18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

Module – 1 7. If 1 , 2 , 3 are the eigen values of the matrix A , then 1 , 2 , 3

k k k
are the eigen values of Ak .
Characteristic equation – Eigen values of a real matrix – Eigen vectors of a real matrix – Properties of Eigen
values – Cayley-Hamilton theorem – Finding A–1 using Cayley-Hamilton theorem – Finding higher powers
8. If 1 , 2 , 3 are the eigen values of the matrix A , then k 1 , k 2 , k 3 are eigen values of matrix kA .
of A using Cayley-Hamilton theorem – Orthogonal reduction of a symmetric matrix to diagonal form –
Reduction of quadratic form to canonical form by orthogonal transformations – Orthogonal matrices – 1 1 1
Applications of Matrices in Engineering. 9. If 1 , 2 , 3 are the eigen values of the matrix A , then , , are the eigen values of A1 .
1 2 3
BASIC CONCEPTS
10. If 1 , 2 , 3 are the eigen values of the matrix A , then 1 – K, 2 – K, 3 – K are the eigenvalues of
CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION
matrix A – K I.
The characteristic equation of any square matrix A is A  I  0 .
11. The eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are real numbers.
For 2  2 matrix, the characteristic equation is 2 – S1  + S2 = 0.
where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements PROPERTIES OF EIGEN VECTORS
S2 = Determinant of the matrix 1. If the eigen values of a matrix are distinct, then the corresponding eigen vectors are linearly
For 3  3 matrix, the characteristic equation is   S1  S2  S3  0 .
3 2
independent. If | A |  0, then the eigenvectors are linearly independent. If | A | = 0, then the

where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements eigenvectors are linearly dependent.
2. The eigen vectors corresponding to distinct eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are orthogonal.
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
3. The eigen vector corresponding to an eigenvalue is not unique.
S3 = Determinant of the matrix 4. If two or more eigen values are equal, then the eigen vectors may be linearly dependent or linearly
EIGEN VALUES independent.
The roots of the characteristic equation are called eigen values.
EIGEN VECTOR
ORTHOGONAL MATRIX
 x1 
  A square matrix A with real entries is said to be orthogonal if AAT  AT A  I , where AT is the
The eigen vector of the matrix A is  A   I  X  0 , X   x2  , a non-zero column vector.
x  transpose of the matrix A . (i.e.) AT  A1 for an orthogonal matrix.
 3
SINGULAR & NON-SINGULAR MATRIX
A square matrix A is said to be singular if A  0, otherwise it is a non-singular matrix. PROPERTIES OF AN ORTHOGONAL MATRIX
1
PROPERTIES OF EIGEN VALUES 1. If  is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix, then is also an eigen value.

1. Sum of the eigen values is equal to sum of the main diagonal elements.
2. Product of the eigen values is equal to determinant of the matrix. 2. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A  1.

3. A square matrix A and its transpose have the same eigen values. 3. The transpose of an orthogonal matrix is also orthogonal.
4. If the matrix is singular, then one of its eigen value is 0. 4. The inverse of an orthogonal matrix is also orthogonal.
5. If the matrix is upper or lower triangular, then the eigen values are its main diagonal values.
CONDITIONS FOR PAIRWISE ORTHOGONAL VECTORS
1
6. If  is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix, then is also its eigen value. In a real symmetric matrix, the eigen vectors X 1 , X 2 , X 3 are said to be pair wise orthogonal, if

X 1 X 2T  0, X 2 X 3T  0, X 3 X 1T  0.

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 1 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 2 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

1
Hence the corresponding Eigenvector is X 1   
PROBLEMS  3
Case 2. If λ = 2, then equation (1) becomes
EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS  1 1   x1  0 
1 1       
Find the Eigen values and Eigen vectors of the matrix A    3 3   x2  0 
1. .
 3 1  x1  x2  0
Solution: 3x1  3 x2  0
1 1  i.e., we get, only one equation x1  x2  0
Let A   .
 3 1 i.e., x1  x2
Step 1: To find the characteristic equation x1 x2

The Characteristic equation of A is A  I  0 1 1
(i.e.) λ2 – S1λ + S2 = 0 where 1
Hence the corresponding Eigenvector is X 2   
S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements = (1) + ( –1) = 0 1 
1 1 TYPE – 1 NON-SYMMETRIC MATRIX WITH NON-REPEATED EIGENVALUES
S2 = | A | = = –1–3= –4  1 0  1
3 1  
Hence the characteristic equation is 2. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix A   1 2 1  .
λ2 – (0)λ + ( – 4 ) = 0 2 2 3 
 
λ2 – 4 = 0
Solution:
Step 2: To solve the characteristic equation
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
λ2 – 4 = 0
λ2 = 4  The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
λ =±2 where S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements=1+2+3 = 6
Hence, the Eigen values are – 2, 2. S 2 = Sum of the minors of the diagonal elements.
Step 3: To find the Eigenvectors:
To find the Eigenvectors, solve  A   I  X  0
2 1 1 1 1 0
=    4  5  2  11
2 3 2 3 1 2
1 1   1 0    x1  0
        1 0 1
  3 1  0 1    x2  0
S3 = A  1 2 1  6
1   1   x1  0
  
    x2  0
______________________________(1) 2 2 3
 3 1
Therefore, the Characteristic equation is: λ3 – 6λ2 +11λ – 6 = 0
Case 1. If λ = – 2, then Eqn. (1) becomes
 3 1  x1  0  (λ – 1)(λ 2 –5λ + 6)= 0
      λ=1 and λ 2 –5λ +6= 0
 3 1  x2  0 
3x1  x2  0 (λ-2) (λ-3)=0
3x1  x2  0 λ=1, 2, 3
i.e., we get, only one equation 3x1  x2  0 To find the Eigen Vectors:
i.e.,3x1   x2 To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0
x1 x2

1 3

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 3 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 4 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

1   0  1   x1   0    2
      
 1 2 1   x2    0   (A) Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   1  .
 2 3     x3   0   2 
 2  
Case (3) :  = 3 Then Equation (A) becomes
(1 – λ) x1 + 0 x2 – x3 = 0
x1 + (2 – λ) x2 + x3 =0   2 0  1  x1   0 
    
2 x1 + 2 x2 + (3 – λ) x3 = 0  1  1 1   x2    0 
 2 2 0   x3   0 
Case (1) :  = 1 Then Equation (A) becomes 
 0 0  1  x1   0 
     –2 x1 + 0 x2 – x3 = 0
 1 1 1   x2    0  x1 – x2 + x3 =0
 2 2 2   x  0 2 x1 + 2 x2 + 0 x3 = 0
   3  
0 x1 + 0 x2 – x3 = 0
x1 + x2 + x3 =0 Solve (1) and (2), using cross multiplication rule, we get
2 x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 0 x1 x2 x3
 
0 1 1  2  2 0
Solve (1) and (2), using cross multiplication rule, we get
1 1 1 1 1 1
x1 x2 x3
  x1 x 2 x3
0 1 1 0 0 0  
1 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
  1
x1 x 2 x3  
  Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   1  .
1 1 0 2
1  
  Type – 2 NON-SYMMETRIC MATRIX WITH REPEATED EIGENVALUES
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1    1 .
0   2 2  3
   
3. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix A   2 1  6 .
Case (2) :  = 2 Then Equation (A) becomes  1  2 0 
  1 0  1  x1   0   
     Solution:
 1 0 1   x2    0 
 2 2 1   x   0 The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
   3  
 The characteristic equation is   S1  S2  S3  0
3 2
–1 x1 + 0 x2 – x3 = 0
x1 + 0 x2 + x3 = 0 where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements = – 2 +1+0 = – 1
2 x1 + 2 x2 + x3 = 0 S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
1 6 2 3 2 2
Solve (2) and (3),using cross multiplication rule, we get =    12  3  6  21
x1 x x3 2 0 1 0 2 1
 2 
0 1 1 1 1 0 2 2 3
2 1 1 2 2 2 S3 = A  2 1  6  45
x1 x x 1  2 0
 2  3
2 1 2 Therefore, the Characteristic equation is λ3 + λ2 – 21 λ – 45 = 0.

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 5 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 6 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

To solve the Characteristic equation Case (2) :  = –3 Then equation (A) becomes
λ3 + λ2 – 21 λ – 45 = 0 1 2  3   x1   0 
If  = –3, then λ3 + λ2 – 21 λ – 45 = 0.     
2 4  6   x2    0 
Therefore,  = –3 is a root.
 1  2 3   x   0
By Synthetic division    3  
–3 1 1 –21 –45 x1 + 2 x2 –3 x3 =0
0 –3 6 45 2x1 + 4 x2 – 6 x3 = 0
1 – 2 –15 0 – x1 – 2 x2 +3 x3 = 0
All are same equations.
Other roots are given by λ2 – 2 λ – 15 = 0. Put x1 = 0.
(– 5) ( + 3) = 0 2 x2 –3 x3 =0
Hence , the Eigen values of A are λ = 5, –3, –3. 2 x2 =3 x3
x2 x3
To find the Eigen Vectors: 
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0 3 2
 2   2  3   x1   0  0
      
 2 1    6   x2    0   (A) Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   3  .
 1  2
  2 0     x3   0   
Put x2 = 0.
x1 –3 x3 =0
Case (1) :  = 5 Then equation (A) becomes x1 = 3 x3
 7 2  3   x1   0  x1 x3

     3 1
 2 4  6   x2    0 
 1  2  3
  5   x3   0   
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   0  .
1
 
–7 x1 + 2 x2 –3 x3 = 0
2x1 – 4 x2 – 6 x3 = 0  6 6 5 
– x1 – 2 x2 –5 x3 = 0  
4. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix A  14  13 10  .
 7 6 4 
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get  
x1 x2 x3 Solution:
 
2 3 3 7 7 2 The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 2  5  5 1 1  2  The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
x1 x2 x3 Where S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements = 6 – 13 + 4 = – 3
 
 16  32 16 S 2 = Sum of the minors of the diagonal elements.
x1 x2 x3
   13 10 6 5 6  6
1 2 1 =    8  11  6  3
 6 4 7 4 14  13
1
  =4 – 0 + 4 – 0 + 4 – 0 = 12
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   2  .
6 6 5
  1
  S3 = A  14  13 10  1
7 6 4

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 7 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 8 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 +3 λ2 +3λ +1 = 0. 7x1 = 6 x2

To Solve the Characteristic equation x1 x2
λ3 +3 λ2 +3λ +1 = 0. 
6 7
(λ + 1) 3 =0
6
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = –1, –1, –1.  
To find the Eigen Vectors: Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   7  .
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0 0
 
6   6 5   x1   0  TYPE – 3 SYMMETRIC MATRIX WITH NON-REPEATED EIGEN VALUES
    
 14  13   10   x2    0   (A)  3 1 1 
 7
 6 4     x3   0  5. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix A   1 5 1 .
 1 1 3 
 
Solution:
Case (1) :  = –1 Equation (A) becomes The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 7  6 5   x1   0   The characteristic equation is   S1  S2  S3  0
3 2

    
14  12 10   x2    0  where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=3 + 5 + 3 = 11
 7  6 5   x   0 S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
   3  
7x1 – 6 x2 + 5 x3 =0 3 1 5 1 3 1
=  
14x1 – 12 x2 +10 x3 = 0 1 5 1 3 1 3
7x1 – 6 x2 + 5 x3 =0 = (15 – 1) + (15 – 1) + (9 – 1) = 36
All are same equations.
3 1 1
Put x1 = 0. S3 = A  1 5 1
– 6 x2 + 5 x3 =0 1 1 3
5 x3 = 6 x2
= 3(15 1)  1(3  1)  1(1  5)  42  2  4  36
x2 x3
 Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 – 11 λ2 +36λ – 36 = 0.
5 6
0 To Solve the Characteristic equation
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   5  . λ3 – 11 λ2 + 36λ –36 = 0
6 If   2, then λ3 – 11 λ2 +36λ – 36 = 0
 
Put x2 = 0. Therefore,   2 is a root.
7x1 + 5 x3 = 0 By Synthetic division
7x1 = – 5 x3 1  11 36  36
2
0 2  18 36
x1 x
 3 1 9 18 0
5 7
Other roots are given by  2  9  18  0
  5
  (  3)(  6)  0
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   0  .
i.e.,   3,   6
 7 
  Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 2, 3, 6
Put x3 = 0.
7x1 – 6 x2 + 5 x3 =0

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 9 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 10 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

To find the Eigen Vectors: Case (3) :  = 6 then equation (A) becomes
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0  3 1 1  x1   0 
 3   1 1  x1   0      
      1 5 1 x 2    0 
 1 5   1  x 2    0  _____________(A)  1 1 3  x   0 
   3   
 1 1 3        3x1  x2  x3  0  (7)
  x 3   0 
 x1  x2  x3  0  (8)
Case (1) :  = 2 Then equation (A) becomes
x1  x2  3x3  0  (9)
 3 1 1  x1   0  x1  x2  x3  0  (1)
     Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
 1 5 1 x 2    0  ,  x1  3x2  x3  0  (2) x1 x x
 1 1 3      2  3
  x 3   0  x1  x2  x3  0  (3) 1  1 1  3 3  1
x1 x2 x3
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get  
1 2 1
x1 x x
 2  3 1
1  3 1  1 3  1
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   2  .
x1 x2 x3  
  1
2 0 2  
x1 x2 x3 TYPE – 4 SYMMETRIC MATRIX WITH REPEATED EIGEN VALUES
i.e.,  
1 0 1  6 2 2 
1  
6. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix A    2 3  1 .
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   0  .  2 1 3 
 
 1  
 
Solution:
Case (2) :  = 3 Then equation (A) becomes
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 3 1 1  x1   0 
      The characteristic equation is   S1  S2  S3  0
 1 5 1 x 2    0 
3 2

 1 1 3  x   0 
  3    where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=6 + 3 + 3 = 12
0 x1  x2  x3  0  (4) S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
 x1  2 x2  x3  0  (5) 3 1 6 2 6 2
x1  x2  0 x3  0  (6) =  
1 3 2 3 2 3
Solving (4) & (5) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
=( 9 – 1) + (18 – 4 ) + ( 18 – 4 ) = 8+ 14 + 14 = 36
x1 x2 x
  3 6 2 2
1  2 1  0 0  1
x1 x x S3 = A  2 3 1
 2  3
1 1 1 2 1 3
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3 = 6(9  1)  2(6  2)  2(2  6)
1 1 1
1 = 6(8)  2(4)  2(4)  48  8  8  32
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2  1 . Therefore, the characteristic equation is λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 0.
 
1
 

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 11 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 12 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

2
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   1
To Solve the Characteristic equation 1
 
λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 0.
If   2, then λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 8 – 42 +72 – 32 = 0
Case (2) :  = 2 Equation (A) becomes
Therefore,   2 is a root.
By Synthetic division  4 2 2  x1   0 
    
1 12 36 32  2 1 1  x 2    0 
2  2 1 1  x   0 
0 2 20 32   3   
1 10 16 0 4 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (4)
The other roots are given by   10  16  0
2 2 x1  x2  x3  0  (5)
(  8)(  2)  0 2 x1  x2  x3  0  (6)
i.e.,   8,   2 (4) , (5) & (6) are same as
2 x1  x2  x3  0
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 8, 2, 2
To find the Eigen Vectors: If
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0 x1  0 , we get  x2  x3  0
 6 2 2  x1   0   x2   x3
     x2  x3
 2 3 1  x 2    0   (A)
 2 1 3       x2 x3
  x 3   0  i.e., 
1 1
Case (1) :  = 8 Equation (A) becomes 0
 
 2 2 2  x1   0  Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 2  1 
     1 
 2  5 1  x 2    0   
 2 1 5    
  x 3   0  Case (3) :  = 2
2 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (1) a 
 
2 x1  5 x2  x3  0  (2) Let the third eigen vector be X 3   b  and X 3 should be orthogonal with X 1 and X 2
2 x1  x2  5 x3  0  (3) c 
 
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get X1 X 3  0  2a  b  c  0
T
 (7)
x1 x2 x
  3 X 2 X 3  0  0a  b  c  0
T
 (8)
2  10 4  2 10  4
x1 x2 x3 Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
  a b c
12 6 6  
x x x 1  1 0  2 2  0
i.e., 1  2  3 a b c
2 1 1  
2 2 2
a b c
i.e.,  
1 1 1

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 13 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 14 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 1 value and hence find A .

 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 3   1 .
 1  Solution:
  Let the third eigen value of A be 3
Sum of the eigen values = 3 + 5 + 3 =8 + 3 =trace of A
PROBLEMS BASED ON PROPERTIES
8 + 3 =8 + 7 + 3
8 6 2
7. Find the sum and product of all the eigen values of A =  6 7 4  . 3 =18 – 8 =10, 3 = 10.

 2 4 3  Hence, A  product of the eigen values of A
Solution : Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements = 8+7+3 = 18 A  3  5 10  150 .
Product of the eigen values = A = 8(5)+6(–10)+2(10) = 0 11. If the eigen values of the matrix A of order 3 × 3 matrix are 2,3 and 1, then find the eigen
values of adjoint of A.
2 1 0
  Solution: We know that, adjoint of A = A 1 A .
8. Find the eigen values of the inverse of the matrix A =  0 3 4  .
 0 0 4  A = product of the eigen values = (2)(3)(1) = 6.
1 1
Solution : In a triangular matrix, the main diagonal values are the eigen values of the matrix. Eigen values of A1 = , ,1.
1 1 1 2 3
 2, 3, 4 are the eigen values of A. Hence the eigen values of A1 = , , . 1 1
2 3 4  Eigen values of adjA = (6), (6),(1)(6)  3, 2,6
2 1 0
2 3
  2 0 1
9. Find the eigen vector of A   0 2 1  corresponding to the eigen value 2.
12. If 1 and 2 are the two eigen values of A  0 2 0  , find A without expanding the
 0 0 2  
  1 0 2 
 x1  determinant.
 
Solution : Let X =  x2  be the eigen vector of the matrix corresponding to the eigen value. Solution: Let λ be the third eigen value of the given matrix.
x 
 3 We know that, sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonal elements.
The eigen vectors are obtained from the equation (A - I)X = 0 i.e. 1 + 2 + λ = 2+2+2  λ = 3
2 1 0  x1   0 
     Now, A = product of all eigen values = (1)(2)(3) = 6
 0 2 1  x2    0 
 0 7 4 4
 0 2      
 x3   0  13. One of the eigen values of 4  8  1 is –9, find the other two eigen values.
 
 0 1 0  x1   0  4  1  8
    
When  = 2,  0 0 1  x2    0   x2 = 0, x3 = 0 and x1 takes any value, say k  0.
 0 0 0  x   0  Solution: Let 1, 2 be the other two eigen values.
  3    We know that, sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonal elements
 k  1
    i.e. 1 + 2 – 9 = 7 – 8 – 8 = – 9
Therefore the eigenvector is X1 =  0    0  .
 0 0  1 + 2 = 0   1 = –  2 …(1)
   
We know that, product of the eigen values = A
 8 6 2 
  –912 = |A| = 441
10. If 3 and 5 are two eigen values of the matrix A  6 7 4 then find its third eigen
  12 = – 49  1  49 … (2)
 2 4 3  2
 

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 15 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 16 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

substitute in (1) we get, 2  49

2
2 2  49  2   7
(1)  1   7 . Hence the other two eigen values are 7 and -7.
 1    2 2  3
 
14. If  2  is an eigen vector of  2 1  6 , find the corresponding eigen value. DIAGONALIZATION

  1
  1  2 0 
 
The process of transforming a square matrix A in to a diagonal matrix D is called
 2   2  3   x1   0    2   2  3   1   0 diagonalization. A real symmetric matrix A is said to be orthogonal diagonalizable, if there
         
Solution: (A - I)X = 0   2 1   6   x 2   0   2 1   6   2    0 exists an orthogonal matrix N such that D = N–1 A N = NT A N, where N is the modal matrix
 1      
 2     x 3   0  1  2      1  0 

and NT is the transpose of the modal matrix. Diagonisation by orthogonal transformation is
 (–2–)(1)+2(2)+(-3)(-1) = 0  = 5.
a 4 possible only for a real symmetric matrix.
15. Find the constants ‘a’ & ‘c’ such that the matrix   has 3 & –2 as its eigen values.
1 c  2 1 1 
 
Solution: 19. Diagonalize the matrix A=  1 2 1 by means of an orthogonal transformation.
Sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonals  a + c = 3–2 = 1-----(1)  1 1 2 
 
product of the eigen values = A  (3)(-2) = ac – 4 Solution:
i.e. –6 = ac – 4  ac = -2 The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 c = -2/a
 The characteristic equation is:  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
sub c in (1) a + c = 1  a + (-2/a) =1  a2-2 = a i.e. a2-a-2 =0
solving a = -1, 2  c = 2,-1 where S 1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=2 + 2 + 2 = 6
16. If  is the eigen value of the matrix A, then prove that 2 is the eigen value of A2. S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
Solution: 2 1 2 1 2 1
Let X be the eigen vector of the matrix A corresponding to the eigen value , then AX =  X. =  
1 2 1 2 1 2
Multiply by A  A2 X = A (X)
= (AX) =( 4-1) + (4 - 1 ) + ( 4 - 1 ) = 3+3+3 = 9
= ( X) 2 1 1
=  2X S3 = A  1 2 1
Hence, 2 is the eigen value of A2. 1 1 2
17. If 2,-1,-3 are the eigen values of the matrix A, find the eigen values of the matrix A2  2I .
= 2(4 1)  1(2  1)  1(1  2) =  6 1 1  4
Solution : The eigen values of A2 are 22, (-1)2 ,(-3)2 = 4, 1, 9.
The eigen values of A2-2I are 4 – 2,1–2,9 –2 = 2,–1,7 Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 – 6 λ2 + 9λ – 4 = 0.
To Solve the Characteristic equation
2 0 1 λ3 – 6 λ2 + 9λ – 4 = 0.
 
18. If 2,3 are the two eigen values of  0 2 0  ,then find the value of b. If   1, then λ3 – 6λ2 + 9λ – 4= 1 – 6 +9 – 4 = 0
b 0 2 Therefore,   1 is a root.
 
Solution: Let  be the third eigen value of the given matrix. By Synthetic division
Sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonals 1 6 9 4
1
i.e. 2+3+ = 6  = 1. 0 1 5 4
product of the eigen values = A 1 5 4 0
(1)(2)(3) = 2(4) +1(-2b)  6 = 8-2b  b=1. Other roots are given by  2  5  4  0

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 17 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 18 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

(  1)(  4)  0 1 
i.e.,   1,   4  
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 2  1 
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 1, 1, 4 0
 
To find the Eigen Vectors:
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0 Case (3) :  = 1
a 
 2 1 1  x1   0   
     Let the third eigen vector be X 3   b  and X 3 should be orthogonal with X 1 and X 2 .
 1 2 1  x 2    0   (A)
c 
 1 1 2        
  x 3   0 
X 3 X1  0  a  b  c  0  (7)
T

Case (1) :  = 4 Equation (A) becomes X X 2  0  a  b  0c  0

T
 (8)
3
  2 1 1  x1   0 
    
 1  2 1  x 2    0  Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
 1    x   0  a b c
 1 2  3     
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (1) 0 1 1  0 1 1
a b c
 x1  2 x2  x3  0  (2)  
1 1 2
x1  x2  2 x3  0  (3)
  1
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get  
x1 x2 x Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 3   1 
  3  2
1  2 1  2 4  1  
x1 x2 x3
 
3 3 3 Eigenvector Normalized form
1  1 
x x x  
i.e., 1  2  3    3
1 1 1 X 1   1   1 
1 1  
   3
   1 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   1 
 3

1
  1   1 
 
Case (2) : = 1 Equation (A) becomes    2
X 2  1   1 
 1 1 1  x1   0  0  2
        
 1 1 1 x 2    0 
 0 
 
 1 1 1  x   0   2
  3     1 
  1  
4 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (4)    6
X3   1   1 
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (5)  2  
   6
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (6)  2 
 
(4) , (5) & (6) are same as  6
x1  x2  x3  0
If
x3  0 , x1  1 we get x2  1

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 19 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 20 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 1 1 1   1 1 1   2 1 1 
     coeff .x coeff .xy coeff .xz 
 3 2 6   3 3 3 

2 2

Normalized modal matrix N=  1 1 1  1 1 0 
form A=  coeff . yx coeff . yz 
1 1
 , N 
T
 coeff . y 2
 3 2 6  2 2 2  2 2 
 1 0 2   1 1 2   
 3  1 coeff .zx 1
coeff .z 
.
2 6   6 6 
2
coeff .zy
  6
2 2 

CANONICAL FORM
To find AN:
 1 1 1 
  Canonical form is equal to the sum or difference of squares of any number of variables.
3 2 6 
 2 1 1 
   1 1 1 Matrix form of the Canonical Form: Every canonical form can be expressed as Y TDY where
AN   1 2 1  
 1 1 2   3 2 6
  1 D is a diagonal matrix.
 2 
 3 0
 6  ORTHOGONAL REDUCTION
 2 11 2 1  0 2  1  2   4 1 1 
    The orthogonal transformation X=NY reduces the quadratic form to canonical form provided
 3 2 6   3 2 6
 1  2  1 1  2  0 1  2  2   4 1 1 
 
 3 2 6   3 2 6  NTAN = D where N is normalized modal matrix.
 11 2 1 1  0 1  1  4   4 2 
 6   3
0
6  Quadratic form = XTAX = (NY)TA(NY) = (YTNT)A(NY) = YT(NTAN)Y
 3 2
D  N AN :
T
= YT(D)Y
 1 1 1  4 1 1 
    y121  y222  y323
 3 3 3  3 2 6
 1 1 0   4 1 1 
D  N AN  
T
 
 2 2 2   3 2 6 RANK OF THE QUADRATIC FORM (r)
 1 1 2  4 2 
0

 6 6 6   3 6  The number of nonzero terms in the canonical form is called rank of the quadratic form.
 4  4  4 1 1  0 1  1  2 
  INDEX OF THE QUADRATIC FORM (p)
3 6 18  4 0 0
  
 4  4  0 11 0 1  1  0    The number of positive terms in the canonical form is called index of the quadratic form.
    0 1 0   D ( 4 , 1 , 1)
6 2 12 
  0 0 1 
 4  4  8 1  1  0 11 4  SIGNATURE OF THE QUADRATIC FORM (s)
 
 18 12 6 
QUADRATIC FORM The difference between positive and negative terms in the canonical form is called signature.

A homogeneous polynomial of second degree in any number of variables is called quadratic NATURE OF THE QUADRATIC FORM
form. Every quadratic form can be expressed as 𝑋𝐴𝑋 𝑇 , where A is a symmetric matrix of the Nature If the eigen values are known If the eigen values are unknown
Positive definite All the eigen values are positive D1,D2,D3 are positive

Negative definite All the eigen values are negative D1, D3 are negative D2 is positive

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 21 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 22 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

All the eigen values are positive and D10 , D2 0, D30 and 1 1  x1   0 
Positive semi definite
atleast one is zero atleast one is zero      
 1 1  x 2   0 
All the eigen values are negative D1≤0 , D2 ≤0, D3 ≤ 0and atleast x1  x2  0  (1)
Negative semi definite
and atleast one is zero one is zero
x1  x2  0  (2)
eigen values are positive and
Indefinite All the other cases x1 x2
negative  x1   x2 ,  
a11 a12 a13 1 1
a a12  1
Where, D1  a11 , D2  11 , D3  a21 a22 a23 . Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   
a21 a22 1
a31 a32 a33

REDUCTION OF QUADRATIC FORM TO CANONICAL FORM Case (2) :  = 2 Then equation (A) becomes
20. Reduce the quadratic form x  x2  2 x1 x2 into a canonical form by using orthogonal
2 2
 1 1   x1   0   x1  x2  0  (3)
     ,
1
    (4)
transformation. Hence find its rank, index, signature and nature.  1 1  2   
x 0 x1 x2 0
Solution:
Solving (4) & (5) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
 1 
 coeff .x
2
coeff .xy    x1   x2
2 1 1
The symmetric matrix A=   =  x1 x2
 coeff . yx coeff . y  1 1
1 2 
1 1
 2 
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0  1
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   
 The characteristic equation is   S1  S2  0
2  1
where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements = 1+1 = 2 Orthogonal Condition:
 1
X 1 X 2    1 1  0
T
1 1
S2 = A  0
1 1 1
Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ2 -2λ = 0. They are pairwise Orthogonal.

To solve the characteristic equation Eigenvector Normalised form Eigen vector Normalized form
λ2 -2λ = 0.
    2  0  1  1   1 
X1     2   1  2 
 (  2)  0   
1 X2   
i.e.,   0,   2  1   1  1 
   
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 0, 2.  2   2

 1 1   1 1 
To find the Eigen Vectors:  2 2   2 2 
Normalized modal matrix N=  , NT  
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0  1 1   1 1 
 2 2   2 2 
 
1   1   x1   0 
       (A)
 1 1    x2   0 
To find AN:
Case (1) :  = 0 Equation (A) becomes

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 23 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 24 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 1 1   1 1 1 1  2 1 1
   
 1 1  2 2   2 2 2 2  0 2 S3 = A  1 1 2
AN      
 1 1  1 1   1
 
1 1

1  0 2  1 2 1
 2 2   2 
 2 2 2 = 8(21 16)  6(18  8)  2(24 14)  40  60  20  0
D  N AN :
T
Therefore, the characteristic equation is λ3 – 18 λ2 +45λ = 0.
 1 1 
 2 2  0 2
D  N AN  
T
 
 1 1  0 2  To solve the characteristic equation
 2 2  λ3 – 18 λ2 +45λ= 0.

0 1  1 0 0     2  18  45  0
    D ( 0, 2 )
0 1  1  0 2   (  3)(  15)  0
0 0   y1  i.e.,   0,   3,   15
Canonical Form is Y T (N T AN)Y = Y T DY =  y1 y2  0 2   y 
   2 Hence , the eigen values of A are λ = 0, 3, 15
 0y1  2y2
2 2

To find the Eigen Vectors:

Rank (r) = 1 ( No. of non zero terms in the canonical form)
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0
Index (p) = 1 ( No. of Positive terms in the canonical form )
 8 6 2  x1   0 
Signature (s) = 2p – r = 2(1) – 1= 1     
 6 7 4  x 2    0   (A)
Nature: Positive Semi-definite.  2 4 3      
  x 3   0 
21. Reduce the quadratic form 8x1  7 x2  3x3  12 x1 x2  8x2 x3  4 x3 x1 into a canonical form by
2 2 2

using orthogonal transformation. Hence find its rank, index, signature and nature. Case (1) :  = 0 Equation (A) becomes
Solution:  8 6 2  x1   0 
 1 1      
 6 7 4  x 2    0 
2
 coeff .x 2
coeff .xy
2
coeff .xz 
   8 6 2   2 4 3  x   0 
    3   
The symmetric matrix A =  coeff . yx coeff . y coeff . yz  =  6 7 4 
1 2 1
2 2  8 x1  6 x2  2 x3  0  (1)
   2 4 3 

 1 coeff .zx 1 coeff .zy  6 x1  7 x2  4 x3  0  (2)
coeff .z 2 
2 2  2 x1  4 x2  3x3  0  (3)
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0 Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
 The characteristic equation is   S1  S2  S3  0
3 2
x1 x2 x3
 
where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=8+7+3 = 18 24  14 12  32 56  36
x1 x2 x3
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.  
8 6 7 4 8 2 10 20 20
=   x x x
6 7 4 3 2 3 i.e., 1  2  3
1 2 2
=(56 – 36)+(21 – 16)+(24 – 4)=20+5+20 = 45

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 25 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 26 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

1  2
   
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   2  Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   2 
 2 1
   
Case (2) :  = 3 Equation (A) becomes
 5 6 2  x1   0 
    
 6 4 4  x 2    0 
 2 4 0  x   0 
  3   

5 x1  6 x2  2 x3  0  (4)
Eigenvector Normalised form
 6 x1  4 x2  4 x3  0  (5)
1 1
2 x1  4 x2  0 x3  0  (6)   3
X1   2   
Solving (4) & (5) by rule of cross multiplication, we get  2 2
 
x1

x2

x3 3
24  8 12  20 20  36  
 2 
x1 x2 x
  3 3
16 8 16
 2  2 
x x
i.e., 1  2  3
x    3 
X2   1   
2 1 2
 2   1 
 2  
 3 
   
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   1 
 2   2 
   3 
Case (3) :  = 15 Equation (A) becomes  2  2 
  7 6 2  x1   0     3 
X 3   2   
    
  6  8  4  x 2    0  1  2 
 2  x   0   
   3 
 4 12  3     
 1 
 7 x1  6 x2  2 x3  0  (7)  3 
 6 x1  8 x2  4 x3  0  (8)
2 x1  4 x2  12 x3  0  (9) 1 2 2  1 2 2 
3 3 3  3 3 3 
   
2 2
Normalized modal matrix N=   , NT   2 
Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get 2 1 1
x1 x2 x3 3 3 3  3 3 3 
     
24  16 12  28 56  36  2 2 1   2 2 1 
x1 x x  3 3 3   3 3 3 
 2  3
40 40 20 To find AN:
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
2 2 1

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 27 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 28 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

1 2 2  2 1 1 
 3   coeff .x 2
coeff .xy
2
coeff .xz 
 8 6 2  3 3     6 2 2 
  2 1 2  coeff . yz  =  2 3 1 
The symmetric matrix A=  coeff . yx
1 1
AN   6 7 4   coeff . y 2

3 3 3  2 2
 2 4
 3       2 1 3 
 2 2 1   1 coeff .zx 1
coeff .zy coeff .z 
2

 3 3 3  2 2 
 8  12  4 16  6  4 16  12  2  The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 3 3 3 
  0 2 10   The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
6  14  8 12  7  8 12  14  4  
   0 1 10 
 3 3 3   where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=6 + 3 + 3 = 12
  0 2 5 
 28 6 446 483   S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
 3 3 3  3 1 6 2 6 2
=  
D  N T AN : 1 3 2 3 2 3
 1 2 2  =( 9 – 1) + (18 – 4 ) + ( 18 – 4 ) = 8+ 14 + 14 = 36
 3 3 3 
  0 2 10  6 2 2
2  0 1 10 
D  N AN  
2 1
T
S3 = A  2 3 1
 3 3 3  
  0 2 5  2 1 3
 2 2 1 
 3 3 3  = 6(9  1)  2(6  2)  2(2  6)
 224 10  20  10  = 6(8)  2(4)  2(4)  48  8  8  32
0 3 3  Therefore, the characteristic equation is λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 0.
  0 0 0 
4 1 4 20  10  10   0 3 0   D ( 0,3,15) To Solve the Characteristic equation
 0
 3 3    λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 0.
  0 0 15 If   2, then λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 8 – 42 +72 – 32 = 0
0 422 20  20  5 
 3 3  Therefore,   2 is a root.
 y1  By Synthetic division
0 0 0    1 12 36 32
 
Canonical Form is Y T (N T AN)Y = Y T DY =  y1 y2 y3  0 3 0   y2  2
0 2 20 32
 
0 0 15  y3  1 10 16 0

 0y  3y2  15y3
2 2 2 The other roots are given by  2  10  16  0
1

Rank (r) = 2 (No. of non zero terms in the canonical form) (  8)(  2)  0
Index (p) = 2 ( No. of positive terms in the canonical form ) i.e.,   8,   2
Signature (s) = 2p – r = 2(2) – 2= 2 Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 8, 2, 2
Nature: Positive Semi-definite. To find the Eigen Vectors:
22. Reduce the quadratic form 6 x  3 y  3z  4 xy  2 yz  4 xz into a canonical form by using
2 2 2
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0
orthogonal transformation. Hence find its rank, index, signature and nature.
Solution:

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 29 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 30 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 6 2 2  x1   0  0
      
 2 3 1  x 2    0   (A) Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 2  1 
 2 1 3       1 
  x 3   0   
Case (3) :  = 2
Case (1) :  = 8 Equation (A) becomes
a 
 2 2 2  x1   0   
     Let the third eigen vector be X 3   b  and X 3 should be orthogonal with X 1 and X 2
 2  5 1  x 2    0  c 
 
 2 1 5    
  x 3   0 
X1 X 3  0  2a  b  c  0  (7)
T

2 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (1)
X 2 X 3  0  0a  b  c  0  (8)
T
2 x1  5 x2  x3  0  (2)
2 x1  x2  5 x3  0  (3) Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
a b c
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get  
x1 x2 x 1  1 0  2 2  0
  3 a b c
2  10 4  2 10  4  
x1 x2 x3 2 2 2
  a b c
12 6 6 i.e.,  
1 1 1
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3  1
2 1 1
 
2 Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 3   1
   1 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   1  
1 Eigenvector Normalised form
 
Case (2) :  = 2 Equation (A) becomes 2  2 
   
 4 2 2  x1   0  X 1   1   6
     1  1 
 
 2 1 1  x 2    0   
 2 1 1  x   0   6
  3   
 1 
4 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (4)  
 6
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (5)
0  0 
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (6)    
X 2  1   2
(4) , (5) & (6) are same as 1   1 
2 x1  x2  x3  0  
 2 

If  1 
x1  0 , we get  x2  x3  0  
 2
 x2   x3
x2  x3
x2 x3
i.e., 
1 1

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 31 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 32 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 1  1   2 1 1   16 2 
      0 
X 3   1  3  6 6 6  6 3
 1   1   1 1   8 2 2 
  D  N AN  
T
0  

3

 2 2   6 2 3

 1   1 1 1   8 2 2 
  
 3 3 3   6 2 3 
 3
 32  8  8 022 422
 6 
 12 18  8 0 0
 2 1   2 1 1   
 0     088 022 0 22  
   0 2 0   D (8, 2, 2 )
 6 3   6 6 6 
12 2 6 
 1 1 1  1 1   0 0 2 
Normalized modal matrix N=   , N T
 0  16  8  8 022 2 2 2
2  
 6 3 
2 3  2
 18 6
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
8 0 0   1 
 6 2 3   3 3 3  y
 
0 2 0   
Canonical Form is Y (N AN)Y = Y DY =  y1 y2
T T T
y3     y2 
0 0 2   
To find AN:  y3 
 2 1   8y  2y2  2y3
1
2 2 2

 0 
6 3
 6 2 2    Rank (r) = 3 (No. of non zero terms in canonical form)
   1 1 1 Index (p) = 3 ( No. of Positive terms in canonical form)
AN   2 3 1   
 2 1 3   6 2 3 Signature (s) = 2p – r = 2(3) – 3 = 3
  1 1 1 
 Nature: Positive definite.
 6 2 3 

23. Reduce the quadratic form 2 x1  x2  x3  2 x1 x2  4 x2 x3  2 x3 x1 into a canonical form by
2 2 2
12  2  2 022 6  2  2   16 2 
   0 
6 2 3   6 3 using orthogonal transformation. Hence find its rank, index, signature and nature.

 4  3  1 0  3 1 2  3  1   8 2 2  Solution:
 
 6 2 3   6 2 3 
 2 1 1 
 4 1 3 0 1  3 2 1  3   8 2 2   coeff.x 2
coeff.xy
2
coeff.xz   2 1  1
    
 3   6 3  The symmetric matrix A=  1 coeff. yx 2 
coeff. yz  
6 2 2
coeff. y 2 1 = 1 1
 
D  N T AN :
2

2
  1 2 1 
 1 coeff.zx 1
coeff.zy coeff.z 2 
2 2 
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=2 + 1 + 1 = 4
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
1 2 2 1 2 1
=  
2 1 1 1 1 1

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 33 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 34 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

=1 – 4 + 2 - 1 + 2 – 1 = -3 +1 +1 = - 1 x1 x2 x
  3
2 1 1 2  2 1  6 6  1
S3 = A  1 1 2 x1 x2 x3
 
1 2 1 0 5 5
= 2(1  4) 1(1  2) 1(2  1) x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
=  6  1  1  4 0 1 1
Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 – 4 λ2 – λ +4 = 0. 0
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   1 
To Solve the Characteristic equation 1
λ3 – 4 λ2 – λ +4 = 0  
If   1, then λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 1– 4 –1 +4 = 0 Case (2) :  = 1 Then equation (A) becomes
Therefore,   1 is a root.  1 1  1 x1   0 
    
By Synthetic division
 1 0  2  x 2    0 
1  4 1 4   1 2 0  x   0 
1   3   
0 1 3 4
x1  x2  x3  0  (4)
1 3 4 0 x1  0 x2  2 x3  0  (5)
Other roots are given by  2  3  4  0  x1  2 x2  0 x3  0  (6)
(  4)(  1)  0 Solving (4) & (5) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
i.e.,   4,   1 x1 x2 x
  3
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = –1 , 1, 4 2  0 1  2 0  1
x1 x2 x3
To find the Eigen Vectors:  
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0 2 1 1
x x x
 2 1  1  x1   0  i.e., 1  2  3
     2 1 1
 1 1  2  x 2    0   (A)
 1 2
 2 1      
 x 3   0   
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   1
1
Case (1) :  = –1 Equation (A) becomes  
 3 1  1 x1   0  Case (3) :  = 4 Then equation (A) becomes
      2 1  1 x1   0 
 1 2  2  x 2    0 
  1 2 2  x   0      
  3     1  3  2  x 2    0 
  1 2 3  x   0 
3x1  x2  x3  0  (1)   3   
x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (2)  2 x1  x2  x3  0  (7)
 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (3) x1  3x2  2 x3  0  (8)
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get  x1  2 x2  3x3  0  (9)
Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 35 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 36 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

x1 x2 x  2 1 
  3  0 
2  3 1  4 6  1 6 3
 2 1  1  
x1 x2 x3
    1 1 1 
AN   1 1 2   
5 5 5
 1 2 1  
2 6 3 
x x x  1 1
i.e., 1  2  3  1 
1 1 1  
 2 6 3 
1
   0 11 4 11 2 11   2 4 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   1     0 
 1  2 6 3   6 3
   0 1 2 2 1 2 1  1  2   1 1 4 
 
3   2 3 
Eigenvector Normalised form
 2 6 6
 0 
   0  2 1 2  2  1 1  2  1   1 1 4 
0  2 
   1   2 6 3   2 6 3 
X1   1   2
1   D  N T AN :
   1 
 
 2
 2 
 
2  6
   1 
X 2   1  
1  6
   1 
 
 6
 1 
 
 3
1
   1   y1 
X3   1     1 0 0   
 1  3
 
   1  Canonical Form is Y T (N T AN)Y = Y T DY =  y1 y2 y3   0 1 0   y 2 

 3
  0 0 4   
 
 y3 
 2 1   1 1 
 1y1  y2  4y3
2 2 2
 0  0 
 6 3   2 2  Rank (r) = 3 (No. of non zero terms in the canonical form)
 1 1 1   2 1 1 
Normalized modal matrix N=   , N T
   Index (p) = 2 ( No. of positive terms in the canonical form )
 2 6 3   6 6 6  Signature (s) = 2p – r = 2(2) – 3= 1
 1 1 1   1 1 1  Nature: indefinite.
   3 
    24. Reduce the quadratic form 2 x  5 y  3z  4 xy to canonical form through orthogonal
2 2 2
2 6 3 3 3
transformation. Find also its nature.

To find AN: Solution:

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 37 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 38 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 2 1 1   2 2 0  x1   0 
 coeff .x coeff .xy coeff .xz      

2 2
  2 2 0  2 5 0  x 2    0   (A)
   0 3      
The symmetric matrix A=  coeff . yx coeff . yz  =  2
1 1
coeff . y 2 5 0  0  x 3   0 
2 2 
   0 0 3  Case (1) :  = 1 Then equation (A) becomes
 1 coeff .zx 1
coeff .zy coeff .z 2 
2 2  1 2 0  x1   0 
    
2 4 0  x 2    0   (A)
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
0 0 2    
  x 3   0 
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
x1  2 x2  0 x3  0  (1)
where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=2 + 5 + 3 = 10
2 x1  4 x2  0 x3  0  (2)
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
0 x1  0 x2  2 x3  0  (3)
5 0 2 0 2 2
=    15  6  (10  4)  27 Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
0 3 0 3 2 5
x1 x x
2 2 0  2  3
4 0 0 2 2 4
S3 = A  2 5 0  2(15  0)  2(6  0)  0  18 0 2 2 0 0 0
0 0 3 x1 x2 x3
 
Therefore, the Characteristic equation is λ3 – 10 λ2 + 27λ -18 = 0. 8 4 0
x x x
To Solve the Characteristic equation i.e., 1  2  3
2 1 0
λ3 – 10 λ2 – 27λ +18 = 0
2
If   1, then λ3 – 10 λ2 – 27λ +18 = 1- 10 +27 -18 = 0  
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   1
Therefore,   1 is a root. 0
 
By Synthetic division Case (2) :  = 3 Then equation (A) becomes
1  10 27  18  1 2 0  x1   0 
1     
0 1 9 18  2 2 0  x 2    0   (A)
 0 0 0  x   0 
1 9 18 0   3   
 x1  2 x2  0 x3  0  (4)
The other roots are given by  2  9  18  0
2 x1  2 x2  0 x3  0  (5)
(  6)(  3)  0
0 x1  0 x2  0 x3  0  (6)
i.e.,   6,   3
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 1, 3, 6
To find the Eigen Vectors:
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 39 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 40 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

x1

x2

x3 0 0
2 0 0 1 1 2    
X2  0 0
2 0 0 2 2 2 1 1
   
x1 x2 x3
 
0 0 6 1  1 
   5 
x x x X2   2 
i.e., 1  2  3 0
0 0 1    2 
 5 
0 0 
     0 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   0   X2  0
 
 1 1  
   
Case (3) :  = 6 Then equation (A) becomes Normalized modal matrix
 4 2 0  x1   0 
      2 1 
 2  1 0  x 2    0   (A)
 5 0  2 1 
0  x   0  5  0
 0  3  3      5 5
 1 2   
 4 x1  2 x2  0  (4) N 0 , NT   0 0 1
5 5  
2 x1  x2  0  (5)   1 2
 0 1 0   0
0 x1  0 x2  3x3  0  (6)    5 5 
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get To find AN :
x1 x2 x3  2 6 
   2 1  420 240   0
1 3 3 2 2 1  0 0 5
5    5
0  5 5 5   
0 3 3 0 0 0  2 2  1 12 
   1 2   45 
2  10  0   0
AN   2 5 0  0  0 5
5  5  
x1 x2 x3 5
  0 0 
3  
5 5
3 6 0      0 3 0 
 0 1 0   0 3 0   
x1 x2 x3
i.e.,       
1 2 0
D  N T AN :
1
   26 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   2   2 1  0
0  0  5 5 1 0 0
  5 5    
   112   D
D  N AN  
T
0 0 1  
0  0 3 0
   5 5  
Eigenvector Normalised form  0 0 6 
3 0  
1 2
 0  0
2  2   5 5   
 
 
X 1   1   5  Thus A has been diagonalized by N through the orthogonal transformation.
0  1 
 
 5 

 0 
 
 

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 41 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 42 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 y1   200 03 0 006  1 1 

1 0 0     0 
   2 3 6  2 2 
Canonical Form is Y T (N T AN)Y = Y T DY =  y1 y2 y3   0 3 0   y 2   000 030 0  0  12   1 1 1 
0 0 6   
6   3 
 
 y3   2 3 3 3
 2  0  0 03 0 006  1 2 1 
 y1  3 y2  6 y3
2 2 2
 6   6 
 2 3 6 6
Nature: Positive definite.
 2 3 6  1 1 
25. The Eigen vectors of a 33 real symmetric matrix A corresponding to the eigen values 2,3,6   0 
are (1,0,-1)T, (1,1,1)T and (1,-2,1)T respectively. Find the matrix A.  2 3 6  2 2 
Solution:  3 12   1 1 1 
 0
We know that the eigen vectors of a real symmetric matrix
 3 6   3 3 3 
 1  1  1   2 3 6  1 2 1 
 0  , 1 ,  2  are pairwise orthogonal  2
     .  3 6   6 6 6 
 1 1  1   2 3 6 3 12 2 3 6 
 236 0 
3 6
 
2 3 6   3 1 1 
The normalized modal matrix  
 0  0    =  1 5 1
3 12 3 24 3 12
 1 1 1  0 
 3 6 3 6 3 6 
     1 1 3 
 2 3 6
 2  3  6 3 12 2 3 6 
 2 0   
N=  0
1  2 3 6 3 6 2 3 6 

3 6 
  3 1 1 
 1 1 1 
 2 Therefore, the matrix A=  1 5 1
 3 6 
 1 1 3 
Also D = NT A N 26. Identify the nature, index and signature of the quadratic form 2 x1 x2  2 x2 x3  2 x3 x1 .
Solution:
Now N D NT = N (NT A N) NT 0 1 1
= (N NT) A (N NT) 1
=IAI The matrix of the quadratic form is given by A   0 1  .
Hence N D NT = A, since N is an orthogonal matrix and N NT = I. 1 1 0 
The characteristics equation is λ3 – S1 λ2 + S2 λ – S3 = 0.
 1 1 1   1 1  S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements = 0
   0 
 2 3 6 2 0 0  2 2  S2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal element  (0 1)  (0 1)  (0 1)  3 ;
 
  2   1 1 
0 3 0  
1 1
A  0 S3 = A = –1(0 – 1) + 1(1 – 0) = 2
 3 6   3 3 3 
 0 0 6  
1 
The characteristics equation is λ3 –3λ – 2 = 0.
 1 1  1 2 1 
 (λ + 1)2( λ–2) = 0  The eigen values of A are λ = –1,–1,2.
 2 3 6   6
 6 6 
Nature: indefinite
Rank (r) = Number of non-zero eigen values = 3
Index (p) = Number of positive eigen values = 1
Signature (s) = 2p – r =2(1) – 3 = –1.

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 43 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 44 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

27. Find the rank, index and signature of the Quadratic form whose Canonical form is Solution :
x12  2x 22  3x 32 .  0 5  1  x1 
 6  x 
Solution :
Quadratic form of A is given by XTAX =  x1 x2 x3  5 1  2
Rank (r) = Number of non-zero terms in the C.F = 3
 1 6 2   x3 
Index (p) = Number of Positive terms in the C.F = 2
Signature (s) = 2p – r =1 = 0x  x +2x  10 x1 x2  12 x2 x3  2 x3 x1 .
2
1
2
2
2
3

28. Write down the matrix of the quadratic form 2 x2  8z 2  4 xy  10 xz  2 yz . CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM
Solution : Statement: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
The matrix of the quadratic form is given by 1 2  4
32. Verify that A=   satisfies its own characteristic equation and hence find A .
a11 = coeff of x 2 = 2 , a 22 = coeff of y 2 = 0 , a 33 = coeff of z 2 = 8
 2 1
1 4 1 10 Solution:
a12 =a 21 = (coeff of xy) = =2, a13 = a 31 = (coeff of xz) = =5
2 2 2 2 1 2 
Let A   
a 23 =a 32
1
= (coeff of yz) =
-2
=-1  2 1
2 2 The Characteristic equation of A is: A  I  0
2 2 5 λ2 – S1λ + S2 = 0
  1
i.e.,
 A  2 0
where, S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements = (1) + ( –1) = 0
5 1 8  1 2
29. Determine  so that  (x2 + y2 +z2) + 2xy – 2xz + 2zy is positive definite. S2 = |A| = = –1–4= –5
2 1
 1  1
  Hence the characteristic equation is
Solution: The matrix of the given quadratic form is A   1 1 λ2 – (0)λ + ( – 5 ) = 0
 1 1   λ2 – 5 = 0
 
The principal sub determinants are given by Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that “ Every Square matrix satisfies its own characteristic
 1 equation “
D1 = , D2 =  2  1  (  1)(  1) & D3 = |A| = (+1)2( -2)  A2 – 5I  0 ________________________________________ (1)
1 
 1 2  1 2   1  4 2  2   5 0 
The Quadratic form is +ve definite if D1, D2& D3> 0 > 2. Verification: Find A2 as A2 =A*A=    =  = 
30. What is the nature of the quadratic form x2 + y2 + z2 in four variables?  2 1 2 1  2  2 4  1   0 5 
2
1 0 0 0 and then prove A – 5I = 0
   5 0 1 0  0 0
Solution: The matrix of the given quadratic form is A  
0 1 0 0
.    5  
0 0 1 0  0 5  0 1  0 0
  Hence, Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.
0 0 0 0 To find A4: Pre multiply A2 on both sides of Eqn. (1) and get A4 – 5A2 = 0
Since the matrix is the diagonal matrix, its main diagonal elements are its eigen values. A4 = 5A2
The eigen values are 1,1,1,0. Hence the nature is positive semi definite.  5 0
5  1 =5  
 0  0 5
 1 6  .
31. Write down the quadratic form corresponding to the matrix A   5  25 0 
 A4   
 1 6 2   0 25 
1 2 1
33. Given A    , Find A using Cayley – Hamilton theorem.
4 3 

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 45 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 46 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

Solution : The characteristic equation of A is  2 - S1   S2 = 0 ,  20 23 23  1 3 7 

  
Here, S1 = 4 and S2 = - 5  2 - 4  - 5 = 0 . A3  A2  A   15 22 37  4 2 3 
By Cayley – Hamilton theorem A2 – 4 A – 5I = 0.  10 9 14  1 2 1 
  
 3 2
  20  92  23 60  46  46 140  69  23 
1 5  
Multiply by A1 , we get A – 4 I – 5 A1 = 0  A 1  [ A  4 I ]   5    15  88  37 45  44  74 105  66  37 
5 4 1 
 5 5   10  36  14 30  18  28 70  27  14 
 
1 3 7  135 152 232 
   
34. Verify Cayley- Hamilton theorem for the matrix A=  4 2 3  and hence find A4 and A–1.  140 163 208 
1 2 1   60 76 111 
  
Solution: Substituting A3 , A2& A in (2)
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0 A3 –4A2 -20A- 35I = 0
 The characteristic equation is   S1  S2  S3  0
3 2
 135 152 232   20 23 23  1 3 7 1 0 0 0 0 0
         
 140 163 208 -4
  15 22 37  -20  4 2 3  -35 0 1 0=0 0 0
Where S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements=1+2+1=4  60 76 111   10 9 14  1 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
         
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the diagonal elements.
135 152 232   80 92 92   20 60 140   35 0 0   0 0 0 
2 3 1 7 1 3
           
140 163 208    60 88 148    80 40 60  -  0 35 0  =  0 0 0 
= =(2-6)+(1-7)+(2-12)=-4-6-10=-20
2 1 1 1 4 2  60 76 111   40 36 56   20 40 20   0 0 35   0 0 0 
1 3 7          
Therefore, L. H. S = R. H. S
S3 = A  4 2 3 = 1(2  6)  3(4  3)  7(8  2)  4  3  42  35 Hence, Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.
1 2 1 To find A4
Therefore, the Characteristic equation is: λ3 –4λ2 -20λ-35 = 0 __________(1) A3 –4A2 -20A- 35I = 0 ______________________________(3)
Verification: Pre-Multiply ‘A’ in Eqn. (3)
Replace λ by A in Eqn. (1) A4 –4A3 -20 A2- 35A = 0
A3 –4A2 -20A- 35I = 0 _____________________________(2). A = 4A3 +20 A2+35A
4

To find A2  135 152 232   20 23 23  1 3 7

 1 3 7  1 3 7 
     
=4 140 163 208  +20  15 22 37  +35  4 2 3 
    60 76 111   10 9 14  1 2 1
A2  A  A   4 2 3  4 2 3       
 1 2 1  1 2 1 
    540 608 928   400 460 460   35 105 245 
     
1  12  7 3  6  14 7  9  7  =  560 652 832  +  300 440 740  + 140 70 105 
   240 304 444   200 180 280   35 70 35 
  483 12  4  6 28  6  3       
 1 8 1 3  4  2 7  6  1 
  975 1173 1633 
 
 20 23 23  = 1000 1162 1677 
   475 554 759 
  15 22 37   
 10 9 14  To find A-1

From Eqn. (3), A –4A2 -20A- 35I = 0 _____________________________(4)
3
-1
Pre-Multiply ‘A ’ in Eqn. (4)
A2 –4A -20 I- 35 A-1 = 0

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 47 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 48 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

To find A2
A1 
1
35
 A2  4 A  20I   1 2 2  1 2 2 
  
 20 23 23   1 3 7   1 0 0  A2  A  A   2 5 4  2 5 4 
1        3 7 5  3 7 5 
  15 22 37   4  4 2 3   20  0 1 0     
35      
 10 9 14   1 2 1   0 0 1    1 4  6 2  10  14 2  8  10 
 
 20 23 23   4 12 28   20 0 0     2  10  12 4  25  28 4  20  20 
1        3  14  15 6  35  35 6  28  25 
  15 22 37   16 8 12    0 20 0    
35 
 10 9 14   4 8 4   0 0 20    1 2 0 
 
 4 11 5    0 1 4 
1    2 6 9 
A -1  1 6 25   
35  
 6 1 10  Substituting A3 , A2& A in Eqn. (4)
 1 2 2   1 2 0  1 2 2 
    
35. Using Cayley- Hamilton theorem for the matrix A=  2 5 4  and hence find A4 and A–1. A3  A2  A   0 1 4  2 5 4 
 3 7 5   2 6 9  3 7 5 
    
Solution:  1  4  0 2  10  0 280 
 
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0 A4 = A   0  2  12 0  5  28 0  4  20  3 -5 A2+A
 2  12  27 4  30  63 4  24  45 
 The characteristic equation is:  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0  
 5 12 10 
Where, S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements: 1+5-5=1  
  10 23 16 
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.  13 29 17 
5 4 1 2 1 2  
=   =(-25+28)+(-5+6)+(5-4)=3+1+1=5  5 12 10   1 2 0   1 2 2 
7 5 3 5 2 5      
=  10 23 16  -5  0 1 4  +  2 5 4 
1 2 2
 13 29 17   2 6 9   3
  7 5 
S3 = A  2 5 4 = 1(25  28)  2(10  12)  2(14 15)  3  2(2)  2(1)  3  4  2  1 
3 7 5  5 12 10   5 10 0   1 2 2 
     
=  10 23 16  -  0 5 20  +  2 5 4 
Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 –λ2 +5λ-1 = 0 ___________(1)  13
 29 17   10 30 45   3
  7 5 
Replace λ by A in Eqn. (1)
 1 0 8
A3 –A2 +5A- I= 0 ___________________________ (2)  
=  8 23 32 
To find A4  20 52 57 
 
A3 –A2 +5A- I = 0 ___________________________(3) To find A-1
From Eqn. (3), A3 –A2 +5A- I = 0
Pre-Multiply ‘A’ in Eqn. (3)
Pre-Multiply ‘A-1’ in Eqn. (3)
A4 –A3 +5A2- A = 0 A2 –A +5 I- A-1 = 0
A4 = A3 -5 A2+A _________________________(4)

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 49 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 50 Department of Mathematics
 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

A1  A2  A  5I To find A1 :

 1 2 0   1 2 2   5 0 0  A2  A  A
     
  0 1 4    2 5 4    0 5 0 
 2 6 9   3 7 5   0 0 5 
 1 2 1  1 2 1  6 7 6 
     
  2 2 1    2 2 1    7 9 7 
 3 4 2   1 1 3   1 1 3   6 7 11

A -1   2 1 0 
      
 1 1 1  6 A  6I  A
 
 1 0 0   1 2 1   6 12 6 
 1 2 1
    0 1 0    2 2 1   12 12 6 
36. Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem find the inverse of the given matrix A   2 2 1  .  0 0 1   1 1 3   6 6 18 
 1 1 3      
 
Solution:  6 12 6   6 7 6  0 5 0 
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0 6 A  A2  12 12 6    7 9 7    5 3 1
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0  6 6 18   6 7 11  0 1 7 
  
Where S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements=1+2+3=6  0 5 0  5 0 0   5 5 0 
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the diagonal elements. 6 A  A  5I   5 3 1   0
2  5 0    5 2 1
 0 1 7   0 0 5   0 1 2 
=
2 1 1 1 1 2
   (6  1)  (3  1)  (2  4)  5  2  2  5
  
1 3 1 3 2 2  5 5 0 
A1   5 2 1
1 2 1 1
S3 = A  2 2 1  1(6  1)  2(6  1)  1(2  2)  5  2(5)  0  5 5 
 0 1 2 
1 1 3
37. Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem, find the matrix represented by
2 1 1
Therefore, the Characteristic equation is:   6  5  5  0
3 2
 
Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem, [Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation] A8  5 A7  7 A6  3 A5  A4  5 A3  8 A2  2 A  I when A   0 1 0  .
1 1 2
A3  6 A2  5 A  5I  0  
Solution:
Multiply by A1 we get
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
A1  A3  6 A2  5 A  5I   0  The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
1 1 1 1
A A  6A A  5A A  5A I  0
3 2
Where S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements=2+1+2=5
IA2  6 IA  5I  5 A1  0
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the diagonal elements.
A2  6 A  5I  5 A1  0 1 0 2 1 2 1
=  
A1   6 A  A2  5I 
1 1 2 1 2 0 1
5 =(2-0)+(4-1)+(2-0)=2+3+2=7

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 51 Department of Mathematics SRM IST, Ramapuram. 52 Department of Mathematics
18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

2 1 1
S3 = A  0 1 0
1 1 2
= 2(2  0) 1(0  0)  1(0 1)  4 1  3
Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 –5λ2 +7λ-3 = 0 _____________(1)
Replace λ by A in (1)
A3 –5A2 +7A- 3I= 0 ___________________________(2)

Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that “ Every Square matrix satisfies its own characteristic
equation “
 A3 – 5A2 + 7A – 3I = 0
A8  5 A7  7 A6  3 A5  A4  5 A3  8 A2  2 A  I

 A5 A3 – 5 A2  7 A – 3I  
 A A3 – 5 A2  7 A – 3I  – 15 A2  5 A – I
[from Eqn. (2)]
 – 15 A2  5 A – I
To find A2
2 1 1 2 1 1
  
A2  A * A   0 1 00 1 0
1 1 2   11 2 

 4  0 1 2 11 2  0  2
 
  0  0 1 0 1 0 0  0  0 
20 2 1  1  2 1  0  4 

5 4 4
 
 0 1 0
4 4 5
 

5 4 4  2 1 1 1 0 0
     
– 15 A2  5 A – I  15  0 1 0   5 0 1 0  0 1 0
4 4 5   1 1 2   0 0 1 

 75 60 60  10 5 5  1 0 0
     
  0 15 0    0 5 0  0 1 0
 60 60 75   5 5 10   0 0 1 
  
 66 55 55 
 
  0 11 0 
 55 55 66 
 

*****

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 53 Department of Mathematics