Summary of Byzantine Art and Architecture

Existing for over a thousand years, the Byzantine Empire

cultivated diverse and sumptuous arts to engage the viewers'
senses and transport them to a more spiritual plane as well as
to emphasize the divine rights of the emperor. Spanning the
time between antiquity and the Middle Ages, Byzantine art
encompassed an array of regional styles and influences and
developed long-lasting Christian iconography that is familiar
to practitioners today.

Because of its longevity and geographical scope, Byzantine

art does not necessarily proceed in a linear progression of
stylistic innovations. Its origins in the Roman Empire meant
that even in the face of unclassical tendencies that favored
hierarchical compositions and symbolic meanings there were
periods of revival that emphasized more naturalistic
renderings that foregrounded storytelling. Within this milieu,
distinctive styles of mosaics and icon paintings developed,
and innovations in frescos, illuminated manuscripts, and
small-scale sculptures and enamel work would have lasting
influence not just in Eastern realms such as Turkey and
Russia but also in Europe and even in contemporary religious
painting.

Key Ideas & Accomplishments

 In further developing Christian iconography that began
during Roman times, images became powerful means to
spread and deepen the Christian faith. Many of the now-
standard iconographic types, such as Christ Pantocrator
and the Virgin and Child enthroned, were created and
 evolved during the Byzantine era. This new-found power
of images, however, was not without controversy and
sparked a heated and, at times, violent debate over the
place of images in the church.
 Byzantine emperors used art and architecture to signal
their strength and importance. Often, depictions of the
emperor were less naturalistic and instead used
compositional clues such as size, placement, and color to
underscore his importance. Additionally, the emperor
was often visually associated with Christ, making it clear
that his power was divinely ordained and, thus, secure.
 Beginning with the basilica and central plans used by the
Romans, Byzantine architects and designers made huge
engineering innovations in erecting domes and vaults.
The use of pendentives and squinches allowed for
smoother transitions between square bases and circular,
or octagonal, domes.
 The architectural surfaces of Byzantine churches were
covered in mosaics and frescoes, creating opulent and
magnificent interiors that glittered in the candle and lamp
light. In building such elaborate and seemingly
miraculous structures, the goal was to create the sense of
a heavenly realm here on earth, a goal that later Gothic
architecture fully embraced.

Beginnings of Byzantine Art and Architecture

The term Byzantine is derived from the Byzantine Empire,

which developed from the Roman Empire. In 330 the Roman
Emperor Constantine established the city of Byzantion in
modern day Turkey as the new capital of the Roman empire
and renamed it Constantinople. Byzantion was originally an
ancient Greek colony, and the derivation of the name remains
unknown, but under the Romans the name was Latinized to
Byzantium.
In 1555 the German historian Hieronymus Wolf first used the
term Byzantine Empire in Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ, his
collection of the era's historical documents. The term became
popularized among French scholars in the 17th century with
the publication of the Byzantine du Louvre (1648)
and Historia Byzantina (1680), but was not widely adopted by
art historians until the 19th century, as the distinctive style of
Byzantine architecture and art in mosaics, icon painting,
frescos, illuminated manuscripts, small scale sculptures and
enamel work, was defined.

The Byzantine Empire lasted until 1453 when Constantinople

was conquered by the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Byzantine art
and architecture is usually divided into three historical
periods: the Early Byzantine from c. 330-730, the Middle
Byzantine from c. 843-1204, and Late Byzantine from c.
1261-1453. The political, social, and artistic continuity of the
Empire was disrupted by the Iconoclastic Controversy from
730-843 and then, again, by the Period of the Latin
Occupation from 1204-1261.
The Roman Empire
In the era leading up to the founding of the Byzantine Empire,
the Roman Empire was the most powerful economic, political,
and cultural force in the world. A polytheistic society, Roman
religion was deeply informed by Greek mythology, as Greek
gods were adopted into the Roman mos maiorum, or "way of
the ancestors," viewing their own founding fathers as the
source of their identity and worldly power. At the same time,
as the empire absorbed the deities of the peoples they
conquered as a way of supporting civic stability, the
monotheism of Christianity, which first appeared in Roman-
held Judea in the 1st century, was seen as a political and civil
threat. The Emperor Nero instituted the first persecution of
Christians, as he blamed the sect for the Great Fire of Rome in
65, and subsequent emperors followed suit.
In 303 the Roman Emperor Diocletian instituted the Great
Prosecution, during an era when political leaders, including
Constantine, were engaged in a war, driven by competing
claims to be Diocletian's successor. Facing a battle with his
rival Maxentius, legend has it that Constantine converted to
Christianity because of a vision. Described by the historian
Eusebius, "he saw with his own eyes in the heavens a trophy
of the cross arising from the light of the sun, carrying the
message, In Hoc Signo Vinces (In this sign, you shall
conquer)." Marking his soldier's shields with the Chi Rho, a
symbol of Christ, Constantine was victorious and,
subsequently, became emperor. His 313 Edict of Milan
legalized the practice of Christianity, and in 324, he moved to
create a new capital in the East, Constantinople, in order to
integrate those provinces into the empire while
simultaneously creating a new center of art, culture, and
learning.
Early Christian Art
Creating frescoes, mosaics, and panel paintings, Early
Christian art drew upon the styles and motifs of Roman art
while repurposing them to Christian subjects. Works of art
were created primarily in the Christian catacombs of Rome,
where early depictions of Christ portrayed him as the classical
"Good Shepherd," a young man in classical dress in a pastoral
setting. At the same time, meaning was often conveyed by
symbols, and an early iconography began to develop. As the
Edict of Milan was followed by the Emperor Theophilus I's
380 edict establishing Christianity as the official religion of
the empire, Christian churches were built and decorated with
frescoes and mosaics. The classical sculptural tradition was
abandoned, as it was feared that figures in the round were too
reminiscent of pagan idols. In the first two centuries of the
Byzantine Empire, as the historians Horst Woldemar Janson
and Anthony F. Janson wrote, there was, "No clear-cut line
between Early Christian and Byzantine art. East Roman and
West Roman - or, as some scholars prefer to call them,
Eastern and Western Christian - traits are difficult to separate
before the sixth century."

Early Byzantine Art and Emperor Justinian I

The flowering of Byzantine architecture and art occurred in
the reign of the Emperor Justinian from 527-565, as he
embarked on a building campaign in Constantinople and,
subsequently, Ravenna, Italy. His most notable monument
was the Hagia Sophia (537), its name meaning "holy
wisdom," an immense church with a massive dome and light
filled interior. The Hagia Sophia's many windows, colored
marble, bright mosaics, and gold highlights became the
standard models for subsequent Byzantine architecture.
To design the Hagia Sophia, burnt down in a previous riot,
Justinian I employed two well-known mathematicians, Isidore
of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. Isidore taught
stereometry, or solid geometry, and physics and was known
for compiling the first collection of the works of Archimedes,
a classical Greek engineer and scientist. A mathematician,
Anthemius wrote a pioneering study on solid geometric forms
and their relationships while arranging surfaces to focus light
on a single point. The two men drew upon their knowledge of
geometrical principles to engineer the Hagia Sophia's large
dome as they pioneered the use of pendentives. The
triangular supports at the corners of the dome's square base
redistributed the weight, making it possible to build the largest
dome in the world until the St. Peter's Basilica dome, which
also employed pendentives, was completed in Rome in 1590.
Hiring 10,000 artisans to build and decorate the Hagia Sophia,
Justinian I also established innumerable workshops in icon
painting, ivory carving, enamel metalwork, mosaics and
fresco painting in Constantinople. As art historians H.W.
Janson and Anthony F. Janson wrote, during his reign,
"Constantinople became the artistic as well as political capital
of the empire....The monuments he sponsored have a grandeur
that justifies the claim that his era was a golden age." As the
Empire was at its most geographically expansive during
Justinian's reign, Byzantine art and architecture influenced
modern day Turkey, Greece, the Adriatic regions of Italy, the
Middle East, Spain, Northern Africa, and Eastern Europe.
While other structures, particularly his Chrysotriklinos, the
imperial palace reception room, were equally influential, that
building, like other early structures in Constantinople, was
later destroyed. As a result, the best examples of Early
Byzantine innovation can be seen in Ravenna, Italy.
Ravenna, Italy
Justinian I appointed his protégé Maximianus, a lowly and
somewhat unpopular deacon, as Archbishop of Ravenna,
where he acted as a kind of implicit regent for the Emperor
within Italy. In 547, Maximianus completed the construction
of San Vitale, a central-plan church using a Greek cross
within a square that became a model for subsequent
architecture. The shallow dome, placed upon a drum, used
terra cotta forms for the first time as construction material,
while the interior's exquisite mosaics and sacred objects,
including the Throne of Maximianan (mid-11th century)
defined the Byzantine style.

Having survived almost intact since its consecration, the

interior of the Church of San Vitale created an effect of
intricate splendor, with every inch richly decorated. Large
mosaics depicting the Emperor and Empress established
Byzantine composition and figurative techniques, as the
realistic depictions of classical art were abandoned in favor of
an emphasis upon iconographic formality. The tall, thin, and
motionless figures with almond shaped faces and wide eyes,
posed frontally, against a gold background became the
instantly recognizable definition of Byzantine art.

Acheiropoieta and Icons

Early Byzantine artists pioneered icon painting, small panels
depicting Christ, the Madonna, and other religious figures.
Objects of both personal and public veneration, they
developed from classical Greek and Roman portrait panels
and were informed by the Christian tradition
of Acheiropoieta. Acheiropoieta, meaning, "made without
hands," was an image believed to have been miraculously
created. According to tradition, St. Luke the Evangelist, one
of the original twelve apostles, painted the image of the
Madonna and Child Jesus when they miraculously appeared to
him. The Monastery of the Panaghia Hodegetria in
Constantinople was built to house a now-lost icon believed to
be St. Luke's painting. As art historian Robin Cormack noted,
it became "perhaps the most prominent cult object in
Byzantium." These miraculous images influenced the
development of iconographic types, as St. Luke's icon became
known as Hodegetria, meaning "She Who Points the Way," as
the Madonna pointed to the Child Jesus.
Acheiropoieta were often credited with contemporary
miracles. The Image of Edessa was believed to have come to
the divine aid of the city of Edessa in its 593 defense against
the Persians. The central image of Christ's head, known as the
Mandylion in the Byzantine tradition, recalled the image of
Christ's face imprinted on a cloth while he walked to the place
of his crucifixion. Worshippers believed they were in the
presence of the divine, as art historian Elena Boerck wrote,
"Icons, unlike idols, have their own agency. They're
interactive images, in which the divine is present."
Nonetheless, as the worship of icons became a dominant
feature of Byzantine life, a fierce and destructive theological
debate developed.

Iconoclastic Controversy
By the 8th century, the Byzantine Empire was under pressure
and often at war, and in this tense climate the controversy
over the spiritual validity of icons erupted. Motivated by the
belief that recent events, including military defeats and a
volcanic eruption in the Aegean Sea in 726, were God's
punishment for what he called, "a craft of idolatry," the
Emperor Leo III officially prohibited religious images in 730
and launched a movement called Iconoclasm, meaning
"breaking of icons." Long standing theological debates over
the divine and human nature of Christ and a power struggle
between the imperial state and the church stoked the
controversy. The Iconoclasts felt that no icon could portray
both Christ's divine and human nature, and to convey only one
aspect of Christ was a heresy. Those who supported icons
argued that, unlike idols which depicted a false god, the
images simply depicted the incarnate Christ and that the
images derived their authority from Acheiropoieta. By
inserting himself into the debate, the Emperor substituted
imperial decree for religious authority, undercutting the
influence and power of the church. Subsequently, the state
violently supressed monastic clergy and destroyed icons.
The era came to an end with a change in imperial power.
Following the death of her husband, the Emperor Theophilus,
in 842, the Empress Theodora took the throne and, as she was
passionately devoted to the veneration of icons, summoned a
council that restored icon worship and deposed the
iconoclastic clergy. The occasion was celebrated at the Feast
of Orthodoxy in 843, and icons were carried in triumphal
procession back to the various churches from which they had
been taken. Nonetheless, the Iconoclastic Controversy had a
notable impact on the later development of art, as the councils
that restored the worship of icons also formulated a codified
system of symbols and iconographic types that were also
followed in mosaics and fresco painting.

Middle Byzantine 867-1204

The Middle Byzantine era is often called the Macedonian
Renaissance, as Basil I the Macedonian, crowned in 867,
reopened the universities and promoted literature and art,
renewing an interest in classical Greek scholarship and
aesthetics. Greek was established as the official language of
the Empire, and libraries and scholars compiled extensive
collections of classical texts. The Ecumenical Patriarch of
Constantinople, Photios was not only the leading theologian
but has been described by the historian Adrian Forescue as
"the greatest scholar of his time." His Bibliotheca was an
important compilation of almost three hundred works by
classical authors, and he played a leading role in seeing
Byzantine culture as rooted in Greek culture. The result was,
as Janson and Janson wrote, "an almost antiquarian
enthusiasm for the traditions of classical art," displayed in
works like the illuminated manuscript, the Paris Psalter (c.
900) a book of Biblical psalms that included full page
illustrations from the life of King David and that employed a
more realistic treatment of both the figures and the landscape.
Throughout Europe, Byzantine culture and art was seen as the
height of aesthetic refinement, and, as a result, many rulers,
even those politically antagonistic to the Empire, employed
Byzantine artists. In Sicily, which had been conquered by the
Normans, Roger II, the first Norman King, recruited
Byzantine artists and, as a result, the Norman architecture that
developed in Sicily and Great Britain, following the Norman
Conquest in 1066, profoundly influenced Gothic architecture.
Hundreds of Byzantine artists were also employed at the
Basilica of San Marco in Venice when construction began in
1063. In Russia, Vladimir of Kiev converted to the Orthodox
Church upon his marriage to a Byzantine princess. He
employed artists from Constantinople at the St. Sophia's
Cathedral he built in Kiev in 1307. Notable examples of
Macedonian Renaissance art were also created in Greece,
while the influx of Byzantine artists influenced art throughout
Western Europe as shown by the Italian artist Berlinghiero of
Lucca's Hodegetria (c. 1230).
The Latin Occupation 1204-1261
Famed for its wealth and artistic treasures, Constantinople
was cruelly sacked and the Empire conquered in 1204 by the
Crusade Army and Venetian forces under the Fourth Crusade.
The brutal attack upon a Christian city and its inhabitants was
unprecedented, and historians view it as a turning point in
medieval history, creating a lasting schism between the
Catholic and Orthodox churches, severely weakening the
Byzantine Empire and contributing to its later demise when
conquered by the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Many notable
artworks and sacred objects were looted, destroyed, or lost.
Some works, like the Roman bronze works of the
Hippodrome, were carried off to Venice where they are still
on display, while other works, including sacred objects and
altars as well as classical bronze statues, were melted down,
and the Library of Constantinople was destroyed. Though the
Latins were driven out by 1261, Byzantium never recovered
its former glory or power.

Late Byzantium 1261-1453

Following the Latin Conquest, the Late Byzantine era began
to renovate and restore Orthodox churches. However, as the
Conquest had decimated the economy and left much of the
city in ruins, artists employed more economical materials, and
miniature mosaic icons became popular. In icon painting, the
suffering of the population during the Conquest led to an
emphasis upon images of compassion, as shown in sufferings
of Christ. Artistic vitality shifted to Russia, Bulgaria,
Romania, and Greece, where regional variations of icon
painting developed. Russia became a leading center with the
Novgorod School of Icon Painting, led by master painters
Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev. Byzantine art also
influenced contemporaneous art in the West, particularly the
Sienese School of Painting and the International Gothic Style,
as well as painters like Duccio in his Stroganoff
Madonna (1300).

Byzantine Art and Architecture: Concepts, Styles, and

Trends

Architectural Innovations
Known for its central plan buildings with domed roofs,
Byzantine architecture employed a number of innovations,
including the squinch and the pendentive. The squinch used
an arch at the corners to transform a square base into an
octagonal shape, while the pendentive employed a corner
triangular support that curved up into the dome. The original
architectural design of many Byzantine churches was a Greek
cross, having four arms of equal length, placed within a
square. Later, peripheral structures, like a side chapel or
second narthex, were added to the more traditional church
footprint. In the 11th century, the quincunx building design,
which used the four corners and a fifth element elevated
above it, became prominent as seen in The Holy Apostles in
Thessaloniki, Athens, Greece. In addition to the central dome,
Byzantine churches began adding smaller domes around it.

Poikilia
Byzantine architecture was informed by Poikilia, a Greek
term, meaning "marked with various colors," or "variegated,"
that in Greek aesthetic philosophy was developed to suggest
how a complex and various assemblage of elements created a
polysensory experience. Byzantine interiors, and the
placement of objects and elements within an interior, were
designed to create ever changing and animated interior as
light revealed the variations in surfaces and colors. Variegated
elements were also achieved by other techniques such as the
employment of bands or areas of gold and elaborately carved
stone surfaces.
For instance the basket capitals in the Hagia Sophia were so
intricately carved, the stone seemed to dematerialize in light
and shadow. Decorative bands replaced moldings and
cornices, in effect rounding the interior angles so that images
seemed to flow from one surface to another. Photios described
this surface effect in one of his homilies: "It is as if one had
entered heaven itself with no one barring the way from any
side, and was illuminated by the beauty in changing
forms...shining all around like so many stars, so is one utterly
amazed. [...] It seems that everything is in ecstatic motion, and
the church itself is circling around."

Iconographic Types and Iconostasis

Byzantine art developed iconographic types that were

employed in icons, mosaics, and frescoes and influenced
Western depictions of sacred subjects. The early Pantocrator,
meaning "all-powerful," portrayed Christ in majesty, his right
hand raised in a gesture of instruction and led to the
development of the Deësis, meaning "prayer," showing Christ
as Pantocrator with St. John the Baptist and the Virgin Mary,
and, sometimes, additional saints, on either side of him. The
Hodegetria developed into the later iconographic types of the
Eleusa, meaning tenderness, which showed the Madonna and
the Child Jesus in a moment of affectionate tenderness, and
the Pelagonitissa, or playing child, icon. Other iconographic
types included the Man of Sorrows, which focused on
depicting Christ's suffering, and the Anastasis, which showed
Christ rescuing Adam and Eve from hell. These types became
widely influential and were employed in Western art as well,
though some like the Anastasis only depicted in the Byzantine
Orthodox tradition.

Iconostasis, meaning "altar stand," was a term used to refer to

a wall composed of icons that separated worshippers from the
altar. In the Middle Byzantine period, the Iconostasis evolved
from the Early Byzantine templon, a metal screen that
sometimes was hung with icons, to a wooden wall composed
of panels of icons. Containing three doors that had a
hierarchal purpose, reserved for deacons or church notables,
the wall extended from floor to ceiling, though leaving a
space at the top so that worshippers could hear the liturgy
around the altar. Some of the most noted Iconostases were
developed in the Late Byzantine period in the Slavic
countries, as shown in Theophanes the
Greek's Iconostasis (1405) in the Cathedral of the
Annunciation in Moscow. A codified system governed the
placement of the icons arranged according to their religious
importance.

Novgorod School of Icon Painting

The Novgorod School of Icon Painting, founded by the
Byzantine artist, Theophanes the Greek, became the leading
school of the Late Byzantine era, its influence lasting beyond
the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Theophanes' work
was known for its dynamic vigour due to his brushwork and
his inclusion of more dramatic scenes in icons, which were
usually only depicted in large-scale works. He is believed to
have taught Andrei Rublev who became the most renowned
icon painter of the era, famous for his ability to convey
complex religious thought and feeling in subtly colored and
emotionally evocative scenes. In the next generation, the
leading icon painter Dionysius experimented with balance
between horizontal and vertical lines to create a more
dramatic effect. Influenced by Early Renaissance Italian
artists who had arrived in Moscow, his style, known for pure
color and elongated figures, is sometimes referred to as
"Muscovite mannerism," as seen in his icon series for the
Cathedral of the Dormition (1481) in Moscow.

Carved Ivory
In the Byzantine era, the sculptural tradition of Rome and
Greece was essentially abandoned, as the Byzantine church
felt that sculpture in the round would evoke pagan idols;
however, Byzantine artists pioneered relief sculpture in ivory,
usually presented in small portable objects and common
objects. An early example is the Throne of Maximianan (also
called, the Throne of Maximianus), made in Constantinople
for the Archbishop Maximianus of Ravenna for the dedication
of San Vitale. The work depicted Biblical stories and figures,
surrounded by decorative panels, carved in different depths so
that the almost three-dimensional treatment in some panels
contrasted against the more shallow two-dimensional
treatment of others.

In the Middle Byzantine period, ivory carving was known for

its elegant and delicate detail, as seen in the Harbaville
Triptych (mid-11th century). Reflecting the Macedonian
Renaissance's renewed interest in classical art, artists depicted
figures with more naturally flowing draperies
and contrapposto poses. Byzantine ivory carvings were highly
valued in the West, and, as, a result, the works exerted an
artistic influence. The Italian artist Cimabue's Madonna
Enthroned (1280-1290), a work prefiguring the Italian
Renaissance's use of depth and space, is predominantly
informed by Byzantine conventions.

Later Developments - After Byzantine Art and

Architecture
During its almost one thousand year span, the Byzantine era
influenced Islamic architecture, the art and architecture of the
Carolingian Renaissance, Norman architecture, Gothic
architecture, and the International Gothic style. When the
Turkish Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453,
renaming it Istanbul, the Byzantine Empire came to an end.
Nonetheless the Byzantine style continued to be employed in
Greece and in Eastern Europe and Russia, where a "Russo-
Byzantine" style developed in architecture.
Barberini Diptych (c. 527-565)
This ivory relief was originally a diptych, hinged to another
panel that was subsequently lost. Two smaller panels - the
right one also lost - frame the central depiction of an energetic
emperor, likely Justinian, on horseback. As the muscular and
dynamic horse rears on its hind legs, the emperor looks
forward as he grasps the shaft of a lance in his right hand and
with his left grasps the horse's reins. Around him, three
smaller figures symbolize his power and dominance. The
winged figure of Victory on the upper right stands on a globe
inscribed with a cross, holding a palm branch, another symbol
of victory, in her left hand while her right hand crowns the
emperor. A defeated barbarian stands on the left behind the
horse, and a partially nude woman, who holds a cornucopia in
her lap and reaches out to grasp the emperor's foot with her
right hand, symbolizes the earth.

In the upper panel, two heraldic angels hold a central

medallion depicting Christ holding a cross and flanked by
symbols of the sun, moon, and stars. In the left panel, a
soldier, holding a statuette of Victory, turns toward the
emperor. The lower panel depicts two Western barbarians on
the left and two Eastern barbarians on the right, all bringing
tribute, including ivory tusks, lions, tigers and elephants, to
another winged Victory figure at the center who gestures
toward the emperor above. Every element reiterates imperial
authority and is innovatively depicted with energetic
compression; the figures seem to surge within the frame. The
model for this small portable work was the famous equestrian
statue of Marcus Aurelius, but rather than the stoic strength of
that work, this depiction makes the emperor "brim with the
same energy as his charging stead," as the Jansons wrote.

The Early Byzantine era pioneered ivory reliefs, which had a

long-lasting influence upon Western art. They were much
prized by the European elite, and this particular piece is now
named after Cardinal Barberini, a noted 17th-century art patron
and collector. Created during the reign of the Emperor
Justinian, the work also exemplified the Early Byzantine style,
which still drew upon classical influences, as the figure of the
emperor and his horse, the lance, and the winged victory are
carved in such high relief that they seem fully three
dimensional. The surrounding panels are carved in shallower
relief, visually emphasizing the emperor as the source of
energy and power. The message of the work was also
innovative as it combined the military victory of the emperor
with the victory of Christianity, employing two angels
carrying an image of Christ rather than the Roman era's use of
a pair of winged Victories. As art historian Ernst Kitzinger
wrote, "Christ makes his appearance in heaven at the moment
in which the emperor stages his triumphal adventus on earth.
It is a graphic depiction of the harmony between heavenly and
earthly rule."
c. 546-556
Emperor Justinian Mosaic
This famous mosaic depicts the Emperor Justinian I, haloed,
wearing a crown and an imperial purple robe and holding a
large golden bowl for the bread of the Eucharist. Carrying a
gold cross, Bishop Maximianus of Ravenna, whose name is
inscribed above, stands on the emperor's left along with three
other clergy, one holding a incense censor and the other a
gilded Gospel. On the emperor's right stand two men in white
robes with a purple stripe, identifying them as members of the
imperial administration, as well as a group of soldiers,
gathered behind a single shield decorated with a cross. Placed
in the center, the Emperor is thus depicted as the central
authority between the power of the church and the power of
the government and military.
The distinctive style of this mosaic defined Early Byzantine
art. The naturalistic treatments of classical Greek and Roman
art were abandoned in favor of a hierarchal style that, rather
than drawing the viewer's eye into a convincing image of
reality, presented figures with direct gazes that were meant to
spiritually engage the viewer. This was one of two mosaics
flanking the altar; the second depicts the Empress Theodora,
similarly accompanied, and in both scenes the figures are
shown as if they were bringing the gifts of the Eucharist to the
altar that occupies the physical space between the mosaics.
All of the figures are posed frontally in a distinctive figurative
style, with tall thin bodies, tiny feet pointed forward, oval
faces and huge eyes, and without any suggestion of
movement. As the art historians H.W. Janson and Anthony F.
Janson wrote, "The dimensions of time and earthly space have
given way to an eternal present in the golden setting of
Heaven. Hence the solemn, frontal images seem to belong to a
celestial rather than a secular court. This union of political and
spiritual authority reflects the 'divine kingship' of the
Byzantine emperor."
sixth or early seventh century
Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore
and George
This image depicts the Virgin seated in a golden throne,
holding the Christ Child on her lap as if presenting him to the
viewer. Dressed in white and holding a gold cross in his right
hand, the haloed Saint Theodore, revered as a warrior saint
and a martyr in the Orthodox church, stands to the Virgin's
right, while Saint George in red, also haloed and holding a
cross, flanks her left. All four figures are depicted in colorful,
fine robes and face forward, stern and motionless, with
prominent eyes confronting the viewer. The hierarchical
composition elevates the Virgin slightly, and the gold edging
of her chair sets her distinctly apart. With right knees bent as
if to step forward, the saints reflect the influence of classical
Roman art and convey the presence of a more human and
material world in contrast to the Virgin's heavenly throne.
Behind the figures, two haloed angels turn their heads in
profile to gaze toward the hand of God, from which a
triangular beam of light streams down, illuminating the
Virgin's halo. The composition presents a complex interplay
between the physical materiality of the saints and Mary and
the near transparency of the angels and the divine, thus
directing the viewer's meditation and prayer to the incarnation
of God in Christ through Mary.

This icon is one of the earliest surviving examples of the

Theotokos, or Mother of God, image that dominated
Byzantine art and influenced Western art, particularly in the
Gothic era's cult of the Virgin. It is also one of the earliest
depictions of Saint Theodore and Saint George, who became
revered saints not only in the Byzantine Empire but also in the
West. The 4th century Theodore became the patron saint of
Venice until the 9th century, and Saint George, believed to be
a Roman soldier who was martyred for refusing to recant his
faith, became the legendary dragon slayer of the medieval
period, the patron saint of England, and the inspiration for
countless art works.
532-537
The Hagia Sophia
Artist: Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles
In Istanbul, the Hagia Sophia's most prominent and celebrated
feature is its large dome, soaring above the city, while its
square brick edifice and two massive towers, create an
impression of fortress-like solidity. The interior is equally
renowned for its light-filled space that creates a heavenly
atmosphere. As the Emperor Justinian's biographer Procopius
wrote at the time, "Yet [the dome] seems not to rest upon
solid masonry, but to cover the space with its golden dome
suspended from Heaven." The dome is the largest in the
world, made possible by the architects' pioneering use of
pendentives; the corners of the dome's square base curve up
into the dome and redistribute its weight. The architects also
inserted forty windows around the base of the dome,
lightening the weight of it and illuminating the interior. They
gilded the frames of the windows so that the stone refracts and
reflects the light, making it appear that the dome is floating.
When the church was completed, Justinian supposedly
exclaimed, "Solomon, I have outdone thee!"

In 532 Justinian I appointed Isidorus of Miletus and

Anthemius of Tralles to rebuild the church. The previous
church had been destroyed in rioting against Justinian's
government, and its consecration was meant to mark the
restoration of his central authority. At the same time, as the
seat of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, the church
also symbolized the spiritual authority of the Orthodox
church. The structure of the interior also communicated social
hierarchies, as the ground floor and upper gallery were
segregated according to gender and social class with the
gallery reserved for the emperor and other notables. Similarly,
the entrance to the nave of the church contained nine
doorways with the Imperial Door, reserved for the emperor, in
the center. In effect, the church was a concrete schemata of
the religious, political, and social organization of the empire -
an earthly but heavenly city.

In 1453 following the Turkish conquest, the building became

a mosque, and the four minarets, each over 200 feet tall, were
added. Interior mosaics were painted over in gold and
replaced with large medallions inscribed with calligraphy.
Nonetheless the building's original design was much admired,
as shown by the Ottoman historian Tursun Beg who wrote in
the 15th century, "What a dome, that vies in rank with the
nine spheres of heaven! In this work a perfect master has
displayed the whole of the architectural science." The church
became a model for Ottoman architecture, as seen in the
Sultan Ahmed Mosque (1609-1616), popularly known as the
Blue Mosque. Today the Hagia Sophia is a national museum,
in order to remove it from the religious controversies that are
still associated with the site today.

1411 or 1425-1427
Holy Trinity Icon
Artist: Andrei Rublev
This, the most famous of all Russian icons, depicts three
angels seated around a table upon which sits a chalice
containing the head of a sacrificed calf. The arrangement of
the winged figures, the graceful lines, and the clothing they
wear create a visual circle, symbolizing their unity. Both the
angel in the middle and the one on the right lift their hands in
gestures of blessing over the cup as they look toward the
angel on the left. With this circular composition, Rublev
conveys a sense of still contemplation.

The work ostensibly depicts the Biblical account of the

visitation of three angels to the prophet Abraham, who
sacrificed a calf to feed and honor his visitors, but more than
an illustration of the story, the icon is a visual expression of
the concept of the Trinity, the belief that God is one but in
three persons - the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In the
background, above the central angel, a single tree alludes to
the Oak of Mamre where the visitation took place, but it also
refers to the Tree of Life in the Garden of Eden and the cross
upon which Christ was crucified, thus connecting the central
angel with Christ. The relationship is further emphasized by
the angel's red robe, the color that symbolizes Christ's
Passion. The angel on the right wears the green associated
with the feast of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit descended
upon Christ's followers, while God the Father sits on the left,
his importance indicated by the gaze of the others turned
toward him. The unity of the godhead is symbolized by the
fact that all three of the angels wear blue garments, and they
seem to be engaged in sacred conversation, conveyed by gaze
and gesture, around the chalice that represents Christ's
sacrifice. In the background, a house alludes to both
Abraham's house and the home of eternal salvation, while the
mountain suggests Mount Tabor, the Biblical site where the
Holy Spirit descended. To convey the complex symbolic
meaning, Rublev left out many of the traditional elements of
the story that are usually depicted.
Though not a great deal is known about him, most scholars
believe Andrei Rublev was a monk in the Holy Trinity
Monastery. The monastery was and still is considered to be
the spiritual heart of the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1551
the Russian Orthodox Church Council of the Hundred
Chapters met to consider the iconographical canon and
declared this icon was the model for all Orthodox icons. In an
era of great discord and violence, Rublev's image also
emphasized spiritual unity, mutual love, humility and peace.
Rublev's reputation has only grown in the contemporary
world. The noted filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky's Andrei
Rublev (1966) was based upon the artist's life, and in 1988 the
artist was canonized as a saint.