crystals

Article
Physical, Mechanical and Durability Properties of Ecofriendly
Ternary Concrete Made with Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash and
Silica Fume
Laura Landa-Ruiz 1,2 , Aldo Landa-Gómez 2 , José M. Mendoza-Rangel 3 , Abigail Landa-Sánchez 2 ,
Hilda Ariza-Figueroa 2 , Ce Tochtli Méndez-Ramírez 2 , Griselda Santiago-Hurtado 4, * ,
Victor M. Moreno-Landeros 4, * , René Croche 5, * and Miguel Angel Baltazar-Zamora 2, *

1 Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica, Doctorado en Ingeniería, Universidad Veracruzana,

Lomas del Estadio S/N, Zona Universitaria, Xalapa 91000, Veracruz, Mexico; [email protected]
2 Facultad de Ingeniería Civil—Xalapa, Universidad Veracruzana, Lomas del Estadio S/N, Zona Universitaria,
Xalapa 91000, Veracruz, Mexico; [email protected] (A.L.-G.); [email protected] (A.L.-S.);
[email protected] (H.A.-F.); [email protected] (C.T.M.-R.)
3 Facultad de Ingeniería Civil, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Ave. Pedro de Alba S/N,



Ciudad Universitaria, San Nicolás de los Garza 66450, Nuevo León, Mexico; [email protected]

 4 Facultad de Ingeniería Civil—Unidad Torreón, UADEC, Torreón 27276, Coahuila, Mexico
5 Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica—Xalapa, Universidad Veracruzana, Lomas del Estadio S/N,
Citation: Landa-Ruiz, L.;
Landa-Gómez, A.; Mendoza-Rangel, Zona Universitaria, Xalapa 91000, Veracruz, Mexico
J.M.; Landa-Sánchez, A.;
* Correspondence: [email protected] (G.S.-H.); [email protected] (V.M.M.-L.); [email protected] (R.C.);
[email protected] (M.A.B.-Z.); Tel.: +52-2282-5252-94 (M.A.B.-Z.)
Ariza-Figueroa, H.; Méndez-Ramírez,
C.T.; Santiago-Hurtado, G.;
Moreno-Landeros, V.M.; Croche, R.; Abstract: In the present investigation, the physical, mechanical and durability properties of six
Baltazar-Zamora, M.A. Physical, concrete mixtures were evaluated, one of conventional concrete (CC) with 100% Portland cement (PC)
Mechanical and Durability Properties and five mixtures of Ecofriendly Ternary Concrete (ETC) made with partial replacement of Portland
of Ecofriendly Ternary Concrete Cement by combinations of sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) and silica fume (SF) at percentages of 10,
Made with Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash 20, 30, 40 and 50%. The physical properties of slump, temperature, and unit weight were determined,
and Silica Fume. Crystals 2021, 11, as well as compressive strength, rebound number, and electrical resistivity as a durability parameter.
1012. https://doi.org/10.3390/ All tests were carried out according to the ASTM and ONNCCE standards. The obtained results
cryst11091012
show that the physical properties of ETC concretes are very similar to those of conventional concrete,
complying with the corresponding regulations. Compressive strength results of all ETC mixtures
Academic Editors: Cesare Signorini,
showed favorable performances, increasing with aging, presenting values similar to CC at 90 days and
Antonella Sola, Sumit Chakraborty
and Valentina Volpini
greater values at 180 days in the ETC-20 and ETC-30 mixtures. Electrical resistivity results indicated
that the five ETC mixtures performed better than conventional concrete throughout the entire
Received: 12 July 2021 monitoring period, increasing in durability almost proportionally to the percentage of substitution of
Accepted: 21 August 2021 Portland cement by the SCBA–SF combination; the ETC mixture made with 40% replacement had
Published: 24 August 2021 the highest resistivity value, which represents the longest durability. The present electrical resistivity
indicates that the durability of the five ETC concretes was greater than conventional concrete. The
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral results show that it is feasible to use ETC, because it meets the standards of quality, mechanical
with regard to jurisdictional claims in resistance and durability, and offers a very significant and beneficial contribution to the environment
published maps and institutional affil- due to the use of agro-industrial and industrial waste as partial substitutes up to 50% of CPC, which
iations. contributes to reduction in CO2 emissions due to the production of Portland cement, responsible for
8% of total emissions worldwide.

Keywords: properties; mechanical; electrical resistivity; durability; ecofriendly ternary concrete;

Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. SCBA; SF
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons 1. Introduction
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Concrete is the most widely used construction material worldwide, due to its great
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
mechanical and physical properties, with a demand that grows every year due to the

Crystals 2021, 11, 1012. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11091012 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/crystals

Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 2 of 16

need for the development of civil infrastructure across all countries in the world [1–8].
Even though concrete is durable, it is compromised when exposed to aggressive media
where chloride and sulfate ions may be present, which are considered to be the main
responsible agents for the premature deterioration of reinforced concrete structures, in
which the main problem is the corrosion of reinforcing steel [9–14]. This compromises
sustainable development by not complying with the useful lifetime for which the structures
were designed; additionally, it is known that the manufacture of Portland cement, the main
component for the development of concrete, is responsible for around 5 to 8% of total CO2
emissions worldwide [15–17]. This has led the scientific community to look for options
to reduce the environmental impact due to the use of concrete, of which the addition of
supplementary materials to Portland cement is a very favorable option. These materials
are industrial wastes, of which Fly ash is a waste material in the power generation industry,
and reusing this highly active pozzolan in the construction industry may bring about
several advantages [18]; silica fume (SF) is a byproduct from the production of silicon
alloys such as ferro-chromium, ferro-manganese, calcium silicon, etc., which also creates
environmental pollution and health hazards [19]; blast furnace slag is a waste product of
the steel manufacturing process [20]; and among agro-industrial wastes, the most used as
alternative materials to Portland cement are rice husk ash [21] and sugar cane bagasse ash
(SCBA) [22–24].
Lua et al. found that fly ash (FA) and blast furnace slag (BFS) with various contents
(cement replacement ratio at 0, 20, and 40%) significantly affected the autogenous self-
healing ability of early age cracks. The self-healing efficiency of early age cracks decreased
with increases in FA and BFS content. BFS mortars exhibited greater recovery in relation
to water penetration resistance compared to the reference and FA mortars [25]. Likewise,
Anandan et al. determined that the mechanical properties of processed fly ash based
concrete with 50% OPC replacement had equal or better strength gain at later ages than
unprocessed fly ash based concrete with 25% OPC replacement [26], and in another research
work it was shown that binary concretes with 20% fly ash reinforced with AISI 304 Steel
presented a higher corrosion resistance than AISI 1018 steel when exposed to a simulated
marine environment [27].
Atis et al. showed that the compressive strength of silica fume concrete cured at
65% RH was easier to influence than that of Portland cement concrete. It was found
that the compressive strength of silica fume concrete cured at 65% RH was, on average,
13% lower than silica fume concrete cured at 100% RH in concretes with three different
water/cement ratios and SF percentages of 10, 15 and 20% [28]. Bhanja et al., based on
findings of compressive and tensile strength increases with silica fume incorporation,
determined that the optimum replacement percentage is not a constant one but depends
on the water–cementitious material (w/cm) ratio of the mix [29]. Ozcan et al. concluded
that inclusion of silica fume in concrete increased the compressive strength between 20%
and 50% compared to control PC concrete and there was an optimum replacement ratio of
silica fume, which could be predicted using artificial neural networks (ANN) and fuzzy
logic (FL) [30]. Landa et al. determined that sustainable binary concretes made with 10%
SF provided high corrosion resistance to AISI 1018 steel when exposed to sulfates for more
than 300 days [31].
Fly ash, silica fume and SCBA have been used in various investigations as supple-
mentary materials to cement with excellent results, such as from Srinivasan et al. who in
their studies showed that SCBA in blended concrete had significantly higher compressive
strength, tensile strength, and flexural strength compared to concrete without SCBA. It was
found that the cement could be advantageously replaced with SCBA up to a maximum
limit of 10% [32]. Another study showed that green concretes with substitution of 20% of
Portland cement for with SCBA presented a great resistance to corrosion when reinforced
with stainless steel [33]. Kawade et al. obtained results showing that SCBA concrete
had significantly higher compressive strength compared to concrete without SCBA. The
optimal level of SCBA content was achieved with 15.0% replacement and the partial re-
Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 3 of 16

placement of cement by SCBA increased workability of fresh concrete; therefore, use of

super plasticizer was not essential [34]. Castaldelli et al. evaluated different BFS/SCBA
mixtures, replacing part of the BFS with SCBA from 0 to 40% by weight; the results of
the mechanical resistance values were approximately 60 MPa of compressive strength for
BFS/SCBA systems after 270 days of curing at 20 ◦ C. This demonstrated that sugar cane
bagasse ash is an interesting source for preparing alkali-activated binders [35]. There are
several studies of sustainable concretes, including SCBA, that have shown that corrosion
resistance increased compared to that of reinforcing steel when exposed to sulfated media
or marine media [22,36–39], and some research has also been reported on the use of SCBA
for green road construction [40,41].
Despite the fact that a large number of studies have been carried out worldwide on
the benefits of the inclusion of SCBA for the preparation of concretes and mortars, there is
still no standardized process for its commercial use as there is for fly ash and silica fume.
When using alternative materials to Portland cement, there are three very important
impacts on development in the construction field. The first is the improvement in physical,
mechanical and durability properties of the concretes. The second is the reduction in
CO2 emissions when making concrete to build civil infrastructure (bridges, houses, dams,
hospitals, roads) by reducing the amount of Portland cement per cubic meter of concrete.
The decrease is proportional to the amount in which the Pozzolanic material replaces
Portland cement, so that the more volume of Portland cement is replaced, the greater the
impact on the environment will be, in accordance with the findings of Dong et al.: when
50% of the cement content was replaced by FA, the embodied CO2 emissions for the UHPC
mixture were reduced by approximately 50% as compared to the CO2 emissions calculated
from conventional normal-strength concrete [42]. The third is the impact on the culture
of recycling waste materials. In first-world countries, the use of fly ash and silica fume is
already significant compared to emerging countries, such as Mexico, where at the moment
there does not exist civil infrastructure where concrete has been used with replacement in
large volumes by this type of material.
Therefore, in this research work, physical, mechanical and durability tests were carried
out on Ecological Ternary Concretes (ETC), made with substitution of Portland cement
in 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50% of combinations of SCBA and SF, in order to determine the most
suitable substitution percentage for the fabrication of ETC that provides better performance
than a conventional mixture. Six concrete mixes were produced with a water–cement
ratio of 0.65. The physical properties of the concrete in the fresh state, such as slump,
volumetric weight, and temperature, were determined according to ASTM and ONNCCE
standards. For the mechanical properties, compressive strength tests were carried out as
well as rebound number tests, and for the durability parameter of all the study mixtures,
the electrical resistivity was determined.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
For the elaboration of the study specimens, Portland cement type CPC 30R was used
according to the NMX-C-414-ONNCCE standard [43], sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA)
was obtained from a sugar mill located in the town of Mahuixtlán, Veracruz, México, and
silica fume (SF) was acquired commercially. Six concrete mixtures were made for the
present research, the first of conventional concrete, denoted the control mix (MC), and
the remaining five of Ecofriendly Ternary Concrete (ETC), made by substituting the CPC
30R for combinations of SCBA and SF at percentages of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%. SCBA
and SF were used because they are agro-industrial and industrial wastes with pozzolanic
properties due to their chemical composition. The results of the chemical characterization
of the cementitious materials used, obtained by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, are
presented in Table 1.
Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 4 of 16

Table 1. Chemical composition of the cementitious materials obtained by XRF.

Chemical Composition (% by Mass)

Fe2 O3 Al2 O3 SiO2 CaO Na2 O K2 O MgO SO3
Cement Portland 3.872 5.478 21.187 63.346 0.564 0.83 2.068 2.157
Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash 5.105 3.150 77.739 3.995 0.569 6.672 0.563 0.406
Silica Fume 1.574 0.792 92.261 0.436 0.383 1.314 0.292 0.335

The coarse and fine aggregates used for the preparation of the study mixtures were
from banks of the Xalapa region. Table 2 summarizes the physical characteristics of the
materials used; the tests were carried out according to ASTM standards [44–47].

Table 2. Physical characteristics of the aggregates.

Relative Density Bulk Density (“Unit Weight”) Absorption Fineness Maximum Aggregate
Aggregates
(Specific Gravity) (kg/m3 ) (%) Modulus Size (mm)
Coarse (Gravel) 2.38 1381 5.10 - 19
Fine (Sand) 2.60 1764 1.56 3.40 -

2.2. Proportioning of the Mixtures MC and ETC

For the design and proportioning of the concrete mixtures, the ACI 211.1 method [48]
was used; a water/cement ratio = 0.65 and a slump of 10 cm were measured for all concrete
mixes. Table 3 presents the dosing of the six studied mixtures, the control mix (MC) and
the five Ecofriendly Ternary Concrete (ETC) mixtures made with substitution of CPC 30
with combinations of SCBA-SF at 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50% (ETC-10, ETC-20, ETC-30, ETC-40,
ETC-50).

Table 3. Dosage of ternary concrete mixtures (Kg/m3 ).

Mixture CPC 30R SCBA SF Water Aggregate Fine Aggregate Coarse

MC 315.00 - - 205.00 746.00 881.00
ETC-10 283.50 15.75 15.75 205.00 746.00 881.00
ETC-20 252.00 31.50 31.50 205.00 746.00 881.00
ETC-30 220.5 47.25 47.25 205.00 746.00 881.00
ETC-40 189.00 63.00 63.00 205.00 746.00 881.00
ETC-50 157.50 78.75 78.75 205.00 746.00 881.00

2.3. Physical Properties of Concrete Mixtures

To determine the physical properties of the six studied mixtures (MC, ETC-10, ETC-20,
ETC-30, ETC-40, ETC-50), slump, temperature and unit weight tests were carried out. All
tests were carried out in accordance with the ASTM and ONNCCE.
According to the NMX-C-156-ONNCCE-2010 standard [49] for determining slump,
a truncated conical mold was used where the fresh concrete was poured and compacted.
The mold was placed over a base and raised upwards. The measure of the consistency
or workability of the concrete was provided by the amount of concrete slumped and the
distance slumped, see Figure 1a.
The temperature was determined according to the ASTM C 1064/C1064M-08 stan-
dard [50], which indicates that the concrete must be placed in a non-absorbent container
with at least 75 mm of concrete in all directions from the temperature sensor, which must
have a resolution of ±1.0 ◦ C or smaller with an interval of 0 ◦ C to 50 ◦ C. The thermometer
was submerged in fresh concrete to a minimum depth of 75 mm, leaving it for over 2 min
until the reading was established (see Figure 1b). The unitary mixture was calculated
according to the NMX-C-162-ONNCCE-2014 standard [51]; the equipment used for this
test was a balance with a precision of 50 gr., maze of gum, ruler plate, verification plate,
measuring container and compaction rod. The concrete was placed in three layers inside
 Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 5 of 16

Crystals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW

the container, and each one was compacted via 25 penetrations with the compaction rod.
5 of 16
When compression was complete, the mold was made flush with the ruler plate; finally,
the container with the compacted concrete was weighed (see Figure 1c,d).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 1. Tests
Figure ofof(a)(a)Slump,
1. Tests Slump,(b)
(b) Temperature, (c,d)
Temperature, (c,d) Unit
Unit weight.
weight.

2.4.
TheMechanical and Durability
temperature Properties ofaccording
was determined Eco-Friendly
to Ternary
the ASTMConcrete Mixtures
C 1064/C1064M-08 stand-
2.4.1. Compressive Strength
ard [50], which indicates that the concrete must be placed in a non-absorbent container
with at Compressive
least 75 mm of strength is the
concrete parameter
in all directionsor property
from theoftemperature
the mechanical behavior
sensor, which of must
hydraulic concrete most necessary for the structural design of civil infrastructure
have a resolution of ±1.0 °C or smaller with an interval of 0 °C to 50 °C. The thermometer built on
the basis of reinforced concrete. Compressive strength testing was carried out according to
was submerged in fresh concrete to a minimum depth of 75 mm, leaving it for over 2 min
the NMX-C-083 ONNCCE standard [52], for which specimens were manufactured using
until the reading was established (see Figure 1b). The unitary mixture was calculated ac-
cylindrical steel molds of 100 × 200 mm. After 24 h they were removed from the molds and
cording
placedtointhe NMX-C-162-ONNCCE-2014
a curing standard [51];
tank according to the NMX-C-ONNCCE the equipment
standard used for this
[53]. The specimens of test
wasthe
a balance
six study mixtures were tested at the ages of 7, 14, 28, 90 and 180 days using a loadingmeas-
with a precision of 50 gr., maze of gum, ruler plate, verification plate,
Crystals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 1
uring
ratecontainer
of 0.3 MPa/sand(see
compaction rod.compressive
Figure 2). The The concrete was placed
strength in three in
values analyzed layers inside the
the results
section are
container, andtheeach
average
oneofwas
the values of threevia
compacted specimens of each mix
25 penetrations of concrete.
with the compaction rod.
When compression was complete, the mold was made flush with the ruler plate; finally,
the container with the compacted concrete was weighed (see Figure 1c,d).

2.4. Mechanical and Durability Properties of Eco-Friendly Ternary Concrete Mixtures

2.4.1. Compressive Strength
Compressive strength is the parameter or property of the mechanical behavior of hy-
draulic concrete most necessary for the structural design of civil infrastructure built on
the basis of reinforced concrete. Compressive strength testing was carried out according
to the NMX-C-083 ONNCCE standard [52], for which specimens were manufactured us-
ing cylindrical steel molds of 100 × 200 mm. After 24 h they were removed from the molds
Figure
andFigure 2. 2.
placed inCompressive
Compressive Strength
a curingStrength
tank Test.Test. to the NMX-C-ONNCCE standard [53]. The speci-
according
mens of the six study mixtures were tested at the ages of 7, 14, 28, 90 and 180 days using
2.4.2. Rebound
a loading rate of 0.3Number
MPa/s (see Figure 2). The compressive strength values analyzed in
the resultsTosection
determine theaverage
are the rebound ofnumber of specimens
the values of the sixofconcrete
of three specimens each mixmixtures used i
of concrete.
this study, tests were carried out according to the NMX-C-192-ONNCCE-2018 standar
[54], in which a procedure is established to determine the rebound index for hardene
concrete using a device known as a sclerometer or rebound hammer, to evaluate the com
 Figure 2. Compressive Strength Test.
Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 6 of 16
2.4.2. Rebound Number
To determine the rebound number of specimens of the six concrete mixtures
this study,
2.4.2. ReboundtestsNumberwere carried out according to the NMX-C-192-ONNCCE-2018 s
[54],Toindetermine
which atheprocedure is established
rebound number of specimenstoofdetermine the mixtures
the six concrete rebound index
used in for h
this study, tests
concrete usingwere carried out
a device according
known as atosclerometer
the NMX-C-192-ONNCCE-2018
or rebound hammer, standardto[54],
evaluate t
in which a procedure is established to determine the rebound index for hardened concrete
pressive strength as well as the surface uniformity of the concrete. The results are
using a device known as a sclerometer or rebound hammer, to evaluate the compressive
ered relative
strength as well asrather thanuniformity
the surface absoluteofvalues, butThe
the concrete. theresults
test has the advantages
are considered relative of be
destructive
rather and values,
than absolute widelybutused worldwide,
the test and isofused
has the advantages for evaluatingand
being non-destructive the com
strength
widely usedofworldwide,
in-situ concrete [55]for
and is used and in conjunction
evaluating with the
the compressive UPV test
strength to predict t
of in-situ
concrete [55] and in conjunction with the UPV test to predict the compressive
pressive strength of concrete in studies according to the findings of Amine et al strength
of concrete in studies according to the findings of Amine et al. [56]. A rebound hammer,
rebound hammer, abrasive stone, spatula, flannel and brush were used to carry
abrasive stone, spatula, flannel and brush were used to carry out the test. The test surface
test. The test
preparation wassurface preparation
at least 150 was and
mm in diameter at least
100 mm150thick.
mm in Thediameter and
surface was free100
of mm th
surface
any layer was
other free
than of any layer
concrete other3).than concrete (see Figure 3).
(see Figure

Figure
Figure 3. 3. Rebound
Rebound Number
Number test. test.
2.4.3. Electrical Resistivity
2.4.3. Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity tests were carried out on the six concrete mixtures MC, ETC-10,
ETC-20,Electrical resistivity
ETC-30, ETC-40 tests were
and ETC-50. carried
Electrical out on
resistivity the six concrete
is considered mixtures MC,
a very important
physical property to determine the quality and durability of concrete
ETC-20, ETC-30, ETC-40 and ETC-50. Electrical resistivity is considered [57,58]. Several inves-
a very im
tigations have shown that the level of corrosion or resistance to corrosion of reinforcing steel
physical property to determine the quality and durability of concrete [57,58]. Se
in concrete exposed to aggressive media can be determined by electrical resistivity [59,60].
vestigations have
The electrical shown test
resistivity thatwas
thecarried
level ofout
corrosion
accordingor toresistance to corrosion
the ASTM G57-07 stan- of rei
steel in concrete exposed to aggressive media can be determined
dard [61], according to the specified equipment requirements and procedures for the by electrical re
[59,60].
measurement of resistivity in the laboratory and on site. The DURAR Network manual [62]
indicates the criteria
The electrical forresistivity
interpretationtestofwas
the resistivity
carried outresults obtained and
according theirASTM
to the relation-
G57-07 s
ship with the risk of corrosion of the reinforced concrete, which are presented in Table 4.
[61], according to the specified equipment requirements and procedures for the m
The tests were carried out at 7, 14, 28, 90 and 180 days. Figure 4 shows the arrangement to
mentout
carry ofthe
resistivity in the laboratory
electrical resistivity test. and on site. The DURAR Network manual [
cates the criteria for interpretation of the resistivity results obtained and their rela
Table Electrical
with4.the risk resistivity in concrete
of corrosion andreinforced
of the risk of corrosion [20].
concrete,
which are presented in Tab
tests were carried out
Electrical Resistivityat 7, 14, 28, 90 and 180 days. Figure 4Concrete
Risk of Corrosion in Reinforced shows the arrange
carry out the electrical
ρ > 200 kΩ-cm resistivity test. Low Corrosion Risk
200 > ρ > 10 kΩ-cm Moderate Corrosion Risk
ρ < 10 kΩ-cm High Corrosion Risk
Crystals 2021,
Crystals 11,11,
2021, x 1012
FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16 7

Figure 4. Characteristics of the electrical resistivity test.

Table 4. Electrical resistivity in concrete and risk of corrosion [20].

Electrical Resistivity Risk of Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete

ρ > 200 kΩ-cm Low Corrosion Risk
200 > ρ > 10 kΩ-cm Moderate Corrosion Risk
ρ < 10 kΩ-cm High Corrosion Risk
Figure4.4.Characteristics
Figure Characteristics ofelectrical
of the the electrical resistivity
resistivity test. test.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
Table 4. Electrical resistivity in concrete and risk of corrosion [20].
3.1.
3.1. Slump
Slump
Figure
Figure 5Electrical
5shows
showsthe slumps in cm
Resistivity
the slumps of the
in cm of six
thestudy mixes,
sixRisk
study the control
ofmixes,
Corrosion mix (MC)
the control and
mix the Concre
in Reinforced
(MC)
five Eco-friendly Ternary
and the five Eco-friendly Concrete mixtures (ETC-10, ETC-20,
Ternary Concrete mixtures (ETC-10, ETC-20, ETC-30, ETC-40, ETC-
ETC-30, ETC-40,
50ETC).
ρ > 200 kΩ-cm Low Corrosion Risk
ETC-50ETC).
200 > ρ > 10 kΩ-cm Moderate Corrosion Risk
ρ < 10 kΩ-cm High Corrosion Risk

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Slump
Figure 5 shows the slumps in cm of the six study mixes, the control mix (MC) an
five Eco-friendly Ternary Concrete mixtures (ETC-10, ETC-20, ETC-30, ETC-40, E
50ETC).

5. Slump of study mixtures (cm).

Figure 5.
Figure

A decrease
A decrease in
in workability
workability oror slump
slump was
was observed
observed inin the
the five
five ETC
ETC mixtures;
mixtures; however,
however,
the ETC-10 mixture presented only a 7% decrease (0.5 cm) with respect
the ETC-10 mixture presented only a 7% decrease (0.5 cm) with respect to the control to the control
mix-
mixture (MC), with a value of 6.5 cm, which is considered an acceptable workability
ture (MC), with a value of 6.5 cm, which is considered an acceptable workability slump. slump.
With
With an
an increase
increase to
to 20%
20% in the percentage
in the percentage of substitution of
of substitution of CPC 30R with
CPC 30R with the
the combination
combination
of SCBA-SF, the slump showed a decrease of 50% (3.5 cm) with respect to the control
of SCBA-SF, the slump showed a decrease of 50% (3.5 cm) with respect to the control mix
mix
(MC); this decrease in workability is attributed to the demand or absorption in excess of
water due to pozzolanic materials [63,64], as is the case for SCBA and SF. For the ETC-30
mixture the slump was similar to that of the ETC-20 mixture, reaching a slump of 3 cm,
which indicates a decrease of about 60% compared with the control mixture. In the case
of the ETC-40 and ETC-50 mixtures, the effect of substituting CPC 30R by 40% and 50%
respectively had a decisive effect in reducing the workability of these mixtures compared
Figure 5. Slump of study mixtures (cm).

A decrease in workability or slump was observed in the five ETC mixtures; how
 (MC); this decrease in workability is attributed to the demand or absorption in excess of
water due to pozzolanic materials [63,64], as is the case for SCBA and SF. For the ETC-30
mixture the slump was similar to that of the ETC-20 mixture, reaching a slump of 3 cm,
Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 which indicates a decrease of about 60% compared with the control mixture. In the 8case of 16
of the ETC-40 and ETC-50 mixtures, the effect of substituting CPC 30R by 40% and 50%
respectively had a decisive effect in reducing the workability of these mixtures compared
to the control mixture, with a decrease in slump of 80% for the ETC-40 mixture and 85%
to the
for the control
ETC-50.mixture, with a decrease
This behavior is due toinexcess
slumpwater
of 80% for the ETC-40
absorption by themixture and 85%
supplementary
for the ETC-50. This behavior is due to excess water absorption by the supplementary
materials used; therefore, in several investigations where concretes with large volumes of
materials used;
pozzolanic therefore,
materials in blast
such as several investigations
furnace where
slag or fly concretes
ash were used,with large volumes
water-reducing or
of pozzolanic materials such as blast furnace slag or fly ash were used, water-reducing
super fluidizers additives were used to obtain slumps greater than 10 cm, which allowed or
super fluidizers additives were used to obtain
adequate workability of the concrete mixtures [65,66].slumps greater than 10 cm, which allowed
adequate workability of the concrete mixtures [65,66].
3.2. Temperature
3.2. Temperature
Figure 6 presents the behavior of the temperatures of the six studied concretes. It is
Figure 6 presents the behavior of the temperatures of the six studied concretes. It is
observed
observedthat
thatfive
fivemixtures
mixturespresented
presentedaa temperature
temperature of
of 25
25 °C
◦ C and
and the
the ETC-50
ETC-50 mixture
mixture
presented a temperature of 26 °C.
◦ The reported temperature values are within
presented a temperature of 26 C. The reported temperature values are within the the specifi-
speci-
fications of the ASTM C 1064/C1064M-08 standard.
cations of the ASTM C 1064/C1064M-08 standard.

Temperaturesof
Figure6.6.Temperatures
Figure ofthe
thestudied
studiedconcretes
concretes in
in fresh
fresh states.
states.

3.3. Unit Weight

3.3. Unit Weight
Figure 7 presents the unit weight results of the six study mixtures. There was minimal
Figure 7 presents the unit weight results of the six study mixtures. There was minimal
variation between the MC mixture and the ETC mixtures, and all of the unit weight values
variation between
were within the MC mixture
the specifications anduse
for the the of
ETC mixtures,
concrete and all ofelements
in structural the unit weight
of civilvalues
works
were
according to the NMX-C-155-ONNCCE-2014 standard, which indicates thatcivil
within the specifications for the use of concrete in structural elements of works
hydraulic
according to the
concretes for NMX-C-155-ONNCCE-2014
structural use must have a normal standard, which
unit weight in indicates that hydraulic
fresh condition between
concretes for
3 structural use must
3 have a normal unit weight in fresh
1900 kg/m and 2400 kg/m [67]. The lowest unit weight obtained was that of the condition between
ETC-50
1900 kg/mwith
mixture
3 and 2400 kg/m33 [67]. The lowest unit weight obtained was that of the ETC-50
2149 kg/m , with a decrease of 5% compared to the unit mass of the MC
mixture
mixture;with 2149 kg/m
the highest unit, with
3
weighta decrease of 5% by
was presented compared to the
the ETC-30 unit mass
mixture withofa value
the MCof
mixture; the 3 highest unit weight was presented by the ETC-30 mixture with
2288 kg/m , 1.5% higher than the control mix. Khawaja et al. who evaluated concrete with a value of
2288 kg/mcement
Portland
3, 1.5% higher than the control mix. Khawaja et al. who evaluated concrete with
substitution in 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% by SCBA, recorded an increase in
Portland cement
unit weight substitution
of 3.13%, in 5,
associated 10,the
with 15,adhesive
20, and 25% by SCBA,
property recorded
of particles an reduced
which increase the
in
unit weight of 3.13%, associated with the adhesive property of particles
concentration of induced air bubbles and consequently generated a stiffer matrix [68]. which reduced
the concentration of induced air bubbles and consequently generated a stiffer matrix [68].
3.4. Mechanical and Durability Properties
3.4.1. Compressive Strength
Figure 8 shows the compressive strength results of each of the mixtures, which were
tested at the ages of 7, 14, 28, 90 and 180 days. After 7 days, the concrete ETC hadlower
compressive strength values than the control mixture, of 11.32, 7.66, 30.92, 44.55 and 75.31%
respectively for the ETC-10, ETC-20, ETC-30, ETC-40 and ETC-50 mixtures; this negative
effect was due to the presence of alternative pozzolanic materials to cement SCBA and SF,
and is in agreement with Wu et al., who showed that FA had a negative effect on strength
Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 9 of 16

at early ages, but significantly enhanced the later-age strength [69]. In other studies a
similar behavior has been shown even when the specimens of concrete were exposed to an
aggressive medium such as sulfates [70]. At 14 days, increases in the resistance of the ETC
concretes were observed, and this increase in compressive strength over time continued
to 28 days, when the ETC-10 and ETC-20 concretes had 90% of the compressive strength
values of the MC, with values of 28 and 29 MPa respectively, while for the ETC-30 and
ETC-40 concretes the values were 22 and 23 MPa, and the ETC-50 mixture presenting the
lowest compressive strength value with 13 MPa. These compressive strength values in
the first 28 days coincide with the findings of various studies, where it has been shown
that at 28 days sustainable or ecological concretes that substitute 20% of the CPC with
supplementary materials obtain the best performance in compressive strength testing, as
demonstrated by Mohamed [71], who found that a ternary concrete mixture made with
the substitution of 10% FA + 10% silica fume for Portland Cement presented the highest
resistance to compression in a study that covered substitutions from 10% to 50% of fly ash
and silica fume for the fabrication of ternary and binary concretes exposed to different types
of curing. Arif et al. found that sugar cane bagasse ash used as filler in concretes provided
substantial improvements to compressive strength at substitution percentages of up to
≈20% [72]. In other studies, it has been shown that concretes with high FA contents—30%,
40%
Crystals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
or higher—presented higher compressive strength values than the control mix, but
9 of 16
this was due to the use of superfluidifiers and concretes with a low w/c ratio, equal to or
less than 0.40 [73,74].

Figure 7. Unit weight of the studied concretes.

At 90 daysand
3.4. Mechanical theDurability
differences between the MC and the ETC-10, ETC-20 and ETC-30
Properties
concretes were minimal; however, lower values were observed for the specimens of the
3.4.1. Compressive Strength
ETC-40 and ETC-50 mixtures. In percentages, the difference in compressive strength
Figureto8 shows
compared the MCthe atcompressive
90 days wasstrength results
7.22, 3.24, 1.07,of21.42
each and
of the mixtures,
38.41% which
for the were
ETC-10,
tested at the ages of 7, 14, 28, 90 and 180 days. After 7 days, the concrete
ETC-20, ETC-30, ETC-40, and ETC-50 mixtures respectively, with the ETC-30 mixture ETC hadlower
compressive
presenting thestrength values thanThis
best performance. the result
controlmatches
mixture, theoffindings
11.32, 7.66,
of Le30.92,
et al. 44.55 and
[75], who
75.31% respectively
concluded for thethat
in their study ETC-10, ETC-20, ETC-30,
the compressive ETC-40
strength of a and ETC-50
sample mixtures;OPC
substituting this
negative
with 30%effect
SCBAwas anddue30%toBFSthewas
presence of alternative
comparable to that ofpozzolanic
the control materials
after 91 to cement
days [75].
SCBA
At 180 and
days,SF,
theand is in ETC-20
ETC-30, agreement
andwith
ETC-40Wuspecimens
et al., who showed
had that
a higher FA had a negative
compressive strength
effect on strength at early ages, but significantly enhanced the later-age
than the specimen made with the MC control mixture; these results coincide with strength [69].the
In
other studies a similar behavior has been shown even when the specimens
literature, which indicates that at late ages the high amorphous silica content in the SCBA of concrete
were exposed to an aggressive medium such as sulfates [70]. At 14 days, increases in the
resistance of the ETC concretes were observed, and this increase in compressive strength
over time continued to 28 days, when the ETC-10 and ETC-20 concretes had 90% of the
compressive strength values of the MC, with values of 28 and 29 MPa respectively, while
for the ETC-30 and ETC-40 concretes the values were 22 and 23 MPa, and the ETC-50
Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 10 of 16

reacts with the calcium hydroxide product of the cement hydration process, giving rise to
the formation of additional hydrated calcium hydroxide (C-S-H), which contributes to the
increase in compressive strength over time [76]. In another investigation it was found that
a concrete mix made with 25% of cement replaced with processed slag, which presented
the highest SiO2 content, obtained a superior compressive strength performance, reaching
a value greater than 70 MPa at 90 days, which confirms the contribution to the increase
in compressive strength due to pozzolanic material. A high content of SiO2 presents
a high capacity to yield tobermorite (calcium hydrosilicates (C–S–H)) by reacting with
portlandite (a product of concrete mineral hydration) [77]. With the results of compressive
strength at 180 days, it can be concluded that the optimal percentage of substitution of CPC
with a combination of SCBA-SF is 30%, followed by 20%, with increases in compressive
strength of 7.13 and 5.58% respectively compared to the MC, and in third place the ETC-40
mixture, which presented a compressive strength equal to the MC. Only the mixture of
Ecofriendly Ternary Concrete with 50% substitution of SCBA-SF (ETC-50) failed to develop
Crystals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
a mechanical resistance close to that of the control mix, reaching a resistance of 20.09 MPa
at 90 days.

Figure 8. Compressive
Figure 8. Compressive strength
strength of
of the
the studied
studied concretes.
concretes.
3.4.2. Rebound Number
At 90 days the differences between the MC and the ETC-10, ETC-20 and ETC-30 con-
cretesFigure
were 9minimal;
shows the results obtained
however, fromwere
lower values the rebound
observednumber tests to determine
for the specimens the
of the ETC-
compressive strength. It can be seen that the values obtained for the MC
40 and ETC-50 mixtures. In percentages, the difference in compressive strength compared are similar to
those
to thepresented in Figure
MC at 90 days 8: at 3.24,
was 7.22, the age of 21.42
1.07, 28 daysandthe control
38.41% forhad
the an approximate
ETC-10, ETC-20,value
ETC-
of 33 MPa for both simple compressive strength and rebound number tests. In the 7 day
30, ETC-40, and ETC-50 mixtures respectively, with the ETC-30 mixture presenting the
test, the ETC concretes reported compressive strength values lower than the MC by higher
best performance. This result matches the findings of Le et al. [75], who concluded in their
percentages than those reported in Figure 8, while over time these values increased in the
study that the compressive strength of a sample substituting OPC with 30% SCBA and
five ETC mixtures, with this behavior likely being due to the effect of using materials with
30% BFS was comparable to that of the control after 91 days [75]. At 180 days, the ETC-30,
pozzolanic characteristics such as SCBA and SF. Unlike the compressive strength test using
ETC-20 and ETC-40 specimens had a higher compressive strength than the specimen
the cylinder, the values reported using the sclerometer for the five ETC concrete mixtures
made with the MC control mixture; these results coincide with the literature, which indi-
at the ages of 28, 90 and 180 days were always lower for the five ETC mixtures than for the
cates that at late ages the high amorphous silica content in the SCBA reacts with the cal-
MC; however, the mixtures with the best performances were still ETC20 and ETC30, which
cium hydroxide product of the cement hydration process, giving rise to the formation of
confirms the behavior in the compression test reported in Figure 8, where it was shown
additional hydrated calcium hydroxide (C-S-H), which contributes to the increase in com-
ETC20 and ETC30 were the best ETC mixtures at 90 and 180 days. The results obtained
pressive strength over time [76]. In another investigation it was found that a concrete mix
with the non-destructive rebound number test coincide with those reported in the literature
made
on thewith 25%
use of of test
said cement replaced with
to approximate processed
the mechanicalslag,resistance
which presented the highest
of concrete elements SiO
in2
content, obtained a superior compressive strength performance, reaching
situ or in the laboratory, as reference values of resistance which must be supported by a value greater
than 70 MPastrength
compressive at 90 days,
testswhich
of theconfirms
evaluated the contribution
concretes to the increase in compressive
[78,79].
strength due to pozzolanic material. A high content of SiO2 presents a high capacity to
yield tobermorite (calcium hydrosilicates (C–S–H)) by reacting with portlandite (a prod-
uct of concrete mineral hydration) [77]. With the results of compressive strength at 180
days, it can be concluded that the optimal percentage of substitution of CPC with a com-
bination of SCBA-SF is 30%, followed by 20%, with increases in compressive strength of
 ETC30, which confirms the behavior in the compression test reported in Figure 8, where
it was shown ETC20 and ETC30 were the best ETC mixtures at 90 and 180 days. The re-
sults obtained with the non-destructive rebound number test coincide with those reported
in the literature on the use of said test to approximate the mechanical resistance of concrete
Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 elements in situ or in the laboratory, as reference values of resistance which must be11sup-
of 16

ported by compressive strength tests of the evaluated concretes [78,79].

Compressivestrength
Figure9.9.Compressive
Figure strengthaccording
accordingtotothe
therebound
reboundnumber.
number.

3.4.3. Electrical Resistivity of Concrete Mixtures

3.4.3. Electrical Resistivity of Concrete Mixtures
Figure 10 shows the results obtained from the Electrical Resistivity test of the six
Figure 10 shows the results obtained from the Electrical Resistivity test of the six con-
concrete mixtures in this study. The tests were carried out at the ages of 7, 14, 28, 90 and
crete mixtures
180 days. in this
In Table 4 itstudy.
can beTheseentests
thatwere
at thecarried
age of out at the
7 days, ages all
almost of 7, 14, 28, 90
mixtures wereandfound
180
days. In Table 4 it can be seen that at the age of 7 days, almost all mixtures
to have high corrosion risk, with values less than 10 kΩ-cm for the specimens of the MC, were found to
have high corrosion risk, with values less than 10 kΩ-cm for the
ETC-10, ETC-20, ETC-30 and ETC-40, mixtures. These values coincide with findings fromspecimens of the MC,
ETC-10, ETC-20,
the literature, ETC-30
where and ETC-40,
at early mixtures.
ages resistivity These
values arevalues
lowercoincide
[80]. Thewithonlyfindings
specimen from
that
the literature, where at early ages resistivity values are lower [80]. The
presented a higher value was the ETC50 mixture, reporting a resistivity of 13.45 kΩ-cm only specimen that
presented a higher
after 7 days, which value was the
indicates ETC50 mixture,
a moderate risk ofreporting
corrosion.a resistivity
At the ageofof13.45 kΩ-cm
14 days, all
after 7 days, which indicates a moderate risk of corrosion. At the age
concretes showed a minimal increase in Electrical Resistivity, but both the ETC-40 and of 14 days, all con-
cretes
ETC-50 showed a minimal
mixtures presented increase in Electrical
electrical resistivityResistivity,
values greaterbut than
both10 thekΩ-cm,
ETC-40 and ETC-
representing
50a moderate
mixtures presented electrical resistivity values greater than 10 kΩ-cm, representing
corrosion risk. At the age of 28 days, the benefit of the combination of the SCBA a
moderate corrosion risk. At the age of 28 days, the benefit of the combination
and the SF as pozzolanic materials was observed, as the durability of the ETC-20, ETC-30, of the SCBA
and the SF
ETC-40 as pozzolanic
and ETC-50 mixturesmaterials was observed,
increased, as the durability
with increases of the ETC-20,
in the electrical resistivityETC-30,
values
ETC-40 and ETC-50
correlating with themixtures
percentage increased, with increases
of substitution, in thethat
with values electrical
placedresistivity
all of them values
in the
moderate corrosion risk zone. ETC-20 and ETC-30 possessed electrical resistivities of 13.43
and 20.03 kΩ-cm while ETC-40 and ETC-50 presented the best performance with values of
47.5 and 51.4 kΩ-cm respectively. This is in agreement with the results of Bagheri et al.,
who evaluated concretes with different percentages of substitution of Portland cement with
FA and SF, and found that the concretes with 20% and 30% FA and SF possessed electrical
resistivity values at 28 days two times greater than that of the control mix [81]. At the
age of 90 days, all Ecological Ternary Concretes (ETC-10, ETC-20, ETC-30, ETC-40, ETC-
50ETC) reached the stage of moderate corrosion risk. The ETC-40 and ETC-50 concretes
continued to present the best performances, with electrical resistivity values of 179.56 and
170.24 kΩ-cm respectively.
Finally, at the age of 180 days, the concretes that presented low electrical resistivity
were the control mixture MC with a value of 10.88 kΩ-cm, followed by the concretes
ETC-10 and ETC-20 with values of 12.74 and 54.39 kΩ-cm respectively. The concretes that
presented the best performances were the ETC-30, ETC-40 and ETC-50 specimens, with
values of 143.53, 191.44 and 156.20 kΩ-cm respectively. As can be seen, the Ecofriendly
Ternary Concrete with 40% substitution of the SCBA-SF combination for Portland cement,
mixture ETC-40, showed the best performance; this increase in electrical resistivity agrees
with the results of Sadrmomtazi et al. [82], showing that including silica fume has positive
effects on the fiber–matrix transition zone structure while increasing mechanical strength
and specific electrical resistivity by up to 20 times compared to controls, due to the produc-
 correlating with the percentage of substitution, with values that placed all of them in the
moderate corrosion risk zone. ETC-20 and ETC-30 possessed electrical resistivities of 13.43
Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 and 20.03 kΩ-cm while ETC-40 and ETC-50 presented the best performance with values 12 of 16

of 47.5 and 51.4 kΩ-cm respectively. This is in agreement with the results of Bagheri et al.,
who evaluated concretes with different percentages of substitution of Portland cement
with FApozzolanic
tion of and SF, and found and
reactions that decreased
the concretes with 20% and
concentration 30% FA and
of portlandite, SF possessed
which increases
electrical resistivity values at 28 days two times greater than that of the control
uniformity and density as well as bond quality. It is observed that all ETC mixtures mix [81].
per-
At the age
formed of 90indays,
better all Ecological
the electrical Ternary
resistance testConcretes
compared(ETC-10, ETC-20, ETC-30,
to the compression ETC-40,
resistance test,
ETC-50ETC) reached
and this behavior the stage
coincides of a
with moderate
report incorrosion risk. and
the literature The isETC-40 and ETC-50
associated with thecon-
fact
cretes continued
that the to present
total volume the pores
of concrete best performances,
is not reduced bywith electricalreactions,
pozzolanic resistivity
butvalues of
the pore
179.56 and 170.24 kΩ-cm respectively.
structure becomes more discrete [83].

Figure
Figure10.
10.Electrical
Electricalresistivity
resistivityof
ofthe
thestudy
studyconcretes.
concretes.

4. Conclusions
Finally, at the age of 180 days, the concretes that presented low electrical resistivity
were In theall
control mixture MC
ETC mixtures with
there was a value of 10.88
a decrease in kΩ-cm,
workability,followedwhich by is
theattributed
concretes to
ETC-
the
demand
10 and ETC-20or absorption
with values in excess
of 12.74ofand
water
54.39due to pozzolanic
kΩ–cm respectively. materials. However,
The concretes thatthere
pre-
were no
sented thesignificant variations were
best performances in temperature
the ETC-30, or ETC-40
unit weight
and in the fresh
ETC-50 state compared
specimens, with val-to
the of
ues control
143.53, mixture.
191.44 andThe 156.20
tested slump,
kΩ-cm temperature
respectively. and As canunitbeweight of the
seen, the ETC mixtures
Ecofriendly Ter-
in their
nary fresh state
Concrete withmet40%requirements
substitution for the SCBA-SF
of the construction of civil works,
combination such as cement,
for Portland bridges,
pavements, buildings, dams, etc.
mixture ETC-40, showed the best performance; this increase in electrical resistivity agrees
with theTheresults
resultsofofSadrmomtazi
compressive strength
et al. [82],atshowing
180 daysthat
indicated
including thatsilica
the optimal
fume has percentage
positive
of substitution
effects of CPC by combination
on the fiber–matrix transition zone of SCBA-SF
structurewas
while 30% followedmechanical
increasing by 20%, duestrength
to their
increases
and specific in electrical
compressive strength
resistivity byofup7.13 andtimes
to 20 5.58% respectively
compared compared
to controls, due with thepro-
to the MC.
The ETC-40
duction mixture also
of pozzolanic presented
reactions anda compression resistance equal
decreased concentration to that of thewhich
of portlandite, MC. in-
creases The rebound and
uniformity number testasiswell
density a non-destructive
as bond quality. test
It isthat can bethat
observed usedalltoETC
evaluate
mixturesthe
compressive strength of ETC concretes in the laboratory and on site,
performed better in the electrical resistance test compared to the compression resistance with the reservation
that and
test, theythisarebehavior
not considered
coincidesas definitive
with a report values butliterature
in the rather asand approximations, and it
is associated with theis
always recommended to supplement rebound number tests with simple
fact that the total volume of concrete pores is not reduced by pozzolanic reactions, but the compression tests
on cylinders
pore structureand cubes.more discrete [83].
becomes
All ETC mixtures presented better results in the electrical resistance test compared to
the
4. compression resistance test, suggesting that the ETC concretes were more durable and
Conclusions
had a higher resistance to corrosion compared to the control mixture.
In all ETC mixtures there was a decrease in workability, which is attributed to the
The Eco-friendly Ternary Concrete with 50% substitution of SCBA-SF (ETC-50) dis-
demand or absorption in excess of water due to pozzolanic materials. However, there
played a resistance of 20.09 MPa at 180 days, sufficient for the construction of minor works.
were no significant variations in temperature or unit weight in the fresh state compared
The use of ETC concretes has a very significant sustainability impact by contributing to
to the control mixture. The tested slump, temperature and unit weight of the ETC mixtures
the reduction of CO2 emissions caused by Portland cement, replacing up to 50% of it with
SCBA and SF waste and generating a culture of recycling in countries such as Mexico for
the use of waste that, like SCBA, has lacked a defined use and previously been discarded
as garbage.
Crystals 2021, 11, 1012 13 of 16

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A.B.-Z., R.C., G.S.-H. and V.M.M.-L.; Methodology,

L.L.-R., A.L.-G., J.M.M.-R., H.A.-F., A.L.-S., C.T.M.-R., M.A.B.-Z. and R.C.; Data Curation, L.L.-R.,
J.M.M.-R., M.A.B.-Z., R.C., G.S.-H. and V.M.M.-L.; Writing—Review and Editing, L.L.-R., M.A.B.-Z.,
R.C., G.S.-H. and V.M.M.-L.; Visualization: M.A.B.-Z., R.C., G.S.-H. and V.M.M.-L.; Supervision:
M.A.B.-Z., R.C., G.S.-H. and V.M.M.-L.; Funding acquisition: M.A.B.-Z. and R.C. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: M.A. Baltazar-Zamora, et al., thank PRODEP for the support granted by the SEP to the
Academic Body UV-CA-458 “Sustainability and Durability of Materials for Civil Infrastructure”,
within the framework of the 2018 Call for the Strengthening of Academic Bodies with IDCA 28593.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The results are original of the research work.
Acknowledgments: M.A. Baltazar-Zamora, et al., thank PRODEP for the support granted by the SEP
to the Academic Body UV-CA-458 “Sustainability and Durability of Materials for Civil Infrastructure”,
within the framework of the 2018 Call for the Strengthening of Academic Bodies with IDCA 28593.
The authors thank Brenda Paola Baltazar García for technical support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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