Manana Rusieshvili

Rusudan Dolidze

READINGS
in
ENGLISH
PHILOLOGY

Materials for
SEMINARS

Tbilisi

2012

1
Contents
UNITS READING PAGES
Unit 1 p. 4 - 15
Reading 1 The origin of alphabet p. 4
Reading 2 The Georgian Alphabet p. 9
Reading 3 The English Alphabet p. 12
UNIT 2 p. 16 -24
Reading 1 How did languages originate? p. 16
Reading 2 Germanic Languages p. 18
Reading 3 Caucasian Languages p. 21
UNIT 3 p. 25 - 36
Reading 1 What does Phonetics study? p. 25
Reading 2 L. Bloomfield - Language p. 29
Reading 3 D. Crystal – Vanishing Languages p. 33
UNIT 4 p. 37 - 41
Reading 1 Most popular theories of Formal Linguistics p. 37
Reading 2 Areas of Formal Linguistics p. 39
UNIT 5 p. 42 - 49
Reading 1 Words, words, words p. 42
Reading 2 Does Internet improve spelling? p. 44
Reading 3 Cannot chimpanzees talk ? p. 47
UNIT 6 p. 50 - 65
Reading 1 Functions of a language p. 50
Reading 2 Functions of the language (macro- and micro functions) p. 54
TEST Self-Assessment Test 1 (units 1-6) p. 56 - 59
UNIT 7 p. 65 - 73
Reading 1 Dictionaries p. 65
Reading 2 What is Lexicography? p. 67
Unit 8 p. 66 - 73
Reading 1 Development of the English language p. 66
Reading 2 Lingua Franca p. 68

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UNITS READING PAGES
UNIT 9 p. 74 -81
Reading 1 English - lingua franca of the Internet p. 74
Reading 2 World linguas Franca p. 76
Reading 3 Varieties of English p. 80
UNIT 10 p. 82 -93
Reading 1 Borrowings in English p. 82
Reading 2 French borrowings p. 86
Reading 3 The Georgian Language in History p. 91
UNIT 11 p. 94- 107
Reading 1 Sociolinguistics p. 94
Reading 2 Language and social interaction p. 98
Reading 3 Psycholinguistics p.106
UNIT 12 p. 108 -115
Reading 1 Oscar Wilde p. 108
Reading 2 The Nightingale and the Rose p. 110
Reading 3 The Nightingale and the Rose (continued) p. 113
UNIT 13 p. 116-120
Reading 1 The Nightingale and the Rose (continued) p.116
Reading 2 The Nightingale and the Rose (continued) p.118
UNIT 14 p.121-129
Reading 1 Ernest Hemingway p.121
Reading 2 Cat in the Rain p.124
Reading 3 Cat in the Rain (continued) p.127
TEST Self-Assessment Test 2 (units 7-12) p. 130 - 133
KEYS
Self-Assessment Test 1 (units 1-6) p.134
Self-Assessment Test 2 (units 7-12) p.135

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UNIT 1

READING 1

When And Where Did The Alphabet Originate?

The alphabet is a set of letters or characters

representing sounds. It is used in writing a
language. The word is derived from “alpha”
and “beta”, the first two letters of the Greek
alphabet. The English language uses the
twenty-six letter alphabet, called the
Roman. It is however interesting to note
that the Romans were not the original
inventors of the English alphabet; they
merely improved upon a system of writing
that had already been in existence for
thousands of years.

Reading 1

The origin of writing types of alphabet

In ancient times people mostly communicated by speaking or making gestures.

Education was also gained by word of mouth. All important events were memorised.
Because of the non-existence of writing systems, messages too had to be delivered
verbally. This was obviously very inconvenient and people began to look for easier
means of communication.
The earliest forms of writing began with the expression of ideas through pictures; this
is now studied under a branch called Ideography. This mode of expression enabled
people to communicate with each other however it soon became inconvenient and
time-consuming.

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Pictographs
Chinese Characters

In the next stage of writing studied under the branch of Logography, people
exchanged thoughts and ideas through signs that stood for certain words. For instance,
instead of drawing a basket of fruits, people now drew only one sign for the basket and
another for fruits.

People then started following a Syllabic system in which a particular sign could be
used for any other phonetic combination that sounded like that word. This form of
writing is also called Rebus writing.

The Alphabet system was finally invented in which individual signs stood for
particular sounds. Nowadays, most important written languages of the world follow the
alphabet system.

A History of the Alphabet

The earliest was the Egyptian writing, which was a sort of "picture writing". It was
invented around 3000BC. In this system of writing, several hundred signs stood for full
words or syllables. They could either represent the whole word by a single sign or with
appropriate signs for each sound. Phoenician writing was developed about 1000B.C.
Early Phoenician writing was a mixture of borrowed pictographic forms and invented
geometric signs. The Cypriot style of writing developed by the people of the Cyprus
islands was a collection of 56 signs. The Greek alphabet was invented about 800
B.C. The Greek style was greatly influenced by the Phoenician writing, whose symbols
were modified to form the twenty-four letter Greek alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet
included more consonants than the Greeks used and as a result, the Greeks introduced
more vowel sounds. The Greek alphabet could now be used to spell out any word.
Phoenician names and their signs, in most cases, were adopted by the Greeks for their
alphabet. For example, the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet called aleph became
alpha; the second, beth became beta and so on. The Etruscan alphabet was
influenced by the Greek alphabet and the Roman alphabet was a modification of the
Etruscan style, initially consisting of twenty letters, gradually gaining three more. The
English alphabet developed from a number of early writing systems. Linguists today
use an almost perfect alphabet, the International Phonetic Alphabet, which has more

5
than eighty characters because the regular English alphabet today is not suited to
writing words in English. That is to say, the regular English alphabet does not have a
separate character for every distinctive sound in the language.

Chinese is the only language that does not have an alphabetical system of writing.
The Chinese mostly make use of pictographic characters. Some Chinese characters
can be used in expressing syllables of proper names or foreign words. Japanese is
basically copied from Chinese; the only difference being that their characters represent
either syllables or words.

1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1 expression a იეროგლიფი
2 non-existence b მოდიფიცირებული
3 inconvenient c შესაფერისი
4 syllabic d გადაღებული
5 appropriate e შეძენა
6 borrowed f არარსებობა
7 modified g ნასესხები
8 character h გამოხატვა
9 gain i მოუხერხებელი
10 copied j მარცვლოვანი

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Match the words with their synonyms:

1 copy a stand for

2 draw b contain
3 appropriate c independent
4 modify d rewrite
5 represent e sketch
6 influence f suitable
7 separate g learn
8 study h affect
9 include i change

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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3. State whether the following statements are T or F:

1. In Phoenician writing several hundred signs stood for full words or syllables. T F
2. The Greek style was greatly influenced by the Phoenician writing. T F
3. The Egyptian writing was not a picture writing. T F
4. Phoenician names and their signs were adopted by the Greeks for their T F
alphabet.
5. The Roman alphabet was a modification of the Greek style. T F
6. Chinese has an alphabetical system of writing. T F
7. The only difference between Japanese and Chinese is that their characters T F
represent either syllables or words.
8. Ideography was inconvenient and time–consuming. T F
9. The Greek alphabet was invented about 600 B.C. T F
10. The regular English alphabet provides a separate character for every sound. T F

4. Fill in the sentences using appropriate words or phrases:

1. _____________________ was developed about 1000B.C.

2. ___________________ was invented about 800 B.C.

3. ___________________ was influenced by the Greek alphabet and was

developed about 1000 B.C.

4. _____________________ was a modification of the Etruscan style.

5. _____________________ make use of pictographic characters as they do

not have a writing system.

6. The people of the Cyprus islands developed _________________________ which

was a collection of 56 signs.

7
 5. Fill in with the words from the box:

Developed from peoples adopt illiterate

Empire came northern collapsed history

The Latin alphabet

The Etruscan 1………………………………. of Italy picked up the alphabet from the Greeks,
in about the 7th Century BC, and 2. ………………………….. the Etruscans it ultimately
3. ……………………………… to the Romans.

During its nearly a thousand year 4. ……………………………, the Roman Republic and later
the Roman 5. ……………………………. grew to be the most influential power in the world,
and one of the most influential empires of history. At its height the Roman Empire
spread from England to 6. ……………………………….. Africa, from Spain to Mesopotamia.

The Roman Empire 7. …………………………….. in the 5th Century AD, but its alphabet
would remain. The 8. ……………………………… barbarians who conquered the remains of
the Roman Empire would ultimately 9. ……………………… its alphabet as they 10.
………………………………….. their own written languages.

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Reading 2

The Georgian Alphabet

The Georgian alphabet is the writing system used in Georgian and other Kartvelian
languages (Svanian and Mengrelian).

The word meaning "alphabet," Georgian ანბანი, is derived from the first letters of the
first two letters of each of the three Georgian alphabets. The three alphabets look very
dissimilar to one another but share the same alphabetic order and letter names. The
alphabets may be seen mixed to some extent, though in Georgian there is normally no
distinction between upper and lower case in any of the alphabets.

Writing of the Georgian language has progressed through three forms, known by their
Georgian names: Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri, and Mkhedruli. They have always been
distinct alphabets, even though they have been used together to write the same
languages, and even though these alphabets share the same letter names. Although
the most recent alphabet, Mkhedruli, contains more letters than the two historical
ones, those extra letters are no longer needed for writing modern Georgian.

The Georgian kingdom of Iberia was converted to Christianity as early as the 330s AD.
Scholars believe that the first Old Georgian alphabet was modeled upon the Greek
alphabet. The alphabet made it easier for the Georgians of that period to read religious
scripture. This happened in the 4th or 5th century, not long after the conversion. The
oldest uncontested example of Georgian writing is an Asomtavruli inscription from 430
AD in a church in Bethlem.

Georgian historical tradition attributes the invention of the Georgian alphabets to one
of the kings, Parnavaz I of Iberia in the 3rd century BC. Examples of the earliest
alphabet, Asomtavruli (also known as Mrgvlovani), are still preserved in monumental
inscriptions such as those of the Georgian church in Bethlem (near Jerusalem 430 AD)
and the church of Bolnisi Sioni near Tbilisi (4th-5th centuries). The Nuskhuri
(ნუსხური "minuscule, lowercase") alphabet first appeared in the 9th century. It was

9
mostly used in ecclesiastical works. Nuskhuri is related to the word nuskha (ნუსხა
"inventory, schedule"). The currently used alphabet, called Mkhedruli (მხედრული,
"cavalry" or "military"), first appeared in the 11th century. It was used for non-
religious purposes up until the eighteenth century, when it completely replaced the
Khutsuri style (that used the two previous alphabets). Mkhedruli is related to
mkhedari (მხედარი, "horseman", "knight", or "warrior"); Khutsuri is related to
khutsesi (ხუცესი, "elder" or "priest").

1. Match the words with their Georgian meanings:

1 dissimilar a დიდი ასო

2 distinction b შეიცავს
3 upper case c წარწერა
4 lower case d შენარჩუნება
5 contains e პატარა ასო
6 uncontested f განსხვავებული
7 scripture g განსხვავება
8 inscription h უდავო
9 preserve i საღმრთო წერილი. ბიბლია
10 minuscule j პატარა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. State whether the following statements are T or F

1 Georgian has two types of alphabet. T F

2 All the Georgian alphabets look similar. T F
3 Georgian does not use upper and lower case in alphabets. T F
4 These alphabets have common letter names and alphabetic order. T F
5 The three forms of the alphabet are not independent of each other. T F
6 Mkhedruli still actively uses extra letters. T F
7 Mkhedruli contains the fewest letters of the three alphabets. T F
8 Khutsuri was completely replaced by Mkhedruli in the 11th century. T F
9 The use of the alphabet made it easy to read literature. T F
10 Mkhedruli was introduced for religious purposes. T F

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3. Finish the sentences using appropriate words or phrases:

1. It is believed that the first Georgian alphabet was modelled upon _____________ .

2. The first Georgian alphabet was introduced in the ________________ century.

3. There are three Georgian alphabets known which are:______________________ .

4. ______________________ contains more letters than the two historical alphabets.

5. The inscription in a church in Bethlehem is the oldest uncontested example of ___

______________ .

6. Asomtavruli is sometimes referred to as ____________________________ .

7. Bolnisi Sioni was built in ________________________________ .

8. Until __________________________ Mkhedruli was used for non-religious purposes.

9. _____________________________________ first appeared in the 9th century.

10. Nuskha in Georgian means _____________________________ .

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Reading 3

The English Alphabet

The modern English alphabet is a Latin-based alphabet consisting of 26 letters – the

same letters that are found in the Basic modern Latin alphabet:

Majuscule Forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Minuscule Forms (also called lowercase or small letters)

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z

The exact shape of printed letters varies depending on the typeface. The shape of
handwritten letters can differ significantly from the standard printed form (and
between individuals), especially when written in cursive style. Written English also uses
a number of digraphs, but they are not considered to be part of the alphabet.

The English language was first written in the Anglo-Saxon futhorc runic alphabet, in
use from the fifth century. This alphabet was brought to what is now England, along
with the proto-form of the language itself, by Anglo-Saxon settlers. Very few examples
of this form of written Old English have survived, these being mostly short inscriptions
or fragments.

The Latin alphabet was introduced by Christian missionaries and it began to replace
the Anglo-Saxon futhorc from about the seventh century, although the two continued
in parallel for some time. Later Latin borrowings re-introduced homographs into
Middle and Early Modern English.

The names of the letters are rarely spelled out, except when used in derivations or
compound words (for example tee-shirt, deejay, okay, etc.), derived forms (for
example exed out), and in the names of objects named after letters (for example em
(space) in printing and wye (junction) in railroading). The forms listed below are from
the Oxford English Dictionary. Vowels stand for themselves, and consonants usually
have the form consonant + ee or e + consonant (e.g. bee and ef). The exceptions are
the letters aitch, jay, kay, cue, ar, ess (but es- in compounds ), wye, and zed. Plurals

12
of consonants end in -s or, in the cases of aitch, es, and ex, in -es. Of course, all
letters may stand for themselves, generally in capitalised form (okay or OK), and
plurals may be based on these (As, Bs, etc.)

Letter Letter name Pronunciation

A ei /e
/
B bee /bi /
C cee /si /
D dee /di /
E e /i /
F ef /f/
G gee /dʒi /
aitch /e
tʃ/
H
haitch /he
tʃ/
I i /a
/
jay /dʒe
/
J
jy /dʒa
/
K kay /ke
/
L el /l/
M em /m/

N en /n/
O o /oʊ/
P pee /pi:/
Q cue /kju:/
R ar /ɑr/
S ess (es-) /s/
T tee /ti:/
U you /ju:/
V vee /vi:/
/dbəljuː/ in
W double-you
careful speech
X ex /ks/
Y wy or wye /wa
/
zed /zd/
Z zee /zi:/
izzard /
zərd/

Some groups of letters, such as pee and bee, or em and en, are easily confused in
speech, especially when heard over the telephone or a radio communications link.
Spelling alphabets such as the one used by aircraft pilots, police and others, are

13
designed to eliminate this potential confusion by giving each letter a name that sounds
quite different from any other. For instance, table can be spelt out like this: Trevor,
Anna, Bob, Lowri, Esther.

1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1 varies a გადარჩენა
2 significantly b ასო–ასო დამარცვლა
3 cursive c გამონაკლისი
4 survive d ჩამოთვლილი
5 rarely e მნიშვნელოვნად
6 spell out f იშვიათად
7 listed g გაუქმება
8 based h იცვლება
9 exception i კურსივი
10 eliminate j დაფუძნებული

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Find the following words in the text:

1. მცხოვრებნი ___________________ 6. თანხმოვანი __________________

2. განსხვავდებიან ___________________ 7. მრავლობითი __________________
3. ზუსტი ___________________ 8. ხმოვანი __________________
4. ხელნაწერი ___________________ 9. არევ-დარევა __________________
5. დიგრაფი ___________________ 10. თავიდან შემოყვანა __________________

3. Fill in with the appropriate words:

The Greek Alphabet

It is 1 ……………………………. the Greeks that we get our name for the word “alphabet.”
It comes from 2 …………………………….. first two letters of their alphabet, Alpha and
Beta. Scholars are not quite sure when the Greeks first came 3 …………………………..
contact with the Phoenician alphabet;

14
The Greeks were the first to introduce vowels 4 ……………………………. the alphabet. While
the Phoenicians did have the letter “aleph” which became “alpha,” it originally
represented a guttural tone, rather than what we consider the letter “a.” Within Greece
5 ……………………………… were many different alphabets, most of 6 …………………………. had
about 25 letters and were mostly similar, 7 …………………………… some slight differences.

Many of the new countries formed in the aftermath of the Roman Empire would
actually adopt Latin 8 ………………………….. their language as well as the Latin alphabet.
Spanish, Portuguese, French, Romanian, and Italian are all descended 9 ……………… the
Latin language. Those countries such as Germany and England that did not adopt the
Latin language still adopted the Latin alphabet into 10 …………… written language.

Speaking

Discuss the following questions and report to the group:

1. Who introduced the Latin alphabet to Anglo-Saxons?

2. What do you know about Christian missionaries?

3. What do you understand by “spelling alphabet”? Give examples.

Writing

Write about the development of the alphabet (150-200 words)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………........................................................

UNIT 2

Reading 1

How did the languages originate?

Nobody knows exactly how many languages there are in the world, partly because of
the difficulty of distinguishing between a language and a sub-language (or dialects
within it). One authoritative source that has collected data from all over the world, the
Ethnologue, listed the total number of languages as 6809.

The famous linguist Noam Chomsky argued that the inborn ability of children to
acquire the grammar necessary for a language can be explained only if one assumes
that all grammars are variations of a single ‘universal grammar’, and that all human
brains come ‘with a built-in language organ that contains this language blueprint’.

Explaining this ‘innate ability’, a ‘universal grammar’, and the ‘built-in language organ’
of humans has proved to be impossible! Steven Pinker, the eminent psychologist
wrote that the number of living languages with different structures and characters
presents one of the most challenging problems of science. However, it is still apparent
that all the variety of dialects and sub-languages has developed from a relatively few
(perhaps even less than twenty) languages. These original ‘proto-languages’- from
which all others allegedly have developed — were distinct within themselves, with no
previous ancestral language. Carl Wieland rightly remarked: ‘The evidence wonderfully
agrees with the notion that a small number of languages, separately created at Babel,
has given us the huge variety of languages we have today’.

1. State whether the following statements are True or False

16
1 The exact number of the living languages is not known. T F
2 Chomsky argued that children are able to learn languages because of T F
their ability to learn grammar.
3 According to Chomsky all the grammars come from one grammar. T F
4 Later research proved this theory to be right. T F
5 Linguists don’t think that all the languages came from several languages T F
6 A Proto-language means the original language . T F

2. Match the words with their Georgian definitions

1. partly a სწავლა
2. distinguish b ნაწილობრივ
3. inborn c წინაპრების
4. acquire d გეგმა
5 assume e შექმნა

1. eminent ___________________

6. total f შეიცავს
7. ancestral g თანდაყოლილი
8. contains h მთლიანი
9. blueprint i გარჩევა ( განარჩევს)
10. create j ჩათვლა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3. Write the synonyms of the following words:

17
 2. challenging ___________________
3. apparent ___________________
4. allege ___________________
5. built-in ___________________
6. huge ___________________
7. remark ___________________

4. Replace the underlined words with their antonyms :

1. The number of living languages is still unknown. ______________

2. It is possible to define the number of words in English. ____________

3. The evidence shows that today there is a huge variety of languages .

_______________

4. People assume that our languages came from several original languages.
_______________ .

Reading 2

Germanic languages

The Germanic Family of Languages

18
The Indo European family of languages has the greatest number of speakers, spoken
in most of Europe and the areas of Europe and in southwestern and southern Asia. All
of these languages are descended from a single unrecorded language which was
spoken more than 5,000 years ago in the steppe regions north of the Black Sea and
which split into a number of dialects by 3000 BC. Carried by migrating tribes to Europe
and Asia, these dialects developed into separate languages. The main branches are
Anatolian, Indo-Iranian (including Indo-Aryan and Iranian), Greek, Italic, Germanic,
Armenian, Celtic and Albanian.

Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family, comprising

languages descended from Proto-Germanic. These are divided into West Germanic,
including English, German, Frisian, Dutch, Afrikaans, and Yiddish; North Germanic,
including Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, Norwegian, and Faeroese (the language of the
Faroe Islands); and East Germanic, now extinct, comprising Gothic and the languages
of the Vandals, Burgundians, and a few other tribes. The Gothic Bible of AD 350 is the
earliest extensive Germanic text. The West Germanic languages developed around the
North Sea and in overseas areas were colonized by their speakers. The North
Germanic, or Scandinavian, languages, were carried as far west as Greenland and as
far east as Russia in the Viking expansion of the early Middle Ages. The continental
Scandinavian languages were strongly influenced by Low German in the late Middle
Ages, but Icelandic and Faeroese have preserved many characteristics of Old
Scandinavian grammar.

(www. britannica.com)

1. State whether the statements are True or False:

19
1. Proto-Germanic language was spoken more than 6 500 years ago. T F
2. Proto-Germanic language split into several dialects by 3000 BC. T F
3. Greek is one of the branches of the Germanic languages. T F
4. Afrikaans is one of the languages of the West Germanic branch. T F
5. The Burgundian belongs to the North Germanic branch of languages. T F
6. Icelandic and Faeroese are similar to Old Scandinavian grammar T F
in many ways.
7. The East Germanic language is still active today. T F

2. Draw a family tree of the Germanic languages:

Germanic Languages

West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic

1. English 1. Danish 1. Gothic
2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
6.

3. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. unrecorded a გახლეჩა
2. comprise b გადაშენებული
3. steppe c დამწერლობის გარეშე
4. descend d შედგენა
5. migration e სტეპი
6. tribes f წარმოშობა
7. preserve g ფართო
8. split h ტომები
9. extensive i შენახვა
10. extinct j მიგრაცია

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

4. Write the Georgian equivalents of the following words:

20
1. Anatolian ______________ 6. Afrikaans ______________
2. Italic ______________ 7. Dutch ______________
3. Albanian ______________ 8. Yiddish ______________
4. Celtic ______________ 9. Faeroese ______________
5. Frisian ______________ 10. Swedish ______________

21
 Reading 3

Caucasian Languages
A group of languages spoken in the Caucasus region which does not contain members
of any language families spoken elsewhere in the world. Caucasian languages, spoken
by some nine million people, are divided into three subgroups: the South Caucasian, or
Kartvelian family; the Northwest Caucasian, or Abkhaz-Adyghe languages; and the
Northeast Caucasian, or Nakh-Dagestanian languages. Kartvelian, with more than 4.5
million speakers, comprises four relatively closely related languages, including
Georgian. Northwest Caucasian languages include Abkhaz and a chain of dialects called
collectively Circassian. The NorthEast Caucasian languages are further divided into two
groups, Nakh and Dagestanian. The Nakh languages include Chechen and Ingush,
spoken by more than a million people mainly in Chechnya and Ingushetia. Dagestanian
is an extraordinarily diverse group of 25 – 30 languages spoken by some 1.7 million
people mainly in northern Azerbaijan and the Republic of Dagestan. Several
Dagestanian languages, including Avar, Lak, Dargva (Dargwa), and Lezgi, number
their speakers in the hundreds of thousands; others are spoken in only a few villages.
In spite of their great diversity, most Caucasian languages have in common large
consonant inventories; in some languages the number of consonants distinguished
approaches 80. Those Caucasian languages with standard written forms employ the
Cyrillic alphabet, with the prominent exception of Georgian. An effort is being made to
introduce the Latin alphabet for Chechen in Chechnya.

( www.britannica.com)

22
 1. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Caucasian languages are divided into four groups. T F

2. Abkhazian belongs to Kartvelian languages. T F
3. Most Caucasian languages possess many consonants. T F
4. Georgian uses Cyrillic as an alphabet. T F
5. The Chechen language uses Latin alphabet. T F
6. Ingushian and Chechen belong to one and the same group. T F
7. Daghestanian belongs to the South-East Caucasian languages. T F
8. Lak belongs to Kartvelian languages. T F
9. Dagestanian includes about 25 small languages. T F
10. The Kartvelian group includes 4 languages. T F

1. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

Georgian consonant word earliest appeared Caucasian

The Georgian language

Georgian is unique among 1. ………………….. languages in having an ancient literary

tradition. The 2. …………………… attestation of the language is an inscription of AD 430 in
a church in Palestine, in a script ancestral to that used for Old Georgian (5th – 11th
centuries). The script used to write Modern 3. …………………….. , with 33 characters and
no distinction between upper- and lowercase, was an offshoot of a script that first 4.
……………………… in the 10th century. Georgian has features typical of other Caucasian
languages, including a large 5. …………………………. inventory (with clusters of up to six
consonants appearing at the beginning of a 6. ……………………..).

23
3. Fill in the appropriate missing parts :

1. Caucasian languages are divided into three subgroups: __________________

_______________________________________ .

2. Circassian is a collective name used to refer to __________________________

________________________________________ .

3. The North-East Caucasian languages are further divided into two groups ________
___________________________________________ .

4. In some Caucasian languages the number of consonants approaches ______

___________________ .

5. Several Dagestanian languages, including ________________________ are

spoken by the hundreds of thousands people.

Speaking:

Discuss the following issues and report to the group: Which languages are members
of the Kartvelian group of languages ? Briefly characterise them.

Project

1. In groups, find more information and characterise West Germanic and Kartvelian
languages. Base the research on the following criteria:

a) their geographical location;

b) the number of people speaking each of them;

c) their structural and morphological characteristics.

2. Look at the Indo-European tree, choose a group and characterize it.

24
25
UNIT 3

Reading 1

What does Phonetics study?

Phonetics (from the Greek word phone = sound/vol) is a fundamental branch of
Linguistics which studies speech sounds and itself has three different aspects: a)
Articulatory Phonetics which describes how vowels and consonants are produced or
“articulated” in various parts of the mouth and throat; b) Acoustic Phonetics which
studies how speech sounds are transmitted. When a sound travels through the air from
the speaker's mouth to the hearer's ear it forms vibrations in the air; c) Auditory
Phonetics which studies how speech sounds are perceived; it also looks at the way in
which the hearer’s brain transforms the sound waves back into the vowels and
consonants as originally intended by the speaker.

Closely associated with Phonetics is another branch of Linguistics known as Phonology.

Phonology deals with the way speech sounds behave in particular languages or in
languages generally. This focuses on the way languages use differences between
sounds in order to convey different meaning. All theories of phonology hold that
spoken language can be broken down into a string of sound units which are called
phonemes. A phoneme is defined as the smallest ‘distinctive unit sound’ of a
language. Thus, it distinguishes one word from another in a given language. For
instance, in Georgian ქუდი-კუდი differ only by one sound /ქ/-/კ/; but changing a
phoneme in a word produces another word, that has a different meaning. Another
example: in the pair of words (minimal pairs) 'cat' and 'bat', in both examples the
distinguishing sounds /k/ and /b/ on the one hand and /ქ/-/კ/ on the other, are
phonemes.

26
 The phoneme is an abstract term (a speech sound as it exists in the mind of the
speaker) and it is specific to a particular language. A phoneme may have several
allophones which are the related sounds that are distinct but do not change the
meaning of a word when they are interchanged. The sounds corresponding to the letter
"t" in the English words 'tea' and 'trip' are not in fact quite the same. The position of
the tongue is slightly different, which causes a difference in sound detectable by an
instrument such as a speech spectrograph. Thus the [t] in 'tea' and the [t] in 'trip' are
allophones of the phoneme /t/.

Phonology is the link between Phonetics and the rest of Linguistics. Only by studying
both the phonetics and the phonology of English is it possible to acquire a full
understanding of the use of sounds in English speech.

1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. fundamental a აკუსტიკური
2. articulatory b შესამჩნევი
3. acoustic c დისტინქტიური (განმასხვავებელი)
4. distinctive d ტვინი
5. transmit e ფუნდამენტური
6. perceive f წარმოთქმის შემსწავლელი
7. transform g დარგი
8. detectable h გადაქცევა
9. branch i გადაცემა
10. brain j აღქმა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Articulatory Phonetics studies how speech sounds are transmitted. T F

2. Auditory Phonetics which studies how speech sounds are perceived. T F
3. A phoneme does not have a meaning. T F
4. A phoneme distinguishes meanings. T F
5. Allophones of one and the same phoneme change the meaning. T F

27
3. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

Australian pronunciation Received British dictionaries

upper pronounce American regions accents phonologists

English Pronunciation

We use the term ‘accents’ to refer to differences in pronunciations. Pronunciation can

vary with cultures, 1. ……………………… and speakers, but there are two major standard
varieties in English pronunciation: British English and 2. …………………… English.

Within British English and American English there are also a variety of 3. …………….. .
Some of them have received more attention than others from phoneticians and
4. …………………… .These are Received pronunciation (RP)* and General American (GA).

5. ……………………….. pronunciation is a form of pronunciation of the English language,

sometimes defined as the "educated spoken English of southeastern England". RP is
close to BBC English (the kind spoken by 6. ……………………….. newscasters) and it is
represented in the pronunciation schemes of most British 7. …………………….. . RP is
rather a social accent than regional, associated with the educated 8. …………………….
classes (and/or people who have attended public schools) in Britain.

English 9. ………………………. is also divided into two main accent groups, the rhotic and
the non-rhotic, depending on when the phoneme /r/ is pronounced. Rhotic speakers
10. ………………………….. written "r" in all positions. Non-rhotic speakers pronounce "r"
only if it is followed by a vowel, such as in right, rain, room, Robert, far away, etc.

Non-rhotic accents are British Received Pronunciation and some other types of British
English, 11. ……………………… , New Zealand and South African English. American
English is rhotic (the "r" is always pronounced), with the notable exception of the
Boston area and New York City. Rhotic accents can also be found in most of Canada.
England is non-rhotic, apart from the south-western England and some ever-
diminishing northern areas. Scotland and Ireland are rhotic.

28
On this map of England, the red areas are where Map of rhoticity (pronounced non-prevocalic "r") in
the rural accents were rhotic as of the 1950s. Based modern, i.e. late 20th century dialects in England.
on H. Orton et al., Survey of English dialects (1962-
71).

* "Received" here is used in its older sense to mean "generally accepted".

4.. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. newscaster a რომელსაც ახასიათებს ბგერა r-ს წარმოთქმა

2. social b შესამჩნევი
3. rhotic c გამონაკლისი
4. notable d სხვადასხვაობა
5. exception e სტანდარტული
6. diminish f ახალი ამბების წამყვანი
7. standard g შემცირება
8. variety h სოციალური

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

29
Reading 2

Leonard Bloomfield

An American linguist, he began his career as a

philologist trained in Indo-European, especially
Germanic languages. Bloomfield was educated at
Harvard University and the - Universities of
Wisconsin and Chicago. He taught at several
universities before becoming professor of Germanic
philology at the University of Chicago (1927 – 1940)
and professor of Linguistics at Yale University (1940
– 1949). In his book Language (1933), one of the
clearest 20th-century presentations of linguistics, he
stressed the importance of the study of linguistic
phenomena in isolation from their nonlinguistic
environment and emphasised the need for empirical
description. His thinking was influenced by his work
on non-Indo-European languages. The Menomini
Language (1962) is a paragon of linguistic
description and American Indian linguistic
Leonard Bloomfield scholarship.

(1887- 1949)

L. Bloomfield – Language

with a new foreword by C. F. Hochett

1984, The University of Chicago Press

Language plays a great part in our life. Perhaps because of its familiarity, we rarely
observe it, taking it for granted, as we do breathing and walking. The effects of
language are remarkable, and include much of what distinguishes man from animals.
It is only within the last two centuries that language has been studied in a
scientific way, by careful and comprehensive observation.

30
 The most difficult step in the study of language is the first step. Linguistic science
Arose from relatively practical ideas, such as the use of writing, the study of literature
and especially of older records, and prescription of elegant speech, but people can
spend a lot of time on these things without actually entering upon a linguistic study.
Writing is not language, but just a way of recording language by means of
visible marks. In some countries, such as China, Egypt and Mesopotamia, writing was
practiced thousands of years ago, but to most of the languages, that are spoken today
it has been applied either in relatively recent times or not at all. Moreover, until the
days of printing, education was confined to a very few people. All languages were
spoken by people who did not read or write; the languages of such peoples are just
as stable, regular, and rich as the languages of literate nations.
A language is the same no matter what system of writing may be used to record
it, as a person is the same no matter how you take his picture. The Japanese have
three systems of writing and they are developing a fourth. When the Turks, in 1928,
adopted the Latin alphabet in the place of Arabic, they went on talking in just the same
way as before. In order to study writing, we must know something about language.
(adapted from ‘The language’).

1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. familiarity a მოთხოვნა ( აქ)

2. rarely b ამომწურავი
3. observe c დასანახი, შესამჩნევი
4. remarkable d წიგნიერება
5. comprehensive e ჩინებული
6. prescription f დაკვირვება
7. visible g თანამედროვე
8. literacy h ნაცნობობა, სიახლოვე
9. confine i შემოფარგვლა
10. recent j იშვიათად

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

31
 2. Match the following words to make up phrases from the text:

1. play a writing
2. do b upon the study
3. take for c an alphabet
4. enter d very few people
5. confine to e walking
6. develop f A great part
7. adopt g granted
8. study h a system

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

3. Write the corresponding noun of the following verbs:

1. observe ________________
2. breathe ________________
3. study ________________
4. enter ________________
5. record ________________
6. practise ________________
7. develop ________________
8. know ________________
9. prescribe ________________

4. Fill in the blanks with the derivatives of the words in bold:

1. know 3. psychology
2. speak 4. history

Linguistics is the study of language. 1. ……………………….. of linguistics,

however, is different from knowledge of a language. Just as a person can
drive a car without understanding the engine, so, too, can a speaker use a
language without any knowledge of its structure. Similarly, a linguist can
know and understand the structure of a language without actually
2………………….. it. A linguist, then, is not an individual who speaks more than
one language. Rather, a linguist studies a language as a human
phenomenon. Linguists study grammar, the social and 3 ………………………..

32
aspects of language use, and the relationships among languages, both
4……………………………… and present-day.

Speaking

1. In pairs read the following paragraph by L. Bloomfield and discuss the

following questions:
1. What does literature study?
2. What does linguistics study?
3. What do philologists study?

The student of literature studies the utterances of certain persons (say, of

a Shakespeare), the content of their works and with the unusual expressions used
by them. The interest of the philologist is even broader, for he is concerned with
the cultural significance and background of what he reads. The linguist, on the
other hand, studies the language of all persons alike; the problem of how the
language of a great writer differs from ordinary speech interests the linguist no
more than the individual features of any other person’s speech, and much less
than the features that are common to all speakers.
(Adapted from ‘The language’)

2. In pairs discuss why empirical description may be important for linguistic studies.
Report your findings to the group.

33
Reading 3

David Crystal

VANISHING LANGUAGES
When the last speakers go, they take with them their history and culture

There is a Welsh proverb I’ve known as long as I remember: ‘Cenedl heb iaitb, Cenedl
heb gallon.’ It means, ‘A nation without a language (is) a nation without a heart,’ and
it’s become more poignant over the years as more and more families in North Wales
speak in English instead of Welsh across the dinner table.

Welsh, the direct descendant of the Celtic language that was spoken throughout of
most Britain when the Anglo-Saxons invaded, has long been under threat from
English. England’s economic and technological dominance has made English the
language of choice, causing a decline in the number of Welsh speakers.

The Welsh language is really in trouble. Someday, it may join the rapidly growing list
of extinct languages…. A century from now, one half of the world’s 6000 or more
languages may be extinct.

34
There is some controversy over exactly how to count the number of languages in the
world. A great deal depends on whether the speech patterns of different
communities are viewed as dialects of a single language or separate languages.

Taking a conservative estimate of 6,000 languages worldwide, one fact becomes

immediately clear: Languages reveal enormous differences in populations. At one
extreme, there is English, spoken by more people globally than any other language
in history, probably by a third of the world’s population as a first, second or foreign
language. At the other extreme is Ngarla (and most of the other languages of the
native peoples of Australia, Canada and the United States), whose total population
of speakers may amount in just one or two. And then there are closely related
groups of languages like the Maric family in Queensland, Australia which consists
of 12 languages. When it was surveyed in 1981, only one of those, Bidyara, had as
many as 20 speakers. Most had fewer than five. Five of them had only one speaker
each.

The loss of languages may have accelerated recently, but it is hardly a new
problem. In the 19th century, there were more than 1,000 Indian languages in
Brazil, many spoken in small, isolated villages in the rain forest; today there are a
mere 200, most of which have never been written down or recorded. In North
America, the 300 or more indigenous languages spoken in the past have been
halved.

People sometimes talk of ‘the beauty of Italian’ or of ‘German authority,’ as if such

characteristics might make a language more or less influential. But there is no
internal mechanism in a language that settles its fate. Languages are not, in
themselves, more or less powerful. People don’t adopt them because they are
more precise. They gain ascendancy when their speakers gain power and they die
out when people die out or disperse.
(From D. Crystal – Civilization, February-March, 1997, pp. 40-45)

35
1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. poignant a გავლენიანი
2. descendant b შთამომავალი
3. decline c მიმოფანტვა
4. extinct d მთლიანი
5. influential e გადაშენებული
6. disperse f დაკნინება
7. indigenous g მკვიდრი
8. total h მწვავე

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

words written minority die dominant

only Empire Welsh language power

A language’s fortunes are tied to its culture’s. Just as one language holds sway over
others when its speakers gain 1. ......................... – politically, economically or
technologically – it diminishes, and may even die, when they lose that prominence.
Latin, now used almost exclusively in its 2. ........................ form, had its day as a
world language because of the power of Rome. English, once promoted by the British
3.. ......................... , is thriving today chiefly because of the prominence of the USA.
But it was once an endangered 4. ...................... , threatened by the Norman invaders
of Britain in the 11th century, who brought with them a multiple of French 5..
........................ . In South America, Spanish and Portuguese, the languages of
colonialists, have replaced many of the indigenous tongues.

36
There has been little research into exactly what happens when a language begins to
6.. ..................... . The process depends on how long there has been contact between
the users of the minority language and their more powerful neighbours. If the
contact has been minimal the 7. .................... language might remain almost
unchanged until the last of its speakers die. But if two languages have been in
contact for generations, the 8.. ....................... language will slowly erode the
pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar of the minority language. Take the Celtic
languages of northwest Europe. Following the death of the last mother-tongue
speakers of Cornish (spoken in Cornwall until the 19th century) and Manx (spoken in
the Isle of Man until the 1940s), the 9. ........................ remaining Celtic languages are
Breton (in northwest France), Irish and Scottish Gaelic, and 10. ................. . All have
been in steady decline during the 20th century.
( from Crystal, Vanishing languages)

3. Match the following words to make phrases from the text:

1. causing a population
2. reveal b a decline
3. total c forest
4. isolated d prominence
5. rain e villages
6. Indigenous f decline
7. gain g power

8. die h differences
9. steady i out
10. lose j languages

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

37
Unit 4

Reading 1

Most Popular theories of Formal Linguistics

Formal linguistics studies how language works and how it is organised. Formal linguists
study the structures of different languages, and by identifying and studying the
elements common among them, try to discover the most efficient way to describe
language in general. There are three main schools of thought in formal linguistics:

(1) The "traditional," or "prescriptive”, approach to grammar is probably familiar to

most of us. It is what we are usually taught in school. "A noun is a person, place, or
thing" is a typical definition in traditional grammar. Such grammars typically prescribe
rules of correct usage.

(2) "Structural linguistics”, is principally an American phenomenon of the mid-20th

century, started by Leonard Bloomfield. Structuralists are primarily concerned with
phonology, morphology, and syntax. They focus on the physical features of utterances
and do not pay much attention to meaning or lexicon (Crystal, 1980). They distinguish
words according to their grammatical features. For example, a noun is defined in terms
of its position in a sentence and its inflections, such as the "s" for plural.

(3) The "generative/transformational" approach to the study of grammar was

introduced by Noam Chomsky in 1957 in his work, "Syntactic Structures." Here he
talked about a relationship between the "deep structure" of sentences (what is in the
mind) and their "surface structure" (what is spoken or written). For example, the
surface structure of the sentence, "The postman was bitten by the dog," was derived
from the deep structure, "The dog bit the postman," through the passive
transformation. This theory gave rise to the theory of Universal Grammar which claims
that all languages share certain linguistic features (universals).

1. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Formal linguistics makes an attempt to describe language structures T F

in the most adequate ways.
2. Traditional grammar is referred to as “generative’’. T F
3. Transformational approach was developed by Chomsky. T F
4. Chomsky’s theory gave rise to the Universal Grammar. T F
5. Prescriptive and Transformational grammars are synonyms. T F

38
6. Traditional grammar states the rules of correct usage. T F
7. Structural linguistics was started by Trubetskoy. T F

2. Complete the following sentences in the most appropriate way:

1. In school people are usually taught ……………………………………………………. grammar.

2. ………………………………………………….. typically prescribe rules of correct usage.

3. Structuralists are usually concerned with ………………………………………………………….. .

4. According to Chomsky, ………………………………………….. are derived from their deep

structures.

5. Structuralists define words according to ……………………………………………………………… .

3. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. common a პრესკრიფციული
2. efficient b წარმოება
3. prescriptive c გაზიარება
4. typical d გამოთქმა
5. concern with e საქმის ქონა
6. utterance f საერთო
7. derive g მტკიცება
8. transformation h ტრანსფორმაცია
9. claim i ეფექტური
10. share j ტიპიური

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

39
Reading 2

Areas of Formal Linguistics

Formal linguistics includes five principal areas of study:

"Phonetics" is the study of the sounds of language and their physical properties.
Phonetics describes how speech sounds are produced by the vocal apparatus (the
lungs, vocal cords, tongue, teeth, etc.) and provides a suitable system for their
classification.

"Phonology" involves analysing how sounds function in a given language or dialect. For
example, /p/ has two possible sounds in English depending on its position in a word. If
you place a sheet of paper near your mouth and pronounce the words "pin" and "spin,"
the paper will vibrate after the /p/ in the first word but not after the same sound in the
second word. This occurs when /p/ is in the initial position of a word in English.
Phonologists examine such phonetic shifts to construct theories about linguistic sounds
in one language that can be used in comparing linguistic systems. Such analysis of
sounds in different languages can be very useful for foreign language teachers.

"Morphology" is the study of the structure of words. Morphologists study minimal units
of meaning, called "morphemes," and investigate their possible combinations in a
language to form words. For example, the word "imperfections" is composed of four
morphemes: "im" + "perfect" + "ion" + "s." The root, "perfect," is transformed from an
adjective into a noun by the addition of "ion," made negative with "im," and pluralised
by "s."

"Syntax" is the study of the structure of sentences. Syntacticians describe how words
combine into phrases and clauses and how these combine to form sentences. For
example, "I found a coin yesterday" is embedded as a relative clause in the sentence,
"The coin that I found yesterday is quite valuable." Syntacticians describe the rules for
converting the first sentence into the second.

"Semantics" is the study of meaning in language. The goal of semantic study is to

explain how sequences of language are matched with their proper meanings and
placed in certain environments by speakers of the language. The importance of
meaning is revealed in the following well known example from Chomsky (1957):
"Colorless green ideas sleep furiously." This sentence is well-formed from the
morphological and syntactic points of view though it is largely meaningless in ordinary
usage.

40
1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. properties a მნიშვნელობის არმქონე

2. vocal b შედარება
3. apparatus c საწყისი
4. vibrate d ვიბრირება
5. initial e გადაქცევა
6. construct f ხმიერი
7. compare g აპარატი
8. embedded h ჩართული
9. convert i აგება
10. meaningless j თვისებები

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Transform the following words according to the model:

0 . Lexicography – lexicographer

1. Phonetics ___________________
2. Morphology ___________________
3. Syntax ___________________
4. Grammar ___________________
5. Linguistics ___________________
6. Philology ___________________
7. Phonology ___________________
8. Lexicology ___________________
9. Stylistics ___________________
10. Sociolinguistics ___________________

41
3. Complete the following sentences in the most appropriate way:

1. ………………………….. is the study of the sounds of language and their physical

properties.
2. ………………………….. analysis of sounds in different languages can be very useful
for foreign language teachers.
3. The structure of words is studied by …………………………………………………….. .
4. Syntacticians describe how words combine into phrases and clauses and how
these ………………………………………………… .
5. Morphologically and syntactically ……………………………………… may be largely
meaningless in ordinary usage.
6. “Semantics" is the study of ………………………………………………………………………. .

4. Transform the following sentences so that the meaning remains the same:

1. Morphologists study minimal units of meaning, called "morphemes”

Minimal units ____________________________________ by morphologists.

2. Phonetics provides a suitable system for the classification of the sounds of a

language.

A suitable system _______________________________________by Phonetics.

3. The rules for converting sentences are described by Syntacticians

Syntacticians ___________________________________________sentences.

4. Morphologists investigate possible combinations of morphemes to form words in

a language

42
 Possible ………………………………………………………………..… by Morphologists.

Unit 5

Reading 1

The question “How many words are there in English?” is based on a misunderstanding
of language. It is based on the false assumptions that words are (1) objects that
someone creates and (2) stored in a published dictionary. Neither assumption is true.

Words that are only spoken but never published do not enter dictionaries. However,
that does not mean that they are not words. Only about 2,400 of the world’s roughly
7,200 languages and dialects have writing systems, most of these were created only
for the translation of the Bible. If words were the things found only in dictionaries, the
majority of the world’s languages would have no words!

In point of fact, all languages are equipped to produce as many words as are
necessary for communication either internally, by derivation rules (lawyer > lawyerly)
and compounding (water + fall > waterfall), or, externally, by borrowing from other
languages. So one answer to the question in the title is: the number of possible words
in any language at any given time is infinite, for there is no limit on the number of
possible words in any human language. However, we may distinguish between
possible and actual words, so how many actual words are there in English?

(Adapted from www. dictionary.com)

1. Answer the following questions:

1. Can a language produce as many words as it needs?

43
 2. How many types of words are distinguished in the text?

3. How many ways of word formation/production are mentioned in the text?

4. Do you think that a language can express anything? Why?

2. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1 false a წარმოქმნა
2 assumption b ვარაუდი, თვალსაზრისი
3 store c ნასესხობა
4 roughly d უსასრულო
5 internally e გარჩევა
6 derivation f დაგროვება
7 compounding g მცდარი
8 borrowing h დაახლოებით
9 infinite i შინაგანად
10 distinguish j რთული სიტყვის შექმნა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

44
Reading 2

Does Internet improve spelling?

It is well- known that people do a lot of chatting, texting and messaging on the web.
While doing so, they use a number of newly-coined words or abbreviations. It was
assumed that because people were using abbreviations like "LOL" (laughing out loud)
in messaging they were losing their writing skills. There was a controlled study done in
the U.K. in which students who were on the web a lot and those who had no
connection to the web were asked to write essays. Surprisingly, it turned out that the
people on the web did better - because they write more. Obviously, it's easier and
faster so they do more of it. In order to validate the results, the study was repeated in
the United States and the results were confirmed.

45
Thus, it can be assumed that the web has been good in helping people to write
because being on the web people tend to write more. Moreover, the web is equipped
with spellcheckers. If one misspells a word, they see it corrected before their eyes. On
the other hand, if people are still using a pencil and paper, they tend to make that
mistake over and over again and may not even know about it. This is one aspect of
technology that has already had a positive impact on the people.

1. Match the words with Georgian definitions:

1 improve a ახლად შექმნილი

2 newly-coined b აღჭურვა
3 abbreviations c განმტკიცება
4 assume d დადასტურება
5 connection e შემოკლება
6 validate f არასწორად დაწერა
7 confirm g გავლენა
8 equip h ჩათვლა
9 misspell i გამოსწორება
10 impact j კავშირი

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Finish the following sentences in the most appropriate way:

1. It was assumed earlier that being on the web the people ___________
_______________________ .

2. Lol is an abbreviation which means __________________________________.

3. People who often use the internet were more successful because __________

_______________________________________________________________ .

4. The similar study repeated in the US _______________________________ .

5. Two possible reasons why the web possibly improves the people's writing skills are:

46
a) _____________________________________________________________.

b) _____________________________________________________________.

6. People who write using a traditional method of a pencil and a pen build up a habit of
making the same mistakes again because ______________________________

_______________________________________________________________ .

3 Fill in the blanks with the correct verb forms:

The number of descendants of Noah 1. …………………….. (become) higher and

higher. Their growing number 2. …………………….. (force) them to go and
live farther and farther from their original motherland. They 3 ……………………
(say): Come, let us 4 ……………………….. (make) a city and a tower, the top
of which may reach to heaven; and let us make our name famous before we
all 5 ……………….. (go) to different places of the world. They 6 ……………………..
(start/build) – they 7………………… (have) brick instead of stones and worked
all nights and days. But God 8 …………………. (confound) their tongue, so that
they 9 ……………………. (not/understand) one another's speech, and thus
they 10 ……………………. (scatter) from that place into all lands, and they 11
…………………….. (stop) to build the city.

47
Reading 3

Cannot Chimpanzees talk?

Genetically, chimpanzees are identical to human beings. Naturally, this genetic

closeness means similarities. However, there are also a lot of differences between
them and us. One difference is that chimpanzees are not able to speak. Attempts were
made to teach chimpanzees a spoken language; which were largely unsuccessful. One
example of a study that had limited success involved a chimpanzee named Vicki. This
chimpanzee acquired a limited vocal vocabulary of four words: mama, papa, cup, and
up. These words were hard to understand with her heavy chimpanzee accent and were
largely voiceless. This was because of the fact that chimpanzees have a relatively thin
tongue and a higher larynx which makes their pronunciation difficult to understand.

Another reason that it is unlikely for a chimpanzee to learn a vocal language is that
chimpanzees tend to be very quiet. Many people have reported passing a tree in the
jungle and later realising that it was filled with chimpanzees silently grooming or
eating!

In the 1920s it was recognized that, though chimpanzees could understand what
people say, they never imitate their sounds. Researchers of free-living chimpanzees

48
have also found that chimpanzees communicate often with gestures. When requesting
to groom, they may raise an arm over their head.

With these and other observations, the use of sign language seemed to compliment
the nature of chimpanzees. The chimpanzees have acquired many signs. The
experiments reveal that they have even made signs of their own to communicate with
their human companions. Chimpanzees who communicate through sign language have
also creatively combined signs to identify things, for example: BIRD-MEAT (turkey),
WATER-BIRD (swan).

1. Match the words with the Georgian definitions :

1 Closeness a შემოქმედებითად
2 Identical b თხოვნა
3 Vocally c თავის მოვლა, მოწესრიგება
4 Largely d კომპანიონი
5 Pronunciation e სიახლოვე
6 Groom f წარმოთქმა
7 Request g იდენტური
8 Creatively h ხმიერად
9 Acquire i უმთავრესად
10 Companion j შეძენა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Write the antonyms of these words:

1 organized _____________ 8 hard ______________

49
2 include _____________ 9 heavy ______________
3 claim _____________ 10 thin ______________
4 similarities _____________ 11 higher ______________
5 successful _____________ 12 difficult ______________
6 limited _____________ 13 unlikely ______________
7 acquire _____________ 14 reveal ______________

Speaking:

Discuss the following issues and report to the group:

1. What other positive/negative impact does technology have on people?

2. Why do people use the internet?

3. Do you use the Internet? In what way?

4. Do you think that chimps can acquire a language?

Writing

Some people think that the Internet is a good way of communication. Others
believe that it makes people lazy and too keen on a virtual life. What do you think?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

50
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Unit 6

Reading 1

Functions of a language

Using a language as a primary means of communicating our thoughts is so natural for

us that it is often difficult to realise what in fact are language functions. Some of the
roles of language are hardly ever noticed, others are very elevated, or even abstract.
The functions of language might be divided into two categories: micro functions
which refer to specific individual uses, and macro functions which serve more overall
aims.

Micro functions of the language are the following:

51
Physiological function (releasing physical and nervous energy)

This use of a language is fairly common. It is easily recognisable when devoted fans of
sports are observed while watching their favourite sport on TV. Such fans often shout
instructions, express support, or disappointment. Though these people cannot
communicate with sportsmen directly, such cheers are to release repressed energy and
positive or negative emotions. Similarly curse words are used to serve this purpose, as
they rarely convey any meaning and are only to make the speaker feel better.

Phatic function (for sociability)

The use of such phrases as ‘nice day today’, or ‘how do you do’ is characterised by lack
of any informative content and is intended to link people and make the coexistence
peaceful and pleasant. Such sentences do not require any replies as they just serve
the purpose of ‘acknowledging’ the people.

Recording function

Recording function denotes using language to make a durable record of things that
ought to be remembered. Owing to writing this is probably the most significant
function of the language. There is evidence that the first writing system was developed
in the Middle East as early as 4000 BC. At the beginning writing systems took forms of
pictures representing the things they referred to, gradually developing into the
alphabets in their present forms.

Identifying function

Language is used also to identify the objects and events in the world we live in.
Without this function language would be almost useless, as it is thanks to the names of
things that we know what is talked about. Many primitive societies which cannot write
believe that names hold great power. Even in western culture names are thought to be
immensely important, therefore, before giving a name to a newborn child, parents
consider the choice deeply. We use names to classify different types of things, whether
we call a car an automobile, a lorry, a van or a truck makes a big difference.

Reasoning function (instrument of thought)

Before we say something we think and to do that we necessarily use language. In most
cases it is extremely difficult to think about anything without any use of words. In fact
is it also difficult not to think for a longer period of time as human brains work all the
time processing and working out information, thus providing us with concepts
formulated by means of language.

Communicating function

52
This function would probably be pointed at by most language users without major
consideration. Indeed it is the most commonly used language function by the majority
of speakers. Requesting, apologising, informing, ordering as well as promising and
refusing are all functions helping us to communicate our ideas.

Pleasure functions

The fact that language often gives pleasure both to the speakers and listeners is not
only supported by the frequent use of assonance, alliteration and onomatopoeia in
poetry. Depending on the sounds of languages some are perceived as being mild as
English for example, others crude as German. People also derive pleasure from
unusual use of syntactic rules, as well as novelties of meanings and language games,
which is often used by skilful writers.

(Adapted from Finch, G. 1998. How to study linguistics. Houndmills: Palgrave

Macmillan.)

1. Match the words with their definitions:

1. primary a პირველხარისხოვანი
2. elevated b აბსტრაქტული
3. abstract c განსაკუთრებით
4. overall d შეკავებული
5. recognizable e მთლიანი
6. repressed f ფორმულირება
7. gradually g საცნობი
8. immensely h უხეში
9. formulate i ამაღლებული
10. crude j თანდათან

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Find the following words in the text:

1 აღქმული ________________ 6 ლანძღვა-გინება ______________

2 ხშირი ________________ 7 მნიშვნელობა ______________
3 აღნიშვნა ________________ 8 პირველყოფილი ______________
4 გაყოფა, დაყოფა ________________ 9 ახლად დაბადებული ______________

53
5 გაწბილება ________________ 10 ცნება ______________

3. Replace the underlined words by their synonyms:

1. Phatic expressions tend to link people and make their lives more friendly and
pleasant. _______________
2. Recording function is one of the most significant functions of the
language._______________
3. People usually derive pleasure from metaphors and figurative language.
______________
4. This use of the word is fairly common. ______________
5. Even in western culture names are thought to be immensely important.
_______________
6. At the beginning writing systems took forms of pictures representing the things
they referred to. _______________ .

4. Fill in the blanks with the words form the box:

Greek grammar words families called

The ancient languages Latin, 1………………………. , Sanskrit, and several others form a
group known as "Indo-European." Comparative reconstruction from them makes a
language 2. ………………………. Proto-Indo-European which was spoken around 2500
B.C. Many Indo-European 3. …………………………… can be reconstructed with
considerable confidence (e.g., *ekwos 'horse'). The 4. …………………………… was
similar to Homeric Greek or Vedic Sanskrit. Similar reconstructions are available for
some other language 5. ……………………………. , though none has been as thoroughly
reconstructed as Indo-European.

5. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words:

A world language 1 ……………………… a language spoken internationally, which is

learned 2 ………………………. many people as a second language. A world language
is 3 ……………………….. only characterised by the number of its speakers (native
4 ………………….. second language speakers), but also by its geographical
distribution, and its use 5 ……………………… international organisations and in

54
 diplomatic relations. In this respect, major world languages 6 ……………………..
dominated by languages of European origin. The historical reason for this is the
period 7 ……………………. European colonialism. World languages originating with
historical colonial empires include English, Spanish, Portuguese 8 ……………………..
French. (from Wikipedia)

Reading 2

Functions of the language

MACRO FUNCTIONS:

Ideational function

Ideational function refers to our ability to understand what happens around us.

Interpersonal function

Interpersonal function emphasises that language is mainly a social phenomenon but

apart from enabling communication with other people it enables projection of the
speaker in the desired way and representation of the speaker’s ideas.

Poetic function

Here, the word poetic does not refer to the ability to write poetry, but the ability to
manipulate language in a creative way. With the use of jokes and metaphors we can
play with words and meanings simply for joy.

Textual function

Textual competence refers to our ability to create long utterances or pieces of writing
which are both cohesive and coherent. Unlike animals, people, by use of certain

55
linguistic devices, are able to produce long sentences and text and not only simple
phrases.

The above mentioned functions are only one point of view on language. Most certainly
there are many other functions that natural languages fulfill.

(Adapted from Finch G. 1998. How to study linguistics. Houndmills: Palgrave

Macmillan.)

1. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Ideational function of a language helps us to understand what T F

happens around us.

2. Poetic function emphasizes that the language is a social phenomenon. T F

3. Poetic function shows us how to manipulate with meanings. T F

4. Textual competence helps us to produce sentences and utterances. T F

2. Fill in the blanks with the verbs in the correct tense:

English is a West Germanic language that 1. ……………….. (arise) in the Anglo-

Saxon kingdoms of England and 2. ………………….. (spread) into South-East Scotland
under the influence of the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria. Following the
economic, political, military, scientific, cultural, and colonial influence of Great
Britain and USA and it 3. ………………………. ( spread) widely around the world. Thus
it 4. …………………… ( become) the leading language of international communication,
and 5. …………………… ( acquire) use as lingua franca in many regions. It is widely
learned as a second language and used as an official language of the EU (European
Union) and many Commonwealth countries, as well as in many world
organizations. It is the third most natively spoken language in the world, after
mandarin Chinese and Spanish.

3. Insert the appropriate functions:

Micro functions

56
 Macro functions

Speaking

Discuss in pairs the following issues and report to the group:

1. Which of the functions of the language do you find most important? Why?
2. Which of the functions of the language do you find least important? Why?

57
Self-Assessment Test 1 (Units 1- 6)

1. Fill in the blanks with the words form the box:

First Christian pictographs verbally inventories communicate

chimpanzees actual spellcheckers recklessly

1. As the writing systems did not exist, messages had to be delivered ……………………. .

2. The earliest writing known was the Egyptian, which was a sort of "picture writing’
called …………………………………. .

3. Scholars believe that the ……………………………… Old Georgian alphabet was modeled
upon the Greek alphabet.

4. The Latin alphabet was introduced by …………………………. missionaries and it began

to replace the Anglo-Saxon futhorc from about the seventh century.

5. In a language possible and ………………………………… words may be distinguished.

6. It is considered that English borrows …………………………………. from virtually every

language on earth.

58
7. The people who spend more time on line write better because the web is equipped
with ……………………………… .

8. The experiments reveal that …………………………… have even made signs of their own
to communicate with their human companions.

9. Requesting, apologising, informing, ordering as well as promising and refusing

are all functions helping us to ………………………….. our ideas.

10. Most Caucasian languages have in common large consonant-----------------

______ /10 points

2. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. The Greek style was greatly influenced by the Phoenician writing. T F

2. A Proto-language means the original language. T F
3. The regular English alphabet provides a separate character for every T F
sound.
4. Chinese has an alphabetical system of writing. T F
5. Chomsky argued that children are able to learn languages because of T F
their ability to learn grammar.
6. Khutsuri was completely replaced by Mkhedruli in the 11th century. T F
7. Poetic function of language shows us how to manipulate with meanings. T F
8. The number of possible words in a language can be counted T F
9. Lingua franca is different from the participants’ mother tongues. T F
10. The original lingua franca was largely French. T F
______ /10 points

3. Complete the following sentences using most appropriate words and

phrases:

1. While chatting on the web, people use a number of _________________words

2. It is assumed that a small number of languages has given us the huge variety

59
 ____________________________________________________ .

3. The famous linguist ______________________argued that the children acquire the

grammar necessary for a language only because all grammars are variations of a
single ‘universal grammar’.

4. ___________________is the study of the structure of words .

5. A lot of attempts have been made to teach a chimpanzee a_________________

language but they were unsuccessful

6. _____________________________function denotes using language to make a

durable record of things that ought to be remembered

7. All theories of phonology hold that spoken language can be broken into a string of
sound units called_________________

8. People sometimes talk of ‘the beauty of____________’ or of ‘German authority’ as if

such characteristics might make a language more or less influential.

______ /8 points

4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

dialects; sounds; hundreds; phonemes; words;

Phonetics is the study of the 1 …………………….. of language. These sounds are

called 2 …………………….. . There are literally 3 ……………………… of them used in
different languages. The way people talk lets us detect the differences in
accents and 4 ………………………… , identify individuals, and differentiate tiny
nuances of speech that indicate things beyond the obvious meanings of the
5………………………….. .

5. Write the Georgian definitions of the following words:

1. Crude ____________________
2. Evidence ____________________
3. Rarely ____________________
4. Primary ____________________
5. Curse words ____________________
6. Was converted ____________________

60
 7. Polished ____________________
8. Contain ____________________
9. Purpose ____________________
10. Describe ____________________
11. Distinguish ____________________
12. Character ____________________
13. Uncontested ____________________
14. Particular ____________________
15. Prominent ____________________
16. Cluster ____________________
17. Represent ____________________
18. Adopt ____________________
19. Compile ____________________
20. Self-expression ____________________
21. Obviously ____________________
22. Accent ____________________
23. Voiceless ____________________
24. Onomapoeia ____________________
25. Phatic ____________________
26. Assonance ____________________
27. Alliteration ____________________
28. Reconstruct ____________________
29. Allophone ____________________
30. Influence ____________________
31. Boundaries ____________________
32. Depend ____________________
33 Ability ____________________
34. Continental ____________________
35. Exception ____________________
36. Extraordinary ____________________
37. Diverse ____________________
38. Distinction ____________________

61
39. Miniscule ____________________
40. Majuscule ____________________

______ /40 points

What is your score? __________

Unit 7

Reading 1

Dictionaries

62
Dictionaries are crucial for mastering a language. What makes a good dictionary and
how should it be organised? These are the questions which burden and worry all good
compilers. It can be said that dictionaries are samplings of a language’s vocabulary at
a particular time and place. Every dictionary contains a different number of words
usually mentioned in the introduction. But compilers constantly have to make decisions
as to whether to include this new word or exclude this old word from their dictionaries.

Dictionaries should be timely, so they should sample words that their compilers
consider current. It is difficult to ascertain the currency of a word since words used
yesterday may not be used today. In addition to this, besides being an international
language, English is an official language for such countries as Great Britain, the USA,
Australia, New Zealand and Canada. This means that dictionaries should include words
from a particular place.

Another problem is borrowings: it is true that English borrows recklessly from virtually
every language on earth. We might just as well claim that the number of English words
is equivalent to the number of words in all the languages. A good dictionary should
also have a good answer to this issue.

Clearly, English words which are used in Australia and England are not always used in
the USA. So, words may ‘exist’ in the English language, but they may exist in one
geographical location and not others. A good dictionary should contain these words.

So, you now know what dilemmas the compilers of good dictionaries face - and it is not
easy at all to compile a good dictionary.

1. Match the words with the Georgian definitions:

1 crucial a პრობლემა
2 compiler b დადგენა
3 borrowing c გავრცელება
4 current d გამორიცხვა, ამოღება
5 ascertain e თანამედროვე
6 currency f მნიშვნელოვანი
7 exclude g შემდგენელი
8 recklessly h მდებარეობა
9 issue i ნასესხობა
10 location j დაუფიქრებლად

63
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Find the following words in the text:

1. დროული __________________ 6. მტკიცება _________________

2. მუდმივად __________________ 7. დაპირისპირება _________________
3. ოფიციალური __________________ 8. შედგენა _________________
4. დილემა __________________ 9. გადაწყვეტილება _________________
5. შესავალი __________________ 10 ნასესხები _________________

3. Fill in the blanks with the words form the box:

known certain distinguishes animals one

black function words purposes different

The thing that 1................ us from all the species is language. It is widely
2 ................. that chimpanzees and some other 3............... actually make tools and
do many of the things that we do. But the 4............. thing they can't do is talk. They
however can communicate and have 5.......... signals — danger on the ground, danger
in the sky, danger in the trees. In spite of the fact that Chimpanzees can do as many
as two hundred 6.............. signs they can't make up new 7............. and new
concepts with words. Language can be used for a number of 8.............. linguists
believe that the primary 9.................. of language is self-expression which is
followed by that of communication. Words certainly have a cultural value. Everything

64
associated with the word "black" is evil and everything associated with "white" is good
and pure. If we have a 10............ day, it's a bad day.

Reading 2
What is Lexicography?
1. Read the text and choose a correct heading for each of the paragraphs
from those given on page 3

1. D. Lexicography, language and linguistics

The information someone finds in a dictionary covers not only spelling but the
background and the development of the word and how it fits into its language.
It is the job of a lexicographer to develop a dictionary through the study of a
culture and its connection to language. Lexicographers consider grammar,
context, pronunciation, connotations, history and synonyms when writing
dictionaries.
2.

65
Lexicographers have been around since ancient times, all over the world. In the
countries of the World such as China, Spain, France, Ireland, England,
Germany, Poland, Egypt, Georgia and many others, lexicography in its different
specialised forms has been employed for a long time. In the fifth century a
grammarian named Hesychius of Alexandria compiled a lexicon of difficult and
obscure Greek words. In China, an eleventh century historian named Sima
Guang compiled a dictionary. In the 1900s, Henry Watson Fowler was a
lexicographer who worked on the Concise Oxford Dictionary. More recently, in
2003, an English lexicographer named Susie Dent published annual Language
Reports for the Oxford University Press.

3.

As early as the 18th century, Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani, supported by his pupil

and nephew King Vakhtang VI, compiled the first Georgian dictionary. Before
this, a Georgian-Italian Dictionary was printed in Rome by Catholic missionary
press in 1629. Later, in 1812-1825, Nicko Chubinashvili compiled the first
Georgian –Russian Dictionary. Isidore Gvarjaladze worked on a Georgian-
English dictionary. Tina Margalitadze, a Georgian lexicographer has been
compiling a comprehensive Georgian-English and English-Georgian dictionary
for more than 20 years. Recently she has successfully presented its online
version.

4.

Lexicography is separated into two main branches: theoretical and practical.

Practical lexicographers are the people who write and edit dictionaries.
Theoretical lexicographers think about the best way to write dictionaries and
theoretically study languages and their connection to culture. They look at a
language and break it down into its various parts to see how it would fit into a
dictionary.

5.

Lexicographers may specialise in their study of words. They may choose to

focus on certain aspects of a language. There are also bilingual lexicographers
who relate the culture and vocabulary of one language to another. There are
specialist lexicographers who work on terminology dictionaries, such as law
terms. This differs from what is called "general lexicography" in that only terms
from a certain field of study are defined. Lexicographers can specialise in

66
media. Some lexicographers consult with catalogue companies to write
advertisement titles.

6.

The definition of lexicography as opposed to lexicology is debated. Some people

use the term lexicology to mean theoretical lexicography. Others used the term
lexicology as a subdivision of linguistics that works with only vocabulary.

7.

Without lexicographers, linguists would have a very hard time learning

languages. Learning a vocabulary of a language and its connections to a culture
are very important to cross-cultural development.

A. Parts of Lexicography

B. Problems of the definition

C. History

D. Lexicography, language and Linguistics

E. Importance of Lexicography

F. Future of Lexicography

G. Types of Lexicographers

H. Lexicography in Georgia
Read more: What Does a Lexicographer Do? | eHow.com
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67
2. Match the words with their definitions:

1. background a ქვედანაყოფი
2. connotation b წარმოშობა
3. connection c რედაქტირება
4. definition d კავშირი
5. subdivision e კულტურათაშორისი
6. edit f დაკავშირება
7. debated g კონოტაცია, დამატებითი მნიშვნელობა
8. cross-cultural h საკამათო
9. obscure i ბუნდოვანი
10. relate to j განმარტება

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Project

Find more information about: a) Georgian and English dictionaries; b) about the first
Georgian dictionaries and present to the group.

UNIT 8
Reading 1
Development of the English language

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 Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east and south coasts in the 5th century.

Historically, English originated from the fusion of languages and dialects, now
collectively termed Old English, which were brought to the eastern coast of Great
Britain by Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) settlers beginning in the 5th century. Thus the
word "English" was derived from the name of the Angles. The language was further
influenced by the Viking invasions in the 8th and 9th century.

The Norman conquest of England in the 11th century gave rise to heavy
borrowings from Norman-French, and vocabulary and spelling rules began to give
the superficial appearance of a close relationship with Romance languages with
Middle English. A significant number of English words come from the Latin roots as
Latin, in some form, was the lingua franca of the Christian Church and of European
intellectual life.

Modern English developed with the Great Vowel Shift that began in 15th-century
England, and continues to adopt foreign words from a variety of languages, as well
as coining new words. English is arguably the largest language by number of words,
and is certainly considerably larger than any other European language.

1. State whether the statements are True or False:

1. Anglo-Saxon settlers came to Great Britain in the V century. T F

2. Anglo-Saxons belonged to Viking tribes. T F

69
3. The Normans spoke French. T F
4. The word “English” is connected with the name of the Angles. T F
5. The Viking invasions started in the X century. T F
6. Many English words come from Latin roots. T F
7. English was a lingua franca in the XIII century. T F
8. The Great Vowel Shift influenced the development of Modern English. T F
9. English possesses the largest number of words in Europe. T F
10. Middle English was the language of the Anglo-Saxons . T F

2. Match the words with their definitions:

1. fusion a დაპყრობა
2. collectively b ზედაპირული
3. settlers c შერწყმა
4. invasion d ერთიანად
5. superficial e საკმაოდ
6. adopt f მიღება
7. coin g მცხოვრებლები
8. considerably h დაპყრობა
9. significant i მნიშვნელოვანი
10. conquest j შექმნა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3. Replace the underlined words by their synonyms:

70
 1. English originated from the fusion of languages and dialects, now collectively
termed Old English. ______________ , ________________ .
2. The word "English" was derived from the name of the Angles. ____________ .
3. The Norman conquest of England in the 11th century gave rise to heavy
borrowings from Norman-French. ________________ .
4. Arabic, the native language of the Arabs, who originally came from the Arabian
Peninsula, became the "lingua franca" of the Islamic Arab Empire.

______________ .

5. Arabic script was adopted by many other languages such as Urdu, Persian, Swahili
and Turkish which switched back to Latin in 1928. ______________ .

6. The Phoenicians had closer contacts with the Egyptians than with the Sumerians.
_______________ .

7. The original alphabets did not have lower case letters. _________________ .

Group Project:

In groups find more information about the following topics and make a short
presentation:

a) The Vikings and their invasions to Great Britain.

b) The Norman period in the History of Britain.
c) Anglo-Saxons and Old English.
d) Normans and Middle English.

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Reading 2

It has long been recognized that a variety of problems can be greatly simplified if
everyone would just speak the same language. It has been recognized for nearly as
long that it is impractical to expect this to always be so.

Lingua Franca

A lingua franca is a language systematically used to communicate between the

participants of the conversation not sharing a mother tongue, in particular
when it is a third language, distinct from both persons' mother tongues. This
can also be referred to as a working language or a bridge language.

The status of the lingua franca is not based on the linguistic history or the
structure of the language. However, pidgins and creoles often function as
linguas franca. Synonyms for lingua franca are "vehicular language" and
"bridge language". People may find the terms vernacular and vehicular
confusing. Whereas a vernacular language is used as a native language in a
single speaker community, a vehicular language goes beyond the boundaries of
its original community, and is used as a second language between
communities. For example, English is a vernacular in England, USA, Australia

72
and New Zealand but is used as a vehicular language (that is, a lingua franca)
over the whole world.

On the other hand, international auxiliary languages such as Esperanto are

generally intended by their designers to function as linguas franca, but they
have historically had a relatively low level of use and therefore cannot be
classed as true linguas franca.

The original lingua franca was a mixed language composed mostly (80%) of
Italian with a broad vocabulary drawn from Turkish, French, Spanish, Greek
and Arabic. It was in use throughout the eastern Mediterranean as the
language of commerce and diplomacy around the Renaissance era. At that
time, Italian speakers dominated seaborne commerce in the port cities of the
Ottoman Empire. Franca was the Italian word for Frankish. Its usage in the
term lingua franca originated from its meaning in Arabic, dating from before the
Crusades, whereby all Europeans were called "Franks" or Faranji in Arabic. The
term lingua franca was first recorded in English in 1678.

1. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1 Lingua franca is different from the participants’ mother tongues. T F

2 The status of lingua franca depends on the structure of the language. T F
3 Vernacular means the same as lingua franca. T F
4 English is both vernacular and vehicular. T F
5 Esperanto is a lingua Franca. T F
6 Esperanto was designed as a lingua franca. T F
7 The original lingua franca was largely French. T F
8 Lingua franca was used as a language of commerce and diplomacy. T F
9 Lingua franca and bridge language are synonyms. T F
10 The Arabs called all the Europeans Faranji. T F

73
 2. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1 share a საზღვაო
2 boundaries b დომინირება
3 auxiliary c გაზიარება
4 function d ადგილობრივი ენა
5 dominate e საზღვრები
6 seaborne f შედარებით
7 the Crusades g ჯვაროსნები
8 relatively h ‘მზიდი’ (ტრანზიტული ენები)
9 vernacular i ფუნქციონირება
10 vehicular j დამხმარე

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3. Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate words:

1. Synonyms for lingua franca are …………………………………….. and ………………………………"

2. ……………………………….. language is used as a native language in a single speaker
community.
3. ………………………………. language is used as a second language between communities.
4. ……………………………….. was intended by its designers to function as a lingua
franca.

5. Italian speakers dominated seaborne commerce in the port cities of the

………………………………… .

6. The term ………………………… originated from its meaning in the Arabic language.

7. The term lingua franca was first recorded in English in ……………………………… .

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4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

speak Merchandise influence language Middle written

Lingua Franca is a trade language used by numerous 1___________ communities

around the Mediterranean, to communicate with others whose language they did not 2
__________ . It is, in fact, the mother of all pidgins, seemingly in use since the 3
___________ Ages and surviving until the nineteenth century, when it disappeared,
probably under the 4 ____________ of the triumphant French language. Today, the
pidgin does not have a 5 ___________ history: no poetry, no folktales, no translation
of the Bible, just a way to sell the 6 __________ , or bargain for a better price on its
purchase.

Project
In groups make a brief presentation on: a) pidgins; b) creoles.

75
Unit 9
Reading 1
Some sources estimate the number of speakers over 300 million, others over 650 million! But let's
have a look at the countries where English is an official language!

countries where English is the first and often only language of most people
countries where besides English as a native language there is at least one other significant
native tongue
countries where English is not native, only official language
<>

76
English –lingua Franca of the internet

Internet services themselves are, generally speaking, easy to learn and use. However,
you will find yourself isolated on the Internet if you are not familiar with English. This
means that knowledge or lack of knowledge of English is one of the most important
factors that cause polarisation. Learning to use a new Internet service may take a few
hours, a few days, or even weeks, but it takes years to learn a language so that you
can use it in a fluent and self-confident manner. Of course, when you know some
English, you can learn more by using it on the Internet.

In different countries and cultures, English has different positions. There are countries
where English is the native language of the majority, there are countries where English
is a widely known second language, and there are countries where English has no
special position. These differences add to the above-mentioned polarisation.
Specifically, it is difficult for people in previous colonies of other countries than Great
Britain (e.g. France, Spain, the Netherlands) to adapt to the necessity of learning
English. Locally, it may be necessary to learn the language of the previous colonial
power since it is often an official language and the common language of educated
people. Globally, English is necessary for living on the Internet. Thus, it is rapidly
becoming lingua franca of the internet.

1. Match the words with their definitions

1 isolated a საჭიროება
2 polarization b მოზეიმე
3 necessity c იზოლირებული
4 previous d კოლონიური
5 rapidly e მოუხერხებელი
6 colonial f პოლარიზაცია
7 lack g წინა
8 awkward h ნაკლებობა
9 triumphant i ვაჭრობა
10 trade j სწრაფად

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Write the antonyms of the following words

1 easy ______________ 6 educated ______________

2 different ______________ 7 rapidly ______________
3 locally ______________ 8 wrong ______________

77
4 specifically ______________ 9 native ______________
5 previous ______________ 10 purchase ______________

3. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

Large between pronunciation

mass speakers person

Native English 1 ……………… can often tell quite accurately where a 2 …………….
comes from. Historically, such differences could be a major difficulty in
understanding 3 ………………….. from different areas. There are also many cases
where a 4 ……………………… city has a very different accent from the countryside
around it (e.g. Bristol and Avon, Hull and the East Riding, Liverpool and
Lancashire). But modern communications and 5 …………….... media have reduced
these differences in some parts of the country. Speakers may also change their
6 …………………… and vocabulary, particularly towards Received pronunciation
and Standard English when in public.

5. Fill in the blanks with the articles, prepositions and particles:

The importance 1 ………… the Internet grows rapidly in all fields of human life,
including not only research and education but also marketing and trade as well 2
……… entertainment and hobbies. This implies that it becomes more and more
important to know how 3 ……….. use Internet services and, as a part of this, to read
and write English.

Of course, the majority of mankind cannot use the Internet nowadays or 4 …….. the
near future, since they live in countries which lack the necessary economical and
technological infrastructure. But 5 ………. Internet causes polarisation in developed
countries, too: people are divided 6 ……….. Internet users and Internet illiterates, and
as the use 7 ……… the Internet grows and often replaces traditional methods of
communication, the illiterate people may find themselves in 8 ………. awkward position.
In general, it is easy to learn to use Internet services. The worst problems of Internet
illiteracy are, 9 ……… addition to lack of economical resources, wrong attitudes.

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Reading 2

World linguas Franca

Aramaic

Aramaic was the native language of the

Aramaeans and became the lingua franca
of the Assyrian Empire and the western
provinces of the Persian Empire, and was
adopted by conquered races such as the
Hebrews. A dialect of Old Aramaic
developed into the literary language
called Syriac. Aramaic ultimately evolved
into the Neo-Aramaic dialects of the
Middle East. Aramaic is the language
which Christ spoke.

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Arabic

Arabic became the "lingua franca" of the

Arab Empire (from AD 733 – AD 1492),
which at a certain point spread from the
borders of China and Northern India
through Central Asia, Persia, Asia minor,
Middle East, North Africa all the way to
Spain and Portugal in the west.

Arabic was also used by people neighbouring the Islamic Empire. During the Islamic
Golden Age Arabic was the language of science and diplomacy (around AD 1200),
when more books were written in Arabic than in any other language in the world at
that time period. Arabic influenced many African languages such as
Swahilihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_language and loaned many words to Persian,
Turkish, Urdu Spanish and Portuguese. These were the countries it ruled for 700
years. Arabic also had some influence over English. Arabic became the lingua
franca of these regions not simply because of commerce or diplomacy, but also on
religious grounds since Arabic is the language of the Qur’an, Islam’s holy book and
these populations became heavily Muslim. Nowadays, Arabic still remains as the
lingua franca for 22 countries. Moreover, Arabic is the second most widely used
alphabetic system in the world after Latin, the second largest native language used
by more than a billion Muslims around the world as well as one of the six official
languages of the United Nations.

Afrikaans

Afrikaans is spoken as a first language by many millions of people in South Africa, both
white and non-white, and as a second language by millions more. During apartheid,
the government aimed to create it as the 'lingua franca' in South Africa. However,
since the end of apartheid English has been widely adopted as the new lingua franca.
However, Afrikaans speech is still used, especially by the adult population in everyday
speech, but English is becoming popular among the younger generation, and Afrikaans
itself has already evolved recently by including many more English loan words and
spelling.

80
In Namibia, unlike South Africa, when apartheid ended, there was only a tiny English
speaking minority, so Afrikaans was chosen as the lingua franca, also due to the wide
variety of languages. Despite this, however, English is the only official language and
the government aims at increasing its use throughout the country.

1. State whether the following statements are True or False

1 Aramaic was a lingua franca of the Arab Empire. T F

2 The ancestors of Israeli peoples were Hebrews. T F
3 The Hebrews did not accept Aramaic as a lingua franca. T F
4 The Hebrews were conquered by Aramaeans. T F
5 Syriac was developed on the basis of Old Aramaeans. T F
6 Arabic was a language of diplomacy in AD 1200. T F
7 Arabic became a lingua franca only because of Islam. T F
8 Arabic script is more widespread than Latin. T F
9 United Nations consider Arabic as one of the six working languages T F
10 Nowadays, Afrikaans is still the lingua franca in Namibia. T F

2. Match the words with their Georgian definitions::

1 province a დაპყრობილი
2 adopted b პროვინცია
3 loan c განვითარება
4 diplomacy d დიპლომატია
5 remains e საბოლოოდ
6 conquered f უმცირესობა
7 evolve g ნასესხები

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8 ultimately h მიღებული
9 minority i გაზრდა
10 increase j რჩება

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3. Transform the sentences so that the meaning remains the same:

1. Aramaic was adopted by conquered races such as the Hebrews.

The conquered ___________________________________________ Aramaic.

2. Arabic was also used by people neighbouring the Islamic Empire.

The people __________________________________________________

______________ Arabic.

3. Arabic is regarded as one of the six working languages by UN.

UN __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ languages.

4. The adult population still uses Afrikaans in everyday speech.

Afrikaans ____________________________________________________ .

Speaking:
In pairs discuss the following issues and report to the group:

1. Can English be called a lingua franca today?

2. Which of the historical linguas franca was more influential and why?

3. What makes a language lingua franca?

82
Writing
Some people think that English is a modern lingua franca. Others believe that some
other languages, such as Arabic, Spanish or Chinese can have the same status. Do you
agree or disagree with this idea?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reading 3

83
 Spread of English in the World

Varieties of English
From around 1600, the English colonisation of North America resulted in the creation
of a distinct American variety of English. Some English pronunciations and words
"froze" when they reached America. In some ways, American English is more like the
English of Shakespeare than modern British English is. Some expressions that the
British call "Americanisms" are in fact original British expressions that were preserved
in the colonies while lost for a time in Britain (for example ‘trash’ for ‘rubbish’, ‘loan’
as a verb instead of ‘lend’, and ‘fall’ for ‘autumn’). Spanish also had an influence on
American English (and subsequently British English), with words like ‘canyon’ and
‘ranch’ that entered English through the settlement of the American West. French
words (through Louisiana) and West African words (through the slave trade) also
influenced American English (and so, to an extent, British English).

Today, American English is particularly influential, due to the USA's dominance of

cinema, television, popular music, trade and technology (including the Internet). But
there are many other varieties of English around the world, including for example,
Australian English, New Zealand English, Canadian English, South African English,

84
Indian English and Caribbean English. These varieties are not particularly influential
but, nevertheless, they are worth exploring.

Speaking:
Answer the following questions:

1. What was the reason for the creation of American English?

2. Why did the British words “freeze” when reaching America?

3. Which other languages influenced American English?

4. Which of the varieties of English is particularly influential now? Why?

Project
In groups find 5 examples of phonetic, spelling and lexical differences between British
and American English. Report the findings to the Group.

85
Unit 10

Reading 1
Borrowings in English

The lexical system of a language is studied by lexicology. To denote words, we also

use the word ‘vocabulary ‘interchangeably with ‘lexis’. You might also encounter the
term ’ lexicon’, which can be used in a couple of ways; firstly, it can be used as a
more technical version of lexis; many people use it synonymously with dictionary.
What must be remembered is that any dictionary can never be comprehensive in its
listing of the lexis of a particular language.
English word stock has originated from several sources out of which the following are
most prominent:

The Anglo-Saxon base

Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians) entered Britain in AD 449
onwards and displaced the original Celtic-speaking inhabitants. If we can assume
that the lexicon of a language reflects the occupations of the language users, we
would not be surprised that the original Anglo-Saxon lexicon is concerned with
basic, down-to-earth matters. The Anglo-Saxons were a settled civilisation, but not
very literate or sophisticated. Many of the words which originated from Anglo-Saxons
are still used today. Some are grammatical words (such as be, in, that) while others
are lexical words (sing, live, go). Anglo-Saxon words are usually short and specific.
There are number of items that refer to everyday matters. Many of the words that
we described as ‘core’ earlier seem to be from Anglo-Saxon. These words are of parts
of the body (arm, bone, chest, ear, eye, foot, hand, heart), the natural environment
(field, hedge, hill, land, meadow, wood), the domestic life (door, floor, home, house),
the calendar (day, month, moon, sun, year), animals (cow, dog, fish, goat, hen,
sheep, swine), common adjectives (black, dark, good, long, white, wide) and common
verbs (become, do, eat, fly, go, help, love say, see, sell, send, think). (Jackson &
Amvela 2000:31).
This is not to say that the Germanic settlers were without poetry, music and culture;
there were also some heroic components to Anglo-Saxon vocabulary.

86
Celtic borrowings

When the Anglo-Saxons took control of Britain, the original Celts moved to the
northern and western parts of the island – which is why the only places where Celtic
languages are spoken in Britain today are in the west (Welsh in Wales) and north
(Scottish Gaelic in the Scottish Highlands). Celtic speakers seem to have kept separate
from the Anglo-Saxon speakers. Those who remained in other parts of Britain must
have merged with the Anglo-Saxons. The end result is a surprisingly small number –
only a handful – of Celtic borrowings. Some of them are dialectal such as ‘loch’ (lake).
Reminders of Britain’s Celtic past are mainly in the form of Celtic-based place names
including river names such as Avon, ‘river’, Don, Exe, Severn and Thames. Town
names include Dover, ‘water’, Eccles, ‘church’, Kent, Leeds, London and York.

Scandinavian borrowings

The Scandinavian influence on Britain can be thought of in terms of three

episodes. Firstly, we can think of the period 750–1016 when the Vikings
(Scandinavians) began attacking the northern and eastern shores of Britain and
settling in those parts of Britain. There was a state of enmity between the Anglo-
Saxons and the Vikings, so unsurprisingly, not many Scandinavian borrowings
took place; these include husbonda (husband) and lagu (law).
Secondly, we can consider the period 1016–1050, where the conditions were
more or less similar to the earlier period, only that King Alfred the Great had
succeeded in uniting the Anglo-Saxons through actively promoting the English
language (among other things). There were more borrowings, including cnif
(knife) and diegan (die).
Finally, we have the period 1050–1480. The French-speaking Normans took
over Britain in 1066, and both the English and Scandinavians were given the
same fate and were subdued by the Normans. Naturally, the English and the
Scandinavians came together and interacted with each other more closely.
Therefore, a massive influence of the Scandinavian languages on English, in
both grammar and vocabulary. Nowadays, Scandinavian loan-words are more
frequently considered as core items.
Why is this so?

87
 a) English and Scandinavian belong to the same Germanic racial, cultural and
linguistic stock originally and their language, therefore, they are characterised
by shared common grammatical features and words. But changes had occurred
in the languages during the couple of centuries of separation of these two peoples.
b) The Scandinavians came to settle, rather than conquer or pillage. They lived
alongside the Anglo-Saxons on more or less equal terms.
c) Under the Norman French, particularly, the two different groups led a common
life together as subjects.

1. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Lexis, vocabulary and lexicon are synonyms. T F

2. Dictionary means the same as lexicon. T F
3. Many words that seem English now are Anglo-Saxon. T F
4. Loch (lake) is a Scandinavian word. T F
5. English and Scandinavian people were conquered by the Normans. T F
6. English did not take many words from Scandinavian languages. T F
7. The Anglo-Saxons were sophisticated people. T F

2. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. interchangeably a დასახლება
2. encounter b შეხვედრა
3. word stock c დამორჩილებული
4. pillage d შერწყმა
5. subdued e სიტყვათა მარაგი
6. merge f ჩანაცვლებით
7. core g ძირითადი
8. sophisticated h განვითარებული
9. promote i ძარცვა
10. settle j ხელშეწყობა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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3. Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate words

The history 1………………………….. the English language started 2 …………………….

the arrival of three Germanic tribes 3 ……………………………….. invaded Britain during
4 ………………….. 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes,
crossed 5. …………………………. North Sea from what today is the territory of Denmark
6 ………………….. northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic
language. But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders
- mainly into what 7 ………………….. now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came
8 …………………………. England and their language 9 …………………………… called English-
from which the words England and English are derived.

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Reading 2

French borrowings

The Norman Conquest of 1066 left England as a trilingual country, although most
people would only speak one or two of the dominant languages. Latin was the
language for record keeping, learning and the church. French was the language of
the Norman aristocracy and therefore also the language of government and polite
social communication. English was the language of the common people.
When the Normans conquered England, they changed the language of government
and the court almost overnight and disregarded existing institutions. Instead, they
adopted the institutions derived from France, including the feudal system which
guaranteed strong control by the king.
Thus, historically, there were three periods of French borrowings. The first, from
about 1066 to 1250 represents the height of Norman power. The language spoken
by the Normans, known as Norman French (different from Central or Parisian
French) was the language of the King’s court, the nobles’ castles and the courts
of law.
Norman French was therefore the language of honour, chivalry and justice.
‘Whoever was unable to speak French was considered a vile and contemptible
person by the common people’ (Matthew of Westminster, 1263).
At that period, however, there were not many French borrowings, since English
continued be used, largely in its own, low-level arenas and French and English
speakers were kept separate.
The second period, roughly from 1250 to 1400 represents the period of English-
French bilingualism in individuals (not just in the nation). The number of French
loanwords ballooned in this period. Why was this?
Very briefly, this is what happened. In 1204, Normandy (in northern France,
where the Normans came from) was acquired by the French king. Among other
things, it meant that the Norman aristocracy in England couldn’t travel back and
forth between their lands in England and France anymore. They had to choose
whether they wanted to remain in England or in France. Those who remained in
England began to see England as their home. This led to the reassertion of English

90
as the language of the realm.
However, there were other reasons for the reassertion of English as well:
1) At that period Parisian French became the prestige variety; consequently,

because Norman French was seen as socially inferior, it was less difficult to abandon

it in favour of English; subsequently, England became at war with France

in the Hundred Years War (1337–1453).

2) The gaps in English vocabulary had to be filled by loanwords from French.

These included items pertaining to new experiences and ways of doing things
introduced by the Normans. So whilst the English already had kings, queens and
earls, terms taken from French include count, countess, madam, duke, marquis,
dauphin, viscount, baron, chevalier, servant and master. Other domains that
became enriched with French loanwords include the terms denoting Government
structures, finances, law, war, religion, household relationships, etc.
3) The third period of French borrowings is from around 1400 onwards. The
borrowings of the first two periods tend to be more elegant and sophisticated but
yet not too far away from the core and several became quite ‘nativised’ (dance,
April, native, fine, line, punish, finish). These later borrowings were more distant
from the core, and even today possess more ‘French’ texture: ballet, tableau,
statuesque, cliché, lingerie etc.

1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. dominant a დაბალი დონის

2. disregarded b სწრაფად ზრდა
3. represents c ბილინგვიზმი
4. height d წარმოადგენს
5. chivalry e მძლავრი
6. vile f საზიზღარი
7. contemptible g რაინდობა
8. low-level h მწვერვალი
9. ballooned i უარყოფა
10. bilingualism j საძაგელი

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text:

1. სამენოვანი _______________________
2. საბუღალტრო აღრიცხვა; _______________________
3. სასამართლო _______________________
4. კეთილშობილნი _______________________
5. სამართალი _______________________
6. მიტოვება _______________________
7. შეეხება; განეკუთვნება. _______________________

3. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

philosophy Roman borrowings Latin

christianise Germanic Empire

Latin borrowings

Latin, being the language of the 1 …………………… Empire, had already influenced the
language of the 2 ……………………… tribes even before they set foot in Britain. Latin
loanwords reflected the superior material culture of the Roman 3 ……………………,
which had spread across Europe. The words: street, wall, candle, chalk, inch, pound,
port, camp come from Latin. The native Celts had also learnt some 4 ………………., and
some of these were borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons in Britain: sign, pearl, anchor,
oil, chest, pear, lettuce. Latin was also the language of Christianity, and St Augustine
arrived in Britain in AD 597 to 5 ……………… the nation. Terms in religion were borrowed
in this period: pope, bishop, monk, nun, cleric, demon, disciple, mass, priest, shrine.
Christianity also brought with it words connected to learning: not (note), paper, scol
(school), epistol. Many Latin 6 ………………… came in the early ME period. Sometimes,
it is difficult to say whether the loan-words were direct borrowings from Latin or had
come in through French (because, after all, Latin was also the language of learning

92
among the French). One great motivation for the borrowings was the change in social
order, where science and 7 ……………………… were beginning to be valued. Many of the
new words are academic in nature: equilibrium, equinox, formula, inertia, molecule,
pendulum, premium, stimulus, This resulted in the distinction between learned
and popular vocabulary in English.

4. Fill in the blanks with the derivatives from the words below:

learn adapt France be techniques borrow

Greek borrowings

Greek was also a language of 1 ……………………………… , and Latin itself borrowed words
from Greek. Indeed the Latin alphabet is an 2 ……………………………….. of the Greek
alphabet. Many of the Greek loan-words came into English through other languages:
through 3 ………………………… agony, aristocracy, enthusiasm, metaphor; through Latin
– nectar, phenomenon. There 4 ………………………….. some general vocabulary items
like fantasy, cathedral, charismatic; as well as more 5 …………………………… vocabulary
like anatomy, barometer, microscope, homoeopathy. During the Renaissance and
after, there were modern coinages from Greek elements (rather than 6 …………………).
For example, photo- yielded words photograph, photogenic; bio- yielded terms:
biology, biogenesis ,biometry, bioscope; tele- yielded telephone, telepathy, telegraphic,
telescopic. Other Greek elements used to coin new words include crypto-, hydro-,
hyper-, hypo-, neo- and stereo-.

(Adapted from www. sources of English)

93
 3. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

English difficulty business words conquerors

poet speakers many French spoke

Old and Middle English (450-1500 AD)

The invading Germanic tribes 1. ………………………… languages which in Britain developed

into what we now call Old English. Old English did not sound or look like
2 ………………… today. Native English speakers now would have great 3……………..
understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used
4 ……………………….. in Modern English have Old English roots.

In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France),
invaded and conquered England. The new 5 …………………….. (called the Normans)
brought with them a variety of French, which became the language of the Royal Court,
as well as that of the ruling and 6 ………………… classes. For a period there was a
linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the upper classes
spoke 7……………………. . In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again,
but with 8 …………………French words added. This language is called Middle English. It
was the language of the great 9 ………………… Chaucer (c.1343-1400), but it would still
be difficult for native English 10 …………………… to understand today.

94
Reading 3

The Georgian language in History

Georgian shared a common ancestral language with Svan and Mingrelian/Laz

in the first millennium BC. Based on the degree of change, linguists (e.g. Klimov,
T. Gamkrelidze, G. Machavariani) believe that the earliest split occurred in the
second millennium BC or earlier, separating Svan from the other languages.
Megrelian and Laz separated from Georgian roughly a thousand years later.
The earliest allusion to spoken Georgian may be a passage of the Roman
Grammarian Marcus Cornelius Fronto in the 2nd century AD: Fronto imagines
the Iberians addressing the emperor Marcus Aurelius in their incomprehensible
tongue.
The evolution of Georgian into a written language was a consequence of the
conversion of the Georgian elite to Christianity in the mid-4th century. The
new literary language was constructed on an already well-established cultural
infrastructure of the functions, conventions, and status of Aramaic, the literary
language of pagan Georgia and the new national religion. The first Georgian texts
are inscriptions and palimpsests dating to the 5th century.
Georgian has a rich literary tradition. The oldest surviving literary work in
Georgian is the "Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik" (Tsamebay tsmidisa
Shushanikisi dedoplisay) by Iakob Tsurtaveli, from the 5th century AD. The
Georgian national epic, "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" (Vepkhistkaosani),
by Shota Rustaveli, dates from the 12th century.

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 A Georgian palimpsest of the 5th/6th century.

1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. split a შედეგი
2. roughly b ეპიკური
3. incomprehensible c მოქცევა
4. consequence d გაუგებარი
5. conversion e ათასწლეული
6. elite f გახლეჩა
7. inscription g ელიტა
8. palimpsest h პალიმპსესტი, ხელნაწერი
9. epic i წარწერა
10. survive j გადარჩენა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

grammar meant published pronunciation peoples

read houses printing

Further changes in English

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Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in 1 …………………..
(the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter.
From the 16th century the British had contact with many 2 ……………………. from around
the world. This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, 3………………… that many new
words and phrases entered the language. The invention of 4 ……………….. also meant
that there was now a common language in print. Books became cheaper and more
people learned to 5 ………………...... . Printing also brought standardization to English.
Spelling and 6 ……………….. became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most
publishing 7 …………………were, became the standard. In 1604 the first English
dictionary was 8 …………………. .

3. Fill in the words with the derivatives of the words below:

different industry high foreigner

Late Modern English (1800-Present)

The main 1 ………………………………….. between Early Modern English and Late Modern
English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two
principal factors: firstly, the 2 …………………………….. Revolution and technology created a
need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its 3 ………………………. covered one
quarter of the earth's surface, and the English language adopted 4 ………………….. words
from many countries.

Speaking:
In pairs discuss the following issue and report to the group:

Think about 10 words borrowed from English and other languages by Georgian.
Discuss their pronunciation. What changes can you see?

97
Project:
In small groups, find more information about borrowings in Georgian
from Turkish, Persian, Russian and other languages. Present the findings
to the group.

Unit 11
Reading 1

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Sociolinguistics is the study of language as a social and cultural phenomenon.

The major divisions within the field of sociolinguistics are described below:

"Language Variation" describes the relationship between the use of linguistic

forms and factors such as geography, social class, ethnic group, age, sex,
occupation, function, or style. The combination of these various factors results
in an individual's "idiolect," that is, the particular manner of speech of an
individual. When a variety of language is shared by a group of speakers, it is
known as a "dialect". A dialect, whether standard or nonstandard, includes all
the elements used to produce speech: pronunciation, grammar, and interactive
features. In this respect, dialect should be distinguished from accent, which
usually refers only to pronunciation.

All speakers of a language may speak either a literary language or a dialect of

that language. For example, the speech of a Kakhetian is quite different from
that of a Gurian, even though the language spoken by both is Georgian. Further
differentiation is possible by investigating factors such as social class, age, sex,
occupation and education.

98
1. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Sociolinguistics regards the language as a social and cultural T F

phenomenon.
2. Idiolect is shared by a group of people. T F
3. Language variation studies relationships between linguistic and T F
extra-linguistic factors.
4. Dialect may be only standard. T F
5. Dialect and accent are synonymous. T F
6. Dialect includes only pronunciation. T F
7. Linguistic differences depend on a number of factors. T F

2. Match the following words with their Georgian definitions:

1. produce a უვიცი
2. interactive b ლიტერატურული
3. distinguish c მშობლიური
4. literary d ინტერაქტიული
5. native e შედეგი
6. equally f წარმოება
7. the unconscious g ქვეცნობიერი
8. assumption h გარჩევა, განსხვავება
9. consequence i თანაბრად
10. ignorant j ვარაუდი

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3. Fill in the blanks with the words form the text:

99
 better our language instance reader

stupid talking always normal

When we learn 1. .................................... native language in our childhood, we learn it by

listening to and 2. .................................. with people who have it as their native language.
First they know it much 3.. ................................. than we, later equally well. Thus it is very
natural human behaviour to use our native 4.. .......................... with the unconscious but
strong assumption that the listener or 5. ................................. knows the language to the
same or even higher extent than us. In international contexts, this built-in assumption
is almost 6.. ................................... false, and this has severe consequences. For 7.
.............................. we tend to regard people as 8. ......................... or ignorant if they do not
understand 9.. .................................... language; this deep-rooted tendency is present even
if our conscious mind understands the situation correctly.

4. Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate words:

A national language carries with it 1. ........................... history of the nation. For instance,
words 2. ............................ phrases have got, in addition 3. ................... their dictionary
meanings, colours and associations. This 4. ......................... an important cultural
phenomenon which helps in keeping the nation a nation. National languages were
originally developed 5. ......................... spoken languages. When written national
languages originated, they were usually formed on the basis 6. ........................ the
dialect of the capital or other important area, in order to help to develop a unified
nation. Due to their long history, national languages have historical features 7.
...................... sometimes make them hard to learn, such 8. ....................... a system of
articles or irregular verb forms. Moreover, being originally spoken languages, they
sometimes cannot express things in 9.. ......................... exact manner; and the need for
such expression is immense and growing, especially in the areas of law and
contracts, technology 10. ............... technical descriptions, and science.

5. Match the words to make up phrases:

1. manner a class
2. native b assumption

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3. social c of speech
4. human d consequences
5. equally e language
6. built-in f behavior
7. severe g nation
8. deep-rooted h phenomenon
9. cultural i well
10. unified j tendency

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

6. Complete the following sentences in the most appropriate way:

1. “Language Variation" describes the relationship between the use of linguistic

forms and _______________ _________ style.

2.” An idiolect” means ________________ ___________ an individual.

3. “A dialect” includes ______________________ , whereas ‘an accent’

includes only __________________ .

4. Sociolinguistics studies _______________________________________ .

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Reading 2

Language and Social Interaction

As is known, language functions in the real world.

The following three subfields of linguistics
investigate the relationship between the language
and the real world.

Pragmatics looks at how context affects meaning. In the context, the intended
meaning of an utterance is often different from its literal meaning. For example,
"I'm expecting a phone call" can have a variety of meanings. It could be a
request to leave the phone line free or a reason for not being able to leave the
house; or it could suggest to a listener who already has background information
that a specific person is about to call to convey good or bad news.

Discourse analysis examines the way in which sentences are used to make
up larger linguistic units, such as conversational exchanges or written texts.
This part of linguistics also investigates the links between utterances in
sequence.

Ethnography of communication uses the tools of anthropology to study

verbal interaction in its social setting. One example of ethnographic research is

102
the study of doctor-patient communication. Such study involves microanalysis
of doctor-patient interaction, noting not only what is said but also pauses
between turns, interruptions, questioning and response patterns, changes in
pitch, and nonverbal aspects of interaction, such as eye contact and gestures.

Language Attitudes The attitudes people hold toward different language

varieties and the people who speak them are important to sociolinguists.
Whereas studies in language and social interaction investigate actual language
interaction, studies in language attitudes explore how people react to language
interactions and how they evaluate others based on the language behavior they
observe and learn.

Language Planning is the process of deciding which languages should be used

in a society. Language attitude studies are an essential component of language
planning. In the United States, issues such as establishing bilingual education
programs or whether to declare English the official language are major
language planning decisions.

It is in multilingual nations, however, that language planning is most

significant. Governments must decide which of a country's many languages to
develop or maintain and which to use for such functions as education,
government, television, and the press. In such contexts, language planning is
an important factor in economic, political, and social development.

1. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Pragmatics studies the difference between what is said and what is T F

meant.
2. Context cannot change the meaning of the word or utterance. T F
3. Ethnography of communication looks at the conversational exchanges or T F
written texts.
4. Doctor-patient interaction is studied by ethnography of communication. T F
5. Studies in Language attitudes explore the way people react to others’ T F
linguistic behavior.
6. Language planning plays a significant role in a country’s development. T F
7. Language planning is an important issue for monolingual countries. T F

2. Match the following words with their Georgian definitions:

1. intended a თანამიმდევრობა 103

 2. literal b ჯერი ( საუბრის)
3. specific c გამოკვლევა
4. convey d გამარტივება
5. investigate e გადაცემა
6. link f პირდაპირი
7. sequence g ნაგულისხმევი
8. turn h კონკრეტული
9. maintain i კავშირი
10. simplification j დაცვა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3. Look at the picture and discuss the interaction of linguistics with other
fields of sciences, then match with the corresponding area.

104
 1. Logic ___________________
2. Psychology ___________________
3. Neuro-linguistics ___________________
4. Grammar and Stylistics ___________________
5. The Law ___________________
6. History ___________________
7. Genetics ___________________
8. Anthropology ___________________
9. All(artificial intelligence) ___________________
10. philosophy ___________________
11. Speech Therapy ___________________
12. Computer science ___________________
13. TEFL/TESL ___________________
14. Socio-linguistics ___________________

105
Reading 3

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between

linguistic and psychological behaviors. Psycholinguists
study first and second language acquisition and how
people store and decode linguistic information.
Language Acquisition is one of the burning issues of
Psycholinguistics. The study of how humans acquire language begins with the
study of child language acquisition. Principally, there are two hypothesis known.
The first, deriving from the structuralist school of linguistics, claims that
children learn language through imitation. This is known as the behaviorist
approach. The second, which is called ‘innateness hypothesis’, proposes that
the ability to acquire language is a biologically inborn capacity. The innateness
hypothesis derives from the generative/transformational school of linguistics.

1. Match the following words with their Georgian definitions:

1. acquisition a დაგროვება
2. hypothesis b ჰიპოთეზა
3. imitation c დეკოდირება
4. propose d მიბაძვა
5. ability e მწვავე
6. store f შეთავაზება
7. decode g ნიჭი
8. burning h უნარი
9. capacity i სწავლა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2. Replace the underlined words with their synonyms:

106
 1. Language Acquisition is one of the burning issues of Psycholinguistics.

_____________ .

2. One of the hypothesis, which is called ‘innateness hypothesis’, proposes that

the ability to acquire language is biologically inborn . _____________ .
3. Studies in language attitudes explore how people react to language interactions.
______________ .
4. Pragmatics looks at how context affects meaning. ______________ .
5. When written national languages originated, they were usually formed on the
basis of the dialect of the capital or other important area. _____________ .

Speaking

In pairs discuss the following issues and report to the group:

1) What is the difference between an idiolect, dialect, accent and a literary

language?
2) Why is a national language important for a state?
3) How can Language Attitudes and Language Planning help language policy
of a state?
4) Which of the hypothesis of language acquisition do you agree and why?

107
Unit 12

Reading 1

Oscar Wilde
Oscar Wilde (1854 –1900) was an Irish poet, essayist, dramatist and prominent
aesthete whose best-known works include his only novel The Picture of Dorian Gray
(1891), his comic masterpieces Lady Windermere's Fan and The Importance of Being
Earnest and two books of fairy tales.

His parents were successful Dublin intellectuals, and from an early age he was
tutored at home, where he showed his intelligence, becoming fluent in French and
German. He attended a boarding school for six years. Wilde received a royal
scholarship to read classics at Trinity College, Dublin from 1871 to 1874, then, he
went on with his studies at Magdalen College, Oxford.

While at Magdalen College, Wilde became particularly well known for his role in the
Aesthetic movement. He shocked the pious dons with his irrelevant attitude towards
religion and was jeered for his eccentric clothes. He collected blue china and
peacock's feathers, and later his velvet knee-breeches drew much attention. In
1878 Wilde received his B.A. and on the same year he moved to London. Soon his
lifestyle and humorous wit made him spokesman for Aestheticism, the late 19th
century movement in England that advocated art for art's sake.

Wilde moved around trying his hand at various literary activities: he published a
book of poems and toured America lecturing on aestheticism. He then returned to
London, where he worked as a journalist for four years. Known for his biting wit and
glittering conversation, Wilde was one of the most well-known personalities of his
day. He produced a series of dialogues and essays in which he developed his ideas
about the supremacy of art.

In 1888 he published The Happy Prince and Other Tales, fairy-stories written for his
two sons and next year he brought out more fairy tales collected in the book The
House of Pomegranates (1891). He used to say that his fairy-tales were written ‘not

108
for children, but for childlike people from eighteen to eighty’ and were meant for
those who ‘have kept the childlike faculties of wonder and joy.’

1. State whether the following statements are True or False

1 Oscar Wilde came from Ireland. T F

2 Wilde’s parents lived in London. T F
3 When he was small, Wilde went to school and was a brilliant student. T F
4 Wilde was an atheist. T F
5 Wilde’s favourite slogan was art for art’s sake. T F
6 Wilde wrote his fairy tales for children. T F

2. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1 tutor a დაცინვა
2 royal b უნარი
3 scholarship c განსწავლა
4 pious d ღვთისმოსავი
5 irrelevant e სტიპენდია
6 attitude f სამეფო
7 jeer g უპატივცემლო
8 wit h ჭკუა
9 biting i მიდგომა, დამოკიდებულება
10 faculties j სუსხიანი

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3. Find the English equivalents of the following words in the text:

1. წარმატებული _________________ 6. ბრწყინვალე _________________

2. პანსიონი _________________ 7. ბავშვური _________________
3. ექსცენტრული _________________ 8. ფაიფური _________________

109
4. ბრიჯი _________________ 9. პიროვნებები _________________
5. იცავდა _________________ 10. ხავერდი _________________

4. Replace the underlined words with their synonyms:

1. Aestheticism, the late 19th century movement in England that advocated art for
art's sake. ____________

2. Wilde was known for his biting wit and glittering conversation. _________

3. Wilde produced a series of dialogues and essays in which he developed his ideas
about the supremacy of art. ____________

4. Wilde received a royal scholarship to read classics at Trinity College, Dublin.

_____________

5. Wilde attended a boarding school for six years. ____________

5. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

beauty has always whole story soul

image dies published punished murders

The Picture of Dorian Gray was 1.......................... in 1890. The book 2…………………
some parallels with Wilde's own life. In the 3 ………………….. Dorian, a Victorian
gentleman, sells his soul to keep his youth and 4 ………………….. . "If only the picture
could change and I could be 5 ……………………. what I am now. For that, I would give
anything. Yes, there's nothing in the 6 ………………….. world I wouldn't give. I'd give
my 7 …………………….. for that." Dorian ruins lives, causes a young woman's suicide
and 8 …………………… Basil Hallward, his portrait painter, his conscience. However,
although Dorian retains his youth, his portrait ages showing his monstrous
9……………………. . The book highlights the tension between the polished surface of

110
high life and the life of secret vice. In the end sin is 10 …………………….. . When
Dorian destroys the painting, his face turns into a human replica of the portrait and
he 11 ………………………….. .

Reading 2

The Nightingale and the Rose

`She said that she would dance with me if I brought her red roses,' cried the young
Student; `but in all my garden there is no red rose.'

From her nest in the holm oak tree the Nightingale heard him, and she looked out
through the leaves, and wondered.

`No red rose in all my garden!' he cried, and his beautiful eyes filled with tears.
`Ah, on what little things does happiness depend! I have read all that the wise men
have written, and all the secrets of philosophy are mine, yet for want of a red rose is
my life made wretched.'

`Here at last is a true lover,' said the Nightingale. `Night after night have I sung of
him, though I knew him not: night after night have I told his story to the stars, and
now I see him. His hair is dark as the hyacinth-blossom, and his lips are red as the
rose of his desire; but passion has made his face like pale Ivory, and sorrow has set
her seal upon his brow.'

`The Prince gives a ball to-morrow night,' murmured the young Student, `and my
love will be of the company. If I bring her a red rose she will dance with me till
dawn. If I bring her a red rose, I shall hold her in my arms, and she will lean her

111
head upon my shoulder, and her hand will be clasped in mine. But there is no red
rose in my garden, so I shall sit lonely, and she will pass me by. She will have no
need of me, and my heart will break.'

`Here indeed is the true lover,' said the Nightingale. `What I sing of he suffers:
what is joy to me, to him is pain. Surely Love is a wonderful thing. It is more
precious than emeralds, and dearer than fine opals. Pearls and pomegranates
cannot buy it, nor is it set forth in the market-place. It may not be purchased of the
merchants, `nor can it be weighed out in the balance for gold.'

`The musicians will sit in their gallery,' said the young Student, `and play upon
their stringed instruments, and my love will dance to the sound of the harp and the
violin. She will dance so lightly that her feet will not touch the floor, and the
courtiers in their gay dresses will throng round her. But with me she will not dance,
for I have no red rose to give her;' and he flung himself down on the grass, and
buried his face in his hands, and wept.

`Why is he weeping?' asked a little Green Lizard, as he ran past him with his tail in
the air.

`Why, indeed?' said a Butterfly, who was fluttering about after a sunbeam.

`Why, indeed?' whispered a Daisy to his neighbour, in a soft, low voice.

`He is weeping for a red rose,' said the Nightingale.

`For a red rose!' they cried; `how very ridiculous!' and the little Lizard, who was
something of a cynic, laughed outright.

But the Nightingale understood the secret of the Student's sorrow, and she sat silent
in the oak-tree, and thought about the mystery of Love.

1 Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. holm-oak a უბედური
2. wretched b ბეჭედი
3. hyacinth c სუმბული
4. passion d სპილოს ძვალი
5. ivory e ვაჭარი
6. sorrow f ტანჯვა
7. seal g ქვამუხა
8. dawn h სევდა
9. suffer i გარიჟრაჟი

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10. merchant j ვნება

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Find the English equivalents of the following words in the text:

1. ზურმუხტი ___________________
2. მარგალიტი ___________________
3. ძოწი ___________________
4. ბაზარი ___________________
5. შეძენა, ყიდვა ___________________
6. ძვირფასი ___________________
7. სიმებიანი ინსტრუმენტები ___________________
8. სასაცილო ___________________

3. Write three forms of the following verbs:

1. Bring ______________________________
2. Hear ______________________________
3. Make ______________________________
4. Depend ______________________________
5. Hold ______________________________
6. Clasp ______________________________
7. Weep ______________________________
8. Sit ______________________________

Speaking
Discuss the following issues and report to the group:

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1. Why was the student crying?

2. Why did the nightingale think that the student was a true lover?

3. Describe the student as seen by the nightingale

Project
In pairs find as many names of precious stones and musical instruments as possible.
Present them to the group.

Reading 3

Illustration by Sakitimi

The Nightingale and the Rose

(continued)

Suddenly she spread her brown wings for flight, and soared into the air. She passed
through the grove like a shadow, and like a shadow she sailed across the garden.

In the centre of the grass-plot was standing a beautiful Rose-tree, and when she
saw it, she flew over to it, and lit upon a spray.

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`Give me a red rose,' she cried, `and I will sing you my sweetest song.'

But the Tree shook its head.

`My roses are white,' it answered; `as white as the foam of the sea, and whiter
than the snow upon the mountain. But go to my brother who grows round the old
sun-dial, and perhaps he will give you what you want.'

So the Nightingale flew over to the Rose-tree that was growing round the old sun-
dial.

`Give me a red rose,' she cried, `and I will sing you my sweetest song.'

But the Tree shook its head.

`My roses are yellow,' it answered; `as yellow as the hair of the mermaid who sits
upon an amber throne, and yellower than the daffodil that blooms in the meadow
before the mower comes with his scythe. But go to my brother who grows beneath
the Student's window, and perhaps he will give you what you want.'

So the Nightingale flew over to the Rose-tree that was growing beneath the
Student's window.

`Give me a red rose,' she cried, `and I will sing you my sweetest song.'

But the Tree shook its head.

`My roses are red,' it answered, `as red as the feet of the dove, and redder than
the great fans of coral that wave and wave in the ocean-cavern. But the winter has
chilled my veins, and the frost has nipped my buds, and the storm has broken my
branches, and I shall have no roses at all this year.'

`One red rose is all I want,' cried the Nightingale, `only one red rose! Is there no
way by which I can get it?'

`There is a way,' answered the Tree; `but it is so terrible that I dare not tell it to
you.'

`Tell it to me,' said the Nightingale, `I am not afraid.'

`If you want a red rose,' said the Tree, `you must build it out of music by
moonlight, and stain it with your own heart's-blood. You must sing to me with your
breast against a thorn. All night long you must sing to me, and the thorn must
pierce your heart, and your life-blood must flow into my veins, and become mine.'

`Death is a great price to pay for a red rose,' cried the Nightingale, `and Life is very
dear to all. It is pleasant to sit in the green wood, and to watch the Sun in his
chariot of gold, and the Moon in her chariot of pearl. Sweet is the scent of the

115
hawthorn, and sweet are the bluebells that hide in the valley, and the heather that
blows on the hill. Yet Love is better than Life, and what is the heart of a bird
compared to the heart of a man?'

So she spread her brown wings for flight, and soared into the air. She swept over
the garden like a shadow, and like a shadow she sailed through the grove.

1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. soar a ქარვა
2. grove b მზის საათი
3. spray c წარაფი, პატარა ტყე
4. sun-dial d ჰაერში ლივლივი
5. amber e მოყინვა
6. mower f სურნელი
7. chill g მცელავი
8. bud h ტოტი
9. pierce i კოკორი
10. scent j გახვრეტა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Find the English equivalents of the following Georgian words in the text:

1. ქაფი ________________________
2. სირინოზი ________________________
3. ნარგიზი ________________________
4. ცელი ________________________
5. მარჯანი ________________________
6. ეტლი ________________________

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 7. მაჩიტა ________________________

Speaking

In pairs discuss the following issues and report to the group:

1. Why cannot the rose trees give flowers to the nightingale?

2. Do you agree with the following ideas: a) Love is better than Life; b) What is
the heart of a bird compared to the heart of a man? Why?

Project

In this fairy tale Wilde uses a number of memorable similes to

characterise roses. a) Define a simile; b) Find all the similes in the text; c)
Translate them into Georgian; d) Find suitable Georgian equivalents; e) Comment
on similarities and differences.

Unit 13

Reading 1

The Nightingale and the Rose

(continued)

The young student was still lying on the grass, where she had left him, and the
tears were not yet dry in his beautiful eyes.

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`Be happy,' cried the Nightingale, `be happy; you shall have your red rose. I will
build it out of music by moonlight, and stain it with my own heart's-blood. All that I
ask of you in return is that you will be a true lover, for Love is wiser than
Philosophy, though she is wise, and mightier than Power, though he is mighty.
Flame-coloured are his wings, and coloured like flame is his body. His lips are sweet
as honey, and his breath is like frankincense.'

The student looked up from the grass, and listened, but he could not understand
what the Nightingale was saying to him, for he only knew the things that are written
down in books.

But the Oak-tree understood, and felt sad, for he was very fond of the little
Nightingale who had built her nest in his branches.

`Sing me one last song,' he whispered; `I shall feel very lonely when you are gone.'

So the Nightingale sang to the Oak-tree, and her voice was like water bubbling from
a silver jar.

When she had finished her song the student got up, and pulled a note-book and a
lead-pencil out of his pocket.

`She has form,' he said to himself, as he walked away through the grove - `that
cannot be denied to her; but has she got feeling? I am afraid not. In fact, she is like
most artists; she is all style, without any sincerity. She would not sacrifice herself
for others. She thinks merely of music, and everybody knows that the arts are
selfish. Still, it must be admitted that she has some beautiful notes in her voice.
What a pity it is that they do not mean anything, or do any practical good.' And he
went into his room, and lay down on his little pallet-bed, and began to think of his
love; and, after a time, he fell asleep.

1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. wise a ძლიერი
2. mighty b ალისფერი
3. power c რაკრაკი
4. flame–coloured d ბრძენი
5. frankincense e გულწრფელობა
6. bubble f დაბალი ჩალის საწოლი
7. deny g მსხვერპლად შეწირვა
8. sincerity h უარყოფა
9. sacrifice i საკმეველი

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10. pallet-bed j ძალაუფლება

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Replace the underlined words with their synonyms:

1. The nightingale stained the rose with its own heart's-blood. ____________

2. The oak tree was very fond of the little Nightingale who had built her nest in his
branches. ______________

3. ‘She thinks merely of music’- thought the student. _______________

Speaking
Discuss the following issues and report to the group:

1. The student thinks that a) the nightingale has no feelings and cannot sacrifice
itself b) the nightingale like other artists is selfish. Do you agree with these
opinions?

Reading 2

119
 Illustration by Sarah B. Smith

The Nightingale and the Rose

(continued)

And when the Moon shone in the heavens the Nightingale flew to the Rose-
tree, and set her breast against the thorn. All night long she sang with her
breast against the thorn, and the cold crystal Moon leaned down and listened.
All night long she sang, and the thorn went deeper and deeper into her breast,
and her life-blood ebbed away from her.

She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the
topmost spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvellous rose, petal
following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that
hangs over the river - pale as the feet of the morning, and silver as the wings of
the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose
in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the
Tree.

But the Tree cried to the Nightingale to press closer against the thorn. `Press
closer, little Nightingale,' cried the Tree, `or the Day will come before the rose is
finished.'

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 So the Nightingale pressed closer against the thorn, and louder and louder
grew her song, for she sang of the birth of passion in the soul of a man and a
maid.

And a delicate flush of pink came into the leaves of the rose, like the flush in
the face of the bridegroom when he kisses the lips of the bride. But the thorn
had not yet reached her heart, so the rose's heart remained white, for only a
Nightingale's heart's-blood can crimson the heart of a rose.

And the Tree cried to the Nightingale to press closer against the thorn. `Press
closer, little Nightingale,' cried the Tree, `or the Day will come before the rose is
finished.'

So the Nightingale pressed closer against the thorn, and the thorn touched
her heart, and a fierce pang of pain shot through her. Bitter, bitter was the pain,
and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected
by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb.

And the marvelous rose became crimson, like the rose of the eastern sky.
Crimson was the girdle of petals, and crimson as a ruby was the heart.

But the Nightingale's voice grew fainter, and her little wings began to beat,
and a film came over her eyes. Fainter and fainter grew her song, and she felt
something choking her in her throat.

Then she gave one last burst of music. The white Moon heard it, and she
forgot the dawn, and lingered on in the sky. The red rose heard it, and it
trembled all over with ecstasy, and opened its petals to the cold morning air.
Echo bore it to her purple cavern in the hills, and woke the sleeping shepherds
from their dreams. It floated through the reeds of the river, and they carried its
message to the sea.

`Look, look!' cried the Tree, `the rose is finished now;' but the Nightingale
made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her
heart.

And at noon the student opened his window and looked out.

`Why, what a wonderful piece of luck! he cried; `here is a red rose! I have
never seen any rose like it in all my life. It is so beautiful that I am sure it has a
long Latin name;' and he leaned down and plucked it.

Then he put on his hat, and ran up to the Professor's house with the rose in
his hand.

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 The daughter of the Professor was sitting in the doorway winding blue silk on
a reel, and her little dog was lying at her feet.

`You said that you would dance with me if I brought you a red rose,' cried the
student. Here is the reddest rose in all the world. You will wear it to-night next
your heart, and as we dance together it will tell you how I love you.'

But the girl frowned.

`I am afraid it will not go with my dress,' she answered; `and, besides, the
Chamberlain's nephew has sent me some real jewels, and everybody knows that
jewels cost far more than flowers.'

`Well, upon my word, you are very ungrateful,' said the Student angrily; and
he threw the rose into the street, where it fell into the gutter, and a cart-wheel
went over it.

`Ungrateful!' said the girl. `I tell you what, you are very rude; and, after all,
who are you? Only a student. Why, I don't believe you have even got silver
buckles to your shoes as the Chamberlain's nephew has;' and she got up from
her chair and went into the house.

`What a silly thing Love is,' said the student as he walked away. `It is not
half as useful as Logic, for it does not prove anything, and it is always telling
one of things that are not going to happen, and making one believe things that
are not true. In fact, it is quite unpractical, and, as in this age to be practical is
everything, I shall go back to Philosophy and study Metaphysics.'

So he returned to his room and pulled out a great dusty book, and began to
read.

Speaking
Discuss the following issues in pairs and report to the group:

1. Was the student ‘a true lover’? Why?

2. What do you think about the professor’s daughter? Why?
3. What do you think about the last paragraph of the tale?
4. Comment on Wilde’s language.

Unit 14

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Reading 1

ERNEST HEMINGWAY

Ernest Hemingway was a famous American novelist, short-story writer and essayist,
whose deceptively simple prose style has influenced a wide range of writers. He was
awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize for Literature. Hemingway published seven novels, six
short story collections, and two non-fiction works during his lifetime.

Ernest Hemingway was born in Oak Park, Illinois. His father was a physician, and his
mother was a musician. Both were well-educated and well-respected. Hemingway
published his earliest stories and poems in his high school newspaper.

Upon his graduation in 1917, Hemingway worked as a reporter for The Kansas City
Star. He then joined a volunteer ambulance unit in Italy during World War I. In 1918
he suffered a severe leg wound. For his service, Hemingway was twice decorated by
the Italian government.

After the war Hemingway worked for a short time as a journalist in Chicago. In 1921
he moved to Paris, where wrote articles for the Toronto Star. "If you are lucky enough
to have lived in Paris as a young man, then whenever you go for the rest of your life, it
stays with you, for Paris is a moveable feast." (from A Moveable Feast, 1964)

In Paris Hemingway associated with Gertrude Stein whose salon was a bastion of
Modernism. It was Gertrude Stein who first used the phrase the Lost Generation,
popularised by Hemingway in his novel The Sun Also Rises. Since then the term refers
to the disillusioned post–World War I generation whose life is often described by
Hemingway.

Hemingway's first collection of short stories In our Time (1924), was published in
Paris. He wrote and rewrote the novel in various parts of Spain and France between
1924 and 1926. It became his first great success. In 1930s Hemingway wrote such
major works as Death in the Afternoon (1932), a non-fiction account of Spanish

123
bullfighting, and The Green Hills of Africa (1935), a story of a hunting safari in East
Africa.

Hemingway referred to his style as the “iceberg theory”: in his writing the facts float
above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out-of-sight. Writing in
"The Art of the Short Story," he explains: "A few things I have found to be true. If you
leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If
you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless."

The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Hemingway offers a "multi-focal"

photographic reality. The photographic "snapshot" style creates a collage of images.
The sentences build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole. He
also uses other cinematic techniques of "cutting" quickly from one scene to the next;
or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the
gap, as though responding to instructions from the author, and create three-
dimensional prose.

On July 2 Hemingway committed suicide with his favourite shotgun at his home in
Ketchum, Idaho. Several of Hemingway's novels have been published posthumously.

1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

1. deceptive a უპასუხებს
2. decorated b ფარულად
3. bastion c გულგატეხილი
4. disillusioned d გამოტოვება
5. float e მატყუარა
6. out-of-sight f ციხესიმაგრე
7. multi-focal g ტივტივი
8. omission h დაჯილდოებული
9. responds to i სამგანზომილებიანი
10. three-dimentional j მრავალმხრივი

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Fill in the blanks with the words form the box below:

much Europe loves him leopard

Kilimanjaro popular gangrene

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Hemingway’s first serious novel which brought 1……………………. fame was The Sun
Also Rises (1926). The story, narrated by an American journalist, deals with a group
of expatriates in France and Spain, members of the disillusioned post-World War I
Lost Generation. Main characters are Lady Brett Ashley and Jake Barnes. Lady Brett
2. ……………………. Jake, who has been wounded in war and can't answer her needs.
Jake and Brett and their friends have various adventures around 3. ………………….. ,
in Madrid, Paris, and Pampalona. In attempt to cope with their despair they turn to
alcohol and violence.

One of Hemingway's most 4. …………………… short stories is 'The Snows of Kilimanjaro,'

first published in 1936. It begins with an epitaph telling that the western summit of
the mountain is called the House of God, and close to it was found the carcass of a
5. …………………….. . Down on the savannah the failed writer Harry is dying of
6. …………………….. in a hunting camp. "He had loved too much, demanded too
7. …………………….. , and he wrote it all out." Just before the end, Harry has a vision,
that he is taken up to see the top of 8. ……………………… on a plane which is described as
"great, high, and unbelievably white in the sun."

3. Fill in the blanks with most suitable words:

Among Hemingway’s later works, the most outstanding 1. ……………….. the short novel,
The Old Man and the Sea (1952), the story of 2. ……………….. old fisherman's journey,
his long and lonely struggle with a fish and 3. …………… sea, and his victory in defeat.
In 1954, when Hemingway 4. ……………. awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was
for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated 5. …………….. The
Old Man and the Sea, and for the influence that he has had on contemporary style."
Indeed, Hemingway 6. ................ one of the first writers who reacted against the
"elaborate style" 7. …………………….19th century writers and created a style in which
meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences — a fiction
8. ……………………. which very little is stated explicitly.

Reading 2

125
 Cat in the Rain
There were only two Americans stopping at the hotel. They did not know any of the
people they passed on the stairs on their way to and from their room. Their room was
on the second floor facing the sea. It also faced the public garden and the war
monument. There were big palms and green benches in the public garden.

In the good weather there was always an artist with his easel. Artists liked the way the
palms grew and the bright colors of the hotels facing the gardens and the sea.

Italians came from a long way off to look up at the war monument. It was made of
bronze and glistened in the rain. It was raining. The rain dripped from the palm trees.
Water stood in pools on the gravel paths. The sea broke in a long line in the rain and
slipped back down the beach to come up and break again in a long line in the rain. The
motor cars were gone from the square by the war monument. Across the square in the
doorway of the café a waiter stood looking out at the empty square. The American wife
stood at the window looking out.

Outside right under their window a cat was crouched under one of the dripping green
tables. The cat was trying to make herself so compact that she would not be dripped
on.

‘I’m going down and get that kitty,’ the American wife said.

‘I’ll do it,’ her husband offered from the bed.

‘No, I’ll get it. The poor kitty out trying to keep dry under a table.’

The husband went on reading, lying propped up with the two pillows at the foot of the
bed.

‘Don’t get wet,’ he said.

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The wife went downstairs and the hotel owner stood up and bowed to her as she
passed the office. His desk was at the far end of the office. He was an old man and
very tall.

‘Il piove, ’the wife said. She liked the hotel-keeper.

‘Si, Si, Signora, brutto tempo. It is very bad weather.’

He stood behind his desk in the far end of the dim room. The wife liked him. She liked
the deadly serious way he received any complaints. She liked his dignity. She liked the
way he wanted to serve her. She liked the way he felt about being a hotel-keeper. She
liked his old, heavy face and big hands.

Liking him she opened the door and looked out. It was raining harder. A man in a
rubber cape was crossing the empty square to the café. The cat would be around to
the right. Perhaps she could go along under the eaves. As she stood in the doorway an
umbrella opened behind her. It was the maid who looked after their room.

‘You must not get wet,’ she smiled, speaking Italian.

Of course, the hotel-keeper had sent her. With the maid holding the umbrella over her,
she walked along the gravel path until she was under their window. The table was
there, washed bright green in the rain, but the cat was gone. She was suddenly
disappointed. The maid looked up at her.

‘There was a cat,’ said the American girl.

‘A cat?’ the maid laughed. ‘A cat in the rain?’

‘Yes, –’ she said, ‘under the table.’ Then, ‘Oh, I wanted it so much. I wanted a kitty.’

When she talked English the maid’s face tightened.

‘Come, Signora,’ she said. ‘We must get back inside. You will be wet.’

1. Match the words with their Georgian definitions:

127
 1. easel a საზოგადოებრივი
2. glisten b ბრწყინვა
3. dripped c დაყრდნობა
4. crouched d თავის დაკვრა
5. prop e მოლბერტი
6. bow f მოკუნტული
7. public g წვეთავდა

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Speaking

In pairs discuss the following issues and report to the group:

1. What kind of weather is described in the story? Does it have any symbolic
significance? Why?
2. What can you say about George and his wife’s relationship? How can you prove
your position? Which words guide us to the conclusion?
3. Why did the wife like the hotel keeper? What makes you think so?
4. Hemingway refers to the female participant of the story by “wife” and “girl”. Do
these words any symbolic meaning? Why?

Reading 3

128
 Cat in the Rain
(continued)

They went back along the gravel path and passed in the door. The maid stayed outside
to close the umbrella. As the American girl passed the office, the padrone bowed from
his desk. Something felt very small and tight inside the girl. The padrone made her feel
very small and at the same time really important. She had a momentary feeling of
being of supreme importance. She went on up the stairs. She opened the door of the
room. George was on the bed, reading.

‘Did you get the cat?’ he asked, putting the book down.

‘It was gone.’

‘Wonder where it went to,’ he said, resting his eyes from reading.

She sat down on the bed.

‘I wanted it so much,’ she said. ‘I don’t know why I wanted it so much. I wanted that
poor kitty. It isn’t any fun to be a poor kitty out in the rain.’

George was reading again. She went over and sat in front of the mirror of the dressing
table looking at herself with the hand glass. She studied her profile, first one side and
then the other. Then she studied the back of her head and her neck. ‘Don’t you think it
would be a good idea if I let my hair grow out?’ she asked, looking at her profile again.

George looked up and saw the back of her neck, clipped close like a boy’s.

‘I like it the way it is.’

‘I get so tired of it,’ she said. ‘I get so tired of looking like a boy.’

George shifted his position in the bed. He hadn’t looked away from her since she
started to speak.

‘You look pretty darn nice,’ he said.

129
She laid the mirror down on the dresser and went over to the window and looked out.
It was getting dark.

‘I want to pull my hair back tight and smooth and make a big knot at the back that I
can feel,’ she said. ‘I want to have a kitty to sit on my lap and purr when I stroke her.’

‘Yeah?’ George said from the bed.

‘And I want to eat at a table with my own silver and I want candles. And I want it to be
spring and I want to brush my hair out in front of a mirror and I want a kitty and I
want some new clothes.’

‘Oh, shut up and get something to read,’ George said. He was reading again.

His wife was looking out of the window. It was quite dark now and still raining in the
palm trees.

‘Anyway, I want a cat,’ she said, ‘I want a cat. I want a cat now. If I can’t have long
hair or any fun, I can have a cat.’

George was not listening. He was reading his book. His wife looked out of the window
where the light had come on in the square. Someone knocked at the door. ‘Avanti,’
George said. He looked up from his book. In the doorway stood the maid. She held a
big tortoise-shell cat pressed tight against her and swung down against her body.

‘Excuse me,’ she said, ‘the padrone asked me to bring this for the Signora.”

1. Fill in the blanks with the words form the box:

130
 relationship American story loved students
written cat popular

This story is about an 1. …………………… couple on vacation in Italy. While at their hotel
the woman sees a 2. …………………. and the story progresses from there. During the
story it is made obvious that the couple's 3. …………………. is going sour. Hemingway
uses the cat stuck in the rain, with nobody to care for, to symbolize the wife who longs
to be 4. …………………… . Hemingway claims in a letter to F. Scott Fitzgerald that the
5. …………………. was not about his marriage to his first wife, which was falling apart, at
the same time the story was 6. ……………………. . It has many articles and essays written
about it and is a very 7. ………………………….. short story amongst English teachers and
8. ………………………. .

Speaking
In pairs discuss the following issues and report to the group.

1. Why did the padrone make the girl small and important? Prove your reasons .
2. Why did the girl want to grow her hair?
3. Literary critics assume that rain symbolises the marriage of the participants of
the story. Do you agree with this assumption? Why?
4. The war monument is mentioned three times? Does this point to something for
you ?
5. Hemingway does not describe George and his wife. Why?

Project
1. Hemingway himself described his style as the“iceberg theory”, which means
that in his writing the facts float above water; the supporting structure and
symbolism operate out-of-sight. Find more about his style and find examples in
“The cat in the rain”. Report to the group.
2. Find more about “Lost Generation”. Report to the group.

Self-Assessment Test 2 (Units 7-12)

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1. Fill in the blanks with the words from the text:

Language variation, ancestral; mightier; subdivision; millennium;

lingered ; Metaphysics; Old English; theoretical lexicography; fusion;

1. Oscar Wilde thinks that love is _____________ than Power.

2. The white Moon heard the last burst of music and she forgot the dawn, and
_______________ in the sky.
3. The student decided to go back to Philosophy and study .
4. There is not one accepted opinion about the essence of lexicology and lexicography.
Some people use the term lexicology to mean ___________. Others used the term
lexicology as a ________________ of linguistics that works with only vocabulary.
5. Historically, English originated from the ________________ of languages and
dialects, now collectively called ____________ .
6. Georgian shared a common _______________ language with Svan and
Mingrelian/Laz in the First __________ BC.
7. ______________________ descibes the relationship between the use of linguistic
forms and factors such as Geography, social class, ethnic group or style.

______ /10 points

2. Complete the following sentences in the most appropriate way:

1. The goal of semantic study is to ______________________________________

and placed in certain linguistic environments by speakers of the language.
2. _______________is a particular manner of speech of an individual.
3. Discourse analysis examines the way in which sentences are used to make up
______________________________ .
4. Afrikaans is spoken as a _______________ language by many millions of people
in __________________ .
5. Pragmatics looks at how context affects_______________ .
6. In multilingual countries governments decide which of a country’s many
languages to ______________ or _____________ .

______ / 8 points

3. State whether the following statements are True or False:

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 1. The lexical system of a language is studied by Applied Linguistics. T F
2. The phrase ‘Lost Generation’ belongs to G. Stein T F
3. Majority of core English words come from French borrowings. T F
4. Celtic and Anglo-Saxon speakers had much in common. T F
5. Both English and Scandinavians were ruled by the Normans. T F
6. Majority of the French borrowings have become nativised. T F
7. Crypto- is a Latin suffix. T F
8. Pragmatics investigates the links between utterances in sequence T F
9. Isidore Gvarjaladze worked on a Georgian-Chinese dictionary. T F
10. Recently Margalitadze has successfully presented the online version of the T F
dictionary.
______ / 10 points

4. Finish the similes as given by O. Wilde:

1. red as _____________________
2. redder than _____________________
3. yellow as _____________________
4. yellower than _____________________
5. white as _____________________
6. whiter than _____________________

5. Write the Georgian equivalents of the following words :

1. cross-cultural _____________________
2. background _____________________
3. beneath _____________________
4. flow _____________________
5. transmit _____________________
6. well-respected _____________________
7. produce _____________________
8. emerald _____________________
9. diminish _____________________
10. stain _____________________
11. blossomed _____________________
12. faint _____________________
13. jewels _____________________
14. annual _____________________

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15. emphasise _____________________
16. surface _____________________
17. construct _____________________
18. meaningless _____________________
19. influential _____________________
20. assumption _____________________
21. originate _____________________
22. immense _____________________
23. variety _____________________
24. nonverbal _____________________
25. attitude _____________________
26. monolingual _____________________
27. innate _____________________
28. acquire _____________________
29. explore _____________________
30. conditions _____________________
31. lizard _____________________
32. inhabitant _____________________
33. Feudal _____________________
34. inferior _____________________
35. evolution _____________________
36. standardization _____________________
37. disillusioned _____________________
38. strengthen _____________________
39. multi-focal _____________________
40. wounded _____________________

___________ /40 points

What is your score? __________

Keys

134
Self-check Revision Test 1 (Units 1- 6)

1. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

1. Verbally 6. recklessly
2. pictographs 7. spellcheckers
3. first 8. chimpanzees
4. Christian 9. communicate
5. actual 10. inventories

2. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1.T; 2.T; 3. F; 4.F; 5. T; 6. F; 7. T; 8. F; 9.T. 10. F.

3. Complete the sentences using most appropriate words and phrases:

1. Newly coined 5. spoken

2. of languages we have today’ 6. recording function
3. Noam Chomsky 7. Phonemes
4. Middle and Early Modern English 8. Italian

4. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box:

1. Sounds; 2. phonemes; 3. dialects; 4. words; 5. Hundreds

5. Write the Georgian definitions of the following words:

1. უხეში 15. გამორჩეული; მნიშვნელოვანი 29. ალოფონი

2. სიცხადე, დასაბუთება 16. კომპლექსი; ნაკრები 30. გავლენა
3. იშვიათად 17. წარმოდგენა 31. საზღვრები
4. პირველადი, საწყისი 18. მიღება 32. დამოკიდებულება
5. ‘წყევლა-ლანძღვის’ სიტყვები 19. შედგენა 33. უნარი
6. მოიქცა 20. თვითგამოხატვა 34. კონტინენტური
7. დახვეწილი 21. აშკარად 35. გამონაკლისი
8. მოიცავს 22. აქცენტი, წარმოთქმის თავისებურება 36. გასაოცრად
9. მიზანი 23. ყრუ 37. მრავალფეროვანი
10. აღწერა 24. ონომაპოეია 38. განსხვავება
11. გამორჩევა 25. ფატიკური 39. პატარა ასო
12. იეროგლიფი 26. ასონანსი 40. დიდი ასო
13. უპირობო; უდავო 27. ალიტერაცია
14. განსაკუთრებული 28. რეკონსტრუქცია

Self-check revision test 2 (Units 7-12)

135
1. Fill in the blanks with the words from the text:

1. mightier 4. theoretical lexicography / subdivision 6. ancestral/millennium

2. lingered 5. Fusion/Old English 7. Language variation
3. Metaphysics
2. Complete the following sentences in the most appropriate way:

1. the utterances, the content of the works, 4. first/South Africa

and the expressions … of certain persons 5. meaning
2. Idiolect 6. develop/maintain
3. larger linguistic units

3.State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. F; 2. T; 3. F; 4. T; 5. T; 6. F; 7. F; 8. F; 9. F; 10. T.

4. Finish the similes as given by O. Wilde:

1. Red as the feet of the dove

2. redder than the great fans of coral that wave and wave in the ocean-cavern
3. Yellow as the hair of the mermaid who sits upon an amber throne
4. Yellower than the daffodil that blooms in the meadow before the mower comes with his scythe
5. as white as the foam of the sea
6. Whiter than the snow upon the mountain

5. Write the Georgian equivalents of the following words :

1. კულტურათაშორისი; 15. ხაზგასმა 29. გამოკვლევა

2. ფონი, ინფორმაცია; 16. ზედაპირული 30. პირობები
3. ქვემოთ; ქვეშ; 17. შექმნა 31. ხვლიკი
4. დინება 18. მნიშვნელობის გარეშე 32. მცხოვრები
5. გადაცემა 19. გავლენიანი 33. ფეოდალური
6. პატივცემული; დაფასებული 20. ვარაუდი, აზრი 34. უარესი ხარისხის;
7. წარმოება 21. წარმოშობა 35. ევოლუცია; განვითარება
8. ზურმუხტი 22. ვეებერთელა 36. სტანდარტიზაცია
9. შემცირება 23. განსხვავება, მრავალფეროვნება 37. გულგატეხილი
10. ლაქა; შეღებვა 24. არავერბალური, არასიტყვიერი 38. გაძლიერება
11. აყვავდა 25. მიმართება 39. მრავალმხრივი
12. სუსტი 26. ერთენოვანი 40. დაჭრილი
13. სამკაულები 27. თანდაყოლილი
14. ყოველწლიური 28. შეძენა
For notes

136