FACULTY OF MATERIALS AND CHEMICAL

ENGINEERING

COURSE NO: MM242L

MATERIAL LAB-II
FALL 2023

LABORATORY MANUAL

Name:
Registration Number:
Stream:

GIK INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES

AND TECHNOLOGY
TOPI.
PREFACE

Welcome to MM-242 lab. The emphasis of this lab is on the exercises and demonstrations related
to some of the theories and phenomena that are taught in the course of Materials Evaluation
Techniques.

Experiments 1-5 are related to the destructive testing of materials. In these experiments, we have
tried to explain some basic phenomena and determined different properties i.e. yield point,
ultimate tensile strength, hardness, and impact toughness and the creep behavior of different
materials.

Experiments 6-10 are related to non-destructive testing of materials. In these experiments, we

have tried to explain basic phenomena and use of different techniques. NDT is used for detecting
minute discontinuities such as cracks, shrinkage, and porosity without destroying the samples.
These techniques can be employed to any homogeneous material that is not porous, such as
metals, glass, plastics, and some ceramic.

Experiments 11-14 are related to the Materials thermodynamic. In these experiments, we have
tried to explain some basic phenomena to determine different specific heat, heat of fusion and
simple modeling of materials by phase change phenomenon

Instructions & Information

• Come to the laboratory well prepared and in time.

• Please read through the sheets for the particular experiment from this manual.
• Observe strictly the safety precautions for handling chemicals/materials and equipment, as
well as any instructions given by the supervisors.
• The worksheet joined with each exercise should be initialized by one of the instructors during
the class, and handed in as instructed: either at the end of the class, or at the start of the next.
Only worksheets signed by the instructors will be considered for assessment. And please fill
in your names, Reg. number etc. legibly - we can't award marks anonymously.
• Tentative Grading Policy

Worksheets/lab reports 35%

Quizzes 15%

Mid Term 20%

Final Exam 30%

Safety Precautions:

Observance of Safety Rules and the use of common sense are essential in any Laboratory.
Instructions on the manipulation of chemicals or the use of instruments should be read, or obtained
from an instructor, and strictly observed.

As apprentices in a laboratory environment, you should pay particular attention to the following
rules:

• No food / drinks / smoking in the Lab.

• Elementary discipline -- no running, observance of instructions from the instructors, no
manipulation of instruments before being instructed, attention (without interference) to others
working in the same area -- are mandatory.
• Care should be taken when using compressed air and particulate materials.
• Mechanical testing: keep well clear (and make sure that others are clear) of any operating
machine. Manual adjustments must never be attempted during a test.

Dealing with Electrical Systems

• Don’t ever stand on or try to pinch high power cables. This may destroy their insulation
and cause electrical shock.
• Don’t switch on or off the power supply of any machine without prior permission from a
lab instructor.
• Don’t try to remove the casing or cover of any electrical circuitry, even if it is not in
operation.
• In case of electrical shock immediately inform the lab instructor and/or proceed according
to the first aid measures.

Handling Chemicals

• Most chemicals produce fumes when their container is opened, so whenever opening any
bottle containing a chemical make sure that the exhaust system is in operation and a lab
instructor is present.
• Never ever add water to an acid; always add acid to the water gradually.
• Don’t touch any chemicals whether acids, bases or salts with bare hands.
• Whenever you mix and/or perform experiments involving chemical reactions always wear
safety equipment: lab coats, safety glasses, gloves etc.
• Never pour any toxic chemicals in the drain due to environmental reasons.
• In case of a chemical contacting your eyes or skin, immediately rinse thoroughly with
water.
Working with Mechanical Systems

• Never touch the moving parts of any machine when in operation.

• Before operating any machine, first inquire about the emergency stop button of that
particular machine
• Never cross the safety-clearance distance of any machine (particularly important for the
impact testing machine)
• Never try to move and/or lift any machine by yourself, it may cause physical injury to you
• Whenever you are near any moving part of machine make sure you don’t have any loose
clothes in your dress,

Fire hazards and prevention

1. In case of fire, immediately call for help/instructor and inform the fire brigade at Ext# 233
2. If help is not available immediately reach for nearest fire extinguisher, remove its lock/pin
and use it to extinguish fire.
3. Smoking is strictly prohibited in lab premises as it can cause fire.
4. Never use lighter or match near gas equipment (e.g. oxygen, hydrogen cylinders) as it can
cause a serious accident in form of explosion.
5. Never use water to extinguish a fire in electrical apparatus.
6. Ensure that all additions to a bath of molten metal are completely dry
 Lab Rules and Discipline

Make up Lab: There will be no chance for Makeup lab. However, with the permission from the Dean,
one can perform experiment. Such lab experiments will not be graded.

Late Comers: Students should come in time for the lab. Late comers will be marked absent.
Schedule: Schedule will be provided at beginning of the course.
Duration: Duration of each practical experiment is 3 hours and no student will be allowed to leave the
Lab before time. The students should keep themselves busy and get full understanding of the apparatus
and the experiments. The student who leaves the Lab before the end of time will be marked absent.
Cheating will be handled in accordance with the Institute policy.

Note:
1. Each member of every group should bring lab manual and scientific calculator.
2. Hand in lab reports before leaving the lab.
3. Next day submission of lab report will not be accepted.
4. Switch off mobile phones during the lab sessions.

Laboratory instructions
Advance preparation is most important to enable you to perform the experiments and complete your report within
the allotted 3 hour laboratory session. Before the experiments you should have prepared the following

 A clear statement of experiment i.e. what you want to achieve from this experiment.
 A schematic diagram of the apparatus showing the location of all the instrumentation.
 Data sheets for recording the primary data.
 Data sheets for calculating data to be plotted.
The following should be available with you for the preparation of laboratory experiments.

 Appropriate course notes/text book.

 Laboratory notes on individual experiments as contained in this lab manual.
 Previous student lab reports are not permitted during the performance of the experiments.

Laboratory performance
To a large extent, your performance in the laboratory will depend on how well you are prepared as a team. This will
improve your efficiency and accuracy in collecting data, calculating errors, final results and submission of the final
report within three hour time limit.

Experimental results
Neatness, accuracy and completeness of the results and figures will be considered as an important metric for
evaluation.

Discussion of results and conclusion

Correct interpretation of your results and comparison with results in the literature will be considered. The lab
engineers will evaluate your performance in these categories according to the following Rubric form.
Evaluation
A report will have to be handed in at the end of the 3 hour laboratory session. Every effort will be made to ensure that
data collection for all experiments can easily be completed in 1.5 to 2 hours, leaving 1.5 to 1 hour for discussion of
results and conclusions. The following matrix is used to determine the marks for the reports.

Overall Grading Policy

Assessment
Percentage Percentage Distribution
Items

Affective
Lab Report (Cognitive Domain)
Domain

Short
Lab Session Aims & Data Questions
30% Punctuality Life Long
Performance Objective Analysis (7%) Conclusion (5%)
(1%) Learning (5%)
(2%) (10%)

Mid Practical Individual Performance (Psychomotor Domain)

15%
Assessment Apparatus Handling (10%) Data Capturing (5%)

Final Final Exam (20%)

Practical 30% Apparatus Handling (5%) Data Capturing (5%)
Assessment (Written)

Practical Assessment (8%) Report (7%)

Weekly
Assessment (Psychomotor Domain) (Cognitive Domain)
Progress (10%)
of 25%
Experiments (Psychomotor Apparatus Analy
Design Life Long PBL
Domain) Handling Data Capturing (4%) sis of
of Exp. Learning Conclusion
(4%) Exp.
 MM 242 Materials Lab II Fall 2023

Pre-requisite(s): MM101

Lab Instructor: Engr. Umair Naseer

Lab Engineer: Engr. Yousaf Haroon
Lab Introduction
This lab course covers a mix of distinct areas of Materials testing and evaluation, i.e., mechanical,
thermal, electrical, magnetic properties. The prime aim of the course is to provide a hands-on learning
environment for the students covering modern evaluation techniques. Students evaluate the materials,
investigate their properties, and check condition (defected or not). Moreover, students are provided
with opportunities to operate modern evaluation tools and execute various operations.
Lab Breakdown
1. Comparison of Yield Strength, UTS, and Fracture Stress of different Metallic Materials
2. Hardness test of Engineering Material
3. Impact test of Engineering Materials
4. Creep test of Engineering Materials
5. Compression Test
6. Torsion Test
7. Liquid Penetrant Testing
8. Magnetic Particle Testing
9. Ultrasonic Testing
10. Modelling of Materials phase change behavior
11. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
12. Thermal Conductivity Measurement
13. Introduction to Python (I+II)

Mapping of CLOs and PLOs

Course Learning Blooms
Sr. No PLOs
Outcomes Taxonomy

The students will be able to:

Understand various
properties of materials by
C2
CLO_1 comprehending the PLO1
(Comprehension)
interaction of different
energy types with
materials.
Evaluate materials using
CLO_2 different evaluation PLO2 C5 (Evaluation)
techniques (Destructive
and Non-destructive).
Demonstrate the use of
resources in the form of
CLO_3 PLO_12 C3
literature and modern
tools or advanced (Application)
instrumentation.
 CLO Assessment Mechanism
Assessment CLO_2 CLO_3
CLO_1
tools
Apparatus 27% -
55%
Handling
Data 23% -
45 %
Capturing
Lab Reports - 50% 100%

Overall Grading Policy

Assessment Items Percentage
Lab Session Performance 30%
Mid Practical Assessment 15%
Final Practical Assessment 30%
Assessment of experiments 25%

I wish you a very productive stay at the lab.

Dr. Fahd Nawaz Khan

Dean and Associate Professor
Faculty of Materials and Chemical Engineering
 Table of Contents
Course Title: Materials Evaluation Techniques MM212
Experiment No 1: Comparison of Yield Strength, UTS, and …………....…… 1
Fracture Stress of different Metallic Materials

Experiment No 2: Hardness test of Engineering Material….……..……..…… 4

Experiment No 3: Impact test of Engineering Materials……………………... 8

Experiment No 4: Creep test of Engineering Materials…………...………..... 12

Experiment No 5: Torsion Test…………………..……………………………... 17

Experiment No 6: Liquid Penetrant Testing………………………….…..…… 20

Experiment No 7: Magnetic Particle Testing-1………………………...…..…. 24

Experiment No 8: Magnetic Particle Testing-2…………………………….…. 30

Experiment No 9: Ultrasonic Testing-1……………………….……….….….... 36

Experiment No 10: Ultrasonic Testing-2………………………….…..……….. 41

Course Title: Thermodynamics of Materials MM231

Experiment No 11: Modelling of Materials phase change behavior …………. 45

Experiment No 12: Specific Heat (Cp) & Heat Of Fusion (Δh)………..……… 49

Of Different Materials (DSC)

Experiment No 13: Measurement of Thermal Conductivity of Metals…...….. 54

Additional Experiments List: (MET+Python Basics)

Experiment No 14: Compression Test …………………………………………. 61

Experiment No 15: Fatigue Test ……………………………..…………………. 66

Experiment No 16: Radiography Testing of Materials………………………… 71

Experiment No 17: Introduction to Python-I (2D Graph Plotting)…………… 77

Experiment No. 18 Introduction to Python-II (3D Graph Plotting)…………… 83

 EXPERIMENT NO.1

MEASUREMENT OF YIELD STRENGTH, UTS, AND FRACTURE STRESS

OF DIFFERENT METALLIC MATERIALS

OBJECTIVE:

To compare and determine the tensile properties of different Metallic Materials and also to
familiarize with the tensile testing machine (Electromechanical type)

INTRODUCTION:

Mechanical testing provides the link between the mechanical properties and performance of
material. A large range of mechanical tests has been evolved to characterize the different
mechanical responses of the engineering materials, which are intern predict the performance as
realistically as possible and data obtained by these tests is used to select and design of
engineering components. The tensile test is the most widely used test of this category.

MATERIALS
 Mild steel
 Al-Cu alloy
 Brass (60%Cu-40%Zn)

EQUIPMENT:

 30-KN Tensile Testing Machine

 Digital Vernier

PROCEDURE:

A standard specimen is subjected to a continually increasing uniaxial tensile force. Engineering

stress- strain curves is then constructed from the load elongation data and then determines the
following parameters from the curve generated during the tensile test. Also repeat the test on mild
steel samples at different strain rates and the effects of strain rate on tensile properties of mild
steel.

1. Ultimate Tensile strength.

2. % age Elongation.
3. Elastic Modulus.
4. Yield Strength.
5. Breaking stress.
6. %age reduction in Area
7. Elastic & Proportional Limit

1
WORKSHEET

COMPARISON OF YIELD STRENGTH, UTS, AND FRACTURE STRESS OF

DIFFERENT METALLIC MATERIALS

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT USED:

Table 1.1 Equipment and Materials Used:

Material Type / Specs. Equipment Type / Specs.

PROCEDURE

Table 1.2 Calculations

Gauge Original Final Final Yield UTS Fracture % %

Material length(l0) Area(A0) length(l) Area(A0) strength stress elongation reduction
mm mm MPa MPa in area
mm2 mm2 MPa

% reduction in area = [(A-A0)/A0] x 100, UTS = Fmax/A0 %

elongation = [(l-l0)/l0] x 100

2
Draw/Attach the figure/graph
QUESTIONS:

1. Write down the main parts of the INSTRON tensile testing machine

2. Why do we prepare a standard specimen for the test and why mark the gauge length on
the specimen?

3. Write down conclusion in your own words.

3
 EXPERIMENT NO.2

HARDNESS TEST OF METALLIC MATERIALS

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the hardness of different metallic materials using three different techniques.

INTRODUCTION:

Hardness is the resistance offered by a material against local deformation. It can be measured in
various ways like by file test, by comparing with the standard materials (Moh's hardness) or by
machining, but the most popular way of hardness measurement is by producing an indent on the
surface of the test sample with the help of a certain hard indenter like hardened steel ball or a
diamond indenter. The degree of accuracy of the test depends on the accuracy of measurement of
the indent. Rockwell and Vickers test measures the hardness value more accurately than the
Brinell hardness test. The hardness values obtained from these tests depend on various factors
like material composition, Homogeneity of the material, shape and size of the impression, the
applied load, surface flatness of the sample.

MATERIALS: EUIPMENT:

1. Mild steel (Rolled) 1. Brinell Hardness Testing Machine

2. Mild steel (Quenched) 2. Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine
3. Aluminum 3. Vicker’s Hardness Testing Machine
4. Brass

PROCEDURE:
Please provide detailed procedure, these are just hints.
 For Brinell test 1500-kg load is used for hard materials, 500 kg for soft materials.  A
10-mm steel ball is used for test.
 The full load is applied for a minimum of 15 sec for ferrous materials and 30 sec for soft
materials.
 After the measurement of indentation dia with the help of microscope, apply in the
formula and then calculate the hardness number
 For Vicker’s test, a square -base diamond pyramid with angle 136 is used.
The load is used in b/w 5 to 50 kg.
 For Rockwell test, harness steel ball or diamond cone is used for indentation.
 Apply minor load 10 kg first and then major load 60/100/150, according to the scales (A,
B or C).

4
 WORKSHEET

HARDNESS TEST OF METALLIC MATERIALS

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

Table 2.1: Equipment and Materials Used

Material Type / Specs. Equipment Type / Specs.

Results

 Brinell hardness Test

Load (P) =
BHN=2P/πD[D-√(D2-d2)]

Table 2.2: Brinell hardness Test

Material Ball dia Indent Indent Indent Indent Indent Average Standard
(mm) 1 2 3 4 5 dia(mm) deviation
Steel
BHN
Brass
BHN
Aluminum
BHN

 Vickers Hardness Test

Indenter used =
Load Kg =

VH =1.8544 P/L2

5
 Table 2.3: Vickers Hardness Test
Material Diagonal Diagonal Average VHN STDEV
1 2 Diagonal(L)
Steel

Brass

Aluminum

 Rockwell Hardness Test

Table 2.4: Rockwell Hardness Test

Material Load Scale 1 2 3 4 5 STDEV
(Kg)
Steel
Brass
Aluminum

CONCLUSIONS

QUESTIONS:

1. What are the main advantages of the Vickers test over the Brinell test?

6
2. What should be the minimum distance between two adjacent indents for each test?
Explain why?

3. List precautions which are necessary for the preparation of the sample for hardness
testing?

4. Why hardness testing is preferred to characterize materials?

7
 EXPERIMENT NO.3

DETERMINATION OF TRANSITION TEMPERATURE AND IMPACT

TOUGHNESS OF DIFFERENT METALLIC MATERIAL USING
IMPACT TEST

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the Impact Toughness & transition temperature of the given material

INTRODUCTION:

Materials fail in service in various ways. One type of failure, which is generally observed in tanks,
pressure vessels, pipelines, bridges etc, is the sudden or catastrophic failure. One of the prime
reasons for such type of failure is the presence of some crack or a notch, which produces stress
concentration from where the failure of the material starts. The failure of the material in the
presence of notches is controlled by its fracture toughness. Various tests have been developed and
standardized to measure the toughness of the material. Two most commonly used tests are
Charpy and Izod test. Generally fracture is of two types:

• Ductile Fracture:

This type of fracture occurs after extensive plastic deformation, as a result of which ductile
fracture shows a fibrous structure in the surface at the rupture section and is frequently
referred as shear or fibrous fracture. The characteristic feature of ductile fracture frequently
results in the cup and cone form of separation.

• Brittle Fracture:

Brittle fracture occurs suddenly with or without little plastic deformation. This type of
fracture occurs along characteristic crystallographic planes called cleavage plane and fracture
is known as cleavage fracture.

The type of fracture that occurs in materials depends upon the following factors

• Distribution of stress (biaxial or triaxial)

• Strain rate
• Temperature

Material behavior is very much influenced by the temperature and the temperature at which
material changes its behavior from ductile to brittle or vice versa and is termed as the transition
temperature.

8
MATERIALS:

1) Mild steel
2) Brass
3) Aluminum
4) Ice, Salt, and Liquid Nitrogen

EQUIPMENT:

1. Impact testing machine

2. Oven

PROCEDURE:

Test the given sample of steel, brass and Aluminum at different temperatures by using Charpy
impact tester, from the data generated, plot the graph between temperature against impact energy
and from the graph calculate the transition temperature of the given samples. Temperatures and
the requirements to create those temperatures are given below:

Table 3.1: Temperatures and requirements

S.No Composition of Mixture Temperature (°C)
1 Liquid Nitrogen -196
2 Table Salt + Frigid Ice + Water -15—20
3 Lumps of Ice + Water 0
4 Using Oven 300
5 Room Temperature Room Temperature

E=WD (COSβ - COSα)

Where,

E=Energy required for breaking test piece (kg.m)

α= Hammer Lifting up Angle β= Hammer Swing up angle
after test piece broken W= Hammer weight (kg)
D= Distance from the axis to center of gravity (m)

Impact Toughness = E / A (of notch part) Where,

A= Cross-sectional area of notch (m2)

9
WORKSHEET

DETERMINATION OF TRANSITION TEMPERATURE AND IMPACT

TOUGHNESS OF DIFFERENT METALLIC MATERIAL USING
IMPACT TEST

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

Table 3.2: Equipment and Materials Used

Material Type / Specs. Equipment Type / Specs.

PROCEDURE

Table 3.3: Results

Material Temperature Sample size Area Energy Impact
(°C) (cm) (cm2) absorbed toughness
E(kgfm) E/A(kgfm/cm2)
MS 200
25
0
-10
-196

10
 Table 3.4: Calculations
Material Temperature Sample size Area Energy Impact
c0 (cm) (cm2) absorbed toughness
E(kgfm) E/A(kgfm/cm2)
Al 200
25
0
-10
-196

E=WD (cos β-cos α)

E=energy required for breaking test piece

α=hammer lifting up angle
β = hammer swing up angle after test piece broken w=
hammer weight (kg)
D= distance from hammer to center of gravity
A= cross-sectional area of the notch (cm2)

QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by transition temperature and toughness?

2. What are the main features of Impact testing Machines?

3. What are the factors upon which the impact toughness of material depends?

Conclusion

11
 EXPERIMENT NO.4

CREEP TEST OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

OBJECTIVE:

To understand the phenomena of creep and perform the creep test of Lead at room temperature

INTRODUCTION:

Creep is a property of great importance in materials used at high temperatures. It may be define
as a continuous slow plastic flow under constant conditions of loads. Under certain combinations
of stress and temperature, all materials when subjected to constant stress will exhibit an increase
of strain with time. This phenomenon is called creep and most of the materials creep to a certain
extent at all temperatures. Creep test is simply a tension test run at constant load and temperature.
A creep test is carried out by applying a constant load to a specimen and observing the increase in
strain (or extension) with time.

In the typical creep curve, three regions can be identified on the curve. Two standards of CREEP
STRENGTH DATA for metals are commonly used:

1. The stress to produce a minimum creep rate of 0.0001% / hr or 1% / 10000hr; equivalent

to deformation 10-6 in /in. (hr);

2. The stress to cause a creep rate of 0.00001% /hr or 1% /100000hrs (over11years)

equivalent to deformation 10-7 in/in (hr).

Primary Creep: Proceed as a diminishing rate due to work hardening of the material.

Secondary Creep: Proceeds as a constant rate because a balance is achieved between work
hardening and annealing.

Tertiary Creep: The creep rate increase due to necking of the specimen and the associated
increase in the local stress.

MATERIAL:

 Lead /Aluminum

EQUIPMENT:

 Creep testing apparatus

12
PROCEDURE:

 Measure and record the thickness and width of the gauge length of the specimen.
 Fit the top of the specimen into the lever arm and replace the specimen retaining from its
position.
 Fit the bottom of the specimen into the breaking block and replace the specimen retaining pin
to allow some movement of the lever arm.
 Refit the DTI and grooved plate but do not tighten up the nylon pinch screw.
 Remove the rest pin and gently lower the lever arm to take up any free movement.
 Zero the DTI and turn the nylon pinch screw until it is figure tight.
 Refit the rest pin.
 Load the weight hanger with the required load, remove the rest pin and gently lower the lever
arm to take up any slack.
 Raise the hanger to the load position and refit the pin. Gently release the load and start the
stopwatch.
 Record the extension readings from DTI every 15 sec. From the primary stage of creep.
When the extension rate slows down then record reading every minute. As the test approaches
ternary stage record reading every 15 sec. Until fracture occurs.
 Creep %age is calculated in the same manner as the elongation % associated with the tensile
test, that is,
Creep % = (Elongation/Original Length)  100
 Creep rate is determined by the slope of the curve in the period of secondary creep.

Creep Rate = ∆e/∆t= ∆ Strain/∆time

13
WORKSHEET

CREEP TEST OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS USED:

Table 4.1: Equipment and Materials Used

Material Type / Specs. Equipment Type / Specs.

Procedure

14
RESULTS

Table 4.2: Results

Sr.# Time (sec) Extension (mm) Sr.# Time (sec) Extension (mm)

Draw and attach the graph between time and extension on graph paper.

% Creep = (Elongation/Original Length) x 100

Creep Rate = ∆e/∆t= ∆Strain/∆time

15
QUESTIONS:
1. Indicate different parts of the creep machine and describe their functionality?

Fig 4.1: Creep Machine

2. What does the points from “A to E” represent on the plot shown Fig 4.2?

Fig 4.2: Creep curve

Conclusions:

16
 EXPERIMENT NO.5

TORSION TEST OF ALUMINUM

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the modulus of rigidity and the torsional strength of the given material.
INTRODUCTION:

In the torsion test, the specimen is subjected to twisting or torsional loads. The behavior of
materials under torsional conditions is of great importance since the shaft is used intensively to
transmit torque. The stress varies continuously throughout the section of the shaft being a
maximum at the surface
The torsion test has not met with the wide acceptance and use that has been given to the tension
test. However, it is useful in many engineering applications and also in theoretical studies of
plastic flow. Torsion tests are made on materials to determine such properties as modulus of
elasticity in shear, torsional, yield strength and the modulus of rupture. Torsion test may also be
carried out on full size parts such as shaft, axles and twist drill, which are subjected to torsional
loading in service. It is frequently used for testing brittle materials such as tool steels and high
temperature torsion tests are used to evaluate the forgebility of the materials.

APPARATUS:

Torsion Testing Machine and Testing Samples.

PROCEDURE:

In order to insert test sample in Hexagonal Jaws, unscrew the Hand-bolt from lower side of Load
Cell Assembly (Left Side Assembly) and slightly slide it to left, so that our sample can place
between two Jaws. Insert Sample first in Right side Hexagonal Jaw and then rotate the hand
wheel until sample and Left side Jaw align with each other, then slide Load Cell Assembly to
Right, so that sample gripped between Two Jaws.

In order to perform test, follow below procedure:

1. Measure the specimen diameter and test length.

2. Turn on the machine and rotate hand wheel so that Loading Arm just come in contact
with Load Cell. Press and hold reset button for 2 seconds, so that torque indicator and
Angle Indicator reads “0”.
3. Rotate hand wheel and apply Torque on sample, Record Torque and angle reading
simultaneously and put these values in Below Table.

17
WORKSHEET

TORSION TEST OF ALUMINUM

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS USED

Table 5.1: Equipment and Materials Used

Material Type / Specs. Equipment Type / Specs.

PROCEDURE

RESULT

Sample materials: …………… Diameter: ……………mm, J: ……….mm4, Length: ………. mm

Table 5.2: Results

S.No Angle of Torque S.No Angle of Torque

Twist (N.m) Twist
(Degree) (Degree)

18
Attach graph of Angle of twist vs. torque (using graph paper)

QUESTIONS

1. What is the relationship between torque and torsion?

2. What are the main features of torsion testing machines?

3. How can you explain angular deflection?

CONCLUSIONS

19
 EXPERIMENT NO.6

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

OBJECTIVE

To see the various defects on material by using Liquid Penetrant Test

INTRODUCTION

Nondestructive tests are used to make products more reliable, safe, and economical. Increased
reliability improves the public image of the manufacturer, which leads to greater sales and profit.
In addition the manufacturers use these tests to improve and control manufacturing processes.
Before World War II, non-destructive testing was not urgent because of the large safety factors
that were engineered into almost every product. Service failure did not take place, but the role of
material imperfections in such failure was not then fully recognized, and, therefore, little
concentrated effort was made to find them. During and just after, World War II the significance
of imperfections to the useful life of the product assumed greater importance. In aircraft design,
in nuclear technology, and in space exploration, high hazards and costs have made maximum
reliability essential. At the same time, there has been extensive growth of all inspection methods
in industrial and scientific applications. This is a sensitive NDT for detecting minute
discontinuities such as cracks, shrinkage, and porosity that are open to the surface. This technique
can be employed to any homogeneous material that is not porous, such as metals, glass, plastics,
and some ceramic materials. The basic principle of this test is that a liquid that wet the surface of
a material migrates into a crack, excess liquid on the surface is removed, and then the liquid in
the crack, which carries a dye or a florescent substance, is drawn out a developer’. The
characteristics of a good penetrant liquid are related to its surface tension, density and wetting
properties rather than viscosity.

MATERIALS

 Mild Steel
 Copper
 Aluminum
 Cleaner
 Penetrant
 Developer (calcium carbonate powder)

EQUIPMENT

 Magnifying glass

20
PROCEDURE

1. First, the surface to be tested is cleaned to remove the scale, etc., degreased, and dried
2. The chosen penetrant is applied and a period of time allowed for it to enter into the
surface- breaking or discontinuities.
3. The excess penetrant is removed by a method that will not clean the penetrant out of
any cracks, etc.
4. A developer is applied.
5. The surface is examined under appropriate viewing conditions.
6. The surface is cleaned to prevent any corrosion, etc.

21
WORKSHEET

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS USED

Table 5.1: Equipment and Materials Used

Material Type / Specs. Equipment Type / Specs.

PROCEDURE

QUESTIONS

1. Give at least three reasons why surface preparation and cleaning is required for LPT?

22
2. What type of the defects are observed using LPT?

3. Why porous and rough surfaces are not tested using LPT?

4. Write the safety measures to perform this test?

CONCLUSION

23
 EXPERIMENT NO.7

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION – 1 (EVALUATION OF TEST

MEDIUM, USE OF DIFFERENT ACCESSORIES AND DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD
DIRECTION)

OBJECTIVE

To prepare and evaluate the magnetic particle medium, calibration of FSM1 and measurement of
tangential field strength using FSM1, measurement of ultraviolet radiation intensity using UV
intensity meter and determination of the direction of magnetic field using a test piece and Ferro
test 10.

INTRODUCTION

A non-destructive test is an examination of an object in any manner, which will not impair the
future usefulness of the object. Although in most cases nondestructive tests do not provide the
direct measurement of mechanical properties, they are very valuable in locating materials defects
that could impair the performance of machine member when placed in service. Such a test is used
to detect faulty material before it is formed or machined into component parts, to detect faulty
component before assembly, to measure the of the metal or other materials, to determine the level
of liquid or solid content in opaque containers, to identify and sort materials, and to discover
defects that may be developed during processing or use. Parts may be examined in service,
permitting their removal before failure occurs. When a specimen is magnetized, the magnetic
lines of force (the magnetic flux) are predominantly inside the ferromagnetic material. If,
however, there is a surface breaking flaw, or a sub-surface flaw, the field is distorted, causing
local magnetic flux leakage field. This method of testing is based on detecting this local magnetic
flux leakage. Magnetic particle can be carried out in several ways. The piece to be inspected may
be magnetized and then covered with fine magnetic particles (iron powder). This is known as
residual method. Or the magnetization and application of particles may occur simultaneously.
This is known as the continuous method. The magnetic particle may be held in suspension in a
liquid that is flushed over the piece, or the piece may be immersed in the suspension (wet
method). In some applications, the particles, in the form of powder, are dusted over the surface of
the work piece (dry method). The presence of discontinuity is shown by the formation and
adherence of a particle pattern on the surface of the work piece over the discontinuity. This
pattern is called an indication and assumes the approximate shape of the surface projection of the
discontinuity. The suspension flowed over the magnetized work piece contains fluorescent
magnetic particles. The work piece is then viewed under black light, which makes the indications
stand out more clearly.

In this experiment we will determine some very essential parameters (mentioned in the objective)
on which the results of the magnetic particle are dependent and see that how these parameters can
affect the results of the test.

MATERIALS

 Mild steel Test Piece

24
  Cast Iron Test Piece
 Tiede Crack Detection Agent (FLUOFLUX 655.15 Concentrate)

EQUIPMENT

 Magnaflux Equipment (Ferrotest 10-Tiede)

 Centrifuge Tube (ASTM standard D 96-73)
 Tangential Field Strength Meter (FSM 1)
 UV Intensity meter
 Special Test Piece

PROCEDURE

(A) Centrifuge Tube

Preparation & Evaluation of Testing Medium:

It is very important to make an appropriate magnetic particle medium to get the reliable results. It
is recommended by the Tiede to make a solution of concentrate one part and water 40 parts.
A standard centrifuge tube is a flask in accordance with ASTM standards D 96-73. It has a
holding capacity of 100-ml. The flask is provided with graduation marks. With the centrifuge
tube the correct portion of magnetic powders in a carrier medium is checked. For this purpose the
centrifuge tube is filled up to 100 ml with test material. The test material (water + concentrate)
should be well mixed and agitated. Evaluation is made after 30 minutes, which is the settling time
for magnetic powders in accordance with ASTM standards. The resulting values show whether
magnetic particle powder must be refilled, as necessary. We will use FLOWFLUX 655.15
concentrate and deposit to be obtained is 0.2-0.3 ml of the centrifuge tube. If the deposit is not in
between 0.2-0.3 ml then the test medium should properly mixed to get the required proportion. If
magnetic powder is less, the optimum contrast and the maximum indication of the defects are
reduced. If the powder is more than the limit the background fluorescence reduces the contrast
and indication of cracks.

Follow the above-mentioned procedure and fill the table given below. In Remarks column give
your opinion whether the testing medium has made properly or not.

Table 7.1: Centrifuge Tube Method

Water (ml) FLOUFLUX 655.15(ml) Time Temperature Remarks
(min) (oC)

(B) Field Strength Meter:

Magnetic stray fields are able to attract the finest of magnetic power particles on the work piece
surface. Because a certain force is required to hold the powder at the defect position, the crack
indication is directly related to the magnetization intensity. Due to the physical relationship, this
magnetization intensity can be determined by measuring associated magnetic field strength.
25
The Tiede FSM-1 is used for the measurement of tangential magnetic field in AC and DC fields.
It uses a tangential Hall Effect probe, placed on the work piece during magnetization. A voltage
across the Hall Effect crystal varies in accordance with the magnitude of the magnetic field being
measured. The tangential field strength is displayed on the FSM-1 Amps/cm.

Calibration and Operation:

When the display is on the >>000<< should be on the screen. If it is not the zero can be adjusted
by a screwdriver and should wait for at least approx. 1 sec (over travel time of display) after
adjustment.

For exact measurement, recalibration is essential. The precision calibration standard is calibrated
to 100 Amps/cm. By means of a small screwdriver the recalibration can be made via the
calibration adjustment CAL after the probe has been put in the slot of the calibration standard.

For measurement of the effective value the peak value>>flag<< in the top of the display has to be
blank. Place measuring probe on the work piece surface during magnetization. Read measured
value on display.

For peak value >>flag<< in the top left of the display must be present. Place measuring probe
successively on the desired points on the work piece surface during magnetization. The highest
measured value remains on the display. By pushing RESET button the peak value storage device
is readjusted for further measurements.
In most cases a magnetic field strength (H) between 20-50 A/cm (2-5 kA/m) is sufficient to
achieve magnetic saturation.

Table 7.2: Field Strength Meter

S.No Current Effective Value Peak Value Remarks
(kA) (A/cm) (A/cm)

(C) UV Intensity Meter (J 221)

UV intensity meter is used to for measuring the intensity of ultraviolet lamps in  W/cm2 with a
tolerance of +/- 5% on the full-scale range. Normally the photocell plugs directly into the
receptacle on the top of the meter housing. To make readings remote from the metering unit the
photocell can be removed and the extension cord should be plugged into the receptacle with the
red and black plugs aligned with their corresponding holes for proper polarity.

26
The meter scale is phosphorescent, activated by the UV light, providing the convenience of
reading the meter in lighted areas as well as in dark. The A scale range is from 0 to 1200
 W/cm2 and B scale range is from 0 to 6000 W/cm2. Use switch to select A or B scale. For an
exact reading the scale is divided in 4 sections in equal spacing. To obtain
 W/cm2 multiply reading by 100. To measure UV lamps remove the plastic filter and keep the
photocell horizontal. Start measuring on the B scale. The A scale is selected where low values are
indicated.

When testing in a darkened cabin a radiation intensity of 1500 microwatts per cm is the minimum
acceptable intensity. A measurement distance of about 30 cm is suitable.

Table 7.3: UV Intensity Meter

S.No Scale Distance UV Intensity Remarks
(cm) (W/cm2)
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
5 25
6 30

(D) Use of Test piece to determine the magnetic field direction:

The special test piece is used for efficient control of magnetization, penetration depth, quality of
fluorescent suspension and magnetic field direction in magnetic particle testing.

The test piece consists of a remanence free shielding ring into which an iron cylinder, sectioned
into four quarters, is placed. The cuts in the iron cylinder simulate artificial flaws in the form of a
cross. The iron cylinder is covered by a thin brass plate, which can be varied in distance to and
from the work piece.
When the test piece is placed on a magnetized work piece, magnetic lines pass through the
sectioned iron cylinder. If magnetic powder or fluorescent magnetic solution is sprayed over the
test piece, the cuts in the iron cylinder become visible. By turning the test piece around its axis,
the maximum indication on the cut indicates precisely the magnetic field direction. The magnetic
field direction is perpendicular to the flaw at maximum indication. For the determination of
magnetizing efficiency, penetration and quality of the fluorescent oil suspension, the outside ring
of the test piece is turned slowly, increasing the distance of the thin brass plate from the work
piece. The amount of lift-off is read to plus or minus ¼ mm on the shielding ring.
Follow the procedure mentioned above, see the effect of varying distance on the intensity
of indication by using test piece and fill the table given below. In the remarks column write the
observations you have made during this exercise i.e. the indication intensity increases or
decreases.
Table 7.4: Determine the magnetic field direction
S.No Lift-off Remarks
(mm)
1.
2.
3.
27
WORKSHEET

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION – 1

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS USED

Table 7.5: Equipment and Materials Used

Material Specifications Equipment Specifications

PROCEDURE

28
EVALUATION OF THE TESTING MEDIUM

Table 7.6: Evaluation of the testing medium

Water(ml) Ferro-fluid Time Temperature Remarks
conc. (ml)

FIELD STRENGTH METER

Table 7.7: Field strength meter

Sr.# Current(kA) Field strength(A/cm) Remarks

UV INTENSITY METER (J 221)

Table 7.8: UV Intensity Meter

Sr.# Scale Distance(cm) UV Intensity(µw/cm2) Remarks

Note: Attach the photograph of the test sample under UV illumination.

29
 EXPERIMENT NO.8

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION-2 (DETECTION OF VARIOUS

DEFECTS IN FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS USING FERROTEST 10)

OBJECTIVE

To detect the various defects on a ferromagnetic material by using magnetic particle test, standard
MT procedure for weld testing and to understand the operating procedure of FERROTEST 10.

INTRODUCTION

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic

material and then dusting the surface with iron particles (either dry or suspended in liquid).
Surface and near-surface imperfections distort the magnetic field and concentrate iron particles
near imperfections, previewing a visual indication of the flaw.
One of the advantages that a magnetic particle inspection has over some of the other
nondestructive evaluation methods is that flaw indications generally resemble the actual flaw.
This is not the case with NDT methods such as ultrasonic and eddy current inspection where an
electronic signal must be interpreted. When magnetic particle inspection is used, cracks on the
surface of the part appear as sharp lines that follow the path of the crack. Flaws that exist below
the surface of the part are less defined and more difficult to detect. Below are some example
magnetic particle indications.

Basic Principles of Magnetic Particle Inspection

The magnetic particle inspection method along with liquid penetrant inspection is one of the
oldest and most widely utilized forms of nondestructive testing currently in use today. Magnetic
particle testing uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect
flaws in components. In theory, it is a relatively simple concept. When a bar magnet is broken
in the center of its length, two complete bar magnets with magnetic poles on each end of each
magnet will result. If the magnet were cracked but not broken completely in two, a north and
south pole will form at each edge of the crack, just as though the break had been completed. If
iron particles were then sprinkled on this cracked magnet, these particles will be attracted not
only to the ends of the magnets poles but also to the edges of the crack.

30
 Fig 8.1: Basic Principles of Magnetic Particle Inspection

Fig 8.2: Basic Principles of Magnetic Particle Inspection (Cross-sectional view)

MATERIALS

 Mild steel or Cast Iron Samples

 Testing Agent (1 part Flouflux concentrate + 40 parts Water)

EQUIPMENT

 Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment (Ferrotest 10)

 Tangential Field Strength Meter (FSM1)
 Magnetometer
 UV Lamp and UV Intensity Meter
PROCEDURE

Following steps are involved in this test

31
Surface preparation:

Any dirt, scale oil grease present on the sample should be removed. If very fine cracks are to be
detected, a good, clean surface is necessary. Apply cleaner on the surface of the test specimen
and clean the surface with cloth or tissue paper.

Magnetization of the work piece:

Place the electrodes on the surface of the specimen. The distance between the two electrodes
should not more than 8 inches. Move the mode selection switch to the Magn/Puls position. By
pushing the paddle, the current began to flow between two electrodes and that area is magnetized.

Direct current, alternating current, and rectified alternating current are all used for magnetizing
purposes by using a portable equipment in which adjustable contacts can be applied to the
specimen, or be fitted with energizing coils, is built for up to 10 000 A output. Direct current is
more sensitive than alternating current for detecting discontinuities that are not open to the
surface. Alternating current will detect discontinuities open to the surface and is used when the
detection of this type of discontinuity is the only interest. When alternating current is rectified, it
provides a more penetrating magnetic field.

Checking and adjustment of appropriate Magnetic Field Strength:

Check the strength of magnetic field by using a tangential field strength meter (FSM 1). If the
strength is between 20-50 A/cm it is sufficient otherwise increase the current to increase or
decrease the strength of field.

Application of Magnetic Particles

After magnetization magnetic particles are applied on the work piece by spray gun or by brush or
by simple flowing. The particles should have a high permeability so that they produce an
indication with small leakage fields. They must be applied liberally so that they can move over
the magnetized area and collect on the regions where there is a flux leakage.

Observation of Defects
After magnetization and application of the magnetic particles, the area has to be carefully
examined by directly eye or more precisely by using UV lamp.

Demagnetization

The last step in the test is that the work piece needs to be demagnetized after testing by using the
same equipment. If a specimen is placed in the service without demagnetizing, it will attract
fillings, grindings, chips, and other steel particles that can produce problems afterward.

Note: The sensitivity of MPI is affected by many factors, including strength of the indicating
suspension, time in contact with the suspension, time allowed for indication to form, time subject
to magnetizing current, and strength of magnetizing current.

32
Table 8.1: Observation and Readings
S.No Current Magnetic Field Residual Observation
(kA) Strength Magnetism (Cracks/Flaws)
(A/cm)
1
2
3
4
5

Remarks:
What were your observations when the magnetic field strength values were?

(i) Less than the minimum required strength:

(ii) More than the maximum required strength:

33
WORKSHEET

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION-2

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

Equipment and Materials Used

Table 8.2: Equipment and Materials Used

Material Type / Specs. Equipment Type / Specs.

PROCEDURE

Table 8.3: Results

Sr. Current(KA) Magnetic field Observation(Crack/Flaws)
# strength(A/cm)

Note: Attach photograph of test sample under illumination of UV Light.

34
QUESTIONS

1. What are the limitations of the magnetic particle inspection technique?

2. Why direction of the magnetic field is important during the detection of the Flaw/crack?

CONCLUSION

35
 EXPERIMENT NO.9

ULTRASONIC TESTING–1 (UNDERSTANDING THE OPERATION OF

CTS 26 BY GIVEN ASSIGNMENTS)

OBJECTIVE:

To understand the operating procedure of ultrasonic testing equipment (CTS26) and the basic
principles of ultrasonic testing by practicing the given assignments.

INTRODUCTION:

The ultrasonic principle is based on the fact that solid materials are good conductors of sound
waves. Whereby the waves are not only reflected at the interfaces but also by internal flaws
(material separations, inclusions etc.). The interaction effect of sound waves with the material is
stronger. The smaller the wavelength; this means the higher the frequency of the wave.

V = Sound velocity [km/s] f =

Frequency [MHz]

This means that ultrasonic waves must be used in a frequency range between about 0.5 MHz and
25 MHz and that the resulting wave length is in mm. With lower frequencies, the interaction
effect of the waves with internal flaws would be so small that detection becomes questionable.
Both test methods, radiography and ultrasonic testing, are the most frequently used methods of
testing different test pieces for internal flaws, partly covering the application range and partly
extending it. This means that today many volume tests are possible with the more economical and
non-risk ultrasonic test method, on the other hand special test problems are solved, the same as
before, using radiography. In cases where the highest safety requirements are demanded (e.g.
nuclear power plants, aerospace industry) both methods are used. If we limit ourselves to testing
objects for possible material flaws then the classification of tasks assigned to the ultrasonic
operator is as follows:

1. Detection of discontinuity
2. Location of reflectors discontinuity
3. Evaluation of discontinuity
4. Diagnosis of discontinuity

In ultrasonic testing the proper handling and operation is very important to get reliable and
reproducible results. So it is essential for the operator to know about the functions of a particular
ultrasonic flaw detector
MATERIALS

1 Calibration Block-1 (Mild Steel)

2. Grease or Oil

36
EQUIPMENT

1. Ultrasonic Testing Equipment (USM36)

2. Normal Probe
3. Angle Probe

PROCEDURE

In order to learn about the function of the controls the first thing to do is to switch the instrument
(CTS26) on and then adjust it in accordance with the following instructions:

1. Push the start button on.

2. Set the mode-of-operation switch to single probe operation.
3. Using left knob adjust gain (dB) control to get gain in between 50-75dB.
4. Set test range to 200mm.
5. Connect probe (………) to the Flaw detector in the plug.
6. Place the probe onto the 100 0mm section of test block-1 and then onto the 25mm thick
section of specimen1
7. Draw your observations on the screens given below.

USM36 USM36

Fig 9.1: Observation on 100mm thick section Fig 9.2: Observation on 25mm thick section

8. Leave the probe coupled to the 25mm thick section of the test specimen and change the
setting of shift control. What happens to the echoes on the screen?
Note your observation:
9. Now change the fine sweep control. What happens to the echoes on the screen?
Note your observation:

10. Now change the setting of gain control. What happens to the echoes on the screen?
Note your observation:

37
11. Couple the probe with 100mm thick section. Produce the displays given below on the
CRT screen.

USM36 USM36

(a) (b)

USM36 USM36

(c) (d)

USM36 USM36

(e) (f)

38
WORKSHEET

ULTRASONIC TESTING–1

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

QUESTIONS

1. Which essential elements are contained in an ultrasonic testing system?

2. What is the item in our daily life the design of which corresponds roughly to a probe with
a very much-reduced oscillating frequency?

3. What is the purpose of the pulse shift control on the Ultrasonic Flaw Detector?

4. Which wave lengths result from a 4 MHz sound pulse in

(a) Plexiglass (V long = 2700m/sec) λ=

(b) Steel (Vlong = 4400 m/sec) λ=

39
5. Which frequencies have to be chosen in order to obtain:

(a) In steel a transverse wave of 3 mm wave length (Vtrans, steel = 3250m/sec)

(b) In water a longitudinal wave of 6 mm wavelength (Vlong, water = 1480m/sec)

40
 EXPERIMENT NO.10

ULTRASONIC TESTING – 2 (CALIBRATION OF USM 36, DETECTION ANDLOCATION OF

FLAWS IN MATERIALS, AND THICKNESS MEASUREMENT)

OBJECTIVE

To calibrate the equipment using different calibration blocks and to understand the procedures of detecting
and locating flaws and thickness measurement by using straight beam probes.

INTRODUCTION

Calibration means to set the delay and range controls so that a specific known depth range in a test specimen
can be formed linearly between scale division 0 and scale division 10. Calibration refers to the act of
evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of measurement equipment. In ultrasonic testing, there is
also a need for reference standards. Reference standards are used to establish a general level of consistency in
measurements and to help, interpret and quantify the information contained in the received signal. Reference
standards are used to validate that the equipment and the set-up provide similar results from one day to the
next and that similar results are produced by different systems. Reference standards also help the inspector to
estimate the size of flaws. In a pulse-echo type set-up, signal strength depends on both the size of the flaw and
the distance between the flaw and the transducer. The inspector can use a reference standard with an
artificially induced flaw of known size and at approximately the same distance away for the transducer to
produce a signal. By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received from the actual flaw,
the inspector can estimate the flaw size.

Calibration and reference standards for ultrasonic testing come in many shapes and sizes. The type of standard
used is dependent on the NDE application and the form and shape of the object being evaluated. The material
of the reference standard should be the same as the material being inspected and the artificially induced flaw
should closely resemble that of the actual flaw. This second requirement is a major limitation of most standard
reference samples. Most use drilled holes and notches that do not closely represent real flaws. In most cases
the artificially induced defects in reference standards are better reflectors of sound energy (due to their flatter
and smoother surfaces) and produce indications that are larger than those that a similar sized flaw would
produce. Producing more "realistic" defects is cost prohibitive in most cases and, therefore, the inspector can
only make an estimate of the flaw size. In order to make an exact range calibration a reference block is
necessary which must meet with the following requirements:

(a) The exact size of the reference path must be known.

(b) The reference block and the test object must be made from the same material (the same sound
velocity).
(c) The calibration blocks are to be plane-parallel and smooth.
(d) The calibration block has not to contain any flaws.
MATERIALS

 Calibration Block-1 (Mild Steel)

 Calibration Block-2 (Mild Steel)
 Calibration Block-3 (Aluminum)
41
 Grease or Oil
 Test pieces of M.S/Cast Iron

EQUIPMENT

 Ultrasonic Testing Equipment (USM 36)

 Normal Probe
 Angle Probe

PROCEDURE
1. For calibration follow the below steps
2. Set the known material velocity (function group RANGE).
3. Couple the probe to the calibration block.
4. Set the required display range using the function RANGE. The calibration echo must be displayed on
the screen.
5. Position the gate on one of the calibration echoes until the sound path of the echo is indicated in the
measurement line.
6. After this, adjust the setting of the function PROBE DELAY until the correct sound path for the
selected calibration echo is indicated in the measurement line.

For Example
You are carrying out the calibration for the calibration range 100 mm using the calibration standard K1
(thickness 25 mm) which is laid down flat.
Set RANGE to 100 mm.
Set the known material velocity of 5920 m/s (please see ISO 10863).
Set the gate so that it is positioned on the first calibration echo (from 25 mm).
Read the sound path in the measurement line. If this value is not equal to 25 mm, adjust the setting of the
function PROBE DELAY until it is at 25 mm.
This completes the calibration of the USM 36 to the material velocity of 5920 m/s with a calibration range of
100 mm for the probe used.

42
 WORKSHEET

ULTRASONIC TESTING – 2

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

ASSIGNMENT # 1

Using calibration block-1 (100mm thick side) carry out the range adjustment from 0-200mm as just described
and show the number and position of echoes you have adjusted on the screen given below.

USM36

Fig 10.1: Display Result

ASSIGNMENT # 2

Calibrate your equipment for 100mm range. Than place the probe on a given sample and try to assess the
thickness of that sample. Compare your answer by the value obtained by measuring the thickness using a
Vernier.
Table 10.1: Assignment No 2
Test Material
Test Range
Thickness (mm) measured by using UT
Thickness (mm) measured by Vernier

43
ASSIGNMENT # 3

A sample with hidden artificial flaws is given to you. Measure the dimensions of the sample. Calibrate the
equipment according to the measured dimensions. Place and scan the surface of the sample with the probe
and see if you can find any flaw and fill the table and show the number and locations of the flaws you
have found on the figure given below.

Table 10.2: Assignment No 3

Test Material Dimensions Dimensions Dimensions Calibration
Length (mm) Width (mm) Height (mm) Range (mm)

Fig 10.2: Sample

44
 EXPERIMENT NO.11

MODELLING OF MATERIALS PHASE CHANGE BEHAVIOR

OBJECTIVE

1- The computational analysis through application of an enthalpy based model which describes the
energy released during cooling (latent heat of fusion).
2- It also highlights the procedure for the use of materials properties for practical purposes.

INTRODUCTION

Energy is transfer in the form of heat and there are three ways through which energy is being transferred i.e
conduction, convection and radiation. Heat transfer by means of molecular agitation within material without
any motion of material as a whole determines the conduction heat transfer. There is analytical relation through
which conduction heat transfer can be determined.

Q = heat transferred in time = t; K = thermal conductivity of the barrier; A = Area; T = Temperature; d =

thickness of barrier

Similarly, Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as air or water when the heated fluid is
caused to move away from the source of heat, carrying energy with it. Convection above a hot surface occurs
because hot air expands, becomes less dense, and rises. Under the situation which involve the use of analytical
relation for calculation or two heat transfer mode are working simultaneously; the modelling approaches are
much simpler.
This is a heat transfer analysis of casting process carried in sand mould. The temperature distribution at
different locations during the phase change; the length of time at which phase change occurs determines the
thermal efficiency of the mould. The objective is to track the temperature distribution in the steel casting and
the mold during the solidification process, which occurs over a duration of 4 hours. The casting is made in an
L-shaped sand mold with 4 inch thick walls. Convection occurs between the sand mold and the ambient air.
Radiation heat transfer is ignored. The mold material (sand) has constant material properties. The casting
(steel) has temperature-dependent thermal conductivity and enthalpy; both are input in a table of values versus
temperature. The enthalpy property table captures the latent heat capacity of the metal as it solidifies. For
phase change the latent heat (the heat energy that system stores or releases during phase change) the enthalpy
of a material as a function of temperature need to be defined.

45
 (a) Steel piece to be cast

Steel casting
Sand Mold

Symmetry
plane
(b) Two dimensional model view for analysis

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Temperature dependent materials properties of materials.

Material Properties for Sand

Conductivity (KXX) 0.025 Btu/(hr-in-oF)

Density (DENS) 0.054 lb/in3

Specific heat (C) 0.28 Btu/(lb-oF)

Conductivity (KXX) for Steel

at 0oF 1.44 Btu/(hr-in-oF)

at 2643oF 1.54

at 2750oF 1.22

at 2875oF 1.22

46
 Enthalpy (ENTH) for Steel

at 0oF 0.0 Btu/in3

at 2643oF 128.1

at 2750oF 163.8

at 2875oF 174.2

Initial Conditions

Temperature of steel 2875 oF

Temperature of sand 80 oF

Convection Properties

Film coefficient 0.014 Btu/(hr-in2-oF)

Ambient temperature 80 oF

EQUIPMENT

3. ANSYS Multiphysics computational software

PROCEDURE

1. Open the software by clicking on the icon on computer desktop.

2. Copy the FORTRAN code from the txt file provided to you and paste in the windows open.
3. Press enter and ignore if there is any warnings message.
4. Run the code for multiple times by changing the materials properties.

REFERENCES

3. I. Ansys, ANSYS analysis techniques guide, Ansys Help (2007).

47
 WORKSHEET

MODELLING OF MATERIALS PHASE CHANGE BEHAVIOR

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________

OBJECTIVE
1-
The computational analysis through application of an enthalpy based model which describes the energy
released during cooling (latent heat of fusion).
2-
It also highlight the procedure for the use of materials properties for practical purpose.

QUESTIONS

4. Draw time versus temperature graph acquired from the software and label it different zones i.e
total transformation time, thermal arrest.

5. Calculate the cooling rate in three stages i.e at the start of solidification, thermal arrest and
complete transformation.

6. Change the value of thermal conductivity of sand in the Programe and compare the rate at which
solidification occurred with rate at which mould absorbed and dissipate heat.

48
 EXPERIMENT NO.12

SPECIFIC HEAT (CP) & HEAT OF FUSION (ΔH) OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS

OBJECTIVE

To determine the specific heat and heat of fusion of various different materials.

INTRODUCTION

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) monitors heat effects associated with phase transitions or
chemical reactions as a function of temperature. In a DSC the difference in heat flow to the sample and a
reference at the same temperature is recorded as a function of temperature. The reference is an inert
material such as alumina, or just an empty aluminum pan. The temperature of both the sample and
reference are increased at a constant rate. Since the DSC is at constant pressure, heat flow is equivalent to
enthalpy changes:

Here dH/dt is the heat flow measured in mcal sec-1The heat flow difference between the sample and the
reference is:

and can be either positive or negative. In an endothermic process, such as most phase transitions, heat is
absorbed and, therefore, heat flow to the sample is higher than that to the reference. Hence ∆dH/dt is
positive. Other endothermic processes include helix-coil transitions in DNA, protein denaturation,
dehydrations, reduction reactions, and some decomposition reactions. In an exothermic process, such as
crystallization, some cross-linking processes, oxidation reactions, and some decomposition reactions, the
opposite is true and ∆dH/dt is negative.

49
 Figure 12.1 Schematic of a DSC.

MAIN APPLICATION AREAS

• Determination of phase diagrams of polymers

• Determination of glass transition and melting points
• Estimation of heats of adsorption and sublimation energies  Assessment of the curing
performance of polymer resins

MATERIALS

Various polymers

EQUIPMENT

Differential Scanning Calorimeter with accessories.

PROCEDURE

1. Cut a small sample, which can be easily placed in the holder of the equipment.
2. Weigh the sample using a digital balance.
3. Place it in a small Al container to be placed in the sample holder.
4. Put an empty Al container in the reference holder (Nitrogen gas is used to provide an inert
atmosphere).
5. Set the maximum temperature and other parameters in the computer software.
6. Start the scan and observe the progress of the test from the graph on the computer screen.
7. The equipment stops after reaching the maximum set temperature.
8. Identify and mark the transition temperatures on the graph. Also obtain a value of
enthalpy change (ΔH) from the computer software.
9. Label the graph and print it.

50
REFERENCES

1. Crawford RJ, Plastic Engineering, Pergamon Press, Oxford UK, 2nd Edition 1989.
2. Bill Meyer F W Jr., Textbook of polymer Science, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 2nd
Edition 1971.
3. R J Young, Introduction to Polymers, Chapman and Hall, UK 1989.

51
WORKSHEET

SPECIFIC HEAT (CP) & HEAT OF FUSION (ΔH) OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________

OBJECTIVE

To determine the specific heat and heat of fusion of various different materials.

EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS USED

Table 12.2: Equipment and Materials Used

Material Type / Specs. Equipment Type / Specs.

QUESTIONS

1. Below is a DSC thermogram depicting the melting of tetra-butyl ammonium fluoride.

Measure Cp and heat of fusion of the sample.

52
2. Name the factors effecting Tg and Tm of polymers.

3. What are the applications of DSC?

CONCLUSION

53
 EXPERIMENT NO. 13

MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS

OBJECTIVES
To determine the thermal conductivity of brass and steel samples.

INTRODUCTION
On a number of occasions, the exact composition of a given material is not known, that is why we
cannot find various physical and thermal properties of such materials from available data usually
provided in tabulated form. In such conditions, it becomes necessary that their physical and thermal
properties be experimentally determined.
The thermal conductivity k is a thermo-physical property of the conducting medium that represents the
rate of conduction heat transfer per unit area for a temperature gradient of 1˚C/m. The units for k are
W/m˚C. The thermal conductivities of various common substances are listed in Table 2.1 for standard
atmospheric conditions.
Table 13.1: Thermal conductivity of various substances at room temperature
Thermal Conductivity(k)
Substance W/(mC) Btu/(h ftF)
Metals
Silver 420 240
Copper 390 230
Gold 320 180
Brass 111 63
Aluminum 200 120
Silicon 150 87
Nickel 91 53
Iron (pure) 80 46
Germanium 60 35
Carbon Steel (0.5% C) 54 31
Nonmetallic Solids
Diamond, type 2A 2300 1300
Diamond, type 1 900 520
Limestone 1.5 0.87
Glass (Pyrex 7740) 1.0 0.58
Teflon (Duroid 5600) 0.40 0.23
Brick, building 0.69 0.399
Plaster 0.13 0.075
Cork 0.040 0.023
Liquids
Mercury 8.7 5.0
Water 0.6 0.35
Freon F-12 0.08 0.046
Gases
Hydrogen 0.18 0.10
Air 0.026 0.015
Nitrogen 0.026 0.015

54
 Steam 0.018 0.01
Freon F-12 0.0097 0.0056

At room temperature, k ranges from values in the hundreds for good conductors of heat such as diamonds and
various metals to less than 0.01 W/mC for some gases. Materials with values of k less than 1 W/mC are
classified as insulators. As a rule of thumb, metals with good electrical conducting properties have higher
thermal conductivities than dielectric nonmetals or semiconductors. This is because, the movement of free
electrons enhances the molecular interaction in good electrical conductors.

Conduction Heat Transfer

From the thermodynamic point of view, temperature T is a property that is an index of the kinetic energy
possessed by the building-block Particles of a substance (i.e., molecules, atoms and electrons); greater the
agitation of these Particles, higher the temperature. So, conduction heat transfer is the transfer of energy
caused by physical interaction among molecular, atomic, and subatomic Particles of a substance at
different temperatures (level of kinetic energy). To expand upon this point, conduction in gases involves
the collision and exchange of energy and momentum among molecules in continuous random motion. The
same molecular transport mechanism occurs in liquids, but is complicated by the effects of molecular
force fields and can be augmented by the transport of free electrons in liquids that are good electrical
conductors. On the other hand, conduction in solids occurs as a result of the movement of free electrons
and the vibrational energy in the atomic lattice structure of the material.

Fourier Law of Conduction

On the basis of experimental observations, the rate of heat transferred by conduction in the x direction
through a finite area A and for the situation in which T is a function only of x can be expressed by
dT
q cond , x   kA (W) ……………………………………………… 1.1
dx

where A is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer ‘x’, and k is the thermal conductivity.
The consequence of the minus sign in the above equation is that, the heat transfer is positive for situations
in which the temperature gradient is negative. This result is consistent with the second law of
thermodynamics, which stipulates that, heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. For
situations in which the temperature is a function of time t and one space variable, such as x, the Fourier
law of conduction is written as
 T (t )
q cond , x ( t )   kA (W) ……………………………………………… 1.2
x
Where, heat transfer is a function of t and x.

55
MATERIAL
Stainless steel and Brass

EQUIPMENT

Figure 13.1 Heat Transfer Conduction Apparatus Interconnections

56
1.) Heat Input section 13.) Casing piece
2.) Electrical Heater 14.) Casing piece
3.) Thermistor temperature sensors 15.) Casing piece
4.) Heat sink section 16.) Miniature plug
5.) The end being cooled with running 17.) Brass disc
water 18.) Electrical heater
6.) Thermistor temperature sensors 19.) Circumferential copper tube
7.) Brass sample 20.) Thermistor temperature sensor
8.) Thermistor sensors 21.) Air gap
9.) A material sample 22.) Heat resistant casing
10.) A material sample 23.) Casing
11.) Heat resistant casing
12.) Enclosed air space

57
PROCEDURE/OPERATION
1. Place the brass sample between the heater and cooler.
2. Select 10W-heater power as an input using the heater power control.
3. Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state system conditions.
4. Record the temperature for all the nine sensor points.
5. Change the heat input to the next value given in table 1.2.
6. Repeat the above procedure.
7. Complete table 1.2.
Note: After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state conditions.

REFERENCES
1. Operation Manual of Heat Conduction Unit Gunt Hamburg.

58
WORKSHEET

MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Date: ___________________

RESULTS

Table 13.2 Linear Conduction (Brass-Brass-Brass)

# Q (watts) T1, C T2, C T3, C T4, C T5, C T6, C T7, C T8, C T9, C

1 10

2 15

3 20

4 25

Table 13.3 Linear Conduction (Brass-Steel-Brass)

# Q (watts) T1, C T2, C T3, C T7, C T8, C T9, C
1 10
2 15
3 20
4 25

QUESTIONS

Q.1 Plot the temperature along the length of the bar. This will result in a set of straight lines with
the slope dT/dx. The slope now can be used to determine the thermal conductivity k of the sample.
The resulting set of straight lines should have approximately the same slope dT/dx. Using this slope,
thermal conductivity of brass is determined by the formula

q dx
k  ( )
A dT

Use the Following data in your calculations:

59
 d= diameter of cylinder=25mm A= (π/4) *d2
kn=Conductivity of Heater Xh = Length of heater element= 30mm
kc=Conductivity of Cooler Xc = Length of cooler element= 30mm
ks=Conductivity of Steel Material Xs = Length of Steel element= 30mm
Tcs= Cooler side Temperature Ths= Heater side Temperature
U= Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Q.2 Compare the thermal conductivity of steel and brass?

Q.3 Comment on the thermal conductivity Brass and steel obtained from this experiment?

CONSLUSION

60
 EXPERIMENT NO.14

TO OBTAIN STRESS STRAIN DATA FROM COMPRESSION TEST OF

DIFFERENT MATERIALS

OBJECTIVE

To construct the stress-strain diagram based on Universal Testing Machine data

To understand the material behavior under compression mode

INTRODUCTION

A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing loads. The

specimen is compressed and deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive
stress and strain are calculated and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is used to
determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength and, for some
materials compressive strength.

The axial compression testing is useful for measurement of elastic and compressive
fracture properties of brittle materials or low ductility materials. In any case, the use
of specimens having large L/D ratios should be avoided to prevent buckling and
shearing modes of deformation.

In this test, the compression test is combined with the test of Poisson’s ratio. When
the material compressed and still in elastic region, student should measure the
lateral and longitudinal elongation.

61
 Fig. 14.1 Structure Diagram of Testing Machine

Fig. 14.2 Compression Test

EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS

1. Universal Testing Machine.

2. Caliper
3. Sample (Aluminum & Mild Steel)

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

To stabilize the measurement system of the testing machine, take a warm-up time of
appox. 15 minutes after turning ON the power.

62
1. For each specimen, measure the length and the diameter using a micrometer.
2. Draw, with a pencil or marker, two lines on the straight section of the
specimen so that the lines are 50 mm apart. This will be the gage length, Lo.
3. The testing machine has already been set up and calibrated by teaching
engineer.
4. Put the specimen at the center of platens.
5. The crosshead speed will be given to you by the assistant. Be sure to record
it.
6. Start the test by pressing the “START” button.
7. After the specimen has broken, press the stop button. Then remove specimen.
8. Obtain the data from data acquisition software of machine. Make sure you
got the correct data, that are load and elongation data. Save the data in ASCII
file so that you can edit it later by using spreadsheet software.
9. Measure the final diameter of the specimen, df, using micrometer. The final
diameter is the maximum diameter which occurred at the bulge out.
10. Measure the distance between the lines that you scratched on the specimen.
This distance is the final length, Lf.
11. Make a sketch of the failed specimen. Be sure to identify the bulge out and
fracture regions. You may take the specimen with you and keep it.

63
 WORKSHEET

TO OBTAIN STRESS STRAIN DATA FROM COMPRESSION TEST OF

DIFFERENT MATERIALS

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: __________________

OBJECTIVE

To construct the stress-strain diagram based on Universal Testing Machine

data To understand the material behavior under compression mode

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS USED

Table 14.1: Equipment and Materials Used

Material Type / Specs. Equipment Type / Specs.

Table 14.2: Results

original Original Final Final Flow stress % increase in area % reduction in length
Material length(l0) Area(A0) length(l) Area(A) MPa [(A-A0)/A ]x100 [(l0-l)/l0 ]x100
mm mm2 mm mm2

64
Draw the figure/graph

FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

QUESTIONS

1. Write down the main parts of the INSTRON tensile testing machine

2. Why the lubrication is necessary in compression testing

3. To have uniform stressing (compression) which shape of sample are

preferred?

CONCLUSION

65
 EXPERIMENT NO. 15

FATIGUE TEST OF MILD STEEL

OBJECTIVE

To study the low cycle fatigue behavior of mild steel at room temperature in
uniaxial tension mode.

INTRODUCTION

A metal subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress will fail at a stress much lower
than that required to cause fracture on a single application of load. Failures
occurring under such a dynamic loading are called fatigue failures. A fatigue failure
is particularly insidious because it occurs without any obvious warning. Fatigue
results in a brittle appearing fracture. On a macroscopic scale the fracture surface is
usually normal to the direction of principal tensile stress.
Fatigue is normally caused by three factors,
i) Maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high magnitude.
ii) A large enough fluctuation or variation in the applied
load.
iii) A sufficiently large number of cycles of applied stress.

In addition to these there can be a number of other factors such as stress

concentration, corrosion, temperature, overload, metallurgical structure and residual
stresses, which tend to alter the conditions for fatigue.
Fatigue characteristics of a material can be studied in many different modes e.g.,
axial, torsional, flexural etc.

The basic method of presenting engineering fatigue data is by means of the S-N
curve, a plot of stress S Vs No. of cycles to failure N. S-N curve is chiefly
concerned with the failures at high number of cycles (N > 105). Under these

66
conditions the stress, on a gross scale, is elastic. For low cycle fatigue region
(N<104 or 105 cycles) tests are conducted with controlled cycles of elastic plus
plastic strain instead of controlled load or stress cycles.
The procedure for determining the S-N curve is to test the first sample at a high
stress where failure is expected in fairly short number of cycles. The test stress is
decreased for each succeeding sample until one or two samples do not fail in the
specified number of cycles, which is usually at least 107 cycles. The highest stress at
which a sample does not fail for a large number of cycles (>=107) is called fatigue
limit.
The usual way of presenting the LCF data is to plot plastic strain range Δεp against
N. A straight line is obtained if plotted on a log-log coordinates. This type of
behaviour is known as Coffin-Manson’s relationship.

Δεp / 2 = ε’f (2N)c

Where,
Δεp / 2 = Plastic strain
amplitude ε’f = Fatigue
ductility coefficient.
2N = Number of strain reversals to
failure. C = Fatigue ductility exponent.

MATERIAL

Mild steel

EQUIPMENT
1.
INSTRN 100KN universal testing machine
2.
Vernier Caliper

PARAMETERS

Mode = Tension
Frequency = 3 Hz
Wave form = Sine wave

67
SAMPLE SPECIFICATIONS

PROCEDURE
 Prepare mild steel samples for fatigue testing according to the dimensions
given.
 Check that the machine properly follows the parameters set for the test.
 Fix one sample in the machine and set the test parameters.
 Remove the sample after failure and note down the number of cycles to
failure from the display screen.
 Observe the fractured surface and note down its features.
 Repeat the same procedure with other samples with the parameters selected.

REFERENCES

1. George E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, SI metric edition McGraw-Hill

(1988).
2. J.A.Charles, F.A.A.Crane, J.A.G.Furness, Selection and use of Engineering
Materials, Third Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann.

68
WORKSHEET
FATIGUE TEST OF MILD STEEL

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: __________________

OBJECTIVE

To study the low cycle fatigue behavior of mild steel at room temperature in
uniaxial tension mode.

EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS USED

Table 15.1: Equipment and Materials Used
Material Type / Specs. Equipment Type / Specs.

Table 15.2: Results

# Material Extension Strain (ε) Number of
(mm) cycles (N)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Draw a graph between ε and N

69
QUESTIONS

1. Explain the following relation (Coffin-Mansions relation).

Δεp / 2 = ε’f (2N)c

2. What is the effect of the surface of the test sample on the fatigue of a material?

CONCLUSION

70
 EXPERIMENT NO.16

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING OF MATERIALS

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is to examine the quality of steel weld joints/ casting defects by
x-ray radiographic technique.

INTRODUCTION

Radiography today is one of the most important, most versatile, of all the nondestructive test
methods used by modern industry. Employing highly penetrating x-rays, gamma rays, and other
forms of radiation that do not damage the part itself, radiography provides a permanent visible
film record of internal conditions, containing the basic information by which soundness can be
determined.
The diagram in the figure 12.1 below shows the essential features in the exposure of a radiograph.
The focal spot is a small area in the x-ray tube from which the radiation emanates. The radiation
proceeds in straight lines to the object; some of the rays pass through and others are absorbed-the
amount transmitted depending on the nature of the material and its thickness. For example, if the
object is a steel casting having a void formed by a gas bubble, the void results in a reduction of
the total thickness of steel to be penetrated. Hence, more radiation will pass through the section
containing the void than through the surrounding metal. A dark spot, corresponding to the
projected position of the void, will appear on the film when it is developed. Thus, a radiograph is
a kind of shadow picture--the darker regions on the film representing the more penetrable parts
of the object, and the lighter regions, those more opaque to x- or gamma-radiation.

71
 Fig 16.1: Exposure of a radiograph
MATERIALS

 Steel Weld Joint

EQUIPMENT & SPECIFICATIONS

1. X-Ray Radiography Unit XXH2505 (panoramic)

Table 16.1: X-Ray Radiography Unit

1 Input Power Supply Signal 198-242V AC 50Hz
2 Output Tube Current 5mA
Voltage vibration of H.V +/- 5%
Transformer
3 X-ray Generator Cooling way Forced Air Cooling
Insulated way SF6 gas insulated
Safety working pressure 0.35-0.45 MPa
Focus Size 1.0 2.4 mm
Radiation Angle 0---25
4 Control Unit Dimensions L=350mm, W=280mm, H=150mm
Max time range and time 5min error +/- 10% (surveying
error spot)
5 Working Temperature -30 C--- +40 C
Conditions Humidity <85%
Above Sea Level <1000m

72
 6 Max Penetrance 38mm
Thickness

Safety Precautions:

1. No person aged less than 18 should be involved in radiography.

2. Clearly define the radiographic boundary.
3. If not operating in a protected exposure room, no person should be present within a
circle of 20 m radius having the x-ray tube at its center.
4. Make sufficient efforts to minimize the unnecessary body exposure.
5. The electrical contacts between the tube and the control panel should be properly
adjusted.
6. Always repeat warm up cycle (given in operating instructions) before using the
machine if the machine is idle for a period of more than 2 month.
7. If necessary to operate at maximum voltage limit do not raise the voltage at once. The
voltages should be increased gradually.
8. During operation of radiography, involved persons should wear personal monitoring
devices.
9. During the execution of the job radiation survey must be done.
10. Survey meters should be properly functioning.

PROCEDURE/OPERATION

Operating Procedure of X-Ray Radiographic Machine XXH 2505

1- Mark the dangerous area around the machine which is a circle of at least 25 meter
radius (machine should be placed in the center of the circle).

2- Warm up the machine according to the cycle given below.

73
 Fig 16.2: Warm up Cycle

3- Place the X-Ray tube according to the testing requirements of the test piece
(Welded steel plate).
4- Align the X-Ray emitting window with the weld (i.e. height).
5- Place the covered films on the areas of the test piece to be tested. Make sure that source
to film distance is 600mm.
6- Connect the power cable to the tube and the control panel.
7- Make sure that working pressure of the tube is 0.35-0.45Mpa.
8- Adjust the AC-DC switch on the control panel to the AC option (the machine needs
signal198-240V, AC 50Hz).
9- Connect the control panel to the power using the power cable provided (make sure that
the power connections are properly connected).
10- Connect the indicator bulb to the X-Ray tube.
11- Determine the exposure time and Voltage required for a successful radiograph by using
the source to film distance, thickness of the test piece and exposure chart.
12- Adjust the voltage and time interval on the control panel according to the calculated
values.
13- Expose the test piece for a calculated interval of time to the X-Rays, emitting from the X-
Ray tube by pushing the “ON” button on the control panel. When the machine is in “ON”
position the indicator bulb turns on.

74
 14- After the exposure, turn off the machine (make sure that the indicator bulb is off before
disconnecting).
15- Take the exposed films to the dark room and process them to see and evaluate the test
piece.

RESULTS

Table 16.2: Results

1 Thickness of Specimen
2 Source to Film Distance
3 Time Required
4 Voltage Required

After processing the films in the dark room fill the table given below.

Table 16.3: Observation

Flaws Porosity Cracks Incomplete Lack Impurity Cavity
Found Penetration of Particles Quality
Fusion
Please Accepted Not-
Tick Accepted

75
WORKSHEET

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING OF MATERIALS

Name: ___________________ Group: ___________________

Reg. # ___________________ Marks: ___________________
Date: _____________________
Note: Attach more sheets if required

QUESTIONS

1. What is radiation scattering and how we can control it during RT?

2. What are exposure charts and why we use them?

3. If you find fog on radiograph what may be the possible causes of that?

REFERENCES

1. Non-Destructive Testing by J.B Hull, 1988

2. Mechanical Metallurgy by G.E Dieter, McGraw-Hill, 1988
3. Non-Destructive Testing by R. Halmshaw, 2nd Edition, 1991

76
 EXPERIMENT NO.17

Introduction to Python-I
2D Graph Plotting

OBJECTIVE:

The aim of this lab is to read the data from ‘CSV’ file and plot 2D graph

SOLUTION:

In today’s world, a lot of data is being generated on a daily basis. And sometimes to
analyze this data for certain trends, patterns may become difficult if the data is in its raw
format. To overcome this data visualization comes into play. Data visualization provides a
good, organized pictorial representation of the data which makes it easier to understand,
observe, analyze. In this tutorial, we will discuss how to visualize data using Python.
Python provides various libraries that come with different features for visualizing data. All
these libraries come with different features and can support various types of graphs. In this
tutorial, we will be discussing four such libraries.
 Matplotlib
 Seaborn
 Bokeh
 Plotly

We will discuss only Matplotlib library in this lab and will plot some most commonly
used graphs.

Step 1: Reading Data from ‘CSV’ file.

77
MATPLOTLIB LIBRARY:

Matplotlib is an easy-to-use, low-level data visualization library that is built on NumPy

arrays. It consists of various plots like scatter plot, line plot, histogram, etc. Matplotlib
provides a lot of flexibility.

To install this type the below command in the terminal.

After installing Matplotlib, let’s see the most commonly used plots using this library.

 SCATTER PLOT:

Scatter plots are used to observe relationships between variables and uses dots to represent
the relationship between them. The scatter() method in the matplotlib library is used to
draw a scatter plot.

78
79
 LINE CHART:

Line Chart is used to represent a relationship between two data X and Y on a different axis.
It is plotted using the plot() function. Let’s see the below example.

 BAR GRAPH:

A bar plot or bar chart is a graph that represents the category of data with
rectangular bars with lengths and heights that is proportional to the values which
they represent. It can be created using the bar() method.

80
 HISTOGRAM:

A histogram is basically used to represent data in the form of some groups. It is a type of
bar plot where the X-axis represents the bin ranges while the Y-axis gives information
about frequency. The hist() function is used to compute and create a histogram. In
histogram, if we pass categorical data then it will automatically compute the frequency of
that data i.e. how often each value occurred.

81
CONCLUSION:

In this lab, we have plotted the tips dataset with the help of Matplotlib Library. Each graph
has its own uniqueness and it provides flexibility to show data depending on the task. This
library allow us to achieve the same goal with a small amount of code.

EXERCISE:

 Plot the graph for the given ‘CSV’ file and attach the prints.

REFERENCES:

 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-visualization-with-python/

82
 EXPERIMENT NO.18

Introduction to Python-II
3D Graph Plotting

OBJECTIVE:

The aim of this lab is to plot 3D graph as per given data.

SOLUTION:

3D plots are very important tools for visualizing data that have three dimensions such as
data that have two dependent and one independent variable. By plotting data in 3d plots we
can get a deeper understanding of data that have three variables. We can use various
matplotlib library functions to plot 3D plots.
We will first start with plotting the 3D axis using the Matplotlib library. For plotting the 3D
axis we just have to change the projection parameter of plt.axes() from None to 3D.

Step 1: Reading Data from ‘CSV’ file.

83
With the above syntax three -dimensional axes are enabled and data can be plotted in 3
dimensions. 3 dimension graph gives a dynamic approach and makes data more interactive.
Like 2-D graphs, we can use different ways to represent to plot 3-D graphs. We can make a
scatter plot, contour plot, surface plot, etc. Let’s have a look at different 3-D plots.
Graphs with lines and points are the simplest 3-dimensional graph. We will use ax.plot3d
and ax.scatter functions to plot line and point graph respectively.

 3D LINE GRAPH:

For plotting the 3-Dimensional line graph we will use the mplot3d function from the
mpl_toolkits library. For plotting lines in 3D we will have to initialize three variable points
for the line equation. In our case, we will define three variables as x, y, and z.

84
 3D SCATTERED GRAPH:

To plot the same graph using scatter points we will use the scatter() function from
matplotlib. It will plot the same line equation using distinct points.

85
 SURFACE GRAPHS USING MATPLOTLIB LIBRARY

Surface graphs and Wireframes graph work on gridded data. They take the grid value and
plot it on a three-dimensional surface. We will use the plot_surface() function to plot the
surface plot.

86
EXERCISE:

 Draw the surface graph by using Matplotlib of the given data.

REFERENCES:

 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/three-dimensional-plotting-in-python-using-matplotlib/

87
 EVALUATION CRITERIA

Rubrics based Assessment of Cognitive Domain (20%)

Lab No. Date

Scoring Scale: Excellent=4; Good=3; Satisfactory=2, Poor=1; Fail=0
Answer the question
Gp Reporting his own Score
Name Reg. No. original Results
relevant to the
Obtained
#. experiment

A1

A2

A3

A4

88
 MM242 Materials Lab II
Rubrics based Assessment of Affective Domain (20%)
Lab No. Date
Scoring Scale: Excellent=4; Good=3; Satisfactory=2, Poor=1; Fail=0
Reporting his
Gp Human Time Score
Name Reg. No. Cleanliness
Networking
own original
Management Obtained
#. data

B1

B2

B3

B4

89
 MM242 Materials Lab II
Rubrics based Assessment of Psychomotor Domain (60%)
Lab No. Date
Scoring Scale: Excellent=4; Good=3; Satisfactory=2, Poor=1; Fail=0
Ability to
organize,
Ability to show
perform Successfully
engagement in
Gp #. Name Reg. No. experiments
conducting
performs Score Obtained
safely and experiments
experiment
aware of
priorities in lab

A1

A2

A3

A4

90