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How Safe are America's Nuclear Reactors from Severe Solar
Storms? A Real Armageddon Meltdown is Possible
Gary Null and 1eremy Stillman
October 7, 2011
More than ever, we are Iacing unprecedented environmental disasters ranging Irom harsh, snowy
winters pounding the Northeast, desiccating drought across Texas and New Mexico, powerIul
tornadoes demolishing towns in the Midwest and record rainIalls and Ilooding in diIIerent states.
Over the course oI a week this past summer, the East Coast experienced an earthquake and
hurricane.
This trend oI environmental events has become the new norm and it has coincided with our
country coming down with a bad case oI Waiting Ior Katrina Syndrome a condition in which
people reIuse to examine the power oI nature to disrupt their lives. Symptoms include ignorance
and apathy over measures that could be taken to prevent calamity and unconditional acceptance
oI the outright lies and propaganda doled out by government and private industry leaders.
To make matters worse, our decrepit water and gas systems has been around Ior 60 to 80 years.
Our roads, bridges and tunnels and levees are in a state oI abject disrepair. We have not taken the
crucial step oI constructing emergency Iacilities in our cities and towns. Besides putting many
people to work, building these Iacilities would provide some semblance oI civility during a time
oI crisis. People would be able to take reIuge and have access to medical clinics and Iood banks.
The current response network that relies on the Red Cross, FEMA and the National Guard during
times oI crisis is dangerously inadequate.
Now imagine that something could dwarI all oI this; something that could kill tens oI millions oI
Americans and cause at least halI oI America to experience liIe as iI they were living in a Mad
Max Iilm. Imagine that a gigantic mass oI plasma, or coronal mass ejection (CME), is released
Irom the sun and heads directly Ior the Earth. Even though politicians and energy execs assure
we can withstand such an event, the power oI this CME overwhelms our electric grids and fries
our power substations rendering them beyond repair. Our communications satellites are also
severely damaged during the solar event and are unable to Iunction. We are not told what has
happened. When we pick up our phones, there is no dial tone. When we turn on the radio or
television, we hear nothing. We head out to the street to ask our neighbors what has happened,
but nobody seems to know.
We return to our houses and wait. We realize that the Ireezer is deIrosting and our Iood will
soon spoil. We turn on the water Iaucet but nothing comes out. In suburbia, people aren`t able to
Iill their cars at gas stations so they head to stores on Ioot, stocking up as much as they can on
batteries, candles and nonperishable Iood. The Iirst night comes and goes.
On day two, people begin to worry as the backup generators that were keeping power online at
hospitals begin to Iail. Members oI FEMA and the National Guard appear in neighborhoods and
people Iorm long lines to receive a Iew gallons oI water. Other people pack up their cars and
head out oI town only to Iind that the highways are bumper to bumper with vehicles that have
run out oI gas.
On day Iive, panic ensues. Thousands oI people are dying in hospitals. Banks and pharmacies
have been closed Ior nearly a week and people aren`t able to make credit card transactions or get
their prescription medications. The Iew FEMA water tanks that were available are beginning to
dry up and Iederal authorities say that they are overwhelmed by the many oI millions oI people
in the tri-state area alone who are reaching a point oI desperation.
On day ten, widespread dehydration sets in. People are leIt to steal whatever they can to survive.
The law enIorcement that still exists is protecting the power elite. The mayor and governor are
doing Iine as FEMA works to ensure they are well protected. Millions oI people are Irantic and
helplessly unprepared as society descends into a state oI lawlessness. The wealthy individuals
living on Sutton Place and Park Avenue are even worse oII as they are preyed upon by swarms oI
gangs. Police have abandoned their positions as they choose to protect the saIety oI their Iamilies
Iirst. Those in possession oI Iirearms will do their best to protect their homes and Iamilies.
Then the really bad news starts. We come Iace to Iace with the truth oI our political choices. No
one chose to bury a year`s worth oI diesel Iuel tanks at the Indian Point nuclear plant on New
York`s Hudson River so that in case the electric grid Iailed, the Iacility could still operate its own
cooling system. As it is, Indian Point has been determined by the US Geological Survey to be
the most dangerous reactor in America. Nor did anyone make the decision to put technology in
place that would allow Indian Point to be a selI-sustaining, closed loop system that could
Iunction independent oI the electrical grid.
The workers at Indian Point understand the crisis at hand and they know that when the Iinal
backup generator ceases to Iunction, it will only be a Iew days or less beIore the water used to
cool the spent Iuel rods evaporates completely. They realize that without the water in place, the
highly radioactive spent Iuel rods are at risk to explode into another Fukushima.
No one will hear or see the explosion, but with the wind traveling at 10 mph, over 0 million
people located downwind in New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania will get their Iirst wave oI
radiation within 5-8 hours. A wave that will continue hours a day, 7 days a week; exposing
every drop oI water and inch oI soil, every home, building and car and most importantly, every
person`s body with a barrage oI lethal radioactive substances such as cesium-17, iodine-11,
plutonium and tritium.
Within Iour weeks we will see many thousands oI people, young and old, dying en masse. There
will be no help or medicine and people will become hysterical. Word spreads that a nuclear
power plant exploded and people will begin to Ilee on Ioot. The Iew cars that do have Iuel will
be commandeered as desperate people try to escape. But where to go and how Iar beIore you are
out oI harm`s way? Wherever the wind blows is where the radiation will go.
We will see the beginning oI an apocalypse where those twenty million people are joined by
millions more who take on huge amounts oI ionizing radiation. It will be Chernobyl, an
unmitigated catastrophe that claimed the lives oI 1 million people, times 100. That`s because
Indian Point will not be the only nuclear plant aIIected- the nuclear Iacilities in Pennsylvania,
CaliIornia, Nebraska, Virginia, North Carolina and Florida also had explosions.
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The entire energy industry thought with one mind. They denied and ignored the problem and this
is the result. Without Iuel, running water, or Iood and given the huge quantities oI radiation
saturating the environment, we could see as many as 50 million Americans embarking a long,
slow death Irom radiation poisoning. As people pass by Washington DC, they can turn to Barack
Obama and say thank you. They can say thank you to George W. Bush and his Iather. They can
thank Bill Clinton, Ronald Reagan, Jimmy Carter as well as the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and all the pro-nuke scientists and
politicians who receive lobbying support Irom the nuclear giants Entergy and Excelon. They can
also thank the corporate Democrats and Republicans, FOX News and all the climate change
deniers. They say thank you Ior having lied to us. We trusted you; and now we have no one to
bury our dead or care Ior our sick.
This is not science Iiction; it`s the possibility oI a worst case scenario. We are conIronted with a
decision: Do we put our trust and Iaith in the authorities as we did during hurricane Katrina or as
the Japanese did with pro-nuke politicians lying about the health threats at Fukushima? Or do we
demand that the necessary precautions be taken at every nuclear plant and energy Iacility to
saIeguard against a total collapse? How is it that the Federal Reserve Iound $16 trillion oI tax
Iree money to give to Wall Street banks and other corporations yet we can`t Iind a penny to Iix
our aging power grids or establish emergency Iacilities in America`s cities and towns?
The most reasonable approach would be to decommission all nuclear plants and put alternative
clean energies in their place. The technology is already here and can easily replace the less than
15 percent oI energy the nation gets Irom nuclear power. This way, when a solar storm comes,
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Ior the Iirst time in history we will be prepared to conIront the challenges. Non-Iunctioning solar
panels or wind turbines pose no risk to human liIe and the environment. A best case scenario will
play out- no one will die or be injured and no chaos will ensue- all because we chose to stand up
and prepare.
at is a Solar Storm?
Solar storms are generated by randomly-occurring enormous bursts oI magnetic energy emitted
by the sun. They have the potential to penetrate Earth`s magnetic Iield and disrupt the power
grids, radio communications and satellite technology. Scientists representing agencies such as
NASA inIorm us that we are currently experiencing a spike in solar activity characterized by
stronger and more Irequent solar storms. They expect that this activity will reach its peak during
the next two years. There are two major phenomena associated with solar storms- solar Ilares and
coronal mass ejections.
Solar Ilares are powerIul bursts oI radiation that occur in response to the buildup oI magnetic
energy around sunspots. These emissions occur at random intervals and produce a range oI
diIIerent electromagnetic waves including gamma, x-ray and radio. When directed at Earth, the
radiation particles in solar Ilares directly aIIect the ionosphere and have the potential to interIere
with radio equipment and navigation satellites.
Coronal mass ejections (CME) are enormous bubbles oI magnetic plasma that are released Irom
the outer atmosphere, or corona, oI the sun. The plasma, also known as solar wind, is comprised
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oI billions oI tons oI charged particles that travel through space at velocities close to the speed oI
light. The power oI a strong CME can approach that oI 1 billion hydrogen bombs. It takes 0-
0 hours Ior an Earth-directed CME to reach our atmosphere - an event that has the potential to
trigger a geomagnetic storm resulting in electrical power outages and the disruption oI satellite,
television and radio communications.|1|
In 1859, the combined impact oI a large solar Ilare and coronal mass ejection generated the
largest recorded solar storm in the last 500 years during what has become known as the
Carrington Event. The Carrington solar storm rendered telegraph systems worldwide inoperable
and caused sparks to jump Irom communication equipment.|| On March 1, 1989, another
geomagnetic solar storm, but much milder than a Carrington event, wreaked havoc with power
grids in the Canadian province oI Quebec and beyond, leaving 6 million people without power
Ior nine hours. Large power transIormers located in New Jersey even melted due to the inIlux oI
radiation. || Over the course oI a Iew hours, the relatively small Ilare had resulted in hundreds
oI millions oI dollars in damage.||
In recent years, members oI the scientiIic community have expressed their concerns over the
potentially devastating results that a signiIicant solar storm would have today. At a meeting oI
the American Association Ior the Advancement oI Science in the winter oI 011, leading
scientiIic authorities representing NASA and the NOAA warned that a solar storm directed at our
planet could bring about a 'global Katrina costing the world economy trillion dollars.|5| The
participants urged preparation Ior solar storms noting an uptick in solar activity over the last year
- a trend that they predict will peak in 01. The group oI scientists emphasized that our modern
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technology, increasingly dependent on satellites, is Iar more vulnerable to geomagnetic storms
than even a decade ago.|6| A disruption to our satellites would prevent people Irom engaging in
daily activities such as carrying out credit card transactions, utilizing cell phones and accessing
the internet.
A discovery by NASA scientists in 008 suggests that Earth's power grid is even more vulnerable
to space weather than previously thought. Much to their surprise, NASA scientists Iound an
enormous hole--Iour times the size oI the Earth--in our planet's magnetic Iield. Five oI NASA`s
THEMIS satellites recorded the density oI the breach in the magnetic Iield at 90 less than the
norm. This discovery suggests that Earth's power grid is even more susceptible to incoming
solar Ilares and coronal mass ejections. In an interview with NASA science news, Jimmy Raeder,
a physics proIessor at the University oI New Hampshire stated that this breach in the magnetic
Iield allows Ior 'the perIect sequence Ior a really big event."|7|
Speaking with National Geographic News, Daniel Baker oI the University oI Colorado's
Laboratory Ior Atmospheric and Space Physics said that a powerIul solar storm could eIIectively
leave entire cities without power Ior months or even years.|8| Yes, years! He noted that the large
transIormers that would likely be blown out during a solar storm are in short supply a Iact that
could lead to serious complications when trying to restore power. Baker is just one among a
growing chorus oI researchers in the Iield oI astrophysics who have gone on the record stating
that a solar storm on the scale oI the 1859 Carrington event would dramatically compromise our
global communications systems and Iry electrical power systems.
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In a phone interview Ior this report, Richard Lordan, senior technical executive Ior power
delivery and utilization at the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) was more optimistic in
his assessment oI the electrical grid`s deIenses during a coronal mass ejection. Lordan brought
up that the modern power grid is highly interconnected and built with redundancies that protect
against Iailure. Commenting on EPRI`s research into the possibility oI America experiencing
large scale blackouts caused by space weather, he stated that 'we have not Iound that kind oI
vulnerability. Still, Lordan conceded that the nature oI geomagnetic disturbances can be
unpredictable and that 'it`s not reconciled how these transIormers will respond in the event oI a
major solar storm.
In an interview on the !rogressive Radio Network, investigative journalist Lawrence Joseph
spoke about a report Irom the National Academy oI Sciences and NASA that was published in
December 008. The report concluded that a coronal mass ejection could leave 100-10 million
people without electricity in North America alone.|9| Such a lapse in access to electricity would
deprive people oI access to gasoline and reIrigeration as well as severely curtail the operations oI
law enIorcement and the military. The consequences oI an event would be proIound as millions
oI people would have very limited or no access to Iood and water. In addition, it would halt the
operation oI power plants that require electricity to run this includes coal, gas, oil and nuclear
plants.|10|
One oI the most immediate concerns in the event oI a solar storm knocking out the electric grid
is preventing the meltdown oI nuclear reactors. Nuclear plants Iunction through the process oI
nuclear Iission. This process utilizes radioactive material such as uranium to boil water at very
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high temperatures; this is in turn creates steam to power turbines that generate electric power.
All the while, a constant stream oI coolants is introduced via electric pumps to prevent the
radioactive Iuel Irom overheating and melting the Iuel rods. In most nuclear reactors, the pumps
run on power Irom electric grids and are not selI-sustaining. Consequently, iI the electric grid
were to Iail during a solar event, the cooling system in nuclear plants would be unable to
Iunction.
In such an emergency, nuclear power Iacilities will use backup generators and batteries to power
the electric pumps. In most nuclear plants, the batteries last about 8 hours while the generators,
Iueled by diesel, will keep the system operational Ior approximately 7 hours.|11| II the electric
power grid is still not restored aIter the contingency power sources have been exhausted, a
nuclear meltdown will occur. To saIely shutdown a nuclear reactor requires months oI circulating
coolant through the system. As it stands, virtually every one oI the approximately 700 nuclear
reactors worldwide would be unable to execute a proper cool shutdown iI the electric grid were
to Iail Ior a week or more. It is thereIore Ieasible that a considerable solar storm could trigger a
series oI devastating nuclear meltdowns across the world.
The destructive nature oI nuclear meltdowns was put on Iull display earlier this year aIter an 8.9
magnitude earthquake the struck Fukushima Japan on March 11. Nuclear and medical experts
predict that the large quantities oI radiation unleashed during the accident at Fukushima will
result in untold harm to human health Ior generations.|1| Reactor at Fukushima, which was
breached during the earthquake, contained plutonium one oI the most deadly nuclear
contaminants known to man. II even a tiny grain oI plutonium is breathed in, it will cause so
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much damage to body tissues that cancer is a near certainty.|1| Japan's Nuclear and Industrial
SaIety Agency reported in August that the amount oI cesium-17 that has leaked Irom the plant
so Iar is 168 times greater than what was released during the dropping oI the atomic bomb on
Hiroshima in 195.|1| The amount oI Iodine -11, a radioactive isotope that has very damaging
eIIects on the thyroid gland, was also Iound to be .5 times greater than what was measured aIter
the Hiroshima bomb.|15| These statistics are a sobering reminder that the tragedy oI the
Fukushima meltdown will become even more evident in the months and years to come. The
people who were and still are exposed to high levels oI ionizing radiation emitted in the
aItermath oI the quake are almost certain to develop cancers and a host oI other health issues
related to the harmIul nuclear Iallout.
A report released by Russia`s Federal Atomic Energy Agency last month reveals that the
government has issued 'emergency notices to the directors oI the country`s nuclear power
plants regarding the potential impact oI solar storms. The agency`s missive warns that space
weather has the potential to cause 'massive blackouts and 'spontaneous atomic explosions and
mentions that the 'worst events are still to come.|16| The notice also reIerences the need to
prepare, especially considering the signiIicant solar-induced blackouts that recently plunged
large parts oI Chile into darkness Ior many hours.|17|
A central challenge in preparing Ior solar storms is the protection oI extra-high-voltage (EHV)
transIormers. Around a third oI the electric power generated in the United States comes Irom
50 immense, 100 ton, transIormers positioned at power substations across the country. In
general, the higher the voltage running through transIormers, the more vulnerable they are to
1
power surges induced by an electromagnetic storm. The models utilized in the United States
today transmit voltages in the extra-high range - up to 765kV.|18| Roughly 80 oI Americans`
power grids are reliant on 500kV and 765Kv transIormers.|19| Only China possesses
transIormers that support higher voltages- some oI which can reach 1,000kV.|0|
There is currently a six month- two year waiting list to purchase replacements Ior these electric
transIormers which are manuIactured in China and India.|1| EPRI`s Lordan put the cost oI
these transIormers on the global market at $5 to $10 million. According to Laurence Hecht oI
the publication st Century Science & Technology . 'only one plant exists in the U.S.A. capable
oI manuIacturing a transIormer up to 5 kV. There is no manuIacturing capability in the U.S.A.
Ior 500 kV and 765 kV transIormers.|| Due to their size and complex nature, extra high
voltage transIormers are very diIIicult to repair and almost always require replacements. About
halI oI all the transIormers that are made break down during testing or prematurely malIunction
aIter installation.|| Speaking to the Progressive Radio Network, Lordan also noted that the
installation oI these transIormers is a lengthy process which takes about a month to complete.
!reparing for Grid Failure
Despite attempts by some members oI Congress to protect our electric grids against solar storms,
lawmakers have been remarkably reluctant to address this matter in a meaningIul way. In June
010, the House oI Representatives` voted unanimously in Iavor oI the Grid Reliability and
InIrastructure DeIense Act, or HR-506, which was aimed at taking steps to protect the US
power grids Irom solar storms . Later last year when it was introduced in the Senate, the bill was
1
stripped oI all reIerences to protecting the power grids. House member Roscoe Bartlett oI
Maryland commented on the inaction by the Senate saying:
"While one part oI the Iederal government was warning us oI possible solar
electromagnetic-pulse damage to our electric grid, a key Senate commission approved a
bill to ignore this threat||
Even the steps taken by utility companies to protect electric inIrastructure appear to be
disproportionate to the stern warnings set Iorth by oIIicials in the scientiIic community.
Southern Company, a utility provider to nearly .5 million customers in the Southern United
States, stated in an email that 'Southern Company does not anticipate transmission issues on our
system Irom the solar Ilares/geomagnetic disturbances but went on to say that the company is
working with the Electric Power Research Institute and the North American Electric Reliability
Corporation on studies to better understand the eIIects oI solar activity on the power grid.
Finding a Solution to Solar Storms
A viable measure that could be taken to curb the eIIects oI solar storms on our power grid is the
installation supplemental neutral resistors. According to the Metatech corporation, a CaliIornia-
based company specializing in research into the eIIects oI electromagnetic activity, these
resistors would reduce the impact oI electromagnetically induced electric power surges by 60-
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70.|5| A congressional estimate Irom 001 placed the cost oI installing oI this equipment, or
'hardening power grids at $150 million.|6|
In preparation Ior diIIiculties with the electric grid associated with space weather, the
Department oI Homeland Security is Iunding the Electric Power Research Institute to develop a
modular replacement transIormer that will be tested in the Iield next year. Several other
innovators are pioneering technologies that would allow alternating currents to Ilow on cable
lines while canceling out the eIIects oI power surges Irom space weather. Many oI these projects
are still in the conceptual stages and would require more Iunding and support beIore they can be
tested and implemented.
Aside Irom the common sense solution oI phasing nuclear reactors as quickly as possible, there
are actions that can be taken to avoid a nuclear meltdown in the wake oI a geomagnetic storm.
One measure that could signiIicantly decrease the threat oI a meltdown is Ior each nuclear
Iacility to stockpile suIIicient amounts oI diesel or propane Iuel and backup generator parts that
will allow Ior a secure cool shutdown oI the plant over the course oI several months. Since a
solar storm could radically hamper the transportation oI Iuel and replacement parts Ior
generators, it is imperative that at least a year`s worth oI materials be stored on-site in case oI an
emergency.
An additional saIeguard against meltdowns is the implementation oI a closed loop system
wherein the electricity produced by the nuclear reactor is used to sustain the pumps that power
the cooling system. This may ensure that the plant continued to Iunction independent oI the
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electric grid and make an emergency shutdown unnecessary. Several ongoing international
projects are developing this technology. A current joint venture between Russian and Italian
scientists is aimed at creating a selI-sustaining nuclear reactor known as Ignitor.|7| However,
such a system may take years to be operative and would exceed NASA`s 01 time Irame.
Despite the Iact that the implementation oI these preventative measures might prove expensive,
the alternative oI denial and delay would be Iar more costly, both Iinancially and in terms oI
human liIe. We Iace many obstacles in preparing our energy inIrastructure Ior the inevitable
eIIects oI solar Ilares and coronal mass ejections. We cannot aIIord to wait like sitting ducks on
the verge oI annihilation simply because we never chose to challenge the authorities and
implement the necessary changes to our power grids. The time Ior preparation grows short, and
while certain government agencies and interest groups have taken preliminary steps towards pre-
emptive action and advocated preparedness this is simply not enough. We must steadIastly
demand that real action be taken by our energy oIIicials to mitigate the impact that solar storms
will have on humanity. Demands need to be made to halt the relicensing oI aging, corroding
reactors and to begin with the immediate shut down oI America`s 10 units. II we don`t act now,
we will have to Iace the consequences oI what could likely amount to an earth-shattering global
nuclear Katrina.
NOTES
|1| Wall, Mike. "Solar Ilares can pack a powerIul double burst - Technology & science - Space -
Space.com - msnbc.com."msnbc.com N.p., 7 Sept. 011. Web. Oct. 011.
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/611/ns/technologyandscience-space/t/solar-Ilares-can-pack-
powerIul-double-burst/~
16
|| Bell, Trudy, and Tony Phillips. "NASA Science News."NASA.gov. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct. 011.
http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/008/06maycarringtonIlar
|| Ibid
|| "NASA Science News."NASA.gov. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct. 011. http://science.nasa.gov/science-
news/science-at-nasa/00/octsuperstorm/
|5| Cookson, Clive . " Scientists warn oI $,000bn solar Katrina`."Financial Times. N.p., 0 Feb. 011.
Web. Oct. 011. http://www.It.com/intl/cms/s/0/67bc-d1-11e0-bbII-
001Ieabdc0.html#axzz1ZptSAhaZ
|6| Ibid
|7| Phillips, Tony. "Giant Breach in Earth's Magnetic Field Discovered ."NASA Science News. N.p., n.d.
Web. 5 Oct. 011. http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/008/16decgiantbreach/
|8| Lovett, Richard. "What II the Biggest Solar Storm on Record Happened Today?."National Geographic
News. N.p., Mar. 011. Web. Oct. 011. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/011/0/1100-
solar-Ilares-sun-storms-earth-danger-carrington-event-science/
|9| May th, 011."The Gary Null Show. Progressive Radio Network. May 011. Radio
|10| Ibid
|11| Cappiello, Dina. "Long Blackouts Pose Risk To U.S. Nuclear Reactors."The Huffington !ost. N.p.,
n.d. Web. Oct. 011. http://www.huIIingtonpost.com/011/0/9/blackout-risk-us-nuclear-
reactorsn81869.html
|1| Knocking on The Devils Door. Dir. Gary Null. PerI. Harvey Wasserman. Gary Null & Associates,
011. DVD
|1| Ibid
|1| "Fukushima caesium leaks 'equal 168 Hiroshimas' - Telegraph."Telegraph.co.uk. N.p., 5 Aug. 011.
Web. Oct. 011. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/8700/Fukushima-
caesium-leaks-equal-168-Hiroshimas.html~.
|15| "Fukushima radiation 168 times that oI Hiroshima atomic bomb / World / Home - Morning
Star."Morning Star. N.p., 8 Aug. 011. Web. Oct. 011.
http://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/news/content/view/Iull/10878
|16| "Super Sun Blast Fears Put Russian Nuke Plants In Lockdown , EUTimes.net."The European Union
Times. N.p., 5 Sept. 011. Web. Oct. 011. http://www.eutimes.net/011/09/super-sun-blast-Iears-put-
russian-nuke-plants-in-lockdown/
|17| Ibid
|18| Joseph, Lawrence E. "Lawrence E. Joseph: The Solar 'Katrina' Storm That Could Take Our Power
Grid Out For Years."The Huffington !ost. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct. 011.
http://www.huIIingtonpost.com/lawrence-e-joseph/the-solar-katrina-storm-tb615.html~.
17
|19| Hecht, Laurence. "The Solar Storm Threat to America's Power Grid."stcenturysciencetech.com.
N.p., 1 June 011. Web. Oct. 011.
www.1stcenturysciencetech.com/Articles011/SolarStormThreat.pdI
|0| Ibid
|1| "America's Energy Future: Technology and TransIormation."The National Academies !ress. N.p.,
n.d. Web. Oct. 011. http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?recordid1091&page57
|| Hecht, Laurence. "The Solar Storm Threat to America's Power Grid."stcenturysciencetech.com.
N.p., 1 June 011. Web. Oct. 011.
www.1stcenturysciencetech.com/Articles011/SolarStormThreat.pdI
|| Joseph, Lawrence E. "Lawrence E. Joseph: The Solar 'Katrina' Storm That Could Take Our Power
Grid Out For Years."The Huffington !ost. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct. 011.
http://www.huIIingtonpost.com/lawrence-e-joseph/the-solar-katrina-storm-tb615.html~
|| "Bill Amended to Delete Threat to Electric Grid During Federal Government Alert oI Solar
Storm." Representative Roscoe Bartlett. N.p., 5 Aug. 010. Web. Oct. 011.
http://bartlett.house.gov/News/DocumentSingle.aspx?DocumentID011
|5| Hecht, Laurence. "The Solar Storm Threat to America's Power Grid."stcenturysciencetech.com.
N.p., 1 June 011. Web. Oct. 011.
www.1stcenturysciencetech.com/Articles011/SolarStormThreat.pdI~
|6| Ibid
|7| McKenna, Phil. "Nuclear Reactor Aims Ior SelI-Sustaining Fusion - Technology
Review."Technology Review. N.p., 5 May 010. Web. 5 Oct. 011.
http://www.technologyreview./energy/579/
