DSU5412

Building Control, Maintenance and

Brick and Stone Defects

Adapted from Sr Gary Yeung’s Handout

1
Outline of Contents
• Brick Defects
• Stone Defects

2
Brick Defects
Common Defects of Brick:
– Production defect
– Poor workmanship
– Movement factors as moisture, thermal and overloading
– Efflorescence
– Sulphate attack
– Staining
– Frost attack
– Corrosion of embedded metal
– Atmospheric impurities
– Lichen and mould growths

3
Brick Defects
Production Defects:
– Defects of Size
• Oversize bricks caused by poor material selection, underfiring, etc.
• Undersized bricks caused by poor material preparation, faulty moulds,
overfiring, etc.
– Defects of Shape
• Poor preparation of moulds, moulding techniques, faults in stacking, improper
handling, uneven drying
• Overburnt, incipient fusion, burrs, clamp stuck
– Defects of Body
• Raw material-cracking, bloating, laminations
• Cracking, exposure of green bricks to direct sunlight, rapid drying winds, putting
green bricks into kiln too soon
• Large cracks by rain getting on to hot bricks
– Defects of Appearance
• Faulty wires in wirecut bricks
• Dark spots by uneven distribution of iron sulphide in clay

4
Brick Defects

5
Brick Defects
Brick Selection:
– BS 3921 – 3 types of clay bricks/blocks:
– Internal quality: suitable only for internal use but not as stringent as facing
brick
– Ordinary quality: deterioration unlikely to occur under sound practice, well
fired and free from deep cracks
– Special quality: extremely durable even when used in extreme exposure

6
Brick Defects
Effects of Workmanship in Brickwork Strength
1. Incorrect Adjustment of Suction Rate in Bricks
– Suction rate be controlled to prevent excessive water loss from mortar
– Water absorbed by bricks leaves cavities of mortar & weakened setting
– Saturated bricks develop poor adhesion between bricks & mortar
– Dewatered mortar produces a rounded joint due to loss of elasticity
2. Incorrect Jointing Procedures
– Incomplete filling up of joints
– Deeply furrowed bed joints reduce strength of 33%
– Excessively thick bed joints, say 16-20 mm reduce strength by 30% as
compared with normal 10 mm thick joints

7
Brick Defects

8
Brick Defects
Effects of Workmanship in Brickwork Strength (cont’d)
3. Deviation from Vertical Plane or Alignment
– Gives rise to eccentric loading in a wall under compression & reduces
strength
– Eccentrically applied loads vs. axially loaded walls, reduce strength by 10%
– For those off-plumb bricks, reduction by 20%
4. Unfavourable Curing Conditions
– Newly completed brickwork affected by unfavourable weather, curing
under very hot conditions, frost damage, damage by rain
– About 10% reduction in strength cured in sun vs. under cover

9
Brick Defects
Defects Caused by Movement
1. Ground Movement
– Differential settlements manifested as cracks developing in walls
– Differential settlement from groundwater level changes, site drainage,
running sand, mining subsidence, local vibration effects, etc.
– Settlement cracks are usually diagonal, appear at door/window openings,
at weakest parts of wall (Figure 9.7)

10
Brick Defects

11
Brick Defects
Defects Caused by Movement (cont’d)
2. Bulging, Buckling & Spreading
– Causing outward non-alignment of external walls, either vertically or
horizontally (Figure 9.8)
– Vibrations from machinery, building plant or traffic
– Overloading of structure
– Walls having a high slenderness ratio – inadequate thickness vs. height
– Lack of cross ties between outer wall & inner walls of cavity wall
– Spreading may also occur at roof level when roof sags (Figure 9.9)
– Produces outward thrust, thus fracturing the wall

12
Brick Defects

13
Brick Defects
Defects Caused by Movement (cont’d)
3. Thermal Movement
– Thermal expansion is theoretically reversible
– Excessive expansion in long brickwalls cause differential movement fracture
on contraction
– Lateral movement occurs along horizontal dpc
– Expansion forces the brickwork outwards
– When it contracts upon cooling, not return to its original length, resulting in
tension

14
Brick Defects

15
Brick Defects
Defects Caused by Movement (cont’d)
4. Moisture Movement
– Fired clay products exhibit reversible dimensional changes depending on
their moisture content
– Fire clay, while cooling in kiln, begins permanent expansion at greatly
reduced rate
– 50% of total expansion in 2 years takes place within 2 days from cooling
– Fresh bricks not recommended as to avoid moisture expansion
– Bricks absorb moisture to cause expansion which would dry rapidly & shrink
– Excessive expansion & contraction can produce shrinkage cracks

16
Brick Defects
Efflorescence
– Whitish salts caused by migration of salts from interior to exposed brick
surface
– Any absorbed water drying out will leave salts behind and will continue for
years depending on salts quantity & solubility
– Damage depends on chemical nature of salts, e.g. magnesium sulphate
causes spalling of brick and most other salts would lift decorations, mostly
unsightly and can be washed away
– May be derived from mortar/plaster or contamination from groundwater,
substances stacked against wall, fertilizers, fertilized grounds (Fig 9.11)
– Rainwater mix with limestone or concrete copings to form calcium
carbonate or calcium sulphate and may be taken up by brickwork, cause
efflorescence
– External efflorescence, rarely a serious problem, salts are washed away
– Internal efflorescence or crystoflorescence is usually more troublesome,
especially on decorated walls

17
18
Brick Defects
Sulphate Attack
– Chemical reaction between sulphate salts in bricks & tricalcium aluminate
in Portland cement
– Form calcium sulphoaluminate – cause expansion, disintegration of mortar
joints & distortion of brickwork
– Noticeable in exposed brickwork, e.g. retaining walls, masonry below dpc &
chimneys
– Horizontal cracking of bed joints lead to expansion of mortar
– Chimneys will tend to bow from driving rain
– Clay bricks contain acid-sulphate, especially in foundations whereas
sulphates may be derived from groundwater or soil
– Possible solution is to remove either one chemical
– Preventive measure can be by sulpate-resisting cement, tricalcium
aluminate is limited to max. 3.5%

19
Brick Defects
Staining
– Soluble lime/calcium hydroxide is produced during hydration of Portland
cement
– Deposited on wall surface by movement of rainwater via freshly
set/hardened mortar
– Calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide in atmosphere to form
calcium carbonate, an insoluble white crystalline solid
– Calcium carbonate forms a disfiguring stain on brickwork
– Brick can be produced with surface colour by adding finely ground metallic
oxides to sand sprinkled on bricks before burning
– For example, manganese (brown); chromium (pink); cobalt and manganese
(black); antimony (yellow); copper (green); cobalt (blue)

20
Brick Defects
Frost Attack
– Found in partly built unprotected brickwork or severe exposure
– Water expands by about 2% when changing to ice
– By expansion of freezing water in pores or cervices results in
spalling/crumbling of wall surface
– The denser the material, the less porous, the less liable to frost damage
– Freezing unlikely happen in HK
– High cement content in mortar also susceptible to shrinkage cracking &
movement induced cracking, permitting water to penetrate
– Calcium silicate bricks – never be used near sea-water, near roads with de-
icing salts, as deterioration occurs when salt solution become frozen
– Precast concrete units posses good frost resistance if done per BS5628: Part
3

21
Brick Defects
Corrosion of Embedded Ferrous Metals
– Iron/steel embedded in brickwork may corrode & cause rust
staining
– Preventive measure by coating metal with bitumen, anti-corrosion
paint or metallic zinc paint
– Corrosion of wall ties in cavity brick wall (Figure 9.13), window
holdfast or other embedded metal components produces cracking
along mortar bed joints

22
Brick Defects

23
Brick Defects

24
Brick Defects
Atmospheric Impurities
– Dust particles + bricks + moisture would form weak acids
– Cause deterioration of brick surfaces, especially on softer/under-
burnt bricks allowing surface erosion
– Surface dirt can be removed by washing
– Defective bricks be cut out, wall rebuilt and repointed at joints

25
Brick Defects
Lichens, Moulds and Other Growths
– Seldom destructive, but tend to disfigure & stain brickwork
– Climbing plants/creepers cause damage to walls – as roots
penetrate into cracks/crevices of mortar joints
– Can be prevented/destroyed by applying toxic washes, e.g. sodium
orthopentachlorophenate during a dry spell, after removing thick
surface growths
– Effectiveness of treatment depends on surface porosity & extent
washed by rain

26
Brick Defects
Rectification Works to Brickwork Defects
1. Strength and Stability of Damaged Walls
– To assess extent of wall out of plumb, cracking and distortion, etc.
– To assess bearing area of joists, lintels & roof timbers – ensure no significant
loss of support
– Check nature/condition of wall & foundation
– Check availability of lateral restraints e.g. cross walls, beams, roof trusses,
etc.
– Check probability of vibrations created by live load/users/traffic

27
Brick Defects
Rectification Works to Brickwork Defects (cont’d)
2. Treatment of Structural Damage
Ways to treat damages by fires or explosions:
– Tie rods are fixed at floor/roof level to anchor suspect wall to another
sound wall or structural member
– Buttresses are keyed into suspect wall & by underpinning, to ensure
buttresses actually thrust against wall in correct direction
– Permanent repair involves rebuilding of damaged wall either partially or
wholly
– Tie rods offer cheapest & most effective method, but very unsightly
– Portland cement: lime: sand mortar (1:1:6 by volume) is suitable for
rebuilding work
– Stronger mortar would cause cracking between old/new work, whereas a
weaker mix may not withstand initial or long-term movements

28
Brick Defects
Rectification Works to Brickwork Defects (cont’d)
3. Cracks
– Fine cracks up to 1.5 mm are not very conspicuous
– Cut out cracked bricks; rake out the joints along cracks; rebond with a 1:1:6
cement: lime: sand mortar; fill cracked joints & repoint
– Wider cracks require repair, involve raking or cutting out joints squarely to
15 mm depth; then repoint with a 1:2:9 mortar

29
Brick Defects
Rectification Works to Brickwork Defects (cont’d)
4. Surface Damage
– Frost damage to mortar causes crumble & drop from joint – very water-
absorbent & encourages rainwater seepage
– Frost-damaged mortar be raked out to 15-20 mm depth (Figure 9.15)
– Raked joints be brushed/washed to remove dust & repoint mortar
– Replacement of damaged bricks is the best remedy, sometimes turn/swap
faces

30
Brick Defects

31
Brick Defects
Rectification Works to Brickwork Defects (cont’d)
5. Sulphate Attack
– Cause expansion of mortar joint
– Possibly horizontal cracking of rendering with isolated portions falling off
– May cause the structure unsafe
– Rebuilding the bricks with low sulphate content & mortar be of 1:1:6
sulphate-resisting Portland cement: hydrated lime: sand
– Damaged rendering be removed & brickwork allowed to dry before
reapplying a weaker mix of sulphate-resisting cement, lime, sand

32
Brick Defects

33
Brick Defects
Rectification Works to Brickwork Defects (cont’d)
6. Insertion of Wall Ties
– Resin be used if repair in wet conditions
– Various methods for replacing defective wall ties per BRE Digest 329, one
being:
1. Prepare ties by cutting to length & slotting one end. The far inner end of tie
be cut obliquely to improve mixing action (Figure 9.17). For a 280 mm
cavity, ties be 215 mm long
2. Drill through the near leaf using a tube guide or bubble level guide to set
the 5 degree fall
3. Remove tube guide, push drill through to bear on remote leaf & set depth
marker at 75 mm

34
Brick Defects
Rectification Works to Brickwork Defects (cont’d)
6. Insertion of Wall Ties
4. Drill 75 mm into remote leaf. Blow dust/debris out from hole, using the 6
mm tube & air source
5. Use thin-walled tube as guide & other tube as a push rod to introduce
synthetic resin capsules
6. Insert tie, smash capsule & drive tie to hole base using driving attachment
7. Allow resin to set hard (about 1 hour), full strength develop after a day
8. Ensure a bond made – check remote leaf for perforations or excessive
dampness
9. Grout the near leaf from a gun through a rubber adaptor

35
Brick Defects

36
Brick Defects
Rectification Works to Brickwork Defects (cont’d)
7. Treatment of Bulges & Fractures
- Fractures usually caused by local subsidence, failure of lintels, or A & A to
original structure
- Bulging may result from alterations in loadings, no bond between brick
skins or straight joints at wall junctions
- After this initial diagnosis, to adopt measures from:
a. Leave Alone
- If no more danger of fracturing affecting wall stability
- More damage may be caused by cutting out or grouting than doing nothing
b. Cut Out & Point
- Cause of fracturing ceased but fractures remain a source of water penetration &
potential structural weakness
- The fracture be cut out with hacksaw blades, masonry saws or diamond wheels,
flushed with water & pointed

37
Brick Defects
7. Treatment of Bulges & Fractures (cont’d)
c. Stitch & in situ grouting
- To prevent further movement & threaten structural stability
- Where fracturing extends to bricks/joints, cutting out may be necessary
- Fractured bricks replaced with whole ones; and hand grouting & deep
tamping of fractured joints or rubble fills carried out
- Other stitching include brick reinforcement, stainless steel mesh, or wire set
into new mortar joints
- Special ties may be introduced from internal face to bond two skins
together
- May adopt epoxy mortar to anchor ties & resin anchors (Fig 9.18)
d. Take Down & Rebuild
- Where walls are bulging/leaning & serious displacement around a fracture
– take them down & rebuild
- Rebuilding work should follow original coursing, bonding & joint profile

38
Brick Defects

39
Brick Defects
Rectification Works to Brickwork Defects (cont’d)
8. Control of Algae, Lichens & Mosses
- Cause unsightly algal slimes, lichens cause deterioration of building
materials, e.g. copper, marble, glass & fouling organisms in drainage
systems
- Traditional treatments/weed killers of calcium chloride would leave
damaging soluble salts
- Concentrated solutions of zinc or magnesium silico-fluoride may produce
hard surface skins on limestone that liable to spall off

40
Brick Defects
8. Control of Algae, Lichens & Mosses (cont’d)
1. Remove most growths by hand or other aids
2. Prepare a quaternary ammonium-based biocide per specification, and fill a
pneumatic garden-type sprayer two-thirds full
3. Apply a flood coat, from top of vertical surface, moving across horizontally
& slowly
4. Leave treated area for one week. Brush off most dead growth, taking care
adjacent gutters hoppers
5. Prepare a biocide & quaternary ammonium compound adding tributyl tin
oxide per specification
6. Fill a second pneumatic sprayer with the diluted biocide & apply in same
manner
7. Allow surface to absorb & carry out a second application of proprietary
biocide as (5) above

41
Brick Defects
Rectification Works to Brickwork Defects (cont’d)
9. Control of Ivy & other creepers
- Cause persistently damp walls, disturbance & blocking of rainwater disposal
systems
- Difficulties in painting & repairing
- Security risks
- Ivy – rapid growth/aerial roots intrude into joints & displace stones/bricks
- Suckers & tendrils also cause surface decay, especially to mortar via
secretion of acid substances
- To remove ivy growth, to cut its main stems, leave it to wither itself, or
sprayed with toxic substances

42
Stone Defects
Common Stone Defects:
– Attack by polluted water
– Attack by soluble salts
– Frost action
– Thermal stress
– Erosion
– Lichen, mould, algae growth

43
Stone Defects
Attack by Polluted Water
– Acidic rainwater contact with sandstones & limestones
– Sulphurous or sulphuric acids dissolve limestones to give weathered
& rough texture
– Hard skin of calcium sulphate may be formed – develop into surface
crazing, blistering or exfoliation

44
Brick Defects

Stone Defects

45
Stone Defects
Attack by Soluble Salts
– Soluble salts damage porous stones
– Chlorides may be deposited from seepages
– Soluble salts by capillary action in unprotected porous stone
– Crystallization takes places from surface & sets up forces to damage
stonework
– Damage is manifested as efflorescence, exfoliation or spalling

Frost Action
– Small-pored stones have a greater capillary effect
– Water expands about 2% to form ice, generate expansive forces to
damage stonework

46
Brick Defects

Stone Defects

47
Stone Defects
Thermal Stress
– Surface temperature of stonework is warmer during daytime than
its inner mass whereas condition is reversed at nighttime
– Subjected to a constant cycle of differential thermal stress between
its surface & inner mass
– Fatigue leading to contour scaling & spalling

Erosion
– Softer stones be eroded by strong winds
– In coastal regions, erosion is accelerated by winds carrying sand
grains

48
Stone Defects
Lichens, Moulds, Algae Growths
– Cause unsightly stains – green, brown or black
– Eradication may be more difficult than brickwork – as toxic acids be
detrimental to some stones
– Apply some chemical treatment, improve impermeability to
moisture penetration, may possibly drastically affect stone
appearance
– Most water repellents are silicone-based products, mask pores &
inhibit capillary absorption of moisture
– Consider inappropriate to use silicone-based water repellents on
materials containing massive soluble salts

49
Stone Defects
Stonework Repair
– Stitching of cracks caused by structural movements after
underpinning
– Grouting of cracks
– Repointing of mortar joints to improve appearance, reduce water
penetration & unify the stones
– Cutting/removing defective stones & replacing with compatible
ones
– All damaged metal anchorages be replaced with bronze/stainless
steel ones
– Re-dressing of eroded surface
– Creepers be removed with weed-killer

50
Stone Defects
Brickwork & Stonework Cleaning
1. Washing
– Wash away accumulated dirt with water spray & brushes – inexpensive,
least harmful, but ineffective upon prolonged stubborn dirt
– Prolonged dirt adhering to limestones becomes attached to stone and may
develop binding matrix of calcium sulphate
2. Dry-blasting
– Abrasive grit is blown under pressure to remove dirt
– Nozzle size to suit, coarser grits used to remove thicker grime/stubborn dirt
– Medium grits for general soiling
– Finer grits for delicate surfaces
– Surfaces be washed rapidly with water after blasting to remove dust traces
via high-pressure water lance

51
Stone Defects
Cleaning of Brickwork & Stonework (cont’d)
3. Wet-grit Blasting
– Water is added to air/grit stream
– Mixture of wet grit is less harmful on surfaces
– Generates troublesome slurry
– Façade be washed with a high-pressure water lance
– Drying-out stains expected after blasting
4. Mechanical Cleaning
– Clean by conical carborundum stones, grinding, polishing discs & rotary
brushes
– Hand tools, e.g. chisels, brushes of bristle, stainless steel wire, abrasive
blocks; for ornamental works

52
Stone Defects
Cleaning of Brickwork & Stonework (cont’d)
5. Chemical Cleaning
– 2 major categories: acids & alkaline chemicals
– Acidic cleaning agents consist of aqueous solution containing organic
detergents & acids, e.g. hydrofluoric & orthophosphoric acids
– Hydrofluoric acid dissolve silica in stones
– Use on limestone not recommended – attack the limestone
– Ensure stone not absorb acid by rinse off after operation
– Alkaline products consist of chemicals from Hydroxide group, e.g. sodium
hydroxide (caustic soda), potassium hydroxide
– Caustic soda – very effective on limestone, but leaves harmful salts; rinse
off immediately after operation

53
54
The End
• For questions, please email to [email protected]

55
End

56