of leather, straw, or the like. We do not, however, find any
 340 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRU111ENTS OF S. A)1ERICA 341
instruments in North America corresponding directly to the large Single or 1
Tribe Mate rial Author or collection
Yurupari flutcs. Vorsatz-flutes without stops, on the other hand, 1
double
occur, although tbe North American ones are not tied together. An,
instrumcnt of this sort is a Winnebago flute of cane (MM: 2682) D esana (R. Iapo) bird's bone d. GM: 26.6.143- 144.
Cuna R. I'En.Ez KAN TULE (\'Ol'bal r epor t).
which was found in a sacred war bundle. The bamboo piece on
»mala-kula. »
this flute has been cxchanged for a cleft and flattened quill.
Ch iquitos B01toos, p. 344.
The M ataco whistle
Material Single or 1 A uthor or collection. Aztecs wood HM: 3768: 07 (coll. P.REuss).
Tribe doublo Cora rccd
1
Pima bamboo BM: VB. 1536. 'l'hreo stops.
Mataco bird's bone RM: M. 557; GM: 17 .11.5. Bay of Angeles wood WILSON,p. 609.
(Lowor Calif.)
'l'oba wood, bone BM: VC. 3549; VA. 38293. Pomo e rano L01rn, p. 189. 10 in.
Sotcgaraik BM: VC. 10530. or wing-bone of
(R. Pilcomayo) p elikan
L o11gua bone BM: VC. 1857. $hasta bird-boncs s. & d. DixoN, [4], p. 449. ».• in use by sha-
Chamakoko t Bi\1: VC. 2754. Decorated with fea- mans and also . . . i n the war dance. t
thers. B)f: VC. 2739. SM: IC. 1Basket- reed KIDDER & GUEllNSEY, p. 186.
20157. DM: 28538. makers bono Op. cit., p. 86.
Hua ri bird-bone d. CM: 15.1.430. 9,2 cm. Chama JEANCON, pi. 29.
bone GM: 15.1.429. valley, New
bird-bone CM: 15.1.432 & 431. 4,7 cm. l'vlexico
Nambicuara d. ROQlTE'.CTE-PL'<'TO, fig. 66, p. 153. Sta. Rosa Isl. GM: photo-dep't. 15-966. 974, 975.
DA SILVA RONDON, p. 56. San Joaquin » • » 15-7883.
Boro1·ó (Colonia, lrocd BM: VB. 5331. With a nat ural scptum vaUey GIFFORD & S CHENCK, P· 54.
Silo Loure n ço) I as deflector. Upper Lodi
d.
I
GM: photo dep't: 7712.
• 15-8049; 8184.
Kayabl (Irambe) TIM: VB. 10068.
Carayá wood 'VM: 71896. D ecorated with fcathe rs. Ellis Landing, d. & • 15- 5018.
Used to decoy birds. Shellmound 3-d. NELSON, pi. 45.
Jaburú-bones BM: VB. 7371. For hunt. Decorated Gunter Isl. GM: photo·dep 't: 15- 5930; 7995.
with feathers. Jemez platea.u HEWE'.CT, pi. XIII b.
Kayapó recd B)f: VB. 8378 (coll. Kissenberth). New Me'xico
(Pao d 'A rco) Braided over. With feathers. Pecos, New AA, vol. 19, 1907.
BM: VB. 8377. Wound around with Mexico
black cotton thread. Hawikuk HoooE, pi. XXXIII.
d. BM: VB. 8381. Braidod over. With Hopa. d. MASON, [2], p. 234
feathers. Used at dance. Santa Cruz I sl. WILSON, p. 567.
• (An-arao Arara-bones d. BM: VB. 8371. Signal pipe. With Santa Barbara Co. Op. cit, p. 568.
Sta. Rosa) pearl hangtngs. San l\1 iguel Isl. Loc. cit.
Goier-bones d. BM: VB. 8372. Signal pipo. San Clement I sl. d. Op. cit., p. 569.
KnA USE, fig. 260, P· 400. Coast of Georgill bone C. MOORE, p. 83. 6 \4 in.
Apinayé WM: 71908. North Cheyenne bono BM: VB. 8445.
(Carabos, Alto Absaroka (Crow) RM.
R. Tocantius) G. l\f. (coll. KrMUENVAJÚ). Fort Randall WILSON, p. 575.
Parikuta 3- cl. ROTH. [ l ], p. 458. see fig. l!l5. (S. Dakota)
 342 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5 . N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 01'' S. AMERICA 343

Tribe Material single or 1 Aut hor or coUection

the sound orifice is placed in one end and which has
double only three stops. TESSMANN ([ 1], p. 50) portrays a
1
double flute from Ssima ku. I t is made of reeds
Te ton ioux IDENSMORE, (3).
and has the sound orifice placed in one end. One
Chippe wa DENSMORE, (2), p i. 10.
Va nco11,·e r bono FM: NS. 12752. D ecorat-ed with fea.
of t he two joined flutes has two stops, the other
1 I s l. thers. none. 'Ve have observed earlier in the text that
Sourisford ~ÍONTOOM~; nv, pi. XIII b. the Ma taco whistles were often double. This specimen
(i\fnn ito b11) is most probably a transitional form between the
Ma.taco wbistle and the type of flute which 1 have
Flules u:ith partly-covere,d sound ori/ice without stops. called the plug flute. The Huari1 ) have

•
a curious bone flute, the blowing con-
Tribe Author or colloc t ion. struction of which resembles that of
a quena with the notch covered w:ith
Pírotapuya ENGEL, pp. 66 scq.; CM: 25.6.165-7. a tablet (fig. 203). Both the proximal
Tukano
Siusl
GM: 25.6.194.
BM: VB. 6275.
• and the distal end have coverings of
wax. If the bone tablet were removed
Toriana BM: VB. 6277. Fig. 202. Small I should without hesitation call this
Suyá KARL V . D. STEl:NE:S, [2], p. 327.
Mohinaku flute of bird's bone flute a quena. Perhaps it is simply
WM: 47690; BM: VB . 26811. from the Baniwa.
C :\f: 28. 1.34. a quena transformed into a duct flute
Mandan DENSMORE, (5), pi. 10. Length 10 cm. under the influence of these latter,
Hidatsa
which are also found among the Huari.
T et on Sioux DENSMORE, [3), p. 4 71.
Karok KM: H . 1949 (lõ/ 1780).
A flute from the Sumu Indiana in Nicaragua2 ) has a
Hupa GM: photo-dep 't. l iJ-7 72. somewhat similar construction. It is made of bamboo
Hupa o r Yurok CM: 1f>- 2806. and has stops which, strange to say, are placed on the
Winnebago MM: 14-40-l m (2682). s ide opposite the sound orifice. Near the proximal
B lackfoot WISSLER, fig. 54, p. 86.
end a small round hole has been b ored , the proximal
Crow BM: VB. 7858 l.
Omnha CILMORE, fig. 6, p. 6 J .
opening is covered with wax, and immediately above
the hole there is a small wooden tablet precisely as on
t he Huari flute.
Duct flutes with stops. A small, r ather curious, ·w histle from Mataco should
be included here. It consists of a jaguar claw, t he
Duct flutes of the sarne types as those described above but with .hollow interior of which serves as air-chamber . A
stops also occur, alt hough some of t hem have »developed » along strip of bast is tied over the upper incision (fig. 204 a)
pecific line and become standardized. a nd has the sarne function as the bone tablet on the
The Baniwa flute on fig. 202 of the bone of a bird most nearly Huari flute. It has one stop. A similar whistle (fig.
rei embles the Mataco whistle. The sound orifice is placed in the 204 b) is used by t he Ramkokamekra-Canellas.
middle of the flute and it bas two stops. A similar one was found A very special duct flute of bone with three
in North America during an excavation in Pecos (P.i::ABODY, p. 30, . Fig. 203. F lute
stops (fig. 205) h as developed in the Uaupés tern- of bone from the
fig. 1). The Guató Indians1) have a sort of bone flutes on which 1) G M: 15.1.427-8. Hua ri. After
1) DI•: W AVlUN, (2), p. 56. 2) FM: 20.80.3 . . NonnENSKIÕLn.
 344 K. VET. O. VIT'fEIUT . SA"M.H. HANDL. SF.R. A. .BAND 5 . N:O 1 IZIKO\VITZ, MUSICAL TNS'fRUMENTS OF S. AMERJCA 315
toryl) among the Coeruna,2 ) Ta- inc1s100 has been made on one side. This method is somewhat
riana,3) Tukano,4 ) and Baniwa. 5 ) reminiscent of the Guiana fJutes (fig. 140). As these instruments
The flute. - 1 call it the Uaupés most probably were collected at the beginn.ing of the 19th century,
flute - is made of a single piece that is before KARL v. D. TED<EN carne to the territory arouncl
of bone and the proximal end
is closed by a natural septum
which is perforated by a small
r;l\i~::::c~ l
hole serving as a blow-hole. This
is, howcver, bored obliquely in
=========~Jltt~~====:::::.IJ~
such a way that tho air current
is dircctcd against a triangular b
~; -, ,:iltM:::,;_ .-Q)
opening immediately below the Fig. 204. Whistlea of claws. a = Ma-
}'ig. 206. }<lutes of reecl with partly co,·crod sound orifice anel stop~. a J'tllikur,
proximal end. Diaphragms are taco, HM: 03.3.589. b - Ramkokamekra- GM: 26.:3. 14:!. b = Maku, CM: :!.~.6.88. 1 / 4 .
never found in these flutes nor Cancllas, 01\T: 31.41.338. )..'2.
on duct flutes as a whole.
l!' lutes with partly oovered sound orifices and with stops occur
in South America in the Uaupés territory and among the Palikur.
The former all have four stops (fig. 206 b), the latter have fiYe in
front and one thumb-hole (fig. 206 a). On these latter the proximal
end has a perforated wax oovering while the distal
end is typical for some wooden flutes in Guiana
(cf. fig. 178a). -.
Vorsatz-flutes with precisely the sarne construc-
tion as that of the Suyá and Mehinakú flutes (p.
338) also occur. They have four stops and are made
of taboca reed (fig. 207). These flutes belong to an
Fig. 207. Flutes of taboca recd from Bmzil. RM: Dr. SrLVA DA CASTRo's coll. b. <-, d
old collection (SILVA DA CASTRo's) in the Riksmu-
= dotails of construc tion.
•• seum in Stockholm. Unfortunately there is no other
f inding place indicated for them than Brazil. The -·h'?f ·: ": • .... .. ·-- ::!Ml .~ ... .......... ·§E?.. -''!)
•
1
collection consists of four such fintes which according
to the catalogue constitute an lndian orchestra.
The blowing construction is precisely the sarne as Fig. 208.
--
--.;-'"

Flute of reed with partly r overcd sound orifice from the Yuma. X orth
• on the Suyá and Mehinakú flutes but the distal America . Aftt>r Di.:Ns~rORE .

cut is different. As will be seen from fig. 206 a, c the upper Xingú it is hardly possible that tbey should have come from
the distal septum is left in place and a peculiar here, as this was a territory completely untouched by Europeans
up to that time. Possibly the flutes derive from some near-by
1) ~I: 8308---85.
Fig . 205. Flute of 2) MM: 443. territory, perhaps fartber up the Amazon river, as is indicated by
bono from the 3
) BM: VB. 6306- 7. the distal cut.
Tukano . GM:: 16. ') GM: 16.5.61; Kocu-G1tüNUJ::HO, [:Jl, T, Abb. 181, p. 301. ln North America we find similar flutes. On instrumcnts fro111
5.61. Ya· •) Ci\•f : 28.1.148 p. the Mohave, Apache, Yuma (fig. 208), and Pima the blowing rnn-
 346 K . VET. O . VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5 . N:O 1
IZIKOWITZ, MU SICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 347
s truction is placed in the middle of the flute, and on a Mohave vor d em i.n diescn Atúsatz gcmachten Ei.nschnitt e ine vibrierende
s pecimen it consists of two boles on either side of a septum. These Holz oder Metallp latte gebu.nden . . . . . Dieses Flageolet wird
flutes have three stops. The covering consists of a leather band or stets a is Soloi.nstrument und am hã ufigsten von jungcn Mãnne m
some similar material. In North America the Vorsatz flutes have gebra ucht, die ihrc n Gelicbtcn ihr zãrtliches Ge fühl a uI cliese
\Veise kundt un wollen . Um dio Ccliebte aus ihrer Hütte hervorzu-
reached a high stage of development. The Vorsalz has here been
locken , spie lt d er F reie r eine ihm eigcnt ümlich e l\Ieloclie, welchc
substit uted by a specially carved block. In the American literature von ke inem ande m gespielt wird. Dieso Flageolet wird oft
it is usually called the 1 o v e r 's f l u te, because of its use at mit bu.nten Bãndern odcr Lcderriemen, rohen l\Ialer eie n usw.
courting. Severa! Plains Indian tribes and also the Iroquois and geschmückt. t 1 )

According to SACRS ([2], p. 697) this flute has also occurred in

Mexico. A reproduction in the Codex Becker clearly indicates the
attached block (fig. 210).

Flutes with partly-covered sound orifice with stops.

)
Tribe Stops Author or collection.
1 1 1

Tukano 4 BM: VB. 631 5; 6332.

Baniwa 4 C M: 28.1.152.
)fakú 4 GM: 25.6.88-9.
Palikur 5, 1 GM: 26.3.141- 2.
8 Rio Xingú! RM : coll. SILVA DA CASTRo.
Fig. 209. Fig. 210. Aztec? CODEX BECKEJl, €00 fig. 210.
SACHS, (2], p. 214.
Fig. 209. Vorsatz-flute from tho Iroquois. After BAKEit.
Moha,·e 3 WEAD, pi. 4, fig. 3.
F ig. 210. Mexican flute player. From CoDEX BECKER. After SELER.
Omaha ,5 DOHSEY, p. 282.
Pima 3 BM: VB. 1536.
Y uchi havo it (see table, p. 347).1 ) Below I quote a description by Yuchi 6 SPECK, pi. VII.
B Amm (p. 53), and have also reproduced a drawing by him (fig. 209): P otawatomi 6 KM: H. 1525.
Iroquois BAKEU, P· 53.
l!:s wird aus Zed cr-, Sumach- ode r Holunderholz gcfertigt; die
bcirlcn lctzte n we rden wegen des lcich t zu entfcmenden Marl{s
vorgczogen. Man wãhlt e inen Ast od er Sta mm, dC'r einen Durch- T h e p l ~t g f l u t e.
messcr von 1- 11/ 4 Zoll und e ine L iinge von 15-20 Zoll hat; er
wi rd der L ã nge n ach ha lbiert, und jede MIIto bis B (s. T a fe l ) und The characteristic feature of the plug flutes is that the deflec-
\"On B bis n ach A ausgeh õhlt ; die h iilften wc rdcn nun zusammen- tor is placed in the proximal end and has the shape of a plug
gele imt und in clie obere H ã lfte ,·or und hintcr B wird ein vicrecki- which, except for the airduct , fills the entire bore (fig. 189 b).
ges Loch (C, D ) hineingeschnitte n; v ier bis ach t T onlõch er wc rden This type of flut.e always has stops, the number of which in South
hineingebra nnt . Ei.nc H olzod er i\Ietallplatto (F. ) wird über die
America seems to have become standardized to four. There are,
vicreckigcn L õch er (C & D ) gelegt , sodass de r da rin bcfindliche,
liinglich v ie reckige Einschnitt gcna u zu dicscn p asst; über die of course, certain exceptions, as we shall presently see. I should
Platt e wird cin h õlzer.ner Aufsatz (.F) gebu.ndcn ; dicser ist u.nten consider it quite likely that this type originally wa.s derived from the
p latt, oben nach B elieben phantastisch geschnitzt; hãufig wird simple Mataco whistle. ln adding holes to this latter it became ne-
-----
') SACHS ([2] p. 214), has made a table of distribution fo r this flu to, but ali the ~lost likely .t heso fintes rnrely have bells, like the one on BAX1m's dmwing.
specim<'ns ho iucludes horein do not belong to this type.
'l'hose T hrw e seen in Europcan muscums ha,·c t runcated distal ends.
(> 1
348 K. VET. O. Vl'l'TERH. SAJlli. HANDL. SE.R. A. DAND 5. N:O 1 JZIKOWT'l'Z, MlTSTCAL 1NSTRUMENTS O.F S . .A3IERICA 349
cessary to change the position of the sound orifice so that it came instrument it is p ossible to play in different registers and enlarge
ncar thc proximal end. Tbere are, to be sure. Mataco whistles which the tone volume. ln Europe this is a very old instrument wbich
have the deflector in one end of the pipe, but t his varies not only was spoken of already in the middle ages and which is perhaps
from tribe to tribe but also \rithin the ame tribe (fig. 191 ). older still (SAcHS, [l]). It is always played together with a
As rcgard t he plug flute we can , however, observe a standardiza- . mall drum, only one hand being used for the flute while the other
tion ·which shows that it is indigenous to America and therefore handles the drum-stick. The drum is hung in a band over one
pre-Columbia n, which is still further proved by archaeological finds shoulder. This flute we find again among the Palikur (fig. 211)
of a typc wbich preclude their being post-Colum bian. There is, (G.M: 26.3.143) where it is used together with the Portuguese drum.1)
ncvertheless a difficulty here, for sinülar flutes h ave also been used The Uanana (KocH-GRüNDERO 13J, l , fig. 180 e, d , e. 13M: VB.
extensively in Europe, in particular during the centuries before 6326) also have this type, although the plug on their flute is of wax.
and after the age of discovery. F or this reasou it is often dif- 3) The third type is clearly a further development of the flú te
ficult to decide whether a flute of t his type is European or In- douce with six stops. These were used in European orchestras at
dian. Naturally there are characteristic types on both sides which

C-- IBf 1 ) )f) li lk' .. ~0 • ?J! r>) • . .,' b à'O , t: , 3' p;; thttltb .i. )

Fig. 211. Fluie of reed from the Palikur. G:\T: 26.3.143. 1 / ,. Fig. 212. P incollo of wood from the Chiaya (Bolh·ia). After IZllCOWJTZ.

differ considerably from one another in certain important details, t ho time of the discovery and were possibly the most popular flutes
but certain Indian flutes may be partly influenced by European in Europe before the t ransverse flutes were introduced. There were
flutes of the same type, and it is furthermore difficult to determine different sizes: soprano, alto, tenor, bass, etc. The bass flutes were
whether the tribes which now have European flutes formerly had furnished with an S-shaped monthpiece. A couple of flutes portrayed
lndian flutes. ln some cases this leads to difficultics, but in general by WEGENER (pl. XLIV) appear to be imita tions of this kind of
I think I can determine, on the basis of my material, the pre-Co- bass flute. The figure shows two bighland Indians blowing long
lumbian distribution of plug flutes in South America. In order to flutes with bent mouthpieces. We do not find any plug flutes or for
clistinguish between t he types I shall first of ali discuss the charac- t hat matter any duct fintes with defJectors in the Peruvian grave
teristic features of the European plug flute. finds. Nevertheless, duct flutes of European origin made of any ma-
Common to the European plug flutes (Bloclcflote, flúte douce) terial at hand are used here and there. The flúte douce was evidently
is that t he plug or deflector is of wood, never of wax. As a rule llsed in the churches. to judge from POMO DE AYALAS' manuscript,
the proximal end is cu t in t he way shown on fig. 2 L1, which has (p. 666) in wbich he portrays an orchestra with such fintes in a
given them t he name /lute à bec, or Schnabel/ZOte. The sound ori- Catholic church. Ris book was written at t he end of the 16th
fice has has the shape shown on fig. 212. Three distinct types of century. Smaller plug flutes occnr in modem Bolívia. A type which
this flute have been introduced into America: i.· often spoken of and which is evidently very popular is t he
l ) Thc simple whistle whithout stops. W e find it among the socalled pincidlu. The specimen on fig. 212 is from the Chipaya
Choroti. It is covered in the bottom but has instead a holc on (lzIKOWITZ, (3], p. 275). lt is !50.:; cm. long, with a diameter of 3.8 cm.
the side near t b e distal end NoRDENSKIOLD ((4], fig. 52.) These flutes are also used by the Aymara Indians who sell them to
2) The recorder (tabor-pipe, Schwegel, Einhand/lote). This con- t he Cbipaya. The n ame pincullo is, however, Quechua and according
sist of a long narrow tube with three stops near the distal end, two to HoLGUIN means: »todo género de flauta ». Possibly it derives
in front and ono behind for the thumb. Through over-blowing t he 1)
lnformat ion Ín tho cataloguo by NrMUENDAJÚ, tho collect or.
3.30 K. VE'l'. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 351
from the word pinctt = el madero la cumbre de uncumbrera, and eliminating ali flutes of Ew·opean types and - for the time being -
»pincu. pingit = vigas transversales que sostienen la armazón de umL aJI mixed types, i. e. those which have certain characteristic European
casa». The Chipaya also have a sort of curious plug flute made traits such as more than four stops, an
of two wooden halves of tola (Baccharis tola, which are joined together obliquely cut proximal end, etc.
with raw-hide. T hey have six stops. There are two types, one straight, This leaves us a great number of
the other bent (fig. 213). I do not know why they use a bent flute. flutes which have in common four stops,
Usually the flutes are, however, made of some kind of reed and have a wax plug,1) and a more or less trun-
Ili
six stops. Besides in the tribes mentioned above, flutes of this kind cated proximal end. KARr. v. D. STEINEN
found these flntes among most of the
tribes living around the upper Xingú
r 1 • ·.
(fig. 215). I have been in a position to
study rather closely his collections in
different museums. As the Xingú tribes
before v. n. STEINEN's visit were prac-
Fig. 2 13. Plug-fluto of tola from the Chipaya (Bolh·ia). After IZIKOWITZ.
tically untouched by European influence
we can be sure tbat these flutes are of
an original lndian model. They consist
of reeds, about 60 cm. in length. The
}'ig. 214. Duct-flute from the Cbiriguano. After XonDENSKIÕLD. distal end is usually cut immediately
below a perforated septum. The four
(• , > - n -· wa---~ -y=---:·---~-;,w--J- .~....·---• - -··~· ·--- iJ stops are placed on the lower part of the
tube. The sound orifice is quadrangular
~= and is close to the proximal end. Si-
Fig. 215. Plug.flut-0 of taboca reed from the Nahuuqua. Tho plug .is of wux. BM: milar flutes of the sarne material (taboca
VB. 2501. Length 54 cm. reed) are found among the Huari (fig.
216) and Paressi-Kabeiíí. A number of
occur among the Caniva, Chiriguano, Patamona, Makusí, Churapa, etc. Xingú tribes also have very large flutes
The Churapa flute is really double (fig. 214), as it has a small whistle
of the same construction and without stops tied to it. Such in-
of this type. A Kamayura flute, for
instance (coll. STEINEN, no. 538), 100. 7 '•.
"
•
struments are also found among the Chiriguano and Chipaya (IzIKO-
WITZ, l 3], p . 277). I do not know what function this small whistle
may have. Perhaps the instrument-maker wanted to obtain a tone
cm. long, is made of two longitudinal
balves which are joined together with
wax and wound around with black bast
•
with it which was missing on the large flute. 1 ) (fig. 217). The cross-cut is ellipsoid (axes
Thus far I have discussed those flutes which are made by the 6.7 x 5.2 cm.). Another flute ofthis kind
Indians of indigenous material, but the prototype of which s hould fram Bakairi, 78. 7 cm. long, is also Fig. 216. Fig. 217.
be looked for in European forros. I shall now give some examples made of two parts. (BM:VB. 13619). Fig. 216. Plug-flute of taboclt
of plug flutes wliich I believe to be purely Indian and finally I shall On tbese large flutes the proximal end from theHuari. GM: 1.3.1.441. ' /8 •
Vig. 217. Plug-flute of two
discuss the intermediate or mixed types. The former we find by is often cut obliquely but without the wooden halves from the Kama-
1
) Unfortunatoly t ho only specimen 1 havo seon was brokon and could not be
beaked shape of the European flutes. yura. w = wax. BM: coll. K. v.
pluyod upon. 1) Not if the whole instrumont is macio of olay. D. STEINEN. Length = 100.7 C'ffi.
3'52 K. VE~O. VLTTERH. SAl\ffi. HANDL. SER. A. BA"1D .3. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, 111 SJCAL INSTRUMEN'l'S OF S. AMERICA 353

Ge í ;ia:çu;; i1" i4hÃ'.:'.l"t11t#H 8'fi? í •:m;Ü" : 1 11mrne *' ,.

ii - a.

Fig . 220. Bent plug-flute of clay from Colima (Mexico), BM: IV Ca 34738.

F ig. 2 1 . l ' lug -flutos. íL = of Uambé- (Philodendron ) burk, BuniwíL, C:M: 28.l.32. 219). Dozens of flutes are hung in this way and on several necklaces
h = of bird' s bouc, Yuracaro, GM: 13. l.213. Tho plugs al'O of wax. 1 / 4 • they are not real flutes but only bits of bone. PEREZ told me that
great quantities of such necklaces hung in the medicineman's hut
On a nother Bakairi flute (BM:VB. 2339) a septum in the middle or in the assembly hut and on these the disciples of the medicine-
of the tube .has been removed through a ho]e which has been bored man used to practise. In Yucatan and Colima plug flutes have
i n tlte wall of the flute and thereupon closed with black wax. ln been excavated. They are made of clay and have from four to six:
the Uaupés territory we find flutes stops. One of the Colima flutes is made of black-ware pottery and
of the sarne construction but con- is bent (fig. 220). The proximal end is cut obliquely. It has four
sirlerably smaller (fig. 218 a). The stops. Another flute is double but one cannot determine the number
Yekuaná, in the Roroima territory, of stops as the distal ends ai·e missing.
have a plug flute, the distal end of These flutes have not been found farther
which is covered by a septum. It north than in Pueblo Bonito where a bone 1
has five stops, but V. HORNBOSTEL flute has been excavated. Whether this is
([5], p . 404), is of the opinion that pre- or post-Columbian I do not know. •
the lowest hole is sure to be the Finally I shall touch upon some >mncer-
distal opening for if it were to be tain » plug flutes, which are perhaps in part of
closed the tone would drop a Indian origin, i. e. the Indians may perhaps
whole octave. ln reality this flute have had such flutes before the Discovery,
therefore has only four stops. A but have changed them in post-Columbian ._
small bone flutc from Rio Grande
do Sul (BM}, evidently an archae-
ological find , has four stops and a
quadrangular sound orifice. Natu-
times. An example of these are the Goajiro
flutes (fig. 221). Made of reed or cane,
they are about 22 cm. long and handsomely
ornamented in red and yellow. The proxi-
~
~

~
1
•
l
rally the plug is missing. mal end is cut obliquely and the plug is of ~ ~

~
~
In Central America plug flutes wood. The sound orifice is quadrangular •
seem to be common. They are and the flute has three stops. It is possible 1
usually made of bone. A find from that the Indians had a similar flute in pre- Fig. 221. Fig. 222.
Chiriqui is made entirely of clay Columbian tÍlnes but hat they have changed Fig. 221. Plug-flute of reed
(WILSON, fig. 306). The Cuna plug the material of the plug from wax to wood. from tho Goajiro. Tho plug
fintes are made of birds' bones and Another specimen is the Cainguá. flute (fig. is made of wood. GM: 24.
2.325.
Fig . 2 1ü. :::-.:rc klíLt'C' with plug-flutes are used by certain medicine-men.
222). Tbe construction of the proximal end Fig. 222. Plug-flute from
o f' bird's bono from Lho Cumt. 01\1: They are used only once and are I should take to be Indian but the position t he Caingua. GM: 15.8.15.
27.:17. 1:.127. ' / ,. thereafter hung in a necklace (fig. of the stops may have bcen changed accord- Length 28.3 cm.
23
354 K . VE°'T:' O. Vl'l'TERH. SA-"1H. HANDL. SER. A. BA~D õ. N:O l
IZTKOWITZ, M USICAL JNSTRUME:NTS OF S . AMERJCA 355
ing to European patterns. This tribe most likely had the plug flute Summary.
already in pre-Columbian times. This is very interesting as it
connects the Rio Grande do Sul flute with the remaining distribution From my investigation of the duct flutes with deflectors it is
area. Whcther plug flutes have really existed among other Tupi- evident that they are derived from a sin1ple whistle, the Mataco whi tle
Guaraní tribes t o the sout h it is difficult to determine. The literature with a natural septum as its deflector. and may have been discovered
does, to be sure. describe flutes from t hese tribes, but not sufficiently b~ a~cident w~e.n the septum was taken out of a reed. Through the
well for the student to decide which types are bei11g described. prmc1ple of this mstrument two cüfferent types naturally arise, the Ma-
'rhe Uitoto1 ) , Kadiuveo2 ), and Tereno2 ) have reed flutes of Indian taco whistle and the flute whith a partly-covered sound orifice, and
appearance, with a wax plug, but an obliquely-cut proximal end. these have in turn given rise to other types, according to· the materiais
The number of stops are: used. The materials of which the flute tubes are made range from
Uitoto - four stops
bones of small birds t o large tu bes of toboca and palms. For the
Kacliuvco - four stops and a thumb h ole def~ectors ~ax is almost exclusively used. Typical for these simple
Ter cno - five stops and a t humb hole. whistles without stops is a lso the fact that they are often double
The Yuracare have a flute of a bird's bone with six stops both in North and in South America. Among some tribes t his dou~
(fig. 21 b). The blowing constru ction is Indian. :b"'lutes of birds' bling has led to the adoption of t he principle of the panpipe. Whether
bones with five stops, a wooden plug waxed to the bore, and an this idea is older than the panpipe itself or these whistles instead
oblique proximal end are found among t he Canelos3 ), and the Chipaya have been influenced by t he panpipe is an important problem which
have similar ones with six stops and wooden ,plugs. P ossibly the cannot yet be solved. The addition of stops to the simple whistles
Yuracare flute is originally an lndian model. has changed them into real flu tes, and a flute type has arisen which
I have now described the >mncertain» cases with which I am seems to have been fairly well standardized. This plug flute with
acquainted . It may be that severa] of them, with the exception of four stops, deflector or wax plug, the blowing construction placed
those from the Canelas and Chipaya, were originally Indian flutes high up near the proximal end, and t he boles rather far down, is
which have been modified in post-Columbian times. ln view of these found all the way from Mexico in the north to southern Brazil. ln
cases it becomes rather difficult to make any defini.te decisions post-Columbian times the plug flutcs have in several tribes evidently
1
regarding the distribution of the plug flute. With regard to the been transformed trough influences from similar European types .
flutes about which we know with certainty th at t bey are Indian it The wax deflector has been replaced by a woodeTL plug, and the
is quite clear that they have an eastern distribution, and that they are number of the stops has bcen increased.
connected with t he Central American and Mexican flutes (cf. table). A common characteristic of the outh American duct flutes
Without doubt four stops anda wax plug are the most common with deflectors is that they belong to Amazonas and to Central
and general characteristics of the plug flute. The Yuracare flute may America, which is probably the center of distri bution. They are
possibly indicate that t he Indians in the l\fojos territory had such accordingly n ot found in or south of Peru and are scarce in Chaco
an instrument and the Caniguá and Rio Grande do Sul specimens a nd among the southern Ges tribe., and are n ot reported from tho
suggest that it may have existed among the most southern Tupi - W est lndies.
Guaraní tribes and have spread with t hem on thefr migrations Simple flutes without stops are founcl both in North and South
towards the south. It is perhaps also possible t hat the Kadiuveo
America. They are probably very old, since they occur in Califor-
and Tereno flu tes indicate that this type has accompanied the nia a nd among the Basketmakers. Their distribution in South
Arowak tribes to t hese regions. America leads us to believe that they are an ancient culture element.
') DM: coll. Preuss. This is indicated by the fact that there are not many Mataco wh ist-
2) MANTZETt, [ ! ), p. 325. les in Guiana. They are spread as far down as Chaco, probably
3
) GM: 20. 7 .9 L.
through influences from Amazonas. Their distribution is somewhat
356 K. VEP....,0. VJTTERH. SAl\ll. HA~DL. SER. A. llAND ó . N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MCSICAL INSTRUMEN'l'S OF S. A)1ERICA 357
similar to that of the bullroarer, and jn still another way they re- Tribe Stops ::lfol<'riul Author or collection
mind one of the latter instrnment. ln some tribes they are cult 1 1 1
1
-
instruments, which may not be seen by thc women. This is espe- Chiriqui (archacol.) 2 WJI.SON, figs. 306.7, p. 648.
cially t rue of the large flutes used at tbe Yuripaya festivais. I ha>e Chiripõ (Talamanca) 6 B::\1: Xo. 20.
not investigatcd their functions in this work, but hope to be able to ,, 13ribri} GABB, p. 517.
Tfribi 6 bone
\\' rLSON, figs. 272-3.
return to this difficult subject in tbe future.
Yucatan (archacol.) 6 B'.\1: IV Ca. 5267.
Judging by the distribution, the plug flute should be a later in- Colima (archaeol.) 4 c lr.y 13:\I: IV Ca. 34738.
vention than t he other duct flutes with deflectors, for it is found only
• 4 BM: IV Ca. 34737.
in Central a od South America. This flutc type has also spread far • • Bl\1: IV Ca. 34739. Doublo. clist. oncl
south in Amazonas. Whether or not migrations of Arowaks to- broken.
WlLSON, fig. 250, p. 604.
wards the south (sources of t he Xingú, Paressi, T ereno) have
Pueblo Bonito
influenced its distribution cannot be said at present. (South-Wcst) 6 GoonARo, p. 51.

The plug /lute

DUCT FLUTES WITH ATTACHED AIRDUCTS.
Tribe 1 Stops 1 1\Iaterial 1 A utho r or collec tion
This group is characterized by a constructive detail by which
Sources of Xingú) 4 KARL V. D. STEl.'fEN, [2], P· 326. the aircurrent is led towards t he sharp edge of the airchamber by
4 VB. 2680.
B::II:
::IIehinuku 1 means of a tube which is directed against and in some way attached
N"uhuquá 4 B"M:VB. 2500.
VB. 4282, 2818. to the body of the flute (fig. H>O). The mechanism for blowing is
Auotõ > 4 B::lf:
K amayurá 4 538 (ooll. v. D. STETh'EN).
B:\1: attached to cylindrical as well as globular flutes. It stands out
Trumai 1 4 BM: VB. 4209 (coll. MEYER). 1 plainly on certain flute types used by the Ijca tribe and the
Bakairi J 4 KARL V. D. STEINEN, [2], PP· 172, 327.
MAX ScmuoT, [3], fig. 147, p. 239.
Apinayé. Fig. 241 e shows a cut thrnugh the proximal end of
Parcssi·Kaboili 4
such a flute from the Ij ca. On the airchamber a tube con-
Huari 4 GM: 15.1.441.
4 (5) BM: VA. 61088; V . liOMBOSTEL [5]
sisting of a feather quill, has been applied by means of wax.
Yekuaná
p. 404. The quill is directed against t hc edge of the airchamber. Fig. 241
Baniwa (Iowor shows the exterior of this flute from t he front and t he side. This
Içana) 4 Uambé bark GM: 28.1.32. construction is also often clearly outlined on the globular flutes, but
Baniwa (Turacuó.) 4 G:."11: 28.1.122.
not always. This is due to the fact that on the latter, wlúch are
Kalapol ilani (Rio 4 B:\i: VB. 6330.
Içana) Kocn-Gn t:NBERO, (3), I , fig. 180 g,
made almost exclusi>cly from some amorphous material, usually
p. 300. clay, but also metal, wax and the like, the attached tube is often
Cai ng uá 5, 2 GM: 15.8.15. made in one piece with the airchamber.
Rio Grande do Sul!
(archaeol.) 3 bone BM: witho ut no.
[2], lam. XIV,p. 79.
R e s o n a t o r w h i s t e l e s.
Imbabura (Ecuador) 6 JIJÓN y CAA:ltANO,
Cu na 4 bone GM: 27.27.000, see fig. 219. R e e d s a n d f r u i t-s h e l l s.
The Apinayé and Canclla are tho only tribes that have globular
Bogotá 4 reed GM: 27 .22.96, 98.
3 ~ Gl\1: 27 .22.99.
flutes with airducts which are not made of clay, metal or some
5 & OM: 27.22.95. other amorphous materiaJ (fig. 223). Their instruments consist of
4 bono GM: 27.22.102, 101. a reed which is tied or waxed to a small nut ora gourd. The reed
3 GM.: 27.22. 104. is wound around with cotton thread and is cut obliquely in the end
3.3
--...o. VlTTERH. s.um. HL"'ifDL.
K. VET. SER. A. :BAND ó. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTR UMENTS OF S. AMERICA 359

which is stuck into the fruit-shell. At the Fig. 225 shows one whistle from the Santarem
point where this incision begins there is a territory. The mouthpiece, or blow-tube, is fused
small deflector of wax. This resembles completely together with the body of the flute,
very much tbe construction of a Mataco which sometimes has the sbape of human being,
whistle (see fig. 223) and I sbould tberefore sometimes of an animal - a bird, frog, etc. These
consider it likely tbat this whistle origi- whistles have no stops and therefore produce only
nally developed from a Mataoo whistle. one note. ln the West Indies they do not occur,
This is also suggested by other peculiaritie's from which we may infer that they have come to
to which I shall return in the summary of Santarem after the emigration of the Arowaks.
this group of instrumenta. So much is, That the whistle with attached airduct occurs
however, evident that the Indiana under- at the mouth of the Amazon is not surprising since
stood the »practical » principie of flute- many details in the old cultures of this area point
blowing. Flutes of this type are found both towards influence from Central America. We do
with and without stops and of the latter not as yet know by which route tbis cultural current
type we have both double (fig. 223 a) and has travelled. It is, however , quite clear that t be
single ones. The double flutes have two Santarem cultures did not get their whistles from Fig. 225 · Anthro-
pomorphic clay
different notes. Those with stops are always the Peruvian high cultures, since they are found whjstle with at-
single and have four stops. The double only along the coast and not on the plateau. ln tachod airduct.
a b this area - had they ever existed here - they L avras. Santarem
globular flutes are used by the leaders of
Fig . 223. Globular flutea
the sacred bali games, which are, as we might nevertheless easily have been preserved for t erritory. GM: 23
w ith attachcd airduct from 10.280. Y:J.
know, played in Mexico, and h ere we also posterity in the graves, as they are made of burnt
t he Apinayé. a = 31.40.519.
b = 3 1.40.249. find double globular flutes with attached clay which resists the damages of time. On the Sierra we find
airducts, although in clay. Unfortunately instead tbe resonator whistle without an airduct (cf. p. 297). The
I have not, in spite of eager sear ch, been able to discover how absence of resonator whistles with airducts in the higblands perhaps
these were used in Mexico. also explains why they do not occur in Chaco, where one might
oth erwise expect to find them. As I have already pointed out,
Amorv hou s materials. these Indians also have the resonator whistle without an airduct.
These whistles, i;vhich in South America are found in P eru, Ecua- Possibly t he othcr type was already out of use at the timo of the
dor , and ('olombia, are very common in Central America and Mexico, coming of tbe Spaniards.
a nd a few solitary specimens have been found as far Typical of the construction of the Peruvian
nor th as Illinois inNorthAmerica. EastofthcAndes Q·- -- . ,. whistles is that they usually consist of a distinct
blow-tube (tbe airduct) which is attached to a
they occur at the mouth of t he Amazon in the Santa-
rem culture (fig. 224) . They are not found farther sroall globular body which always - i.e. on t he
ouih than Calchaqui. I t has thus a very common ~ ~ specimens with which I am acquainted - Jacks
type of distribution. The center of di ·tribution is ~ stops. Fig. 226 shows a metal wbistle which
without doubt sorne part of Central America, pre- very plainly illustrates the general construction.
s umably within a Mayan or more southern territory, l •ig. 224. Duct- The whistles are usually made of clay and na-
I1'ig. 226. Whistle of
for instan ce Costa Rica, Chiriqui, etc. whcre t hey are whistlo of clay si ver with attached turally, like the resonator whistles without airducts,
from San tarem
very common. Central America is, as far as I Jrnow, territory. G:\1: 24. aird uct. Peruvian present a great many different shapcs, such as
the only place where t hese whistles are still uscd. l 6 .47 a. ~ 3 • coast.Coll.GAFFRON. birds and other animais, human beings, etc. The
360 K. VE'l':--0. VITTERH. SAMR. HANDL. SEB. A. DAND !'i. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL lNSTRUMENTS OF S. A111ERICA 36 1

tingly enough, have precisely t he sarne shape

as those we find in Chiriqui (fig. 230). SuAREZ
[ 1] is of the opinion that the Caõaris used t his
,,
type. The bird-shaped whistle is most com-
mon, but anthropomorphic types also occur.
ln RESTREPO's Atlas we find t wo whistles

'
from Colombia. ln the Cauca valley, at
Hoya el Quindio, Lu 1s ARANGO found »ocari-
nas » "rith three stops. Very possibly these
Fig. 227. Clay whistlos with attachod airducts. a consists of fou1· whistlcs; Trujillo, were whistles of the type we are now discussing.
FM: E. 1230. b and e = tripie and double Aztecan whistlcs; J<'M: N. S. 13415-16. The European word »occarina » is the term for Fig. 229. Doublo cl1~y­
clay flutes of this construction. The whistles whistle with airducts
from Chimbote. BM:
anthropomorphic types are usually very artistically executed. The in RESTREPO's Atlas have four, respectively Coll. BAESSLt;R. %·
late Dr. GAFFRON in Berlin had a particularly fine collection of three stops. They are shaped like birds with
these latter . There are also small whistles of metal, both copper outstretched wings. On the I sthmus of Panama these whistles are
and silver. Usually the whistles are single, although double ones very common and presen t great richness of forro. 'Ve find them not
occur. Thus n'HARCOURT portrays a double whistle from Huacho, only archaeologically but also among the living Indians. From Acandí
and in the Museum for Võlkerkunde in Frankfurt a. M. there is, (tbe Atlantic coast of the Panama I stbmus) Ln."'NÉ ([1], fig. 13 B)
a vcry interesting quadruple whistle (fig. 227 a). It was found mentions a clay whistle without stops representing a turtle, a nd on
at Trujillo. I t is, in a way, a sort of pan -pipc. The guestion I sla del Rey (Pearl I slands) he found one with one stop in the
whother it is older or younger than the pan-pipes in Peru is one to shape of a bird (LINNÉ, op. cit., fig. 26 A). NICOLAS GARAY (p. 60)
which I shall r eturn later in connection with a discussion of the pan- portrays a couple from Guaymí "rith two, respectively four holes.
pipes in general (cf. p. 401). A double whistle which differs slightly These resonator whistles are made of clay. The Bogotá Indians
from these other two is the one on fig. 229 from Chimbote (M. ScHMIDT make their whistles of a uniguo material , black wax or resin. They
[2], p . 541 , fig. 10). The only evidence of the existence of this h ave two holes. Fig. 231 shows this whistle type and a cross-cut
'lvhistle in the Diaguita territory is a fragment of t he airduct itself. through it.
Sin ce tbis whistle is found together with typical Diaguita urns, i. e. Archaeological finds of this whistle have been made mostly in
in a n area which is strongly influenced by Amazonian cultures, one the Chiriqui territory. WILSON, (pp. 628- 649), HoLl\IES (p. 159- 171),
may question whether its occurrence bere should be assigned to a nd 1\fAc CURDY g:ive detailed doscriptions of them. Double whistles
influence from t he coast of Peru or from Amazonas. The material - of the sarne shape as t hosc in E c uador - are not unusua 1
is, however, as yet too insignificant to e nable us to answer this (cf. fig. 230). Regarding the other types I should like to quote
question. 1\fAc CURDY (p. 170):
Continuing n orthwards to E cuador •Ün tho otl1er hand, somo animal.s ar<'
wc find whistles of clay. I do not reprC>scntcd whose cries bear no resemb an<'<'
know of any of metal or other materiais. to thc sounds of a whistle, as may be infcrred
)
Tbey are not as handsome and well- from thc following list: l\Ia n , monkey,
executed as the P eruvian specimens and puma, deer, tapir, squirrel, ground-squirrel,
none of thcm are painted. Like the Fig. 228. Doublo clay whistle iguo,na, armadillo, crab, scorpion, parrot,
with airducts from Nasca. Mu- Fig. 230. Double duct-whistlo of owl, duck, partridge, several spooios of smo,ll
Peruvian ones they have no stops. There 800 Nucional, Lima: a/6906. clay. Volcan (Chiriqui). bi1·cls o,nd other animal forrns that cannot
are also double whistles which, interes- Longth 6 cm. GM: 27.21.9. bo definitely dctcrmined. . The tail or a
3G2 K. VET. O. VITTERJi. SAMH. JLL~DL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 363
l log is usually adapted as a mouthpiece an.d there is always stratigrafically there is any difference between these types. Usually
provision for suspending tbe instrument, ch1~y by means of they have two stops, sometimes one, and occasionally none.
a tn\llsverse perforation tbrough the neck. The fmgerholes, gene-
rally two in number, bave no fixed ~sition exce~t in the bird GORDO~ (p. 21) writes:
forms, whcre botb are almost invariably on the breast. • tThe great majority are provided with two boles equally
distant from the mouthpiece; these boles are always exactly
Portrayals of jaguars are especially common. According to equal in size and consequently give the sarne note . . . . . . A
1\úc CuRDY this is due to the fact that in »Mexican mythology the common form consists of o. hollow image of the human íorm or
jaguar is intimately associated with musical instrumenta. »1 ) else a monkey, with an extonsion cnding in a mouth-piece at the
,1 1,
. _ . ln the Ethnographical back. A very curious roprosonts o. pair of twin monkeys joined
1r!I · () ·· Museum ofSweden in Stock- together (Fig. 14). Anothor (Plate IX, i) represcnts a pa.ir oí
frogs mating, and o.nother (Plate IX, j) has tbe form of a larga
[_[(':; holm, thore is a large and
bull-frog. Each of the laLtor is a double whistle; that is to say,
f{(i · excellent collection ofwhist- the air sent into it from the Jungs divides into two curronts cor-
11\.l '\ les from Costa Rica which responding to two separa.te cavities in the body of tbe frog. •
· \. 1 have been excavated by
\ \' '~ ... From Guatemala I know of only one
,. "- HARTMAN. 2 } Tbey are all
whistle from Tu.xtla (GM: 23.G.537).
from Guacas. The most
During investigations of the subterranean
usual type represents a bird, water reservoirs - chultunes - in Labná,
the tail of which is the Yucatan, EDWARD THOMPSON (p. 10, fig. 3)
airduct and the body, fur- found a few whistles, among these one that
nished witb four stops, tbe
was double. At the museum in Gothenburg Fig. 232 . Clay-whistle
airchamber. They are ali
there are a number of whistles from Yucatan but with airduct from Guana·
very well executed. Some they have no definite finding places recorded. carie. GM: 30.39.8.
of them are double. WILSON
t•)
Vig. 231. Duct.whistlo of black wax from the
also portrays a few speci- On plates XXXI and XXXII n'HARCOURT [l] reproduces seven
.Bogotá (Panamá). After NonDENSKior.n.·· roens from Costa Rica. A clay whistles belonging to thc Trocadéro :museum in Paris. They were
handsome whistle from Gu- all found in the neighborhood of Palenque. All are anthropomorphic,
anacarle which is made of orange-brown ware is shown on fig. 232. without stops, and are between 10 and 25 cm. long. n'HARCOUI"tT
ln Nicnragua the richness of whistles is quite as marked if not considers these, together with some others on pl. XXXII, among
more so than in Chiriqui if one may judge from the numerous repro- them two from Jonuta, as being of the >)Style maya-zapotec ». Those
ductions by WILSON and above ali in LOTHROP's excellent work, »The which are not anthropomorphic are zoomorphic.
Archaeology of Costa Rica». Both single and riouble forros exist, ln Mexico pro per - particularly in the valley of :Mexico - in-
mo tly with two or four stops. numerable whistles have been found. ln every museum which has a
From an Salvador I am acquainted with only a small number collection, however small, from ancient 1\fexico they are represented,
of whistles which have been reproduced by WIL ON and WEBER. As and a great many authors have described thero. Among these are
for Honduras, GoRnox has found a great number of whistles during 'YrLsox, D'liARcoURT, SELElt, STREBEL, K1JNIKE, KoLLMANN, etc.
hi s excavations in the Rio illua valley. I have already discussed The whistles are both single and double. n'HARCOURT repro-
the construction of those without airducts (cf. p. 292). A great many, duces a couple of the latter type.1 } ln t he ethnographical museum in
however, do have airducts. It would be interesting to Jrnow whether Frankfurt a/M there is even onc consisting of three tubes (fig. 227, b, e).
1) Op. cit., p. l 82. The different parts of this instrument vary in size, thereby produ-
2 ) lT1\ll'.1'MANN (2] and D ' HARCOURT [3]. 1) p 'HAncoUit~, (l], pi. XXXVI, figa. 7 and 12.
364 K. VEf. O. VI'l'TERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BA~D 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, l\1USJCAL JNSTRUMENTS OF S. A:MERICA 365

cing three different notes. These instruments corrcspond to the been applicated upon the airchamber, usually in the form of a bird
four-tube whistle from Trujillo in P eru (fig. 227 a). Obviously the or a human being representing some Mexican god.
lndians have amused themselves by multiply:ing whistles of this The cylindrical tubes are interesting, in that they are side-blown
type; those with three and four tubes are probably exceptional. ln and have the airduct fa tenecl on to the middle wbere tbe sound ori-
general the Mexican whistles are like the Peruvian. Usually they fice is found. Thus we have the samc change and transition be-
h avc only one stop or none at all. tween globular wbistlcs and transverse flutes as between the resona-
The process of multiplying the tubes is evidently an attempt to- tor whistles without airducts in Peru. It is strange that this has
enlarge the tone-volume, though one would think this could be ef- not led to the invention of a genuine transverse flute in Mexico!
fected quite as well with a greater number of hoJes on a larger reso- KoLLMANN portrays a macabre whistle, the counterpart to which
nator. That t he former method has been chosen may possibly be is found in the Gothenburg Museum (fig. 234). On tbe globular air-
chamber a death mask has been applicated. The disgusting hoarso
and piercing sound of this whistle is quite as macabre as its appea-
rance.
On several other places in Mexico whistles with attached airducts
have been found. I have reproduced some specimens from Ranchito
de las Animas belonging to the Gothenburg Museum. STREBEL also
describes whistles from this region His material is in the maio
derived from the states of Vera Cruz and Puebla. North of the
valley of )foxico this whistle type is found only in two places.
Fig. 233. Fig. 2:34.
KrnnER1 ) mentions a. clay whistle without stops from Pecos and
F'ig. 233. Aztecan clay whistle with attached airduct. B)i : IV 8 a 4555. WILSON describes one from Illinois:2 ) I have not been able to find
Fig. 234. Clay whistlo with attached airduct. Valloy of l\Ioxico, Gl\I: 23.6.68.
any more evidence of the occurrence in North America of tbis
wbistle, but this may of course be due to my too slight knowledge
due to some tradition or other. It is, however, an interesting fact of the N orth American literature.
that th is multiplying of one-noted tubes occurs beyond tho area of
1 ) K.lDDER, fig. 120 b, p. 140.
distribution of the pan-pipe, which is made according to this prin-
2) WILSON, p. 587: &l<'ig. 232 is an instrument made of pottery, lately receivod
ciple. This proves that the Indians also were capable of making this by tho National )Iuseum from i\fr. H. D. Thompson of Moline, Ifünois. Jts remar·
invention. I shall, however, return to this interesting fact in con- kable similarity to specimens from Centro.! and South America was deemed of suffi·
nection with the question of the possible American origin of the pan- c ient importance to justify a description in this paper. According to )1r. Thompson,
pipes (cf. p. 400 seq.). it wss found sevcrnl feet below the surface in the Mississippi River drift while exca-
,·ating for a factory foundation. It is the only specimen of its kind found in the
Characteristic for these :Me:ll.ican whistles - according to n'HAR-
eastem or Central United States tbat hss thus far come to our notice. Its shapo is
COURT they are Aztec in origin, for which reason I bave termed them
that of sn animal head (somewhat caWke}. Hy rcferring to the sketch it will be seen
Aztecan - is t hat the mouthpiece, or airduct, and the body of the thst the whistling mechsnjsm is in the mouth of the animal and the eyes scn·ed as
flute, or airchamber, are made separately and thereupon joinecl to- sound or finger boles. Unfortunatcly the mo uth piece is broken and tho original
?ethc~. This takes place before the process of burning. The airduct s<'alo of the instrument cannot be given. Throo notes, howeYer, were possible. Pot-
tery wrustles of bird snd animal shapes are frequently found in Mexico, Central and
is pamted red, which is an advantage in that the paint prevents
South America, as will be seen lo.ler, and the whistling apparatus in ali is identical
t he airduct from sticking to the lips in blowing. The airchamber is with tho one h ere figurcd. Mr. Thompson (the owner) was somewhat skeptical as to
not paintcd, and is cylindrical (fig. 233) or globular in shape. The the antiquity of this instrumont, but tho writor can only say that if it had been re·
Mexican whistles are rarely shaped like human beings or animais coivecl from Central America its gonuinonegs would not have been quostionod, so
as are those from Central America. ln place thereof a figure has c losely does it resen1blo tho pottory whistlos from that region. &
 3!)6 K. VE../. O. VITTERH. SAMH. H.ANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL TNSTRD:.\'IENTS OF S. AMERICA 367

R esonalor whistles with atlacheil airducts

Trib3 }laterial Shape 1 Author or collection
1 1
Triba or placo Material INo. ofl Shape 1 Author or collection
holes
1 Aramanahy clay o CM: 26.26.66-7 .
(Rio Tapajoz)
Xazca painted clay o bird, Coll. GAFFRON.
double
San tarem • o
CM: 24.16.47 a .

P eru, coast of clay o ,·ar. sh opes Coll. GAFFRON.

Prov. Catamarca • GM: 30.39.157 and 119, frngme nt.

t silvar o bird Dl\1: 6091.

Volcan (Chiriqui) & o double GM: 27 .21.8-9; coll. L~"Nt.
A cai » GM: 23.10 .542; LTh"NÉ, [ l], fig. 26 A.
Ancon o • BM: VA. 2740; cf. RErss & STüBEL,
III p. 80.
Acandi » GM: 27.21.794; L nnri:, (l], fig. 13 B.
Guaymi 2,4 Gâ.RAY, p. 127.
>) clay o • D' HARCOURT, [l], pi. XXVIII, fig.
>)

2 NonDENSKIÕLD, ( 11 ], p. 180.
Bogotá »
3,5.
Chiriqui HoLMES, ( l], pp. 160-71; MAc Cun-
Pachacamac » o fish, head of BM: VA. 39125.
))

DY, PP· 169-88; WILSON, PP· 628

• • o ]lama bird, BM: VA. 39124 .
-49.
• • o man, BM: VA. 39127 .
bird tortoise HAllTMANN, fig. 14, p. 21; figs. 38,
Las Guacas ~ 4
• • o'HARcounT, [l], pi. XXVIII, figs .
39, p. 37, pl. II, 2.
7, 9, 12.
o'HAMOURT, (3], p i. X."C.XVII.
o double-bird BM: VA. 39123.
Truji llo o man BM: VA. 32250.
G uanacarle » GM: 30.32.8.
(Sardinal)
quadruple FM: E. 1230.
Acientio )) WrLSON, pp. 613 seq., fig. 261.
ChimboLe BM: VA. 18577.
:Nicoya Op. cit .
1 o man, double BM: VA. 7877.
))

Las Canas )) Op. cit.

Huacho D' HARCOURT, [l], pi. XXVIII , fig. 8.
San Salva.dor )) WEBER, p . 633, fig. 7.
• double Op. cit., fig. 15 .
• • 2 anthropomorphic WnsoN, figs. 257-8, p. 611.
}larquez dog o BM: VA. 36170; 36171 , 24247.
>)

Wu.sox, pp. 611-3.

Ometepec Is!. >)
Caj amarquiLia clay o bird o'HARcounT, (l ], pi. XXVIII, figs.
Lake Nicaragua
1, 16.
Zapatera
Ce r1·0 Sapamé copper o ANTZE, § XXXIV, figs. 116-117 a.
>)

Alta Gracia »
l<:I Za lYl lll'O o double BM: VA. 15372.
>)

Tunja 2 bird BM: VA. 1356. • • >)

o, l, 2
LoTmtoP, II.
C'.\.I: 23.6.702.
Travesia >)
'.lfanabi clay o human figure SAVILLE, [2], I, pl. L, fig., s. l , 2,
C'.\.I: 23.10.280.
!Lavras ))
3, 5.
Uloa Yalley ÜORDON, p. 21.
• clay o birds Op. cit., p i. XLIX, fig. 6, 9, II, 12. &
CM: 23.6.537.
E cuado r Tuxtla >)
ÜONZALEZ SUAREZ, [3], pi. XIX,
(G uatemala)
fig. 2.
fig. 3, p. 10.
• bird Op. cit., Lam. XIX, figs. 3 & 4. Labná
Yucatan
>) EDWARD TB.OMPSON,
GM : 26.6.590.
::Vlanabi double CONZALEZ SuAJtEZ, [l ], Lam. XXIII, >)

(Caliaris) figs. 10, ll, p. 129. Ranchito do las >) GM: 23.6.494- 5; 510- 11 ; 515.
Imbabura o J1JÓN Y CAAJUASlo, (2], Lam. 8 Animna
XXXVII, fig. 4. Valley of » CM: 23.6.68.
La Tolita GM: 29.5.28 (coll. HEYE). Mexico K o LLMAN.
(Esmeraldas) SELER.
Chibchas 4 bird RESTREPO, [3], Lam. XÀ"XY. pp. 99, S:rREBEL.
(G uatabita) 100. D'HARCOUllT, [l], pi. XXXVI, figs.
3
Hoya e! Quin- 3 ARANGO, p. 124. 7 & 12. FM:
dio, Cauca Pecos KlDDER, fig. 120 b. P· 140.
Colombia black clay 2 man Illinois U. S. A. WILSON, p. 587.
IlM: VA. 32058; 62487.
 368 K. VET. o. VITTERH. s,um . HANDL. SER. A. BAND ó. N:O 1
IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INS1'RU1\l.ENTS OF S . AMERICA 369
Double whistles with »blow-taps » Whi st l i n g i a r s.
A peculiar, very exquisite little clay whistle is found in the San-
tarem collection at the Gothenburg :Museum The exterior is cylin- In the graves on the coast of Peru pottery jars are often found
drical. A transversal sketch (fig. 23:J) shows that it is divided by a ·which have a whistling appara~us, the construction of which is al-
partition into two chambers, each of which open out into a small ways a whistle with attached airduct. Tbese jars are found in nu-
h olc. Between t he e boles is a small elevation. At a superficial glance merous shapes, and represent without doubt various periods a nd
it may look as though the whistle werc without an airduct, which cultores. A systematic study of them, with due regard to circum-
strictly speaking, is also the case. Nevortheless, it works so stances of finds and artistio styles would be well worth while. 1 )
that thc air current automatically is directed aginst the holes by ln this general study it would be impossible to treat this subject
means of tbe small elevation. ln blowing the in detail. Instead I shall confine myself to a few remarks on their
whistle, it is held transversoly with the small
elevatiou, »the blowtap », between the lips,
which therefore cannot be completely closed.
This causes the air to go out at the corners
of the mouth, t henre to be forced along the
sides of tbe elevation, or tap, towards t he
holes. ln this way the lips together with t he
tap make a sort of airduct, and t he whistle
produces two notes at the sarne time, with an
Fig. 235. W histle with interval of a small third. Another example
blow.tap from Santa- of this ingenious whistle is portrayed by
rom. l-'2· TESSM:ANN from the ( hama.1 ) ln spite of the
fact that these Indians live so near t he Peru-
vian bigh cult ure area I am of the opinion tbat t bey did not a b
gct this whistle from there but rather from the old cultures which
Fig. 236. Turtle-formed whistling jars from Peru. RM: 16.210- 211.
fl ourisbed in t he region around the mouth of th e Amazon. I
know onJy two whistles of this type and yet, in spite of this slight
construction , their distribution, and t heir relation to other instru-
material, I am inclined to think that the type was invented some-
ments. Nothing is known of t heir use, since they are all archaeological .
where in Amazonas, where for that matter so many independent
The whistling jars are of two main types. Some are divided
Indian inventions have been made. It is not difficult to figure out
into two chambers, one of which is t he airchamber of t he whistle.
how t his invention has come about. It often happens that airducts
On others the jars themselves serve as airducts to small globular
on the clay whistles are broken and a piece falls off so that the tube
·whistles concealed inside.
is open. In spito of this the instrument is easily played if tbe
Tbe former type is found in the Chimú district (Trujillo,2 ) Paita
musician covers tbo cut - the remains of the airduct - with the
Etén,3 ) Chimbote.4 )) They are often in the shape of pea shells, fishes,
lips. This procedure creates a blowing-mechanism similar to the one
on the ·whistle in question. If we experiment on a double whistle ') D r. T. XoRLIND, curator of tho ~Iuseum of Musical History in Stockholm, has
of the sarne type, as for instance t he one from Chimbote (fig. 229) collccted conside rable information o r\ whistling jars, which it is his intention to pu·
or the Chiriqui specimen, and remove the common air channel and b lish. He has had t he kindness to placo t his material at my disposal.
2
) VA. 3854.
uncover the airduct we get a similar whistle.
1
3) VA. 32527.
- ) TESSMANN, (2), Taf. 30, fig. 7.
') SM:: 1712/37.
24
370 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5 . N:O l TZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S . .AMERICA 371
and turtles. Fig. 236 shows such a turtle-shaped jar. It is divided
into two chambers, of which the lower one is t he airchamber. The
projecting part is the blowing mechanism.
The latter type is found in many different shapes. l\fost com-
mon are the compound jars (fig. 237), which consist of two or some-
times three, four or more jars. Their hollow bodies are connected,
and one of them has an opened spout, whereas the other ha-s a closed
one and can either be similar to the first jar or shaped like some
animal. The jars are often
made in the shapes of hous-
..
1

es, sometimes with ceremo-

nial sceneries. The closed
jar has a whistle. When a
person blows in the open
spout of the first jar, the
air current passes through
the whole series to the little Fig. 238. Double whistling jar. Naca(?). The cross-eection shows the construction
globular whistle. The latter of the whistle in the hea.d. o = orifices in the hea.d. GM: 35.32.27.
is often placed in the co-
vered spout opening in its single jar has to my knowledge been found elsewhere, namely in
head (fig. 238). The diagram Pereira at Manizales (Cauca province, Colombia). This double jar is
on fig. 239 illustrates the probably due to Peruvian influenee, perhaps to trade connections.
Fig. 237. Double whistling jar with mythical principie. The head of the WILSON (p. 622, fig. 271) depicts a jar with attached whistle
scenery. Chimbote. SM: 68986. animal-shaped jar is often from Costa Rica, consisting of »a round bottomed painted vase a
pierced with holes. Some- handle on one side representing an animal head, - - - - - The
times the whistle is hidden in the connecting link between the closed air passage is from the inside of the vessel, connecting with a vent
jar and an upper support by which the jars are sometimes united. hole on the outside of the animal's neck. To produce a sound or
On fig. 230 it is just under the seat of the animal. The common note the lips must be placed against the mouth of the vessel in the
jars with handles of the type illustrated on fig. 239 are very often sarne manner as would be done on the large brass instrument of
provided with whistles, and are often joined to the figure of a bird, to-day. >} It is difficult to decide if this jar has any connection with
a human being, etc. which contains the whistle. Jars with double the Peruvian ones. The latter are all different in shape and have a
whistles are also found. different type of whistle. Probably it is an independent invention
The whistling jars are spread along the entire Peruvian coa-st, in Costa Rica, and I am inclined
most thickly in the Chimú district, where the greatest number have to believe that this jar is connee-
been found. However, whistling jars have also been found up in ted with the whistles from Costa
Chavin 1) and Recuay2 ) , and a few at Ica3 ) and Nasca.4 ) Only one Rica and Chiriqui in the shape
of drums, 1 ) tops, etc. To make
') BM: VA. 48207.
1) BM: VA. 4753. an animal-shaped head squnding
3) LM: 10392. and in this way more alive than J-'ig. 239. Diagram of double whistling
') LM: 9565. 1) E. g. WILSON, p. 645 and 646. jar from Chimbote. GM: 22.1.47.
372 K. VET. O. VlTTERH. SAl\IB. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, i\IUSICAL lNS'l' RU!\IENTS OF S. A...1'fERICA 373
merely by its shape and by painting is a natural idea, and this way that when the musician blows through the
idea also lies behind the Peruvian jars. Whistles with attached quill the air current will touch the edge of the
airducts are found in both places, and the independent invention airchamber or tube. The tube consists of some
of the whis tling jars therefore lies within the bounds of possibility. kind of reed. ln South America these flutes are
On t he other hand, it is possible tbat when archaeological research found only among the Ijca, Kagaba, Cuna and
between E cuador and Central America has made further advances, Motilon, and in Central America among the
some connecting link may be found. Lacandones and Aztecs. Strangely enough they
are missing in the area between these two centers.
where plug flutes are used instead. Considering
that the Aztecs had colonies in Central America
as far south as Chiriqui this may possibly be
explained by the flutes under discussion having
come to South America by way of the sea. I
a b e
suppose the pictorial writing of the Cuna Indians
24
also suggests some such cultural relations with Fig. 1. Pair of
flutes with attached
the high cultures to the north. airduct s from the Jjca.
It is interesting that these flutes among the a = GM: 16.3.563.
J Ijca, Kagaba, and Cuna are played in pairs. One b = G:ll: 16.3.562.
of the flutes has five stops, the other only one e = cross-sec tion of
. t be proximal
(f ig. 241). Among the Kágaba the flute with
cnd. 1 / 12•
five stops is called male, kuizi sigí and the
flute with only one stop female, or kuizi bunzi PnEuss, ([4], p . 358).
Fig. 240. Double whistling je.r from Pachacamac showing a mnn blowing a deer I regret to say that the reasou for this distinction is not known
skull whistle. After 1\iAx ScHMIDT.
to me. The sarne division into paira is found in slit drums and this
furthermore in a closely related territory (p. 20). Pair-blowing of
From the above it will be seen that the whistling jars in their
pan-pipes shows a similar divjsion of instrumenta. As pan-pipes do
construction are related to the whistles with attached airducts. ln
not occur north of Cuna it would be interesting if one were able
P eru they have the sarne dístribution - only along the coast - and
to prove that pair-blowing is found even north of this territory,
are sometimes double, a trait which we also find on these whistles.
which would mean that tllis idea was applied to instruments which
Thc origin of the whistling jars is probably connected with the fact
are purely Indian in origin. As we know, this pair-blowing also
tha t t hey, like other whistles, were made in the shapes of animais.
They ha ve evidently had some religious function. It is impossible occurs on pan-pipes in Melanesia, a fact which is
to say which of the two main groups is the oldest, since the details considered as a support for their theories by those
r egarding circumstances of finds are unknown. authors who claim a non-American origin for the pan-
pipe. The only possible evidence of t he existence of
pair-blowing on flutes with attached airducts is thc
F l u t e s w i t h a t t a e h e d a i r d u e t s.
reproduction of a pair of these flutes in the SAHAGUN
T h e A z t e e f l u t e. F ig. 242 · A pie- manuscript (SELER, (1], II, p. 677). If they did not
tw·c of flutes
Tbe most usual construction of theso flutes may be seen on belong togethor why should two instruments of the
from the
fig. 241. A feather quill serves as an airduct and is fastened S AHAOUN MS. same sort be portrayed side by side1
at a suitable angle to the tube ºby means of black wax in such a After SELR&. · Within Aztec boundaries we also find this flute
374 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. ~"'fDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 375

made entirely of clay (fig. 243). These specimens are all arcbaeological. Side-blown /lutes with attached airducts,
M:ost likely the Indians have also used flutes of reed in ancient times the »axflute'lt.
but these have of course been utterly destroyed in the earth. The clay The Motilon Indiana on Sierra Perijá have a parti-
flutes usually have four stops and some of them are furnished with cularly curious and altogether unique flute. BoLINDER
a sort of bell piece. I do not believe this func- calls it the »axflute» because of its likeness to a large
tioned as a genuine bell; it is most probably an wood-chopper (fig. 244). The Motilon Indians call it
ornamental detail like the distal tableta on the atu11sa. It is unusually large - 110 cm. in length and
ambaúva trumpets in Guiana (fig. 96). The bell 5.5 cm. in diameter. The blowing construction is the
piece on fig. 243 is, as wm be noticed, also or- sarne as on the abovedescribed flutes with attached air-
namented. It is difficult to say how late this ducts, with the exception tbat the attached airduct is

-.
flute is in Mexico; speoimens thereof are usu- placed at a right angle to the airchamber (fig. 245).
/\ ally found at Teotihuaoan and most likely The projecting part of the mouthpiece is wound around
,......
belong to the later period of Aztec history. with cotton thread and the rest is covered by a large
' The Huichol and Tarahumare have used lump of wax. It is difficult to explain why the airduct

....
.;

a flute which is made wholly of reed, but whioh has been placed at such an angle on the side of the
nevertheless belongs to this group. A piece flute; perhaps because it is easier to reach the four stops
above the septum has been left in place in the when it has this position. Even as it is I have found
proximal end. This, together with the upper it difficult to reach the stops with my arm length from
part of the tube, has been planed off and a which I infer it would be still more difficult for a short-
hole has been burnt irnmediately below the statured Motilon. Had the flute been end-blown it could
Fig. 243. Mexican clay·
septum. A small tablet of reed completes not have been possible at all.
flute with a ttache d air- the airduct. The stops are burnt into the
duot. CM: separately planed lower part of the flute.
Summary of /lutes with attached
The »Àztec » /lute ai r d u e t s.
A. A itduct o/ quill, tube of reed. If we knew how many whistles with attached air-
ducts had been found at every single location in America
T ribe Stops Rernarks Autho r or collection
1 1 1 we could make a map from this material. Unfortunately
Ij ca 5,1 1 BOLINDER, [2), p. 77. we do not know this. Still, I venturo to maintain that
Kagabá blown in pairs PllEUSS, [4), p. 358. the largest marks would be placed in Central America
i) kuizi sigt = rnale
- in Chiriqui, Costa Rica, aod Nicaragua - following
1 kulzi bunzi = female
i\lotilon 4,1 BOLINDER, [4), p. 42.
which the valley of Mexico, E cuador, Yucatan and
Cuna blown in ~airs C ~I: 27.27. then Peru, Colombia, aod Santarem would probably
Lacandoncs 5 T OZZER, [2), p . 74.
Aztec 1 Sunn, fig. 15 b , p . 165.
B. Both airduct and tube o/ reed. Fig. 244. Side-blown flute with
nttached airduct from tho l\forilon.
Ruichol 1 4 Cl\1: 2 L.5.56.
GM: 16.3.244. 1 / ,.
Tarahumnro :1
1
Kmcirnon· (private coll.).
:Fig. 245. Diagram showing t ho
e. B oth airduct and tube o/ clay (fig. 243).
construction of the flute on
Azteo 1 ·~ GM: 23.6.6!i. fig. 244. 1 / , .
1

Fig. 245. Fig. 244":

376 K. VET. O. VlTTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. :BAND 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S . AMERICA 377

come in the order now mentioned. ln Central America the \Yhistles airchamber was modelled in the shape of some animal, a human
have reached their greatest development - nowhere else are they being, etc. ln Mexico and also in Peru the lndians instead applicated
found in so many forms. The whistles from Santarem, Peru, and a modelled figure on their whistles.
Ecuador bave no stops. It is first in Columbia that these appear. The youngest flute in thls series judging from the distribution
Most usual are two stops, while four also often occur. Possibly
the number four carne into existence through the process of doubling
,, is probably the Azteo flute which may have spread from Mexico
partly across the sea to northern South Amerioa.
the tubes, but that is perhaps going too far in typological specula- What function the whistles with attached airducts had for the
tions. In Mexico the whistles usually have one or no stops. lndians we do not know, but quite likely they were used like other
This system of doubling the whistles is spread over the entire instruments at certain religious festivais. Perhaps the lndians at
territory and reaches its height in the valley of Mexico and in Peru, each new feast made new whistles and thereafter threw them away.
with respectively triple- and quadruple whistles. In Santarem and The notes which could be produced on the whistles gave, so to speak,
among the Apinayé there are also double whistles. One likeness life to them. Possibly they represented gods and demons, an idea
between the Aztec, Peruvian and Apinayé whistles is tbat airduct stressed by modelling them in the shapes of ali sorts of animais and
and airchamber are often made separately and later joined, in con- human beings. The whistles may have had the sarne function here
trast to the Central American whistles on which the airduct is fused as the masks in the Amazonas territory. Did the Indians in Central
together with the airchamber and ali is made in one piece. Amerioa perhaps mask their voices and let the demons speak through
Thus it appears to me as though the whistles were invented the whistles1 May the handsome ornamentation on a number of
somewhere in Central America. Evidently the oldest types had no Central Amerioan whistles also have some religious imporM
stops, airchamber and airduct were separate, and the instruments Birds are the anima.Is which have most often been models for
were often double. The doubling process also occurs quite often the whistle artists. I do not know what role birds played in the
on the Mataco whistles, and since, moreover, the latter obviously Indian religion, but in any case the idea of modelling a whistle in
have spread from Central America, this supports my supposition that the shape of a bird is always a natural one. The tones are suggestive
flutes with attached airducts have come into existence through in- of the song of the small birds which live in the dark jungles. Al-
fluence from the Mataco whistle (cf. p. 335). together, artistic imagination will easily bound ahead when the
Later, a cultural current passed from Central America southwards artist is working with so plastic a material as clay.
and eastwards to Santarem after the era of the Arowak emigrations Whistles of the construction which we have been considering
to the West Indies, and another current took the route along the coast occur here and there in the world and the custom of giving thcm
to Peru, and as far south as the Calchaqui territory. This latter the form of a bird is also very common. ln Sweden they are called
whistle kept to the coast of Peru a nd did not spread to tbe plateau. »clay-cuckoos » and are nowadays used as toys, especially at fairs.
From Santarem, on the other hand, the double whistle which is pe- ln Japan »clay-cuckoos » are also very common, although they
culiar for this territory spread into the interior as far as the Chama are somewhat more elegantly made than the Swedish ones. I must,
Indians. ,, however, ask to be excused for my failure to believe that these
Foliowing this period the lndians in Central America have come small »clay-cu ckoos » have been capable of flying over the Pacific
upon the idea of giving the whistles two stops, precisely as 011 the Ocean from the Old World to the Xew, or tbat the demons of these
whistles without airducts, perhaps under the influence of this type. whistles in some way or other have muddled over to America.
These whistles with stops for note-variation have also spread towards 1 think 1 have already shown how they belong to and have developed
the north to Mexico - leaving out the single North American spe- from a group of instruments to ·which there does not exist any
cimon - where one stop, however, is the rule. It is not even cer- known direct paraliel in the Okl W orld.
tain that this was used as a stop; it may simply have been a »sound
outlet». ln Central America the evolution continued in that the
 i

IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S . .AMERICA 379

writings or in the literature, had it existed there. And why should it
have become altogether extinct in post-Columbian times?
From Cuna in the north the pan-pipe follows the west coast of
South America as far south as Tolten in Chile on the 40th degree of
latitude. From the coast it continues in a relatively connected area
THE PAN-PIPE. of distribution east of the Andes through the Amazonian territory
and reaches the Atlantic coast in Guiana, from where it goes south
The term pan-pipe is usually meant to signify a series of instru- of the Amazon to tbe Apinayé. It is also found among the primitive
ments, combined to make a whole, each of which produces a note tribes around the sources of the Xingú, whereas it is missing in
different from the others. These pipes are as a rule ordinary tubular Chaco1 ), south and east of this territory, and in eastern Brazil.
flutes which are closed in the bottom and blown in the sarne manner 1

as a key or a fruit shell. Occasionally, open pipes are also used

1

1
Material s.
which then correspond to the simple flutes with a blow-hole in the 1
In general the pan-pipes are made of reed-plants, but other ma-
. cptum. In America we also find an instrument which is like a pan- terials, such as burnt clay, metal, stone, and wood have also been
pipe, but in which the individual instruments belong to neither of used.
t hese two types. Examples of this are the Huari »pan-pipe » ccm- i
sisting of three united plug-flutes (p. 336, fig. 197), the bark-trumpet Glay.
series of the Itonama, etc. (fig. 107). These are not genuine pan-pipes ln Peru, and also in other parta of America, the Indiana have
but may be considered as having been influenced by these instru- imitated a great many different objects in clay, perhaps owing to
menta, in that their specific manner of varying the notes, i. e. through lack of natural material of to the greater popularity of clay objects.
t he simultaneous use of several different-sounding pipes, has been The clay pan-pipes are, of course, imitations of this sort which are
uscd. One cannot say that this principle for tone-variation is as very well done. The clay pan-pipes from Nazca are unusually well
common in America as for instance in the old world, and in parti- made and occasionally real works of art. With their pleasing tones
cular China and the countries which have been influenced by its '' they are even superior to the ordinary reed pan-pipes. These Nazca
cultura. Tn China there are a great many instrumenta, such as the flutes reach a considerable size. n'HARCOURT ([l], p. 38) mentions
xylophone, the bamboo zither, etc. which all vary the tone according one which is 75 cm. long. The number of pipes varies between 5 and
to t his system. As we shall see from the following there are, 14. They are always single-seried in contrasttotheordinaryPeruvian
however, in America certain features which point to a develop~ent reed flutes, which, by the way, have never been found at Nazca.
towards this idea. li'rom some broken specimens o 'HARCOURT was able to figure out
In America the pan-pipe occurs only in South America, where how they were constructed. First of all the pipes had been made
its distribution is directed westwards. The most northern tribe which one by one by »casting » over a mould. When dry these were put
has this instrument is the Cuna on the Panama I sthmus. To be sure, 1 together with fine clay which covered them entirely, the blow-holes
n 'H ARCOURT ([l ], p. 45) asserta that it has existed in Mexico, basing were made alike, and the instrument was painted with some sort
this assertion on a clay stat uette which representa a man blowing a of polish, sometimes also with ornamenta. After the burning process
pan-pipe. It was found at Ixtlan. I cannot say whether this find is they must have been polished, for they look as tbough they had
genuine or n ot, but the pan-pipe which the figure appears to be been coated with some sort of fine dull glaze. Outside of Nazca,
blowing may very well be an instrument which has occurred in these clay pan-pipes have been found in Ica, Cajarmarquilla (Nivería), and
regiona and which consista of a group of united Mataco flutes. On in Manabi.
t he whole I think that some evidence should have come to light as 1 1\fr. Rvo:ií:N found pan-pipes in uso by the T obas in 1933, but, these have
t o the existence of the pan-pipe in Mexico, either in the picture surely been introduced r econtly.
 380 K. VET. O. VI'l'TERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWirz, MUSICAL INS'rRIJMENTS OF S. Ai\1ERICA 381
On a peculiar type which has been found at Nazca (fig. 246) and La mcjor flauta. quo ha.llamos, num. 2009, perteneco nl in-
also at Cajamarquilla the individual pipes have a considerably larger tcresante sepulcro, num. 189, es de un solo trozo do madera
inner diameter in the upper than in the lower half. They are, mide 23 centimelros d e largo por 6 1 / 2 de ancho y 1 / 2 d o espre~
moreover, not straight; the pipes bend at the juncture between the sor; no presente ánguJos, como es resondcada.
coarser and the finer parts.1) En este bloc han escavado cuatro agujeros; en cl )lusco de
Berlin existe un cj cmplar muy bien conservado, también, con
The clay pan-pipes which SAVILLE found at Manabi are very cuatro agujeros, producen te de Puna d e Jujuy [ l) (VA. 11284);
esta pieza se diferencia. d e nuestra porque presente hacia un lado,
en un r eborde salie nte, dos agujcros solo; ~sto parece que ba.
sido la. característica do las flautas de La Paya, pues conozco
otros, dos fragmentos iguales recogilos allí.

S tone.
The soft pot-stone has also
been used by the Indians as a
material of which to make pan-
pipes. They are made in one
piece like the wooden ones.
,1 The stone pan-pipe really
seems to belong to the south, in
the Diaguita and A.raucanjan
Fig. 248. Pan-pipe of black stono found
territories, but they are also in Yumbia, upper Rio Pileomayo.
found as far north as Ecuador. GM: 31.25.49. }'2.
ln bis excellent book n 'HAR-
1 1 COUR'l: has very carefully gone through and described the material
which was known at that time (1925). I can add only one example
of the atone pan-pipe. It was found by MÉTRAUX in the territory
Fig. 246. b Fig. 247. of the Chiriguano Indians at Yumbia, upper R io Pilcomayo, and
F ig. 246. P an-pipes of clay from Nasca. 11íuseo Nacional, Lima. a = 3/6775, was made of black stone and has only one stop (fig. 248).
26 cm. high. b = 3/6763, 12 cm. high. I have taken the liberty of summarizing n'HARCOURT1 ) on this
F ig. 247. Pan-pipe of pottery from Nasca. CM: 30.27.1. Y-i · subject. He differentiates between two types: one an ordinary pan-
pipe 'vith three to five pipes which are bored into some sort of soft
simple, consisting merely of a square piece of clay in which three stone, supposedly pot-stone. The exterior of the longest of these
tubular openings have been made. They have also a srnall ear on pipes is 29 cm. long. Usually these pan-pipes have boles or ears for
one sido for suspension. suspension, i. e. the same features which recur on the individual closed
flutes in these regions. A.11 of them, with the exception of the one
TV o o d. specimen found by Um.E in Ecuador, have been excavated fo the
ln L a Paya AMBROSETTI ([3], p. 489) found a pan-pipe made Diaguita and Araucanian territories. The most southem stone pan-
o_f a single piece of wood. It measured 23 by 61/ 2 cm. and con- pipe known derives from Tolten in Chile, on the 40th degree oflatitude.
sisted of four pipes: The second type is characterjzcd by a detail which is very un-
u sual for the pan-pipe, namely a small hole on the side of the pipes.
1
) Soe n'HA 1tco u1~T, pi. XIX, 21. 1) See n 'HARcou-1tT, [1], p. 42.
382 K. VET. O. VITl'ERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWCTZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 383
Often this is even placed rather far up on the pipe. One of this is closed in the bottom. The proximal end is generaliy cut cross-
type was found by the French general PAROISSIEN, at Huaca and wise on ali South American pan-pipes, in contrast with the Cuna
wM first described by MnroToLI (1832) and later more or less exactly pan-pipes and many l\felanesian and other pipes on which this part
by numerous authors. The flute is 131/ 2 cm. high, 16 cm. broad, have a saddle-shaped cut. Often the proximal end is wound around
and 1 cm. wide. It is very handsomely ornamented in a style with fine thread. This is in parti-
whioh, according to n 'HARCOURT, should place it in the Diaguita cular true of the often exceedingly
territory. The lateral boles, which are very small, are placed a well-constructed pan-pipes in north-
couple of centimeters below the proximal end. If we call the deepest western Brazil. These windings are
pipe I, then II, IV, VI, and VII have these boles. If the holes are either for the purpose of preventing
left open the pipes are voiceless. Unfortunately this pan-pipe is the pipes from cracking or to mend
now found only in a cast. CARL ENGEL - who has evidently played already cracked tubes. The smallest
on it - Mserts that the pipes with holes are not voiceless at all when crack makes it practically impos-
the holes are open, but that they instead produoe a. note which is more sible to produce sound.
than half a tone over the one they give when the holes are closed. The Cuna Indians wind black
Another pan-pipe wa.s found by v. RosEN at Iruya. Nos. I , and white thread around the greater
II, and IV of the five pipes of this instrument have holes. part of their more carefully con-
structed pan-pipes (fig. 249). The
According to v. RosEN's experimenta t h e tone rises effect of this is, to be sure, very
h a l f a n o t e when the holes are open. decorative, but probably it has also
A third pan-pipe of this type wa.s found near Cuzco and has the practical object just described.
been described by V . HORNBOSTEL. The black thread is waxed. On the
Since ali these flutes are archaeological we do not know how Peruvian pipes the ligature, which
the holes were used. n'HARCOURT ([1], p. 43) is of the opinion that often covers large parta of the pan-
tbey were mea.nt »d'accroitre, à. !'instar de la flute droite, les ressources pipe, frequently forms a substitute
assez limitées de la syrinx», and this is, of oourse, quite possible. for these coils of thread around
the individual pipes.
Metal. Reed pan-pipes adorned in
BAESSLER1) reproduces some pan-pipes of silver, one of which other ways are relatively rare. I
is obviously an imitation of a reed pan-pipe with a. liga.ture consisting have only come across such instru-
of a stick over which threads have been wound. menta from Guiana and Peru. The
Fig. 249. Set of pan-pipes from
Waiwai (fig. 251) decorate their in- thc Cuna (Tupac). G:M:: 27.27.
R eed-plant s. strumenta with meanders in black 1204. ~·
wax while the Palikur paint t heirs
Pan-pipes of reed-plants are, the most usual and also the
original type. I shall not at once go through the different types with urucú and other delicate colors. The Peruvian ones are
within this group, but will instead consider the various details and handsomely decorated with incised patterns (fig. 250).
in the summary regard the pan-pipe as a whole. An important detail is of course the length of the pipcs, since
Let us first investigate the treatment which the different instru- the notes stand in direct proportion tbereto. The longer the pipe
ment makers give the individual pipe. This consista of a reed which the lower the tone, but the pipe must not be too narrow as it may
then prove impossible to get the deep basic note instead of which
1) D'HAncounT (l], p. 41 , cit. BAESSLF.R. the third or fifth overtone is produced. This is most often the case
384 K. VBT. o. VT1.'TERH. s.urn. HA:NDL. SER . A. BAND 5. N:O 1
IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL lNSTRlJMENTS OF S. AMERICA 385

l•'ig. 2.30. Pon -pipP of r<'Pds with in<'iw d orna m<'nts from Chincha. ;\luseo
Xocional, Lima: 30 36. L cngth ·17 ('m.

with the pan-pipes in north-western Brazil which are made of

Arimdinaria. In Peru, on the other hand, tbe pipes are generaliy
wider. I shall, however, return to tbis subject in connection with
t he acoustic properties of the pan-pipe.
Tbe closed pipes usually have the bottom covered by a natural
septum. The manner of cutting this varies to a considerable extent
among the different tribes. In north-western Brazil the tradition is
evidently that the pipe should be cut very carefully in tbe septum.
Among other tribes again the reed is cut a bit below the septum. The
Campa, for instance, will even leave a few centimeters below the
septtLfl?., and the sarne is true of the Quechua Indians in Quito Fig. 252. Pan-pipe of reeds from Quito. G}I: 20.7.38. Length 39 cm.
(fig. 252). The Chimane, Pauserna and Motilon cut the pipe to a
point almost as we would sharpen a pencil. The Cuna and Yuracare of the plateau were formerly equally careful, for the hard
evidently cut off the tube with two quick strokes for on tbeir pipes climate in these regions has destroyed ali pan-pipes for posterity
tbere are two juts below the septum (fig. 252). - where they even invented a very ingenious pitch-regulator,
The ancient Peruvians were very ingenious. Instead of leaving and 2) the Indians of northern Amazonas. With regard to this
the natural septum they put small, well-fitting latter territory we are best acquainted with these instruments from
pieces of gourd into the distal end of the pipe. the Uaupés territory and from north-eastern Peru. ln his excel-
These were movable and made it possible to correct lent book, WHIFFEN (p. 207) confirms this observation by saying
the tone pitch. According to n'HARCOURT ([1], p.
37) this resembles the pompe d'accord, or pitch-regu-
lator, on our modern flutes. On the modern Aymara
pan-pipes, on th'é other hand, we do not find this ~

detail. On the contrary, they are cut rather ~

carelessly below the natural septum. ,.. ~

What we seem to learn, ali in ali, from this d..

detailed investi!~ation of the distal-cut is that in b. ' ~.

F ig. 251. Pan-pipe

two places in South A merica t hc Indiana havc been
very particular about the execution of such a smali .J
o f rceds from t he and relatively unimportant detail. Thcse are: 1)
Wai-wai. the Indians living on the Peruvian coast in ancient
Fig. 253. Pan-pipe~ of reed a. a = [<:a, CM: 30.2. 1. 1/ 6. b = Aymara, CM:
C'M: 27.7.154. 14. times - we do not know whether the inhabitants 1
30.42.õ a. / 6• e= Ica, 01'1: :i0.2. 1. Y.Í· d = Maku , (Rio Iapo), GM: 25.6.86. 1 / 8 •
2:3
386 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAJ\ffi . HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 I ZIKOWITZ, l\1USJCAL INS'l'll.U .MEN'rS OF S. AMERICA 387
of t he Indians at Rio Yapurá that »next to weapons, pan-pipes and join them at a li but simply to hold them in the hand .
other musical instruments are most carefully made and preserved. This method is not usual but it is practised by a few
They stand in a class by themselves above ali hou ·ehold utensils. » tribes, s uch as tbe Chané, ('hacobo, and Guarayu. lt
When the pipes are finished and have their correct pitch the is wortb noting that these tribes live in the periphery
t ime has come t o join them of the area of distribution of the pan-pipe.
so as to form a pan-pipe. The Huari lndians have a unique method for
But how many pipes are there joining tbeir »spurious » pan-pipes (fig. 197). It is done
to be in each instrument1 wit h wax, a method by which the pan-pipes in thc
Evidently the answer to this Rumanian gipsy orchcstras are said to be joined .
question varies very consider- Usually the South American pan-pipes are, .how ~
ably, not only from tribe to l~ig. 25ií. Pan- ever, joined with thrcad or with a bamboo shiver .
pipe of rcods
tribe but also within each from the Chi- The methods and tricks whereby these threads, etc. are
tribe. The smallest number, pa.ya (Boli,·ia.). tied are numerous and vary from tribe to tribe. lt
is, 1 suppose, two pipes if After lzurnwrrz. is nevert heless possible to dis-
tbe instrument is to be called tinguish between two distinct
a pan-pipe (fig. 225 and fig. types of ligature, one of which is cha.rac-
226). This small number and terized by having only winding& of thread
up to five pipes ar e nlso com- while the other also has a stick of slit reed
•
mon among a number of tribes which gives additional solidity and strength
living at t he boundaries of the to the pan-pipe.
area of distribution. ln m y The most simple ligature - whithout
table p . 405 I have put down the stick - is obtained by winding the •!
the number of pipes in each t hread a few times around all of the pipes
•1 1
instrument. and then between them. This technique is
The record number of illustrated on fig. 259 a. I have called it thc
pipes which may be joined to s i m p 1 e 1 i g a t u r e. It is the us ua l
make a pan-pipe is reached form of ligature in South America, and
among t he Quechua Indians also occurs together with other forros. Tbose
who sell their instruments in tribes that know only this technique live
Fig. 254. Pan-p ipe of recds from the Ca- Quito. A specimen of this in the periphery of the area of distribution.
vina. Aftor KoRDE~SKIÕLD. type in the Gothenburg l\1u- The pan-pipes which have only the thread
seum has 34 pipes (fig. 252), but ligature really follow the Andes, from the
n 'HARCOURT {fl ), p . .31) mentions one t hat exceeds this total, with Ijca Indians to the north as far as and
42 pipes. It must be rather fatiguing to manage so many atone time. including the Peruvian coast to the soutb .
As we shall see furthcr on it is, however , more common to divide The Parintintin at Rio Madeira form a
t he notes between a, couple of instrumenta or more, wbich are then peculiar exception to this general rule. Their
played together in such a way as to complete one another. pan-pipes are on the whole very unique.
When t he instrument-maker has cbosen the number of pipes The ligature on the Ijca pan-pipe may
which he deems s uitable, the time has come for joining them. If be seen on fig. 257. As it lacks the stick tbese F.ig. 25 6. Pa.n-pipe from tho
the flute has only a few pipes the easiest method is of course not to pan-pipes may be rolled together, which is Uitoto. GM: 31.8.47. Y-i·
388 K. VET. O. VlTTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BA...'<D 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWI T Z, ) 1U S1CAL INSTRUME N TS OF S . AMERICA 389

also done by the Indians when the pipes are

stored. In this detail SACHS ([2], p. 80)
finds a trait which justifies bis comparison
of these instruments with the round pan-
pipes in Melanesia. Such pan-pipes are not
found in America where all the pipes are
arranged side by side, although they are
often placed in severa! rows, as we shall see j
~l
later on. But this is quite different from a b
t he Melanesian »Bündelpanflõten ».
Fig .. 249 shows the ligature on Cuna flutes
and fig. 258 on those from the Campa Indians.
The old pan-pipes which are often found in
Fig. 257. Pan-pipe from the
graves onthecoastof Peruaremostlywithout Jjca. Gi\1: 16.3.709. %-
sticks: ln this region the most common
technique is a sort of eh a i.n-1 i g ature in which the thread turns
back and catches hold of the loop around the foregoing pipe (fig. 259 d).

The s t i e k l i g a t u r e is the most common form in northern

Amazonas, among the Indians at Rio Negro, and at the upper part
of the Amazon river. It is also found in the
:
r east among the Palikur and Apinayé though

•
. e d
1
. with certain variations in the technique.
.
" 1
' On the coast of Peru it is on the whole less
~ ,. 1
usual. It is interesting thali in this latter
~
1 1, '
l 1 region the stick-ligature is used on the
~ l 1 single-seried flutes found at Arica (WILSON,
1
1
1
1 "
i 1
1 1 p. 662), but whether these belong to an
i older culture stratum I dare not say. On
: 1 .. the plateau around Lake Titicaca, as well
~ 1
[b as among some tribes immediately to the
) 1
~ '. ...
" east - the Cavina. (fig. 254) and Yuracare
1 - this ligature has followed a very special
.. 1

... line of development. One finda here a

e

!
1

--
'J 1

'
b
standard ligature which is used on all Ay-
mara flutes. The stick is wound like a band
a couple of times around the entire instru · Fig . 259. Diagrams showing the m ost common ligatures of p a n-pipes. a = the
ment, and each pipe is furthermore attached simple ligat ure. b = Uaupés-liga t uro. e = stick between -ligat ure. d = chaill ·
Fig. 258. Pan-pipe from the with a thread. (fig. 259 e). liga.tare. e = Aym o.ra-liga t ure.
Campa. GM: 21.10. 137. K ln Quito they use the sarne ligature as
390 .K . VET . O. VlTTERH. S AMH. HAN DL . S~;R . A. BAN D 5.

in northwestern Brazil: one, or - more often - two sticks are

fastened on either side and at the sarne height. The thread is
wound cross-wise (fig. 252). Sometimes the sticks are placed diago-
N :O 1
\ I ZIKOWlTZ, :)1USICAL INST RUMENT S OF S. A MERlCA

Ar rang em e n t o / pi p e s.
Before t he pipes are to be t ied together t hey must be placed in
a certain order. The most usual way of arranging t hem is to put them
391

nally across the instrument by wJ1ich method additional sta bility in a row, side by side. according to size. The oustom of putting t hem
i atta ined . A couple of flutes from Mojos and t hose reproduced together in a bunch as in M:ela nesia does not occur in South America.
by TESSMAN~ from northeastern Peru also seem to ha ve t his ligature. But there is no rule witbout exceptions. The Ijca and Motilon
WmFFEN por t.rays a flute witb a stick -ligature from Rio K apo, h ave a very special way of arranging their pipes. They put the
t he ligaturc of which is reminiscent rather of cer tain P eruvian ones. largest in the middle, t he one next in size on one side and the next
On t hc P eruvian double-seried instruments from the coas t the s ti e k s thereto on the other side, and so on . ln this way the pan-pipe gets
are occasionally placed b e t w e e n t h e t w o r o w s (fig. 259 e) . a triangular shape (fig. 257).
MEAD (1 TT], PJ. VIII, fig. 7) portrays a p an -pipo - unfortuna- The pan-pipes from Quito and some from the Parintintin have
tcly without othcr finding place recorded than the coast of
P eru - which besides t he stick-Jigature also has a sort of »step-
Jjgature » placed below the former. The »step -ligature » is t he most
ci\.

~~
a.----
u ual technique on certain islands in Melanesia.
'
n ' HARCOURT ([1], pl. XXII,2) also portrays a flute with a stick
ligaJure from the Lake Titicaca region . It seems to be t ypical for - b·--
t.his ligature t hat it is always found on siogle-seried p an -pipes. It
would be exceedingly interesting and of very great importance to
get reliable evidence as to the age of t he Rio Negr o ligature com-
t- ~ t
F ig. 260. Fig. 26 1.
pared w ith t he rest of the Peruvian ligatures, which really ali belong
l?ig. 260. The ctistal cu ts of pan·pipos from o ld Peru\"ian gra,·es (a) a nd from the
to the double-seried pan-pipes. Ayma ro. (b) .
lf, in analyzing the chronology without combina tion of finds and l•'ig. 261. Diagram showing t hc prox ima l e nds of a double-seried p an-pipe from t ho
st ratigraphy, we were to be guided only by the principie that the cul- P e ruvia n coast (from l ca). a = th o opon pipe, c u t in the septum. b = tho closcd
t uro elements which lie farthest out in the periphery are the oldest, pipe. e = a natural sharp cclgo a gainst which the air-currnnt is dircctcd.
we should arrive at tbe following conclusion: pan-pipes wit h simple
l igaturos a nd t hose without ligatures lie in t he periphery and are there- one detail oommon in that they have t he longest pipe followed by a
fore t he oldest, following these come pan-pipes wit h stick-ligatures shorter one which produces a tone a t hird or more above t he former ,
a nd, finally, the more complicated ligatures without stioks. thereafter comes t he next longest, again a shorter one with a similar
F urthermor e we get the impression that among t he different interval as between the f irst two pipes, etc. Pipes II, IV, VI, etc.
stick ligatures t he Rio Negro type is normal and t hat t he exceptions on t he largest P arintintin flute give t he octa ve of those 'ivith uneven
• numbers. Altogether it is safe to say that the P arintintin pan-pipes
merely a ;e m isconceptions, an impression which is possibly correct.
The speoific modem stick -ligature, which is characteristic for Lake are quite unique.
Titicaca. must be an a daptation to t he double-seried p an -pipes which The double-seried pa n-pipes have a relatively concen tra ted area
have difficulty in keeping t he numerous pipes together. If the stick - of distribution (see t a ble). They are without doubt t he common
ligaturc is t he oldest on the coast of Peru, t hon the other ligature type among t he fin tes found in P eruvian graves, and praotically all
must be more rncent and has come into existence as an adaptation t he pan-pipes used }>y the Queohua and Ay mara on the plateau around
to the doublo-seried pan-pipes. L ake Titicaca are double-seried . Even quadruple specimens are foun<l
The s pecia l binding technique found among t he ljca, P arintintin there (n'HARCOURT , [l], p . 4l) . East ot'the Andes the double is pan-
etc. must be considered as independent inventions. pipe has spread as far as the Pauserna, which tribe almost oertainly
392 K. VET . O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N :O l IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERTCA 393

has received it from the west. The tribe nearest thereto who has t his number of rows just to have the pan-pipe »plus épais», etc. The
type is the Cavina. But how the Pauserna got it 1 cannot explain. It fact that there are no double-seried pan-pipes in clay is no evidence ~
must have been relatively late for they have hardly lived long enough the reason for this may be that t he single-seried pan-pipes are older.
in their present home. Characteristic for most of the double-seried Furthermore, there is really one tribe - the Palikur - that have
pan-pipes is t hat the pipes of 011e row are o p e 11. The distal end pan-pipes fashioned exclusively of open pipes. This is most likely
of these pipes is usually cut in a very special way, shown 011 fig. a misconception of the »genuine» pan-pipe, but the interesting thing
260. The open pipes generally have t he sarne length as the closed in this connection is that they do not have it as a sort of decoration
ones. As a rule the proximal end is quite open, but occasionally a but that they really blow it. T o quote the collector, CURT NIMUEN-
septum is left in place a nd pierced (fig. 261 a). On a specimen DA.TÚ ([4], p . 55): »Panflõten mit 5 oder 6 Rohren gibt es zwei Arten,
portrayed by n'HARCOURT it is not even pierced. The pipe is then , eine dickere (kabaulhaklú) und eine dünnere
of course, voiceless. ln certain respects t hese open pipes with a, (elelú); sie werden in der Richtung der Achse
pierced proximal septum a resemble the nose-flutes from the Botucudo. des Rohrs und nicht winklig dazu angeblasen,
The function of these op~n pipes is not quite clear and opinions wodurch ein nur schwacher Ton entsteht. »
on this subject consequently differ. As is known, the open pipes The American botanist SAFFORD, who has
give the octave of the cloned ones. v. HORNBOSTEL ([4]} has ob- travelled on the Andine plateau, was interested
served that the open pipe really should be somewhat shorter. The in the pan-pipes and made some investigations
strange excisions on t he distal ends of these pipes he considers as concerning them. H e writes: »The performers
a shortening effected for the purpose of getting the octave of the who were fullblooded Qiuchua Indiana, sounded
closed ones. E NGEL (p. 63) and MEAD ([l], p. 12) also consider it self- the pipes by blowing across the opening of the
evident t hat the open pipes were used and t hat t hey give the octave inner closed reeds, the corresponding outer open
of the closed ones. Nevertheless it is not at all easy to produce sound reeds apparently serving the purpose only of gi- Fig. 2 62 · Pa.n-pipe
with sticks faatened
on an entirely open pipe which is not blown according to the sarne ving volume or quality to the note sounded. » to ee.ch tube. From
principie as a closed pipe, but like the simple end-flutes without "\Ve have observed that on a number of the the Bolivian Chipaya..
airducts. For each note blown in the open pipes the position of open pipes the septum in t he proximal ends was After IZIKow1Tz.
t he mouth must be carefully adjusted, and t his takes time. For cut in such a way as to leave a small opening
this reason the open pipes cannot be played as easily and quickly (fig. 00). By this means a blowing-construction is attained which
as the closed ones. is similar to that of the Botucudo and Kaingang nose-flutes. ln
n'HARCOURT ([1] p . 36) also stresses this. ln his opinion the my opinion it is not unlikely that all open pipes originally h ad
open pipes have an entirely different function (op. cit. p. 37): this construction. A pipe of this sort is considerably easier to blow,
•· .. certaines flutes de Pan en roseau ont les t ubes de leur even with a very faint air current, than those which are entirely
série ouverte e. la. b ase, ferrnés au sommot partiellement ou open in the proximal end. That they have later been closed altoge-
en totalité par un noeud (voir p i. XX, n ° 2). Cette série est donc ther may possibly be because t he function of the open pipes has
muetto dans l'esprit du construoliPur, et il faut se résigner à ne
been forgotten, and they may have been kept simply because of
voir en elle qu'un soutien destiné à r endro l'instrumen t plus
épais, plus solide, et les ligatures p lus efficaces. • - •Ün ne trouve adherence to tradition.1) lf this hypothesis is correct, the open pipes
ja mais de syrinx en a rgile ou en pierre, a deux séries de tubes; have obviously once upon a time really had the function of giving
la soliditó de la matiere employée rend cctto disposit ion inutile. t the octave of the closed pipes. On the archaeological double-seried
Tying a single row of pipes together to form a whole is perhaps ') This is clearly evident on pan-pipes from the Chipe.ya (Bolivie.). Beside each
not so very difficult, but it must surely be considerably more intricate pipe there is fastened a stick, which is clearly a •rudimenta.ry • open pipe (I z1KOWITZ,
to unite a double-seried pan-pipe. 1 cannot imagine that either an [:l), p. 278 seq.). These pan·pipes are said to be purchased from the Aymara In-
lndian nor anybody else would come upon the idea of doubling the diana.
394 K. VF.T. o. v rrTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND ó. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, MUS ICAL l NSTRUM ENTS OF S. Al\iERICA 395
pa n-pipes investigated by me the open pipes wit h perforated septa a pan-pipe of this type was pitched according to our O-major scale;
have always been easy to blow simultaneously with t he closed ones. the division of the notes on the two rows would t hen have the
The pitch of the former has been exactly the octave of t hat of the appearance s hown on fig. 263.
latter. Y. HORNBOSTEL ([4), p. 3) presents an argument in favour n ' HARCOTiRT also describes a quadruple pan-pipe, the system
of this s upposition in the shape of a pair of typical clay pan-pipes of which is illustrated by the following diagram.
from Nazca. These are, to be sure, single-seried, but one of tbem
gi,·es the octave of the other. If these were to be t ied together the
result would be an instrument of the type under discussion. ln the
large pan-pipe orchestras, which I am treating further on, there are
pan-p ipes of several different i!Ízes which produce the sarne notes
a lthough in different octaves. The double-seried pan-pipes might
then possibly be regarded as t w o instruments managed by o n e

:Fig. 26.i. Diagram showing the arrangemonts of notes from a double, d ouble-seried
modern pan-pipe from the Boli\·ian highlands. After n 'H.rncOURT.

Fig. 263. Diagram showing the arrangements of notes on a doublo modem pan-pipe Th.is is in a cer tain respect a double, double-seried pan-pipe
from the Bolivian higlands. After D ' HAnCot"nT. ,,·here the pipes of one row are pitched one octave higher than
those of the other row.
m an . lnstances of doubling of tbis sort are, as we sh all see, very How aU have these curious double-seried and other types of the
common in South America. pan-pipe come into existence? To understand this we must first
The mestizos living on t he plateau blow a kind of double-seried of ali investigate how the pan-pipe is played.
pan-pipes on which a 11 pi p e s ar e e 1 os e d , the pipes in one
row being h alf as long as those in the other, thereby, according to 11 h e ma n n e r o/ p la y i n g.
all acoustic ]aws, producing the octave of the former. ln this we It seems self-evident that each p an-pipe should be played by
have still a nother argument in favor of »octave doubling. » These itself, anel th:is is perhaps also m ost natural. ln t he many instannes
mestizo pan-pipes are easier to blow than those witb open pipes. lt when we have no information about the mode of playing we may
is rather s urprising t hat the Indians h ave not adopted this type, infer that th:is, at least occasionally , is the method used. If we were
but perhaps t hey despise this simplification in the sarne way as the to place t hese negative data on a map we would discover that, aside
pianist despises the self-playing piano. from scattered tribes, the dots would sk.irt the distributional area.
As l have already said, the P arintintin have also a sort of octave- ln those instance · when the authors have described tbe manner
dou bling, but w:ith closed pipes which are, however, placed side by of playing, t hey always explain that the pan-pipes are played in
s ide in the sarne row. pairs. On the plateau around Lake Titicaca this method of playing
T here a re also other kinds of double-seried pan-pipes. l know is very common. Already GARCILASSO DE LA VEOA spoke of it:
them as archaeological finds from t he coast of Peru, likewise from »Quando un Yndio tocaba un cafíuto, respondia el otro en conso-
t he plateau around L ake Tit icaca and, strangely enough, as far away nancia de quinta o de otra q ualquiera, y luego el otra consonancia
as among the Piroa at the Orinoco. The pipes of both rows are y el otro en otra, unas vezes subiendo a las puntos altos, y otras
closed anel those in one row complete the n otes which are missing baxando a los baxos siempre en compas. »1 )
in the other row. Suppose - as is often the case nowadays - that 1) n"HAitCOURT, LI J, p. 50, noto, cit. GAllCTLASSo DE J,A VEOA.

(! ,
396 K. VET. O. VITI'ERH. SAMH . HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. :N: O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 397

ln bis Aymara clictionary BERTONIO (p. 296) gives us the terms :BEE (p . 140) mentions the antiphonal manner of playing from the
for t his antiphonal manner of playing: »Quicucha: Cantar garganteando Uitoto and the sarne is confirmed by WmFFEN (p. 210). ln the Rio
o taiier flauta quãdo baylan el bayle q llaman Maquesiiía, hablando Negro territory it also seems to be usual and we find this custom of
vno, y contrapunteãdo el otro, y a este llaman Quicuri. » blowing in pairs as far east as Guiana, among the Trio, Oyana, and
Even in our times the Indians play like this. The reasou for Apinayé (1). The most interesting point is that it has spread to the
this antiphonal manner of playing has been described by several region around the sources of the Xingú, although the system here,
authors, first of ali SAFFORD and n'HARCOURT, and we have no diffi- according to v. H oRNBOSTEL, is somewhat different. It is, of course,
culty in discovering it for ourselves if we investigate tbe notes not altogether self-evident that the notes should interchange; there
ou pan-pipe pairs from these regions. The two part-instruments - is also the possibility that the scale is divided in such a manner that
arca and yra, as they are called in Aymara - complete one another, one ha.lf is found on one instrument and the following half on the
for every other n ote in the scale is found on one instrument
a nd the remaining notes on the other. That this curious manner of
playing is pre-Columbian is proved by the archaeological flutes on
which the notes complete one another. On old Peruvian vases
musicians playing pan-pipes are occasionally portrayed. They blow
in pairs and the two instruments are united with a cord, which
evidently serves to keep together the two instruments which really
forro a whole and perhaps do not agree in pitch with any other pan-
pipes. P an-pipes tied together in this way still exist among certain
t ribes, such as the Cuna and Motilon, and in the Rio Negro territory,
etc. Among the Cuna two pairs constitute a unit. ln this tribe
one man blows each pair of pipes, holding them in such a manner .Fig. 265. Cuna I ndians playing pan -pipes. These are always played in paira and
that they present the appearance of one instrument with the each instrument is double.
shor test pipe in the middle. This explains how the curious triangle-
formed pan-pipe among the Ijca Indians has originated. It is in
other. This is exactly what has happened among the Nahuquá,
reality merely a pair of pan-pipes which for the sake of convenience
who have evidently only adopted the principal idea of this pair-
have been joined so that one man can play them (fig. 265). The
blowing technique and thereupon distributed the notes according
alternate division of notes also proves t his. ln the sarne way
to their own notions.
n'HARCOURT explains the origin of double pan-pipes on which the
The available information regarding the origin of this custom
notes of one row complete those in the other: »Ce dispositif a
of blowing in paira, and of the double-seried and other special
l'avantage de diminuer la largeur de l'instrument; l'artiste, par un
pan-pipes derived from this principle, is of course to a great extent
léger mouvement des levres, souffle dans l'une ou l'autre rangée,
incomplete, but in its present state it covers a large part of the area
selou qu'il veut faire vibrer telle ou telle note - à moins qu'il ne
of distribution of the pan-pipe itself.
confie la moitié de l'instrument à un camarade qui lui donne la ré-
plique. »1)
This also explains t he occurrence of quadruple pan -pipes and of Or c h es tral playing.
the Piaroa flute. These Indians may quite well have come upon this The pan-pipe h as the advantage over most of the other American
simple idea independently as it is rather nat ural and obvious. FARA- musical instrumenta that the musician himself is able to decide which
tones he wants to produce. It is a simple matter to cut out a pipe in
1) D ' HAltCOURT, ( 1], P· õO. such a way as to achieve the desired note. When the pipes are finished
398 K. VET. O. VJTTERH. SA.M:H. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O l JZIKOWlTZ, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 399
the pitch is determined and unchangeable unless the shape of the rales, t ipie, tenor, contralto y contrabaxo. >}1 ) MR. G. BRA \ "O ex-
tubc for some reason or other changes. To decide beforehand which plains: >}Como se haJla indicado, en el cuadro adj unto de la
notes one wants on a flute with stops is, on the other ha nd, a consider- afinación y extensión de los instrumentos y las ela.ses de estos.
ably more clifficult proposition. It is r eally only in our tirnes in Europe generalmente se utilizan tres o cuatro tamafios, que se soplan por
this has been successfully done, and even on our fine modem flutes pares para formar melodías, y acoplándolas los tres o cuatro tamanos,
the fluti tis forced to use small tricks in order to make his instrument que estan afinados para producir harmonias de octavas justas. Los
agree in pitch with the other instruments in the or chestra. For t his Si cus mas grandes (Taicas ), pueden llegar a tener una vara (0.80 m )
reason the pan-pipe is an excellent orchestral instrument , and it i 1 de largo. »2 )
a lso used as such by t he Indians. This is true particularly of the The next largest size is called rnaltas, the next smallest, licus,
tribes living on the Andine plateau. Already GARCILASSO DR LA VEGA and the smallest , the »piccolo )) pan-pipe, chuli. In contrnst to thc
mentions it , and the subject has later been treatecl by SAFFORD, others this latter instrument is single-serie<l, probably because it
BOMAN, D'HARCOURT, PAREDES and others. For my own part I have does not call for an extra series of open pipes, being in itse]f ca-
been in a positíon to examine both the instruments of a faírly large pable of producing sufficiently high and piercing notes. ln desceibing
orchestra in the Museum for Võlkerkunde in Berlín - it comp1i<ied the combination of instruments in a dance orchestra MR. BRA\'O
n o less t han 24 instruments - and one at the Gothenburg Museum . mentions four different sorts of pan-pipes:
This latter consists of orchestral instruments used by t he Aymara 1

Indians, collected and presented to the museum by MR. GONZALES •Un conjunto d o danzarines, sopla gen eralmente : 2 parl'S do
'l'aicas , 3 de ) faltas; y 2 df' Chulis, que forman un grupo de 14
BRAVO in L a Paz, who has himself made excellent and interesti.ng in- mús icos, haciendo una. Orch estra de Sicus, o tambien: 2 pares
vestigations of these orchestras, t he result of which he has published Taicas; 2 i\foltas; y 1 Chuli, com o C'n los Laquitas, es clecir tam-
in »lnti » a nel »El Diario ». I have also had the opportuníty of corre- 1
bicn 14 músicos. X o obstantl', en las tropas de Chiriwan os, <'l
sponding with MR. GONZALES BRAVO, who has been good enough número d e músicos danznntl's, puf:'de llegar has ta 300. »
to give me much interesting information about the musical instru-
ments of the Aymara Indians. He mentions t hree different sorts of pan-pipes: »Sicus laquitas »
In t he lndian orchestras under discussion it is very important which consists of four pairs (Taicas, Maltas, Licus and Ghulis).
that t he different instruments are pitched alike. Whe n the p ipe has »Bicus penlatonicos ele Tacquiri, l par (l\faltas) y Sicus do
on ce been cut , one really achieves only approximately the right ·s wuri M estizo, 1 pa r (Taicas). Como se observará, los priml'ros,
note. To cut so exactly that not even the smallest fluctuation tras d<' los tubo!:! cerrados, llcvan otros tubos abiertos dcl mismo
occw·s in the ensemble is, I suppose, impossible. It is therefore largo, que suenan a la. 8º s uperior. Los Sicus m estizos s uC'len
Jleva.r detrás, tubos cerrados d e la. mitácl do Jo.rgo q ue los prin-
necessary to precision-regulate each pipe. SAFFORD noticed t hat cipalcs, y que también sonarian o. la 8° superior, pero n o &' so-
t he Indians before starting to play regulated their instruments by plan cstos tubos adicionales. Para hacer tonada soplando fucrte,
pouring a little water or chicha into the pipes. According to GONZALES s iempre deben tocar 2 ml'.1sicos, ya que los Sicus está.o dispuest os
BRAVO they put sand into them. By this means the pitch was raised para. ser ejecutados por pa res, d ebicndo tocar un Sicu cada mú-
slightly. What they do go to get a lower note, on the other hand, sico. Para t ocar, bas ta soplar oblicuament-0 los tubos, teniendo
los tubos largos a la d erech a. •
we are not told. Those pan-pipes which have been found in graves 1

on the coast of P eru h ave a p01n1Je d'acc.ord and should accordingly be

On t he whole the music and orchestral playing in Peru have been
ea y to regulate.
subject to very little investigation. Deductions can, strictly speak-
The orchestral instruments include t hree or four differene sizes. 1

ing, be made only on the basis of the rather imperfect information

GARCILASSO DE LA VJ<~GA speaks of this: »Estos cafiutos atados eran
quatro diferentes unos de otros. Uno dellos andaba en puntos baxos [l ], I?· 50, no te, cit. ÜARcrt.ASSO DE LA VEOA.
' ) D ' HARCOU"RT,
y otro en mas altos y otro en mas y mas; como las quatro vozes natu- 1 2) Acc. to a lotter from l\fr. A. C oNZALES BRAVO.

1
J
 400 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ . MUSICAL INSTRIJMENTS OF S. A:llERICA 401
we get in the old literature and from the instruments themselves. fane uses multiple pan-pipes obtained from the Aymara lndians are
As regards the Peruvian pan-pipe orchestra we find that the orche- utilized. The simple type of pan-pipe would evidently· seem to be
stral playing is based on the alternating, or antiphonal playing, an ancient instrument.
whlch is so common on the pan-pipes in South America, and the ln the territories watered by t he upper Amazon and the Rio
multiplicity of instruments has no other object than to repeat the Negro. the construction of the pan-pipes is much better. They are
sarne notes in different octaves 'vit hin both p airs. The Indians do well cut in the distal end , have often string wound round the proxi-
not know of any polyphonic music. The orchestra is divided into mal end, the ligature is carefully made with a stick , and they are
two halves which play antiphonally, and within each half the mu- almost always blown in pairs. The ·territory in which such pan-
sicians play in union. The ordinary musical form for the pan-pipe pipes are found stretches down to the Chipaya in Bolivia from
orchestra is therefore a sort of simple canon. Quito, over northeastern Peru, the Rio Negro, and to the Palikur
and Apinayé. Pair blowing is practised in a much larger territory,
as l have already mentioned .
'.l'he Mu sica l and A coustic Prop erties of the ln Peru one must distinguish between the old pan-pipes found
P a n-p i p e.
in graves on the coast and those used n owadays by the inhabita nts
This is a subject for a later book. The invention of the pho- of the plateau. They have in common their double type in ahnost
nograph ha-s enabled u s to »photograph » music whlch our ears, every instance, with an open and a closed row of pipes. The an-
accustomed as they are to the European tone system , cannot com- cient Peruvian ligatures - the chain type and the ones with a
prehend at once. The pitch of the tones can then be exactly meas- stick between the rows - are not used nowadays. ln the high -
ured by a tonometer, and their system should then be explained, lands we also find orchestral playing fully developed. based on pair
not with reference to Helmholtz' »nat ural » pentatonic scale, but blowing, with different tones on each pan-pipe, and the doubling
through a study of the intervals themselves, without any precon- of octaves.
ceptions. The painstaking and exceedingly interesting work of The question whether t he pan-pipe is a culture element invented
v. H oRNBOSTEL in this field, and his measurements of South American by the lndians themselves or brought to them from Melanesia or
pan -pipes, have already been mentioned in passing. The author i the Old World is a problem which bas been widely discussed. The
hopes to be able to verify or refute his .conclusions through more investigations made for the purpose of the present work have not
extensive investigations of the pan-pipes of South America and of solved the problem. l shall confine myself to a short discussion of
Melanesia. the subject, starting with the hypothesis t hat the pan-pipe was
independently invented by the Indians.
The principie of the pan-pipe is probably very old. It is really
Summary. n othing but a closed pipe blown according to the »key » principie.
When t he main characteristics of the pan-pipes are reviewed, \Ve have found such pipes among a number of South American
the simplicity of the instruments found in the border territories is tribes, and they are as easy to inven t as the simple fruit-shell
especially noticeable. These pan-pipes have as a rule only the simple whistle. The idea of combining severa} pipes in a single instrument
ligature, and in a few cases a small number of pipes are held in must also be older t han the pan-pipe itself in South America, since,
the hand. We find simple pan-pipes of this kind among for instance as we have seen, it is found on duct whistles, instruments occurring
the Chané, Uitoto, Chocó, Mirana, Chipaya, etc. The pipes of the o utside the territory of distribution of the pan-pipe. On such in-
Chocó pan-pipes are almost all of the sarne depth, giving the im- struments it is hard to avoid discovering the method of varying the
pression that they were not intended to play melodies on. Among tone through the use of severa! differently-pitched pipes. This is
the Chipaya, the pan-pipe with two pipes is a n instrument which also found on Aztec whistles with attached airducts (fig. 227). One
m ay be used only by the major-domo of a village. For more pro- may also raise the question whether t he manner of playing on simple
26
402 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5 . N:O l IZIKOWITZ, M USICAL INSTR UMEN TS OF S . AMERICA 403
covered pipes among tbe Chocó and Cuna, and possibly _the rnme no ligature at all or a simple one, and arose through influence
principle applied to the toré clarinets may _not be. an a~cient prac~ from the ductflutes, for instance the Mataco whistle. We have seen
tice. Pair-blowing occurs in connection w1th vanous mstruments, that both double and triple wbistles of this kind occur north of
slit drums. complex and polyglobular trumpets, flutes of varicus the Amazon, and pair-blowing is also usual here. A simple pair-
kinds (for instance the Aztec flute, p. 373), etc. I hope to investigate blown pan-pipe may later have spread over almost the entire terri-
the foundation of this principie in a later work. I t is probably tory of distribution of the pan-pipe. At about the sarne time, the
connected with sociological or religious phenomena, such as dual ligature may have been improved by the use of a stick. Such a
organization, conceptions reg::trding masculine and femi~ne proper- ligature is the predominant type not only in northwestern Amazo-
ties (low and high tones}, sm1 and moon, the myth regarding the two nas, but also in Peru, where we find it in Arica, and on the Boli-
brothers, etc. A dualistic cosmological belief of this kind can also vian plateau. The Aymara ligature is evidently the adaptation of
influence the musical instruments, especially since the latter usually a stick ligature to a double pan-pipe, and the sarne is probably also
have social and religious functions. true of the ligature with the stick between the rows of pipes found
The strangest pan-pipes are undoubtedly those with two rows. along the southern coast of Peru. The double pan-pipes are apure-
The open pipe with a blow-hole in the septum is, as we already ly Peruvian invention, and have spread very little, and evidently
know, certainly a very ancient culture element in South A,merica, only reéently, outside the boundaries of the Peruvian high culture
1
older than the pan-pipe. Since it requires only a faint air current, (see tablés p. 405). '
it has been advantageous to combine it with a closed pipe. Both It is difficult to decide in what part of America the pan-pipe
rows can then be blown at the sarne time more easily tban if they may have originated. Very probably it would have been in a place
bad both been closed, and less breath is required. This idea is evi- where pair blowing and the Mataco whistle were known, and suit-
dently old in Peru, and perbaps older tban the pan-pipes with two able materiais were available. For these reasons it may in my
rows, for in Nasca clay pan-pipes with one single row bave been opinion have been invented somewhere in the regions around the
found, of which one instrument gives the octave of the other.1 ) upper Rio Negro, and have spread from there to the Peruvian pla-
The idea. is still applied today by the mestizos (two rows of closed teau and the southern part of the coast.1) The better-developed
pipes) and in modem orchestras. The discovery of the octave is a Uaupés type has in all probability followed the usual routes down
natural one - male and female voice - even if it is not always to the mouth of the Aniazon (the Palikur '.a nd Apinayé) where we
found in exotic music. It would undoubtedly be extremely interest- find among others two tribes with pan-pipes that are in some re-
ing to know the Indian names of the different rows of a pan-pipe. spects related to· the Uaupés instrull\ents.
This might give us a clue to wliether this system is connected with From the West Indies the pan-pipe has never been reported,
the clistinction between masculine and feminine properties. and one may therefore suppose that it was not invented until after
From the above it is evident that the ideas lying behind the the migration of the Arowaks to these islands.
South American pan-pipe are also to be found on other instruments The pan-pipe is found principally in Amazonas, along the west
or a.r e easily discovered, and tbat several of these ideas are certainly coast, and to some extent on the plateaus. It does not occur farther
older than the pan-pipe itself. To some extent the pan-pipe gives north than among tbe Cuna, and in the south it is not found in
me the impression of being a synthesis of a number of Indian in- Chaco or farther south, unless it has been introduced fairly recently.
strumental ideas. It is, tben, not impossible that the Indians may It is not easy to say whether the Arowaks may bave contribttted
have been able to invent the pan-pipe themselves. If we make to its distribution. The Arowak names of the pan-pipes · indicate
this assumption, I should be inclined to believe that the oldest that the latter were developed after their migrations. Strangely
pan-pipe was of the simplest type, with only a very few pipes and enough, the names of the pan-pipes are rather similar in numerous
') Strangely e nough, the pan-pipe is found most often on the southem coast
•) o 'HARcou RT. [ J] pi. XVII, 122. of P eru.
404 K. VE1'. O. VI1'TERH. SA.MH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ, J\fUSlCAL INSTRU1\IENTS OF S. AMERICA 405

tribes of northwestern Amazonas, and for the Chocó and Paressi The Pan-pipe o/ reeil.
(see tables). 1 have already severa! times pointed out certain details Ethnographical

on the musical instruments of the Chocó which we refind in north-

l
Xo. of
western Amazonas . Only an expert philologist can, however, deter- Tribe
pipes 1 Ligaluro 1Doublc1 X a me 1 Author or collection
mine thc importance to be attached to this similarity of names. A
thorough knowledge of the etymology of the names and of the phone- Chané witho ut RM: P. 173-4 .
.:\Iojos EDE R, p. 332, fig. 8.
tics of the various languages would be necessary for this purpose.
Campa 5 ? l 8U1l{/Úl i TESSM.UV, [1), p. 92.
As 1 havc already mentioned, several investigators 1) have ad- 5 see fig. 258 CM: 21.10.137.
va nced the hypothesis that the pan-pipe is a 11011-lndian culture SM: IC. 58915.
elem ent. It must be granted that there are many points of resem- uaupés SM: IC. 58916.
blance between the Melanesian pan-pipes a11d those of the Old World Paumari sim pio + STEERE, p. 387.

011 the one hand, and the American pan-pipes 011 the other. On the Tikuna 18~ko TESSMAN, p. 561.
NIMUENDAJÚ, [2], p. 193.
other side of the Pacific we refind the Uaupés ligature, double pan- Passé 8 s im pio MM: 453.
pipes as in P eru, pair-blowing, etc., and, strangely enough we also
find not only sin1ilar tone systems but also the sarne pitches. The
Siusl • BM: VB. 6317-20 .
Baniwa • GM: 28.1.125, 121.
distribution of the pan-pipe, restricted as it is to outh America and uaupés + GM: 28.1.157.
chiefly to western South America, is also an argument in favour of Tariana • GM: photograph by Nwm:N D A J Ú.
Piapoko 6 ls imple jsM: IC. 11713.
t his theory. These facts seem very remarkable. lf the pan-pipe
ha been imported, this must have taken place not once only, but at • SM: IC. 82133 .
Pausema s im pie GM: 15.1.848.
least twice, since we have to deal wit h two very different types, the Paressi-Kabesi 5 • zero BM: VB. 7105 .
double-Peruvian and the Uaupés, each of which bas spread in a Parossí-Utiriti .
')
• BM: VB. 10007 .
Paressí lclero V. D. 8TEINEN, (2), p. 523 seq.
manner peculiar to itself. The simpler types might then be explained
Piro stick var. FARABEE, fig. 5 e, p. !l8.
away as misconceptions. One might indeed compromise by saying
that simple types of pan-pipes were originally known in America, and
IPnlikur
Chamakoko
.5,6
l";,k,.,. GM: 26.3.140.
P. W. ScHMlDT, p. 1060.
1
that tbe more complicated instruments have been introduced later, Churapa sim pie GM: 13.1.233.
and have spread owing to the fact that their pdnciple was already Yuracare 1 ny mara 1 GM: 13.1.210.
Cuarayú sim pie RM: G. 46.
known. However, such speculations would not lead us very far.
Similarity in technical details, such as bi11ding, etc. does not prove • without RM: G. 48.
Chimane uaupés GM: 15.1.1003.
much . Only further investigations based on a lar g e material Ca,-ina aymara + CM: 15.1.1464.
covering pitch measurements can give us a more or less reliable Chacobo withou t RM: Ch. 75.
an wer to the question of possible trans-Pacific cultural influences Huany am simpie GM: 15.1.595.
in South Arnerica . To this problem 1 hope to return in a later work. Parintintin • CM: 23.3.247.
Juri t MM: 444.
T ebas uaupés l (y )u pãna BM: VB. 417.
Indiana of SMYTH and Lo wE, p . 214.
Sarayacu
Chipaya 2, 6, 7 sim pie t<lkit GM: 32.l.6. lzIKOWlT Z f3], p . 278.
uaupés GM: 31.25.17.
Aymara
1•ymu• + GM: 30.42.5 a.
Aymara 5 BM: V A. 30498.
24 BM: VA. 34541 a- y.
1
) P. W. SCHMJDT, V. H o 1rnnoSTEL, S AcH s, nnd olho1·s . Susques Indians 1 a ymara + BOMAN, p. 464.
Rio Ynpurá
(Uitoto} . uaupés ,pi«hanú WBIHEN, pi. XLIX, p. 210.
 406 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL.

Tribe
No. of
Name
SER. A. BAND 5. K:O 1

Author or collection
"1~~,.- ~~~~~-,~rz_r_K_owr_7_T_z,__~_1u~SI~7CA~L-I-N7- ST~R-UM_!_E~N-T_s.,.- -o_F~S-._Al_·M_E_R_1_c_A~ ~ 4-º-7--~-
l1' Tribe 1 N~. of 1 Ligature 1D oublc \ Name 1 Autho r or collection
pipes 1 Ligature 1 Double / ~ p 1pes
1 1

Cocama 11 uaupés BM: VB. 805. North-vVest

Panobo 12 • yuxpána TESSMANN, [1], pi. 8, fig. 5 . Brazil uaupés
Agua.no 12 • •
pi. 45, fig. 2 . Tukano »
Jebero 12 >) thílo •
pi. 76, fig. 6.
Ssimáka 10-12 » alumnaxlcãki •
pl. VIII.
Chama •
[2] , pi. 30, fig. 6 .
Rio Nanáy ::Vlakú (Rio Iapo) •
(Iquitos) 12 stick var. BM: VB. 485. Mirafía 2 simple
pro agua 12 üriÍsa TESSMANN, [1], p. 56. Uitoto 3 »
,Kokama 10 uriÍtsa • p. 75 . 8 uaupés
Kaschibo 3 pag&r< • p . 139. » 3 toriíbal.:u~
Nokam án 7 sipõwána- TESSMANN, [1 ), p. 179. Varequena 7 simple WM: 1908.
mige Coreguajfl
Koto 10 h~tupil.~
• p. 2. (Meka.'!) 17 uaupés BM: coll. PREt:SS, no. 2-12.
'Lamisto
;
12
5
yup<Ína
anbara(?)
» p. 228. JI Cayapá
Motilon
4 •
simpie
BM:
GM:
V A. 33328.
16.3.118.
Kichos
B ora
10 rondadQr
sirõr6
• p. 243 . Ijca seefig. 257 GM:
kamm1t-pui-rit GM:
16.3.565.
27.27.1203.
» p. 273. Cuna seefig. 249
Kandoschi seringonási • p. 287 . Chocó sirú,} GM: 27.27.419.
Mui nane sirumee • p. 333 . (Empera) simpie chirü N ORDENSKIÓLD (unpubl. papers).
J ivaro 4, 5 • p. 356. PmoRun, Tav. I. IChocó
spíé·rpie } NORDENSKIOLD, (unpubl. papers).
lc hayahuita 12 s~nõ • p. 389. (Nonáma)
Chamikuro 12 tselo 1 • p. 404 . Caccixana
Yagua 10 nunumattÍ • p . 446. (Cauixana) 5 simpie MM: 451.
J:kito 10 n/Jtiru • p. 519 . Yahúna hêr°iroka KocH-GRt NBERG, [6].
nfixiÍri 1 ' Kobéua hehéiba )
Andoa
• p . 532. 1 hehéi
Okaina
Yameo
orthi
nul8tematán
• P· 552. pédüba
» p. 571. Kuerêtú s~~ri
U aná na rúliapa KocH·GRüNBERG, [6]. Ua.ikana eapamalé
' ülíapa » Karapaná perúbali

Tuyuka
yuxkãua-pa • Guahibo simpie RM: H. M. K. 11.i.

Bara
perúliro • Piaroa • + RM: H. M. K. l.80.
ue6baba » Karajá EHRENREICH, (4} p. 24.
:Uaiana perúliababaro » Bororó simpie WM: 831 14.
;
perúliabalbalo • Indians from
Pásõna
'õ moa
perúliero
(t)s~rulo
•
1)
Time.ná
Yuruna 4
ue.upés
simpie
REGEL, pi. 24, fig. 19.
KLETHE, p. 630.
Buhágana sirulo MÉTRAUX, [2], p. 218.
Tsõlá " BM: VB. 1728 a (coll. \". n. STEINEN)
Desana
ue"hpali • 4
HM: B. 3525.
tiÍlusuba » Trumal 5 simple
Yupúa t~xbo(d)ya, » Nahuquá ata la V. D. STEINEN, (2), p. 523 seq.

(f)s~bo(d)ya » We.urá vatan a

sebo Mehinakú simpie vatanatü BM: VB. 2618.
.Rio Negro 5 uaupés HM: B. 972. Yaulapiti vatana.ti
HM: B. 1791: 05. Auetõ tumpia-yot
 408 K . VET. O. VlTTERH. SA...~ . HANDL. SER. A. BAND ú. N:O 1 IZIKOWITZ. MUSICAL L°"STRU'.: IIENTS OF S . .UIBRICA 409
.No. o f . , Summary of the flutes .
Tribe 1
pipes 1 Ligature 1Double 1 X ame Author or coUection
We have seen that there are such a large nwnber of flute types
{kurna in South America that one almost receives the impression that the
Krun a y urii STEINEN, (2), p. 523 seq.
Chcrente
havirare V. D .

' lndians experimented more with this group of instrwnents than with
any other. Every known type of flutc construction in the world was
Apinayé uaupés CM: 31.40.237.
also known to the lndians. Within the main types there is an infinite
Kaingang lwithout Coll. Fnxc, Prague.
Hiana koto selú·selu DE ÜOEJE, f3) , p. 35.
variation of form , due to the various materiais used.
(d)zelú-((l)zelu ln order to give a general survey of the flutes I have not at-
Patamona ~ implo H.OTR (1), pi. 16õ, fig. e. tempted to describe all the forms, but only the principal constructive
Trio » lue DE ÜOEH:, [2), pi. VII, fig. 13. details. From my investigation it is evident that there are two large
Oyana • tule DE GOEJE, [3], P· 35 .
principal groups of flute types in South America, each of which is
W'aiwai ~ CM: 27.7.151.
A rap ai without DEIJBER, p. 120. derived from a pristine instrument, the simple fruit-shell whistle
1
.Archaeological
without an airduct, and the Mataco whistle made entirely of reed .
These two instruments were evidently discovered by accident.
Xo. of
P lace
pipes Ligature Double Author or collection J udging from the distribution of the various types I should be
1 1 1 1 inclined to maintain that the whistles without airducts and stops are
Chinchas 1 like FM: E . 1320.
the oldest flutes in South America. When this blowing principie was
(Peru) Campa applied to tubes of reed, the simple flutes were obtained. Both the
H uacho 8, 7 stick betw. + BM: VA. 31350-1; MM : A. 2779. simple closed flute, the transverse flute, and the flute with the blow-
1
1 chain + o 'HARCOURT, [1), pi. XX, fig. 3. hole in the septum are closely related to the simple fruit-shell whistle
Chancay 8 stick betw. + BM: VA. 22459. from which they are probably derived. Products of later stages of
8 chain + SM: IC. 53264.
evolution are the simple end flute and the quena. The fruit-shell
7 stick betw. + SM: IC. 53264, 53488.
4 chain + BM: VA. 22459 (Stick between rows whistle is probably the first flute which was furnished with stops, a
and chain ligature). very natural invention. It seems as though onJy two boles were used
Pachacamac 4 chain 3-d :BM: VA. 40295, (Each individual row to start with, since this number is found on all the flutes without air-
has chain ligatu re, ali three rows tied ducts, on various transverse flutes and some end flutes (the Botocudo
together with a strip of cloth).
and the Cuna flutes, etc.). On the nose-flutes from Guiana the num-
.) stick betw. + BM: VA. 43870 .
ber of boles has been increased by three, and a still larger number is
G + BM: VA. 40296.
6 chain 3-d BM: VA. 40244. found on the end flutes and quenas. )fany experiments have evi-
Ancon
Ocucaje
7 stick bet w. + BM: VA. 22915. dently been made with the stops on these latter types, as is seen
Quillagua
1 9 chain + Bl\1: VA . 44743-4.
from the numerous refilled holes found on flutes frmn Peru and Gui-
8 s tick .betw. HM: B . 3719.
1 ana. Attempts have also been made in Peru to vary the size of the
i missing BM: VB. 2436.
I ca i
+ ;\fM: C . 2776-7 . stops. The various systems of stops are a subject to which I shall
4 chain + XM: G . 2778; BM: VA. 16097. C:\I: 30.2.1. return in a later work.
1 .)
•
stic k betw.
BM: VB. 45322-4. CM: 30 . The simple end flute has certainly been distributed throughout
C M: 30.2.2.
A rica U aupés WILSON, p. 662.
large parts of America at an early period, from western South Ame-
L. Tit icaca Uaupés + o 'HAJtCOURT, f l j, pi. XIX, 3; pi. XXII, 2 rica to Chaco, Amazonas anel the West Indies. Later it has evidently
Puno } aymara + D'HARCOURT, [l], pi. XX cr, figs. 4 & 6. been changed into or replaced by the quena, a.n instrument which
La Paz
Coast of P e rú
appears to have originated in Peru and spread eastwards over north-
6 chain :\fM: C . 2963.
1
 !
410 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAl'tffi. HANDL. SER. A. BAN D 5. N:O l

ern Amazonas. It is not easy to decide wbether tbe fact tbat its
distribution is similar to tbat of tbe pan-pipe is accidental or not.
T he center of distribution of the duct-flutes is evidently Central
America. The use of stops for varying the tone has probably
been transferred from the end flutes to tbe duct-flutes. By t heir
improved construction, the latter have in turn forced out t he simple CONCLUSION.
end flutes, which are difficult to blow. The sarne process has
evidently also taken place in South America. However, quenas This monograph on the musical and other sound instrmnents of
are still found in places where duct-flutes are used,· for reasons that South America has shown t hat by far the most important of these
are obscure. The fully developed duct-flute which I have called the were the flutes. and t he rattling idiophones. Among the others, which
plug-flute is evidently a standardized model. A la.ter cultural in general are of lesser importance, the drums occupy the most pro-
current has brought with it the flutes with attacbed airducts, and minent place. ln Peru, t he hollow rattles appear to have been re-
t his current has also reached the Peruvian coast, but in all cer- placed by drums. The position of the flutes and t he rattles presents
tainty not the highlands, where only whistles wit hout airducts a noteworthy contrast to Africa, where string instruments and drums
were used . The Aztec flute should be regarded as the latest have predominated.
innovation among the American flutes. All the problems connected with this field of research have na-
Various Indian tribes have attempted to solve problems of tone turally not been discussed with the sarne degree of thoroughness in
variation. The first discoveries were probably reached by accident, this work. l cannot repeat here all the principal conclusions regard-
rather than as a result of deliberate attempts. ln Guiana the hand ing the various instruments and groups of instruments already given
stop was invented. and among the Aztecs the Spiel principie, methods in the summaries, but must confine myself to a few general observa-
of varying the tone by the use of several partial instruments at the t ions.
sarne time. The ~!ata co whistles were probably the first instance of Which South American t ribes had no musical instruments at ali
t his, and this invention may lie behind the origin of the pan-pipe. This is the first question which arises in a study of this kind, a ques-
The latter, as l have already stated, is evi<lently a rather late instru- tion which is very difficult to answer , due to the secrecy sometimes
ment, and is probably to be regarded as a synthesis of Indian ideas practised by the Indiana, and in general to insufficient observation
regarding instruments. The solut ions found by the India ns to the and defective knowledge on our part. H owever , it is generally agreed
problem of tone Yariation in its relation to tone systems must form that the Fuegians and also the- Tambopa.ta, Atsahuaca and
t he subject of a later im·estigation. Yamiaca in Mojos (NoRDENSKIOLD, (6), p . 189) had no instruments.
The sarne is true of the Charrua and Minuane around the mouth of the
La. Plata river (AZARA [II] p. 8, 19) and probably also of some other
tribes in sout heastern South America. From this it may be in-
ferred that the oldest cultures of South America, or, as it is gene-
rally assumed, the oldest tribes migrat ing to this continent , lacked
instruments. The fact that the Arowaks of the West Indies have
very few instruments also points to the conclusion t hat musical in-
struments were a comparatively late invention in South America .
We now turn to t he question regarding t he oldest South Ameri-
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendajú can instruments. ln my opinion this place belongs to the deer-hoof
http://www.etnolinguistica.org jingle rattles, which probably belonged to hunting cult ures that
spread along the Cordilleras in the west a nd later eastwards and
( }
412 K . VET. O. VITTERH. SA"l.\1H. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1 1 IZIKOWITZ, Mt:SICAL INSTRUMENTS OF S. AMERICA 413

northwards by way of Chaco, skirting the jungle. to other parts of The hollow log drum, which is found in California and the W est
South America. Through cultural changes it later became the basis 1 Indies, may be of the sarne age as these. No definite conclusions can,
J
of numerous new developments, it was made of other materiais and however, be drawn from the distribution of this signalling instru-
1
given other functions. At first it may have been a kind of amulet. ment, since it occurred only in forest regiona a nd other methods of
It probably originated somewhere in sout hwestern North America signalling were used elsewhere.
{
or northern Mexico. ln sharp contrast to t he instruments now named, the kettle-
1
Simple whistles without airducts may be of approximately the drum has probably followed another quite different ancient cult ural
same age, and were probably soon followed by flutes and whistles current from Central America along the west coast to Chaco. It was
of t he sarne category but with stops. The practice of blowing with probably connected with an old agricultura! stage of society and a
the nose appears to be connected with this group. The age of these specific social organization, and was u sed at ceremonies for t he
instrumenta is proved by their occurrence in eastern South America, initiation of men.
a nd they evidently represent the culture elements which unite the We have here two cultural currents, which traveled in different
ancient cultures of eastern Brazil with western South America. They directions, one carrying with it the Mataco whistle, etc. a nd the
are also found in the West lndies and in California. They represent other the ket tle-drum. Which of these was, then , the oldest, and
a great advance as musical instrumenta, shown by the invention why were the directions different1 It seems reasonable to assume
of stops. that these currents were not contemporaneous, and if one was
With regard to other pre-Columbian instrumenta, it is in general Iater than the other. the cultural connections between Central
very difficult to determine their relative age on the basis of their America and P eru or else between Central America and Amazonas
distribution. The oldest instrumenta in Amazonas would seem to be may have been cut off at some period. The occurrence of t he
the bullroarer, the buzz-disc, the humming top, the Mataco whistle, Mataco whistle and the bullroarer in western North America speaks
a nd perhaps also the friction idiophone of tortoise-shell. These are for their being older than the kettle-drum, which was found among
all found principally in western Amazonas and among certain tribes the agricult ura! tribes of eastern North America. H owever, for
in Chaco, but not in the West lndies. The difficult problem presented various reasons a conclusion based only on this circumstance is
by their distribution may possibly be due to their having followed uncertain.
the earliest migrations to these territories from the northwest. The The hollow rattle is a culture element probably quite as old as
tribes among which they occurred may have kept to the open savan- the kettle-drum and is found in agricultura} areas. Like the kettle-
nas, unable to subjugate the jungle, and also known the art of culti- drum it occurs in eastern North America, but unlike the latter it
vating maize. There is a possibility that these tribes may have been has i~ South America also spread to Amazonas. Differences in
principally Arowak peoples who in their migrations brought the in- distribution such as this are by no means easy to account for. As I
struments to Chaco. The Tereno have probably influenced the Ka- have explained in the text, t he gourd rattle has in Amazonas spread
diuveo and Chamacoco. The bullroarer was perhaps one of the ear- from a center at the mouth of the Amazon to Caribs, Arowaks,
liest instruments of this group, used in the cult of the manes. ln northern Ges and Tupi-Guaraní peoples. The last mentioned tribes
some way which I cannot discern these ceremonies have been asso- have contributed to its still wider distribution in Amazonas. The
ciated with m ask dances also prohibited to women, and t he bullroarer general similarity between the Caribs and Tupi-Guarani is explained
may have been forced out by a derivative of the Mataco whistle, by influences received by both from the Arowak culture center at
namely the flute with a partly-covered sound orifice, and also by the mouth of the Amazon .
trumpets and other instruments used for instance at the Yurupari ln general it may be said t hat Inigrations of Tupi and Arowak
festivais. The instruments mentioned seem to have taken over the peoples in Amazonas may have been the cause of t he occurrence ~f
complex of ideas first associated with the bullroarer. These questiona the trumpets, stamping tubes, etc. in widely separated parts of th1s
are, however , still insufficiently studied. territory. The iower Amazon region has certainly been an important
 -- \

414 K . VET. 0. VITTERH. SA."1H. HANDL. SER. A. BA~D 5. N:O l IZIKOWITZ, MUSICAL I~STRtnlENTS OF S . ..,UIERICA 415

center of clistribution for various culture elements which originated The adoption of European and negro instruments by the Indians
in Central America. commenced soou after the Discovery. Among those introduced by
The other cult ural center in Amazonas was the upper Rio Negro the negroes were the marimba, negro drums, the notched stick and
territory, the home of tribes with isolated languages, such as the probably also the musical bow. Before the time of Columbus the In-
Tukano, the Uitoto, etc. Here the slit-drum was probably first dians probably did not have a single stringed instrument. From the
developed, and perhaps also the pan-pipe and the technique of anti- Europeans they adopted perhaps primitive types of clarinets and
phonal playing. Some of the tribes appear to have a comparatively string instruments, but in general only new types of instrumenta al-
ancient Amazonian culture, which is also found among the Chocó on ready known to them, such as transverse flutes, plug fintes, drums,
t he west coast of Colombia . ln spite of the fact that the Cordilleras etc. ln these latter instances it was only necessary for them to make
separate these tribes, they seem to be very closely related. This is comparatively !)mall changes in some details of their old instrumenta,
shown by some details on their hollow log drums, the bullroarer, and s uch as the adaptation of the stops to the European systems, etc.
their name for the pan-pipe. WASSÉN (p. 129) has found the sarne Examples of similar ideas taken from negro instruments were the
similarity in the myths of these tribes. The explanation of this wedge ligat ure on the drums, spines in the rattles, and so forth. In
seems to be that a single common culture of these tribes was m odem times guitars and the harp have become popular on the Peru-
divided into two by immigrating Chibacha or earlier peoples with vian and Bolivian plateaus, but, curiously enough. not castanets. On
a typically Centràl American culture. Stick rattles' were probably the whole, the Indiana have been very conservative in their musical
brought in by these Chi.beba, whose influence stretched as far to the ideas. The influence from outside have not by any means been over-
south as northern Peru. whelming, except among Indiar.s who have been absorbed by Euro-
A very late influence is that of the Aztecs on the northern Chib- p ean civilization.
cha peoples, which has probably been by sea past northern Pana- The technique of the distribution of the musical instrumenta was
ma to the Cuna or other Chi.beba tribes. This is proved by the at first alniost exclusively through immigrations. Inter-tribal cultural
distribution of the Aztec flute. influences, religious, economic or other, later assumed greater import-
With regard to Peruvian instrumenta I "\Vish to repeat that the ance. When t his technique is studied closely, the futility of all at-
determination of their relative chronology and their positions in tempts to rely solely on statistical and other isolated data regarding
different culture strata is' still exceptional1y difficult, due to Jack of the distribution of particular artefacts in order to reach conclusions
necessary information regarding stratigraphy, circumstances of regarding such cultural influences bccomes clearly apparent. A few
finds, etc. One or two interesting clues may, however, be pointed examples '\\ili suffice to show this.
out. here.. The connection between Nasca-lca and the Calchaqui The reasons why the kettle-drum did not spread to Amazonas
tem tory lS shown by the clapper beJls and pyramidal bells. The may perhaps be explained by its connection with initiation ceremo-
women of the Araucanians and also of the Aymara on the Bolivian nies suiting the social ideas of certain tribes but not those of others.
•
plateau wear conic bells in their hair, an inclication of the well-known Hollow log drums were useless to tribes that used smoke fires for
connections between tbese peoples. signalling purposes. The gourd rattle, an attribute of the medicine
I have already spoken of the problem of possible trans-Pacific men like the feather mantle, the feather crown , ceremonial tobacco
infl~ences. A word may be added here. A complete knowledge of smoking, etc., may have spread together with some special religious
t he mstruments both of South America and of Oceania and Asia is movement. To obtain resulta of value from our investigations, we
~~ally necessary before this problem can even be attacked. Super- must, then, study not the kettle-drum, thc hoJlow log drum, and the
ficial. morphological similarities prove nothing unless the positions, gourd rattle, each by itself, but initiation ceremonies, systems of
funct10ns and history of the instruments within the clifferent regions signalling, and the practices of the medicine men and, also, the in-
are known, and they are quite as deceptive as linguistic comparisons strumenta themselves in their relations to these larger functional
based solely on similarity between words in different Janguages. complexes.
'
416 K. VET. O. \'ITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. SER. A. BAND 5. N:O 1

We find. therefore, that the fact that the distribution of a spe-

cial culture element can be checked in a tribe due to dillerent ideas,
and that this greatly reduces the value of isolated studies of distri-
'
1

bution types. The rnrious functions of which each culture element is

a part may naturally contain varying numbers of cultura elements or
cultural idea . It i very dangerous to base conclusions regarding BIBLIOGRAPHY.
cultural connections only on facts concerning parts of these functional
o ' ABBEVILLE, CLAUDE, H üitoire de la mission des Peres Gapvcim en l"isle de Maragnan
complexas. Each culture element must be seen in its relation to social et terres circonuoisines ov e!Jt traict des singularitez admirables et des moeurs me-
structure and social life as a whole. A culture is, we repeat, not only rueillelt8es des lndiens habitant8 de ce pais aitec les missues et aduis qui ont est
a sum of culture elements. We must go deeper, and concentrate on tbe enuoyez de nouueau. Paris, I614.
buman activities of which th(>se elements are only the expression. ALFARO, A1<ASTASIO, Antiguulades de Gosta Rica. San José, 1896.
ALVINA, LEANDRA, La Musica Incaica. Cuzco, 1908.
AMBREGA, P. JERÓNIMO DE, Una flauta de Pan araucana in Revista Chilena de historia
y geográfica, t. XXXVII, lst. trim., no. 41, pp. 97-100. Santiago de Chile,
1921.
AMBROSETTr, J UAN' B., [ I ] Lo11 lndios Oaittguá del Alto Paraná (Misiones). in Bole-
tin del Instituto geográfico argentino, t. XV. II y 12. 1894. Buenos Aires.
1895.
- -[2] Notas de arqueología Oalcliaqui in Boletfo dei Instituto geográfico Argentino,
pp. 17-20. Buenos Aires, 1896-99.
- - [3] Exploracione1J arqueol6gica8 e1i la ciudad prehistôrica de •La Paya. • ( Valle
Galchaqui, província de Salta). Facultad de filosofia y letras. Publicaciones
de la Sección Antropológica, no. 3, pt. 2. Buenos Aires, 1908.
- (4] El bronce en la regi6n Oalchaquí in Anale1J del Muaeo Nacional de Buenos
Aires, vo\. XI. Buenos Aires, 1908.
ANGULO, JAIME DE and D'HARCOURT, M. BÉCLARD La musique dea indiens de la Oali·
fomie du nord in SAP.J, n. s., XXIII. Paris, 1931.
ANKERMANN, B., Die afrikanischen Muaikinat1'Umente in Ethnologiscltes IYotizblatt II.
Berlin, 1902.
ANTzE, GusTAV, Metallarbeiten aua dem nõrdliclien Peru. E in Beitrag zur Kenntni11
ihrer Formen in Mitteilungen aua deni Mtt8ettm für Võlkerkunde in Hamburg,
vol. XV. Hamburg, 1930.
ARA."ºº· Ll>IS e. Recuerdos de la Guaquería en el Quindlo. Barcelona ab. 1918.
ARMESTIA, [l] Descripci6n del Territorio de las MiBiones Franciscanas de Apolo-
bamba por otro nombre Frontera de Oaupolocán. Edicion o/ical. La Paz 1905.
- - [2] Navigaci6n del Madre de Dios. Biblioteca bolidana de geographia y his-
toria. La Paz, 1887.
ARSANDEAUX, see Rivet et Arsandeaux.
AZARA, FELIX DE, Geográfica física y esferica de las provincias dei Paraguay. y misio-
ne1J Guaraníes. in Anale11 del .Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Sección Histórico-
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