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WEEK 1
Section 1
How do engineers work, technical drawings and parts lists, Circuit diagrams, Flow charts, and programs?
How do engineers work?
● Engineering sciences, like the arts, social sciences, and natural sciences, are a discrete discipline
with their own language, practices and tools. Of course, they also draw on and use principles from
other sciences, in particular mathematics and physics but also social sciences. In turn, many of the
findings in these latter disciplines are based on the results of research carried out in the field of
engineering sciences.

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● Unlike natural sciences, engineering sciences are not primarily concerned with acquiring information
and discovering the laws of nature but rather with creating technical solutions to satisfy human
needs.

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● The engineer therefore is always asking "How can I solve this problem?". This leads to a typical
technical approach such as "black-box thinking". Black box thinking means that engineers use
technical systems without needing to know precisely how the individual components and modules
work in detail. All engineers need to know is that the device will deliver a specific output from a
specific input.

Figure 1.1: Black box representation of a technical system

● For example, automated machines use electric motors of different sizes and outputs. The machine

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designer doesn't need to know exactly how the electric motor works. All he needs to do is select the
right motor using characteristics such as dimensions, torque, speed, current consumption, output,
etc.
● In contrast, a situation in which engineers design electric motors themselves is completely different.

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In this case, they need an in-depth knowledge of the mode of operation and physical fundamentals
of the electric motor and its components.

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● Another distinctive feature of engineering sciences is the manner in which technical solutions are
represented. Engineers use standardized and therefore internationally understood description tools,

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most of which are graphical. The main ones are:
1. Technical drawings and parts lists,
2. Circuit diagrams,

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3. Flow charts and programs,
4. Technical plans and schematic diagrams.

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1.1 Technical drawings and parts lists
● Technical drawings are used to illustrate the design of products. They show in detail the dimensions,
tolerances, surface finish, and materials of the workpieces (dimensional drawings) or the assembly
of modules (assembly drawings).
● The views of a workpiece are arranged on paper using a standard protocol whereby each view
shows the workpiece rotated by 90° to the plane of projection. A maximum of six views are possible
with this approach. However, normally only those views are reproduced that are needed to show all
the dimensions required for production. Figure 1.2 shows an example of a dimensional drawing.
● Assembly drawings show how the component parts make up the finished product or module. These
drawings contain few dimensions, but do show the exact designations of the component parts (cf.
Figure 1.3).

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Figure 1.2: Dimensional drawing of the slide from the stacking magazine (original size A4)

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These component parts are compiled in a parts list that provides information on how many of the respective
parts are needed to manufacture a product (cf. Table 1.1).

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Each component has its own dimensional drawing that can be used as a basis for its manufacture.
The only parts for which individual drawings are not produced are standard parts such as screws

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and ball bearings or other bought-in parts. You can identify bought-in standard parts in the parts list
from their designations, which include a reference to the standard (e.g. DIN 125 or ISO 7380).
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Engineers use standard parts whenever possible as they are inexpensive; they can be bought in the
exact quantities required and in the stipulated quality from other specialist manufacturers, which
usually works out cheaper than producing them in-house. This not only makes it easier for

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engineers to design the product, but also to repair it in the event of a defect.

1.2 Circuit diagrams

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While technical drawings show the outer design of a product, circuit diagrams show how the electric,
pneumatic or hydraulic components of a technical system or installation are interconnected. Standardized

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symbols are used to refer to the function of the component, regardless of their design or what they actually
look like. Circuit diagrams are therefore much more abstract than technical drawings.

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Figure 1.4 shows the circuit diagram for an actual pneumatic circuit.

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The components, connections, etc. are numbered so that the overview is retained when building the circuit.
The components are labeled in the same way in the machine so that their function can be reproduced later
in the circuit diagram.

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1.3 Flow charts and programs
Most modern controllers are program controllers. This means that a computer program coordinates and
directs the individual control phases. Special programming languages have been developed for the most
varied of problems in engineering, for example Fortran (Formula Translation) for predominantly
mathematical tasks, Cobol (Common Business Oriented Language) for business programs, ladder diagram
for logic control systems or Basic (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) as an easy-to-learn,
all-purpose programming language for beginners.

Here is a simple example of how a rudimentary program is developed.

Before the actual programming can be started, the algorithm is developed in the form of a flow diagram.
Figure 1.5 shows a flow diagram for the following control sequence:

● the switching status of push buttons 1 and 2 is checked,

● if both switches have the status 1 (on), then the cylinder is advanced,
● In all other cases the interrogation is repeated.

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Figure 1.5: Flow diagram

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A Basic program for the sequence shown in Figure 1.5 could go something like:
10 P1 = Pushbutton 1
20 P2 = Pushbutton 2
30 If (P1 = 1) and (P2 = 1) then advance cylinder, otherwise go to 10

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Section 5
1.4 Technical plans and schematic diagrams
A technical plan or schematic diagram is used to illustrate the function of a machine. The representation
may be more or less abstract, depending on the purpose; the most important aspect is to realistically
portray the interaction and basic arrangement of the components and modules. To illustrate key
relationships, control components such as sensors or actuators can be labeled in the technology pattern
with the same abbreviated designations as in the program or the circuit diagram. Figure 1.7 shows an
example.

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1.5 Calculations and simulation T
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● Calculations for sizing components are one of the most important steps in the entire development
process. In many cases, detailed proofs of strength are formally required by law (e.g. when building
houses or airplanes) to avert the dangers caused by undersized machines. Generally, calculations

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are frequently required to ensure the operability of the machines under all circumstances. Examples
of this are the calculation of forces and torques for sizing drives or the calculation of current
intensities for sizing power lines.

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● Closely related to the topic of calculation is the use of simulation. Engineers try, wherever possible,
to test and optimise their solutions via simulation before a (costly) prototype is built.

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● A good example of this is the FluidSIM® program that enables students to test and simulate their
pneumatic, logic or electrical circuits before building them. If the circuit works, then it can also be
used to control the actual model. In this case, the use of simulation enables several students to
work simultaneously on one problem with less (expensive) training hardware required.

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Fundamentals of Automation Technology 20EE43P
Section 3
Automation technology as a part of engineering sciences, Key development milestones in the history of
automation technology, Effects of automation on people.
2. Automation technology as a part of engineering sciences
Examples of engineering-related sciences include:
1. Mechanical engineering,
2. Electrical engineering,
3. Production engineering,
4. Structure engineering,
5. and so on.

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● One point these sciences all have in common is the research, definition, and application of
engineering principles. What differentiates them is the subject matter and the orientation of the
respective discipline.

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● Automation technology is a crossover discipline that uses knowledge and scientific methods from
numerous other technical sciences. According to DIN 19223, an automatic machine is an artificial
system that makes decisions based on the linking of inputs with the respective states of the system;
these decisions then produce very specific desired outputs.

Three components are needed to realize modern automatic processes:

1. Sensors to detect the system states,
2. Actuators to output the control commands,
3. Controllers for the program flow and to make decisions.
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2.1 Key development milestones in the history of automation technology
● These days when we hear "automation technology" we immediately think of industrial robots and

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computer controllers. In fact, automation technology in craft and industry began much earlier with
the utilization of the steam engine by James Watt in 1769. For the first time, a machine could
replace manpower or horsepower.

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● The first steam engines were used to drain water from mines and to drive machine tools. These
applications involved a single steam engine driving a number of machines via a complicated system
of transmission shafts and leather belts (so-called transmission belts) mounted on the ceiling of the
machine hall.
● In 1820 the Danish physicist Oersted discovered electromagnetism, in 1834 Thomas Davenport

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developed the first direct current motor with commutator (reverser) and received the patent for it one
year later. Nevertheless, it was not until 1866 that the electric motor became widely used. This was

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after Werner von Siemens invented the dynamo that provided a simple way of generating electrical
current in large quantities. The electric motor replaced the steam engine as a driving component.

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● n 1913 Henry Ford introduced the first assembly line production system for the famous Model T

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(Figure 2.1). This resulted in much higher productivity, as production time for a car fell from 750 to
just 93 hours. That was the foundation for the series production of cars. This higher productivity
enabled the Ford company to pay its workers a daily wage of 5 dollars for 8 hours of work in 1913.
The price for a Model T fell to around 600 dollars. The automobile became a consumer item for

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wider sections of the population and no longer the few well-to-do
● The science behind assembly line production was based on the work of the American Frederick
Winslow Taylor on the division of labor, where production is divided into lots of simple work steps
that even unskilled workers can perform.
● In 1873 a patent was granted for a fully automatic machine for manufacturing screws that used cam
disks to store the individual program sequences.
● In 1837 Joseph Henry invented an electromagnetic switch that was called a relay after the relay
stations where post riders could swap their tired horses for fresh ones.
● They were initially used for signal amplification in Morse stations. Later they were used for building
electrical controllers. This type of controller, where the relays are hard wired together, were called
hardwired programmed controllers, a name still used today. Relays could now be used to master
complex control tasks, however the hard wiring meant that programming still took quite a long time
and troubleshooting was time-consuming.

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In 1959 Joseph Engelberger presented the prototype for an industrial robot that was used by

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General Motors in automobile production from 1961. This robot still had hydraulic drives; it was not
until later that industrial robots were fitted exclusively with electric motors.
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In 1968 a team from the American company Allen Bradley under the leadership of Odo Struger
developed the first programmable logic controller (PLC). Now it was possible to simply change a
program without having to rewire lots of relays.
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Industrial robots became mainstream in modern industrial production in 1970 and remain so to this
day. Modern production cannot manage without them for the moment at least. Quite the opposite in

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fact, their importance is continuously growing. In Germany alone there are well over 100,000 robots,
mostly in the automotive industry and its suppliers.

2.2 Effects of automation on people

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● One of the main reasons for the introduction of automated systems was and remains the desire to
be able to produce goods less expensively than the competition. Automation technology can do this
in several ways:
● Fewer staff are needed for automated production.
● Production can run round the clock, except for a few maintenance interval periods.

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● Machines generally make fewer mistakes, which means the quality of the produced products is

● The processing times are shortened, which means that larger quantities can be shipped faster.

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● Automation relieves people of boring, physically heavy or hazardous work (humanisation of the
world of employment).
On the other hand, there are also less positive effects associated with automation technology, such as:

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● The loss of jobs, in particular those with a low skill level (one highly qualified service technician
takes the place of 10 unskilled assembly workers).

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● The automation of production demands that employees occasionally make decisions, however the
complexity of the system structure is such that they cannot fully decipher their consequences.
● The expenditure for an automated system of this type increases each individual's responsibility for
the success of the company as a whole.

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WEEK 2
Section 1
How a solenoid works- Structure of a solenoid, Applications of solenoids
How a solenoid works
When current flows through an electrical conductor, a magnetic field builds up around it. This magnetic field
grows in size if the current intensity is increased. Magnetic fields exert an attractive force on workpieces
made from iron, nickel or cobalt. This force increases as the magnetic field grows

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3.3.1 Structure of a solenoid
A solenoid has the following structure:
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● The current-carrying conductor is wound in the shape of a coil (air-cored coil). The overlaying of the

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magnetic field lines of all the coil windings (see Figure 3.3) amplifies the magnetic field.
● An iron core is placed in the coil. When an electric current flows, the iron is additionally magnetised.
This enables a much stronger magnetic field to be generated at the same current intensity than with
an air-cored coil.

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Both of these features ensure that a solenoid exerts a strong force on ferrous materials even when the
current intensity is low.

3.3.2 Applications of solenoids

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In electro pneumatic control systems, solenoids are primarily used to influence the switching position of
valves, relays or contactors. To explain how this happens, we will use the example of a spring-return
directional control valve:
● When an electric current flows through the solenoid coil, the valve piston is actuated.

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● When the current flow is interrupted, a spring pushes the valve piston back into its initial position.

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Section 2
Solenoids as simple actuators.
Another electric drive that is suitable for simple positioning tasks is the solenoid. Solenoids actuate the
piston spools of solenoid valves, for example, and can be used in principle wherever small linear strokes
are sufficient.
Figure 6.8 shows the operational principle. The solenoid essentially consists of a coil and an iron core. The
coil generates a magnetic field when current flows through it and then exerts an attractive force on the iron
core. This causes the iron core to be pulled into the coil. When the current is switched off, a spring pushes
the iron core back out of the coil. A change in the direction of current does cause a change in the direction
of the magnetic field, however this does not affect the attraction exerted on the iron core by the magnetic
field.

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3.4 How an electrical capacitor works
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● A capacitor consists of two conductive plates with an insulating layer (dielectric) between them.
When a capacitor is connected to a DC voltage supply (closing the pushbutton S1 in Figure 3.5),

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there is a brief flow of charging current, which electrically charges the two plates.
● If the connection to the voltage supply is then interrupted (opening the pushbutton S1), the charge

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remains stored in the capacitor. The greater the capacitance of a capacitor, the more electrically
charged particles it stores at the same voltage. The actual size specification for a capacitor is the
capacitance C. It is defined as the relationship between the magnitude of charge Q stored in the

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capacitor and the voltage V applied to the capacitor:

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● When the electrically charged capacitor is connected to a consuming device (closing the pushbutton
S2 in Figure 3.5), charge balancing takes place. An electrical current flows through the consuming
device until such time as the capacitor is fully discharged.

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3.5 How a diode works

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Diodes are electrical (semiconductor) components whose resistance differs depending on the direction in
which the electrical current is flowing:
● When the diode is switched in the free-flow direction its resistance is very low, which means the
electrical current can flow almost unimpeded.

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● When it is switched in the blocked direction its resistance is extremely high, which means no current

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can flow.
When a diode is integrated in an AC circuit, the current can only flow in one direction. The electrical current
is rectified (see Figure 3.6).
A diode's effect on the electrical current can be compared to the effect of a bicycle valve that allows air to
enter a tyre but prevents it from escaping again.

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Section 3
3.How switches work and their structure-Normally open contacts, normally closed contacts, Changeover
switches. Relays and contactors-Structure of a relay, Applications of relays, Time relays
3.6 How switches work and their structure
Switches are used to facilitate or to interrupt a current flow in an electrical circuit. Depending on their
design, these switches can either be pushbuttons or detenting switches.
● In the case of a pushbutton, the chosen switching position is only maintained for as long as the
pushbutton is actuated. Pushbuttons are used in doorbells, for example.
● In the case of a detenting switch, both switching positions (ON/OFF) are mechanically latched. Each
switching position is maintained until the switch is actuated again. Light switches in houses are an
example of a latching switch in use.
A further classification and selection criterion for switches is their switching status in normal position (i.e.
unactuated).
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3.6.1 Normally open contacts

In the case of a normally open contact (or N/O contact), the circuit is interrupted when the pushbutton is in

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its normal position. Actuating the pushbutton closes the circuit and supplies the consuming device with
current. When the pushbutton is released, spring force returns it to its normal position and the circuit is
interrupted once more.

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3.6.2 Normally closed contacts
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In the case of a normally closed contact (or N/C contact), the circuit is closed by spring force when the
pushbutton is in its normal position. Actuating the pushbutton interrupts the circuit.

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3.6.3 Changeover switches
The changeover switch combines the functions of an N/C contact and an N/O contact in one device. They
are used to close one circuit and open another one with a single switching operation. Both circuits are
briefly interrupted during the changeover.

3.7 Relays and contactors

3.7.1 Applications of relays
● multiply signals,
● delay and convert signals,
● link information,
● separate the control and main circuits.

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They are also used in purely electrical control systems to separate the DC and AC circuits

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Figure 3.10: Relay

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3.7.2 Structure of a relay
Figure 3.11: Circuit diagram for a basic relay circuit

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A relay is an electromagnetically-actuated switch where the control circuit and the controlled circuit are
electrically separated from each other. It essentially consists of a coil with an iron core (see (3)(1) in
Figure 3.12), an armature as a mechanical actuating element (4), a return spring (2) and switch contacts
(6). When a voltage is applied to the solenoid coil, an electromagnetic field is generated. This causes the
movable armature to move towards the coil core. The armature acts upon the relay contacts that are
either closed or opened, depending on the arrangement. If the flow of current through the coil is
interrupted, a spring returns the armature to its initial position.

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A relay coil can be used to switch one or more contacts. In addition to the relay type described above,

the time relay and the contactor.

3.7.3 Time relays

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there are also other designs of electromagnetically-actuated switches, for example, the remanence relay,

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● In the case of time relays, a distinction is made between relays with switch-on delay and relays with

● In a relay with switch-on delay, the armature switches on with a preset delay td; there is no

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switch-off delay. In a relay with switch-off delay, the reverse happens. The contacts switch
accordingly (see Figures 3.13/3.14). The delay time td can be set as required.

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WEEK 3
Section 1
1. Sensors: operation, characteristics, and application: Inductive Proximity Sensors, Magnetic Proximity
Sensor.
Sensors
The purpose of sensors is to acquire information and to forward it in an evaluable format to the signal
processing system. They are found in diverse tasks in technology, with different designs and operating
principles. That is why it is important to categorize them. Sensors can be classified according to
● operating principle (optical, inductive, mechanical, fluid, etc.),

presence of objects, etc.) or

● the output signal (analog, digital, binary, etc.), to name just a few methods.
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● measured variable (displacement, pressure, distance, temperature, ph value, luminous intensity,

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The sensors used most frequently in automation technology are those with digital outputs as they are much
more immune to interference than those with analog outputs. Digital controllers can also use the signals

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from these sensors directly without first having to convert them into digital signals by means of so-called
analog-digital converters as is the case with analog signals.

determine the presence (or approach) of a workpiece.

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The sensors used most frequently in industrial automation are the so-called proximity sensors that

Proximity sensors
Proximity sensors are non-contacting and therefore have no external mechanical actuating force. As a

of proximity sensors:
1. Sensors with mechanical switch contact
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result, they have a long service life and are very reliable. A distinction is made between the following types

– Reed switches
2. Sensors with electronic switch output
– Inductive proximity sensors
– Capacitive proximity sensors
– Optical proximity sensors

Magnetic sensors
● Reed switches are magnetically-actuated proximity sensors. They consist of two contact blades in a

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small glass tube filled with protective gas. The action of a magnet causes the contact between the
two blades to close so that an electrical current can flow (cf. Figure 4.1). In the case of reed

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switches that work as N/C contacts, the contact blades are preloaded using small magnets. This
preload is overcome by the then much stronger switching magnet.

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● Reed switches have a long service life and a short switching time (approx. 0.2 ms). They are
maintenance-free, but must not be used in areas with strong magnetic fields (e.g. in the vicinity of

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resistance welders or CAT scanners).

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Inductive proximity sensors

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● Inductive proximity sensors consist of an electrical resonant circuit (1), a flip-flop (2) and an amplifier
(3) (cf. Figure 4.3). When voltage is applied to the connections, the resonant circuit generates a
(high-frequency) magnetic alternating field that escapes from the front side of the sensor

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● Bringing an electrical conductor into this alternating field "attenuates" the resonant circuit. The
downstream electronic unit, consisting of a flip-flop and amplifier, evaluates the resonant circuit's
behavior and actuates the output.
● Inductive proximity sensors can be used to detect all materials with good electrical conductivity, for
example, graphite as well as metals.

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Section 2
2. Capacitive proximity sensors, Optical proximity sensors, Ultrasonic proximity sensors
Capacitive proximity sensors
● Capacitive proximity sensors consist of an electrical resistor (R) and a capacitor (C) that together
form an RC resonant circuit as well as an electronic circuit for evaluating the oscillation.
● An electrostatic field is generated between the active electrode and the ground electrode of the
capacitor. A stray field forms on the front side of the sensor. When an object is brought into this
stray field, the capacitance of the capacitor changes (cf. Figure 4.5).
● The resonant circuit is attenuated and the downstream electronic unit actuates the output
● Capacitive proximity sensors not only respond to materials with a high electrical conductivity (e.g.

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metals), but also to all insulators with a high dielectric constant (e.g. plastics, glass, ceramic, liquids,
and wood)

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Optical proximity sensors

● Optical proximity sensors always have a transmitter and a receiver. They use optical (red or infrared

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and receiver.

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● Particularly reliable transmitters of red and infrared light are semiconductor light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). They are small, robust, inexpensive, reliable, durable and easy to install. Red light has the
advantage that it can be seen with the naked eye when aligning (adjusting) the optical axes of the
proximity sensors.
● Photodiodes or phototransistors are used as the receiver component in optical proximity sensors.

A distinction is made between three types of optical proximity sensors:

1. Through-beam sensors,
2. Retro-reflective sensors,
3. Diffuse sensors.

Ultrasonic proximity sensors

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What is an ultrasonic sensor?

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● An ultrasonic sensor is an instrument that measures the distance to an object using ultrasonic
sound waves.
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● An ultrasonic sensor uses a transducer to send and receive ultrasonic pulses that relay back
information about an object’s proximity.
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● High-frequency sound waves reflect from boundaries to produce distinct echo patterns.

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How Ultrasonic Sensors Work.
● Ultrasonic sensors work by sending out a sound wave at a frequency above the range of human

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hearing. The transducer of the sensor acts as a microphone to receive and send the ultrasonic
sound. Our ultrasonic sensors, like many others, use a single transducer to send a pulse and to
receive the echo. The sensor determines the distance to a target by measuring time lapses

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between the sending and receiving of the ultrasonic pulse.

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The working principle of this module is simple. It sends an ultrasonic pulse out at 40kHz which
travels through the air and if there is an obstacle or object, it will bounce back to the sensor. By

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calculating the travel time and the speed of sound, the distance can be calculated.
Ultrasonic sensors are a great solution for the detection of clear objects. For liquid level

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measurement, applications that use infrared sensors, for instance, struggle with this particular use

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case because of target translucence.
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For presence detection, ultrasonic sensors detect objects regardless of the color, surface, or
material (unless the material is very soft like wool, as it would absorb sound.)
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To detect transparent and other items where optical technologies may fail, ultrasonic sensors are a
reliable choice.

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Section 3
Linear Position Sensors, Photoelectric sensors. Infrared sensors Limit Switches.
Linear Position Sensors
● A Linear Position Sensor is a device used for detecting movement in a linear motion, the sensor
then converts the movement into output signals suitable for processing, the format of the output
signals will differ dependent on the interface requirements and the application
● Linear position sensors use contact or non-contact methods to measure the speed and/or position
of an object. They use a variety of technologies to detect and measure an object's position and
movement. The general mechanism for most sensors involves emittance which is interfered with by
the target. The interference is recorded and translated into a measure of distance or velocity. Types
of linear position sensors are distinguished based on their specific functionality.

What Is a Photoelectric Sensor?

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variety of optical properties.
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Photoelectric Sensors detect objects, changes in surface conditions, and other items through a

A Photoelectric Sensor consists primarily of an Emitter for emitting light and a Receiver for receiving

ER
light. When emitted light is interrupted or reflected by the sensing object, it changes the amount of
light that arrives at the Receiver. The Receiver detects this change and converts it to an electrical
output. The light source for the majority of Photoelectric Sensors is infrared or visible light (generally
red, or green/blue for identifying colors).
R
Through-beam Sensors
TU
Photoelectric Sensors are classified as shown in the figure below. (See Classification.)

E
L
K
Retro-reflective Sensors
G
A
P
P
A
Diffuse-reflective Sensors

A
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Features
1. Long Sensing Distance
A Through-beam Sensor, for example, can detect objects more than 10 m away. This is impossible with
magnetic, ultrasonic, or other sensing methods.
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2. Virtually No Sensing Object Restrictions
These sensors operate on the principle that an object interrupts or reflects light, so they are not limited like
Proximity Sensors to detecting metal objects. This means they can be used to detect virtually any object,
including glass, plastic, wood, and liquid.

3. Fast Response Time

The response time is extremely fast because light travels at high speed and the Sensor performs no
mechanical operations because all circuits are comprised of electronic components.

4. High Resolution
The incredibly high resolution achieved with these Sensors derives from advanced design technologies that

P
yielded a very small spot beam and a unique optical system for receiving light. These developments enable
detecting very small objects, as well as precise position detection.

5. Non-contact Sensing G
V
There is little chance of damaging sensing objects or Sensors because objects can be detected without
physical contact.

This ensures years of Sensor service.

K
6. Color Identification

ER
The rate at which an object reflects or absorbs light depends on both the wavelength of the emitted light

R
and the color of the object. This property can be used to detect colors.

7. Easy Adjustment
U
Positioning the beam on an object is simple with models that emit visible light because the beam is visible.

Infrared sensors Limit Switches.

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WEEK 5
Section 1
Introduction of pneumatics
The term pneumatics comes from the Greek word "pneuma", meaning wind or breath. It refers to the use of
compressed air or systems driven by compressed air in an engineering application. A modern pneumatic
system in automation technology consists of subsystems for:
● Generating and providing the compressed air (compressors, radiators, filters),
● Distributing the compressed air (ducts, pneumatic tubing, coupling pieces),
● Controlling the compressed air (pressure regulators, directional control valves, stop valves),
● Performing work using the compressed air (cylinders, rotary drives).
Compressed air is most often used to perform mechanical work, i.e. to carry out movements and to
generate high forces.
Pneumatic drives serve to convert the energy stored in the compressed air into kinetic energy.
For the most part, cylinders are used as pneumatic drives. They have a sturdy design, are easily installed,
offer a favorable price/performance ratio and come in a wide choice of variants. These advantages have
opened up a wide range of applications for pneumatics in modern engineering.
https://youtu.be/lBARBZNLxQI
Fundamentals of pneumaticsIndividual components in a pneumatic control system and their functions.

Key components and modules in a pneumatic control system

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Compressor
The energy for compressed air networks is supplied by screw or piston compressors. They supply an
output pressure of 700 – 800 kPa (7 – 8 bar). This ensures that a working pressure of at least 600 kPa (6
bar) is available at the cylinder, notwithstanding leakages (defective points at which air can unintentionally
escape) and line losses.
Compressed air filters
Compressed air filters are placed centrally or decentrally upstream of the compressed air system. They
remove condensate and any particles of dirt taken in. Properly filtered compressed air plays a major role in
prolonging the service life of downstream components.
Pressure regulator
The pressure regulator is where the necessary pressure level for individual sub-systems is set. It
compensates for fluctuations in the compressed air network. The set pressure remains constant as long as
the pressure at the regulator input is at least 50 kPa (0.5 bar) above the required setpoint pressure.
On-off valves
Separate individual compressed air networks.
Control valves
Shut off the compressed air and route it to the operating elements at the required time. The safety and
reliability of the system depend on the elements being correctly interconnected.
Power valves
Are adapted to the cylinder diameter and supply the cylinders with the necessary quantity of compressed
air
Cylinders
Pneumatic cylinders are sturdy operating elements with a low susceptibility to failure and a long service life.
The right cylinder dimensions can produce high speeds. For fault-free operation, the cylinders must be
correctly sized and assembled.
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Section 2
2. Functions and features of actuators (pneumatic cylinders)-Single-acting cylinder, Double-acting
cylinders, Speed regulation with single-acting cylinders, Speed regulation with double-acting cylinders.
What Does Actuator Mean?
An actuator is a device that moves or controls some mechanism. An actuator turns a control signal
into mechanical action such as an electric motor. Actuators may be based on hydraulic,
pneumatic, electric, thermal, or mechanical means, but are increasingly being driven by software.
An actuator ties a control system to its environment.
Techopedia Explains Actuator
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Examples of actuators include:
VG
In a mechanical device, an actuator is a component that turns the control signal into movement.

● Electric motors
● Solenoids
● Hard drive stepper motors
● Comb drives

Actuators may be powered by electric current, hydraulic fluid, or pneumatic pressure. In

TU
embedded systems, the control signal comes from a microcontroller programmed by software.
Device drivers send input to a peripheral device, such as a printer. While actuators typically
provide circular motion, they can convert circular motion into linear motion via screws and wheel-

https://youtu.be/LHn7O6PUaoY EC
and-axle devices. An example of the latter is a rack and pinion system.

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Single-acting cylinders
Single-acting cylinders are supplied with compressed air at one end only, where they have a port for the
compressed air supply. This means they can only work in one direction. The cylinder chamber must be
exhausted before the return stroke, after which retraction of the piston rod can be initiated by a built-in
spring or through the application of external force (see Figure 5.4). Exhausting takes place through a hole
in the cylinder end cap.

The actual picture, sectional view, and circuit diagram of a single-acting cylinder
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Double-acting cylinders
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Double-acting cylinders are supplied with compressed air at both ends. This means these cylinders can
also work in both directions. The force transferred to the piston rod is slightly greater for the forward stroke
than for the return stroke since the area supplied with compressed air is greater on the piston side than on
the piston rod side
The double-acting cylinder has a port for each pressurised chamber. Before switching to the reverse
direction, the appropriate chamber (piston side or piston rod side) must first be exhausted.

Actual picture, sectional view and circuit diagram of a double-acting cylinder

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Speed regulation with single-acting cylinders

Flow control valve
The tubing cross section is infinitely adjusted at a flow control valve. The effect of the reduced volumetric
flow is the same in both directions.

One-way flow control valve

The setting at the one-way flow control valve is only effective in one direction; the valve has no effect in the
opposite direction (the volumetric flow is routed through the non-return valve). The direction of flow control
is indicated on the components by an arrow.

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Actual picture, sectional view and circuit diagram of a one-way flow control valve
In the forward stroke
The air supply is reduced by means of a one-way flow control valve. The set speed is only effective in the
forward stroke. For the return stroke, the volumetric flow is routed through the non-return valve.

t1 = adjustable, t2 = constant (non-adjustable)

In the forward and return strokes

The flow control valve is at the port that supplies and exhausts the compressed air. The set speed is
effective in the forward and return strokes.

Using two one-way flow control valves

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Speed regulation with double-acting cylinders

In the forward stroke (exhaust airflow control)
The one-way flow control valve is at the port that exhausts the compressed air (exhaust airflow control).
The escaping air is routed through the flow control valve. Exhaust airflow control is the method used most
frequently with double-acting cylinders. Speed regulation is unaffected by the load.

In the forward stroke (supply airflow control) (not suitable for vertical cylinder arrangements)
The one-way flow control valve is at the port that supplies the compressed air (supply air flow control). The
set speed is only effective in the forward stroke. Minimal load fluctuations at the piston rod result in huge
irregularities in the feed speed. A load in the cylinder's direction of movement accelerates the cylinder
above the set value.

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In the forward and return strokes

Exhaust airflow control using two one-way flow control valves. The speed can be set separately for the
forward and return strokes.

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Section 3
Functions and features of pneumatic valves- Pneumatic valve designations and symbols, Pneumatic
valve actuation types, controlling a single-acting cylinder, Controlling a double acting cylinder
Functions and features of pneumatic valves
Pneumatic valves control the path of compressed air. The direction of flow is indicated by an arrow.
Actuation can take place manually, mechanically, pneumatically, or electrically. Automated systems
generally use solenoid-actuated valves that form the interface between pneumatic and electrical control.
They are switched by means of the output signals from the signal control section and shut off or open
connections in the pneumatic power section. The main functions of electrically-actuated directional control
valves include:
● Connecting or shutting off the compressed air supply,
● Retracting and advancing cylinder drives.

Manually-actuated 3/2-way valve with locking function Actual picture of a 4/2-way single solenoid valve with manual override
Pneumatic valve designations and symbols
The following table shows the main designs of the directional control valve.

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Pneumatic valve actuation types

The following table provides an overview of the main actuation types of directional control valves.

Controlling a single-acting cylinder

Figure (a) shows a solenoid-actuated valve that controls the movement of a single-acting cylinder drive. It
has three ports and two switching positions.
● When the solenoid coil of the directional control valve is de-energised, the cylinder chamber is
exhausted via the directional control valve. The piston rod is retracted.
● When current is applied to the solenoid coil, the directional control valve switches and the cylinder
chamber is pressurized. The piston rod advances.
● When current is no longer applied to the solenoid coil, the valve switches back. The cylinder
chamber is exhausted and the piston rod retracts.

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Figure (a)
Controlling a double-acting cylinder
The double-acting cylinder in Figure (b) is actuated by a directional control valve with five ports and two
switching positions
● When the solenoid coil is de-energized, the left-hand cylinder chamber is exhausted and the
right-hand cylinder chamber is pressurized. The piston rod is retracted.
● When electrical current is applied to the solenoid coil, the valve switches. The left-hand cylinder
chamber is pressurised and the right-hand cylinder chamber is exhausted. The piston rod advances.
● When current is no longer applied to the solenoid coil, the valve switches back and the piston rod
retracts.

Figure (b)

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WEEK 6
Section 1
Functions and features of pneumatic drives- Guided cylinders, rodless linear drives, and rotary drives
Guided cylinders, rodless linear drives and rotary drives
Guided pneumatic cylinders are frequently used for special applications, particularly in handling technology
(see Figure 6.1). Unlike conventional cylinders, in this case, the piston rod cannot be turned and subjected
to additional forces. Depending on the design, they can either be plain-bearing guides for simple
applications with low loading by external forces and limited accuracy or high-precision ball bearing guides
that can absorb considerable forces and torques and are slightly more expensive.

Figure 6.1: Guided pneumatic cylinder https://youtu.be/hmz1h5fk2bI

Another class of drives are the rodless cylinders (see Figure 6.2). These have no piston rod and are
therefore suitable for long stroke lengths.
The rodless cylinder is only slightly longer than the cylinder stroke, while a piston rod cylinder is at least
twice as long as the cylinder stroke when advanced. These drives are also mostly fitted with high-quality
guides.

Figure 6.2: Rodless pneumatic drive Figure 6.3: Pneumatic rotary drive
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Pneumatic semi-rotary drives are used wherever a rotational or swivel motion is required.

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Section 2
Pneumatic grippers.
Pneumatic grippers are used for handling workpieces. The following illustrations show a various gripper
types.

Figure 6.4: Pneumatic grippers

a) Parallel gripper https://youtu.be/US8OBSptnLM
b) Angle gripper
c) Radial gripper
d) Three-point gripper

The following illustration (see Figure 6.5) shows a sectional view of an angle gripper driven by a
doubleacting
cylinder. It shows how gripper fingers (for cylindrical workpieces in this case) and proximity sensors
are mounted on the gripper.
The choice of gripper type, size and jaw depends on the shape and weight of the workpieces

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Figure 6.5: Drive principle, gripper jaw and proximity sensors for an angle gripper

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Section 3
3. Pneumatic control system represented in a circuit diagram- Symbol designations in circuit diagrams
Pneumatic control system represented in a circuit diagram
The simplest way to control single and double-acting cylinders is by means of direct cylinder control. In this
case the cylinder is controlled directly via a manually or mechanically-actuated valve without the
the interposition of any other directional control valves

Figure 6.6: Circuit diagram for direct control via a manually-actuated 3/2-way valve

The symbols for the individual components must be drawn in the circuit diagram in an unactuated condition.
Experience has shown that this representation confuses beginners. For that reason and departing from the
standards, the respective switched-through function (switching position) is also shown in the first examples
to make them easier to understand. The arrow beside the actuating element of the 3/2-way valve with
pushbutton actuator indicates that this valve is actuated (Figure 6.6 on the right).

Symbol designations in circuit diagrams

The structure of pneumatic circuit diagrams and the arrangement of the circuit symbols as well as the
designation and numbering of components are defined in DIN/ISO 1219-2. The switching status of the
valves is the initial position (normal position). The operating section (cylinders with power valve) is shown at
the top. The control section with the signal input components is underneath.

The elements are designated from bottom to top and from left to right (see Figure 6.7).

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Figure 6.7: Designations in a pneumatic circuit diagram

Sample representation of an electropneumatic circuit and its function

Figure 6.8: Representation of an electro-pneumatic circuit

Function of the electro pneumatic circuit shown above:

● When the pushbutton S1 is actuated, the valve solenoid 1M1 is switched via a N/O contact of the
relay K0 and the cylinder 1A advances.
● When the advanced end position is reached, the magnetic proximity sensor 1S1 switches the relay
K1, thereby actuating the valve solenoid 1M2. The cylinder then returns to the retracted end position

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WEEK 7
Section 1
Electric drives: Physical/technical fundamentals of the DC motor.
If a wire conductor through which a current I is flowing is in a magnetic field B, there is a force F acting on
this wire. The direction of this force can be determined using the so-called "three-finger rule". We will
assume that the magnetic field lines run from the magnet's north pole to its south pole and that the current
in the wire flows from the power source's positive terminal to its negative terminal. The three fingers (thumb,
index finger, and middle finger) are aligned at right angles to each other so they form a Cartesian
coordinate system.
When the thumb points in the direction of the flow of current (i.e. from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal) and the index finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (north/south), the middle finger
points in the direction of the active force. In Figure 7.1, the wire would therefore move forwards out of the
magnetic field plane.

Figure 7.1: Lorentz force

The magnitude of the force depends on the strength of the magnetic field, the intensity of the current and
the length of the wire in the magnetic field. The DC motor uses this force action to generate a rotation. To
this end, a conduction loop is configured between the two magnetic poles (north/sound) so it can rotate
(Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2: How a DC motor works

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The current flows through the two halves of the conduction loop in opposite directions. This means that the
force action on the two halves of the conduction loop is also opposed. A north and south pole are also
established, that are attracted (north/south or south/north) or repelled (south/south or north/north) by the
poles of the permanent magnet. Both forces generate a torque that keeps the conduction loop turning. The
mechanical commutator (current converter) reverses the polarity of the current after a maximum of one half
revolution of the conduction loop and the process repeats itself.
The commutator is the important component since it generates rotation from each individual one-off event
of the action of force on the conductor with current flowing through it. It consists of two metal half shells that
are insulated from each other to which the current is transferred by means of carbon brushes.
Since DC motors normally generate low torques (Md) at high speeds (n), gear units are frequently placed
upstream as a transmission component to reduce the output speed (n2) by the transmission ratio i and
increase the output torque (Md2) by the same factor. The following rule applies:

Gear units come in a wide range of designs. Figure 6.3 shows a DC motor with worm gear unit where the
drive shaft is turned 90° to the motor shaft.

Figure 7.3: DC motor with gear unit

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Section 2
Activating DC motors
The DC motor begins to turn when it is connected to a power source. The direction of rotation depends on
the polarity. Figure 7.4 shows the simplest method of activation, with the switch open (motor off) and with
the switch closed (motor on).

Figure 7.4: Activating a DC motor

Since electric motors need comparatively high currents, activation takes place via relays so as not to
overload the switches. Figure 6.5 shows the corresponding circuit diagram.

Figure 7.5: Activating a DC motor using relays

To reverse the direction of rotation of the motor, the direction of the current must be reversed by the motor
(Figure 7.6).

Figure 7.6: Reversal of the direction of rotation in a DC motor

Since it is not possible or practical to keep changing the motor wiring, a so-called pole reversal circuit is
used in DC motors to reverse the direction of rotation (Figure 7.7).

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Figure 7.7: Pole reversal circuit

Here the motor is activated using two relays; the relay K0 switches the motor current on or off while the
changeover relay K1 reverses the polarity of the motor current so that the motor runs forwards and
backwards

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Section 3
Working principle of Variable frequency drive.
● A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an electric motor by
varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor. Other names for a VFD are
variable speed drive, adjustable speed drive, adjustable frequency drive, AC drive,
microdrive, and inverter.
● Frequency (or hertz) is directly related to the motor’s speed (RPMs). In other words, the faster the
frequency, the faster the RPMs go. If an application does not require an electric motor to run at full

P
speed, the VFD can be used to ramp down the frequency and voltage to meet the requirements of
the electric motor’s load. As the application’s motor speed requirements change, the VFD can
simply turn up or down the motor speed to meet the speed requirement.
VFD Working & Block Diagram

V
K
R
E
R
U
T
C
E
L
GK
● A variable frequency drive controls the speed, torque, and direction of an AC induction motor. It
takes fixed voltage and frequency from AC input and converts it to a variable voltage and frequency
AC output.

PA
● As the frequency of the voltage is reduced, the inductive reactance of the motor stator winding is
also reduced.
● Therefore, in VFD, the voltage applied to the motor is also reduced with frequency to prevent

AP
the motor from being damaged by excessive current.
● Most VFDs operate by first changing the AC voltage into DC, and then DC is changed back to AC at
the desired frequency. In the figure, a VFD block diagram is shown.

N
The function of each block is as follows:

N
1. Converter: It is a bridge rectifier circuit that converts the applied AC to DC.
2. DC bus: Also referred to as a DC link, it filters the rectified output and connects it to the input of the
inverter.
3. Inverter: The inverter takes the filtered DC from the DC bus and converts it into three-phase AC
4. Control logic: The control logic system generates the necessary pulses used to control the output
of the power semiconductor devices used in the inverter block in the proper sequence. An
embedded microprocessor is used for all internal logic and decision requirements.

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WEEK 8
Section 1
Fundamentals of control technology
Control systems are a central element in automation technology along with actuators and sensors. The
term control system is frequently used in the broad sense to describe devices used for:
● open-loop control,
● closed-loop control,
● monitoring,
● (process) data collection,
● communication,
● diagnostics.

V
In the narrower sense, control within automation technology refers to influencing an energy or material flow
by means of one or more signals in an open control loop (DIN 19226). Control systems are frequently used
for processes that are performed in steps. Examples of these include:
● opening a door when there is someone standing in front of it,
● switching a traffic light to red after a specific time,

after a specific time.

Meaning of control system,open loopand a closed system with examples.
E
● switching on a corridor light after the light switch is pressed and automatically switching it off again

Open Control systems:

Control systems such as these are characterized by an open-loop process, i.e. the input variable (x) is not

T
influenced by the controlled output variable (y). The control system cannot react to possible disturbance

C
variables. In bullet-point three (above), this means that the open-loop time control system for the corridor
lighting switches the light off after the specified time whether or not the person who pressed the light switch

E
and thereby initiated the process has reached the apartment door. Figure 8.1 shows an open control loop.

L
K
G
closed-loop control system A
Figure 8.1: Open control loop

A closed-loop control system, on the other hand, continuously records the output variables (y) of the

AP
process, compares them with the input variables (x) and then automatically readjusts the process in the
sense of an alignment of the output and input variables. It has a closed control loop and can react to
disturbance variables. Closed-loop control processes are, for the most part, continuous processes where

N
the output variable is to be maintained at a specific value. Examples of these include:
● controlling the water temperature in an aquarium,
● controlling the speed in a vehicle (cruise control),
● controlling the rotational speed in an electric motor.

Figure 8.2: Closed control loop

Different typesof controllers (PLC, CNC, Hard-wired programmed control systems,robotcontrollers)
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Many terms are coined within automation technology for controller types with specific functions. Some
examples of these include:
● Hard-wired programmed control systems
Hard-wired programmed control systems function whereby the control logic or the "program" is
realized by connecting relays. Contact control systems are an example of this. They are usually
constructed from relays and are used for simple control tasks. A typical area of application of this
type of control is the activation of electric motors.
● PLCs – Programmable logic controllers (see Figure 8.3)
PLCs were developed to replace the less flexible contact control systems. They consist of a
computer with special input and output modules. The program is not defined by linking individual
relays but rather is stored in the controller memory, where it can be easily changed. PLCs mainly
process binary signals
In the MecLab® learning media system, the actual PLC is replaced by a simulated PLC in the
FluidSIM® software. In addition to programmable logic controllers, contact control systems can also
be simulated in FluidSIM®
● CNC – Computer numeric controllers
These controllers are used to control machine tools such as drilling, cutting and turning machines,
for example. The first automated machine tools used wooden patterns that were gauged to transfer
their shape to the workpiece. The wooden pattern was then replaced by a numeric model where the
workpiece coordinates are stored in the form of mostly binary numeric codes. The main purpose of
the CNC controller is to translate the computer model of the workpiece created using software into a
motion sequence for the tool.
● RC – Robot controllers
Robot controllers have been specifically designed for controlling industrial robots and are similar in
structure to the CNC controllers.

Figure 8.3: Programmable logic controller (Festo)

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Section 2:
How programmable logic controllers (PLCs) work and their structure
Since the PLC is the most frequently used and also the simplest controller, it is considered in more detail
below.
The main component in a PLC is the microprocessor system. The programming of the microprocessor
defines:
● which controller inputs (I1, I2, etc.) are read in and in what order,
● how these input signals are linked,
● the outputs (O1, O2, etc.) to which the results of the signal processing are output.
In the case of a PLC, the controller's behavior is not determined by the interconnection of electrical
components (hardware), but rather by a program (software).
Figure 8.4 shows the basic structure of a PLC.

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Figure 8.4 shows the basic structure of a PLC.

Mathematical fundamentals – basic logic functions

General information
Basic logic functions form the basis of most controllers. Therefore an overview of the most important basic
logic functions is provided below. Logic functions can be represented in tabular form, in the form of
equations, using relay circuits (operations) or using logic symbols (see Section 7.2.6). Logic symbols are
used in a PLC to create the program.
Identity (YES function)
The pushbutton shown is an N/O contact. When it is unactuated, the lamp P1 does not light up. When, on
the other hand, it is actuated, the lamp P1 lights up.

Figure 8.5: Circuit diagram (identity)

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The pushbutton S1 acts as the signal input, the lamp is the output. The known facts can be recorded in a
truth table:

Negation (NOT function)

The pushbutton shown is an N/C contact. When it is unactuated, the lamp P1 lights up. When, on the other
hand, it is actuated, the lamp P1 switches off.

Figure 8.6: Circuit diagram (negation)

The pushbutton S1 acts as the signal input, the lamp is the output. The known facts can be recorded in a
truth table:

If two negations are used in a series (negation of the negation), they cancel each other out.

Conjunction (AND function)

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If two N/O contacts are connected in series, the activated lamp only lights up if both pushbuttons are
actuated

Figure 8.7: Circuit diagram (conjunction)

The truth table describes the relationship. The output only becomes 1 if both input 1 and input 2 exhibit a
"1" signal. This is described as an AND operation. It is expressed as follows as an equation:

I1∧I2 =O

The following arithmetic rules also apply to the AND operation:

Disjunction (OR function)

Another basic logic function is the OR function. If two N/O contacts are switched in parallel, the lamp will
always light up if at least one pushbutton is actuated.

Figure 8.8: Circuit diagram (disjunction)

The OR operation is expressed as follows as an equation:

I1∨I2 = O

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Section 3
Examples of controller structure
The section of an electro-pneumatic controller that processes signals encompasses three functional
modules. An example of its structure is shown in Figure 8.9.
● Signal input takes place by means of sensors or by means of pushbuttons or control switches. In
Figure 7.9, two proximity sensors (1B1/1B2) are used for signal input.
● Signal processing usually takes place using a relay controller or programmable logic controller.
There are other forms of signal processing, however, these are of much less importance in
automation practice. In Figure 8.9, signal processing is carried out by a relay controller (K1/K2).
● Signal output takes place using electromagnetically-actuated directional control valves (1M1/1M2).

Figure 8.9: Signal control section with relay controller (schematic, circuit diagram not to standards)

Functional description of the relay controller in Figure 8.9:

● The components for signal input, the inductive proximity sensors 1B1 and 1B2, are connected with
the relay coils (K1, K2, etc.) via the controller inputs (I1, I2, etc.).

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● Signal processing is realised through the respective interconnection of a number of relay coils and
relay contacts. In this case, the relay contacts to the output O1 are ANDed and the contacts to the
output O2 are ORed.
● The components for signal output, directional control valve solenoid coils 1M1 und 1M2, are
connected to the controller outputs (O1, O2, etc.). They are actuated via the contacts of the relays
K1 and K2.

Figure 8.10: Signal control section of a programmable logic controller (PLC)

Figure 8.10 shows the signal control section of an electropneumatic controller that uses a programmable
logic controller for signal processing.
● The components for signal input (in Figure 8.10: the inductive proximity sensors 1B1 and 1B2) are
connected with the inputs of the PLC (I1, I2).
● The programmable microprocessor system of the PLC handles all the signal processing tasks.
● The components for signal output (in Figure 7.10: directional control valve solenoid coils 1M1 and
1M2) are connected with the outputs of the PLC (O1, O2). Actuation takes place via an electronic
circuit that is part of the microprocessor system.

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WEEK 9
Section 1
Programmable logic controllers
Introduction:
● A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a specialized Programmable device which is used to
control machines and processes.
● It uses a programmable memory to store instructions and execute specific functions that include
on/off control, timing, counting, sequencing, arithmetic, and data handling.
Advantages
● Increased Reliability
● More Flexibility
● Lower Cost
● Communications Capability
● Faster Response
● Time Easier to Troubleshoot

PLC Block diagram

Central Processing Unit

● It is heart of the PLC . CPU is used to store the program, reads the status of inputs through the input
module and execute the stored program and appropriate output to be activated based on the logic
● CPU has two memory section one section used to store the program and other section is used to
store the data
Input Module
● The I/O system forms the interface by which field devices are connected to the controller.

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● The purpose of this interface is to condition the various signals received from or sent to external
field devices.
● Input devices such as pushbuttons, limit switches, sensors. Selector switches. and thumbwheel
switches are hardwired to terminals on the input modules.
Output Module
● Output devices such as small motors, motor starters, solenoid valves. and indicator lights are
hardwired to the terminals on the output modules.
Programming device
● The programming device is used to enter the desired program into the memory of processor.
● Ladder logic programming language uses instead of words, graphic symbol...
● It is a special language written to make. it easier for people familiar with relay logic control to
program
Power Supply

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Section 2
2a. List input / output devices of PLC
Input/Output Module
● The I/o system provides an interface between the hardwired components in the field and the CPU.

Input Module
Discrete Input Module
● This type of interface connects field input devices of the ON/OFF nature such as selector switches,
pushbuttons and limit switches.
● Likewise, output control is limited to devices such as lights, small motors, solenoids, and motor
starters that require simple ON/OFF switching.
● It is interface between the Input field device and CPU of PLC
Input modules perform four tasks in the PLC control system.
● Sense when a signal is received from a sensor on the machine
● Convert the input signal to the correct voltage level for the particular PLC
● Isolate the PLC from fluctuations in the input signal's voltage or current
● Send a Signal to the processor indicating which sensor originated the signal

● An input filter removes unwanted signal from the electrical interference or key bouncing issue
● Opto –electrical isolating section is used to protects the any short circuit fault or high voltage surge
from high voltage circuit to logic circuit which normally operated by low voltage
● Logic section in the module is used to process the input signal based the pre designed logic and
turns ON or OFF the LED
Discrete Output Module
● Discrete output modules typically use the same form of opto-isolation to allow the PLC’s computer
circuitry to send electrical power to loads:
● it is composed of two basic sections: the power section and the logic section , coupled by an
isolation circuit.
● The output interface can be thought of as a simple electronic switch to which power is applied to
control the output device.

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● Discrete output modules are used to turn real world output devices either on or off.
● These modules can be used to control any two-state device. and they are available in ac and dc
versions and in various voltage ranges and current ratings.
● Output modules can be purchased with transistor. triac. or relay output.
● Triac outputs can be used only for control of ac devices. whereas transistor outputs can be used
only for control of dc devices. Relay outputs can be used with ac or dc devices.
https://youtu.be/ecpK2T5kOfE

List types of PLC.

Leading manufacturer for PLC
1. Allen Bradley
2. ABB
3. Siemens
4. Mitsubishi PLC
5. Hitachi PLC
6. Delta PLC
7. General Electric (GE) PLC
8. Honeywell PLC

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Section 3
3a. Explain PLC Programming Languages –Ladder diagram/ Functional Block Diagram /Instruction
List/structured text.
IEC 1131-3 is the international standard for programmable controller programming languages. The
following is a list of programming languages specified by this standard:
I. Ladder Diagram (LD)
II. Instruction List (IL)
III. Structured Text (ST)
IV. Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
V. Function Block Diagram (FBD)
One of the primary benefits of the standard is that it allows multiple languages to be used within the same
programmable controller. This allows the program developer to select the language best suited to each
particular task.
i. Ladder Diagram
Ladder Diagram is kind of graphical programming language that changed the relay control wiring circuit
diagram. Ladder Diagram contains tracks from left to right contact diagram (see Figure below). This
platform is connected to contact elements available normally open - NO or available Normally closed - NC
through the current path and loop elements. Ladder diagram also shows the control circuit and the display
function and a combination of the sequence of operations for each branch of the horizontal lines separately

Mnemonic Instruction
There are other methods to program PLCs. One of the earliest techniques involved mnemonic instructions.
These instructions can be derived directly from the ladder logic diagrams and entered into the PLC through
a simple programming terminal.

ii. Instruction List

This low-level language is similar to Assembly language and is useful in cases where small functions are
repeated often. Although it is powerful, it is considered to be difficult to learn.
Example
Calculate new weight by subtracting tare weight from net weight.
LD weigh_command
JPMC WEIGH_NOW
ST ENO
RET
WEIGH_NOW: LD gross_weight
SUB tare_weight
iii. Structured Text
● Structured Text (ST) is a high level textual language that is a Pascal like language. It is very flexible
and intuitive for writing control algorithms.
● Structured Text uses operators such as logical branching, multiple branching, and loops. People
trained in computer programming languages often find it the easiest language to use for

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programming control logic. When symbolic addressing is used, ST programs resemble sentences,
making it highly intelligible to beginner users as well.
● ST is ideal for tasks requiring complex math, algorithms or decision-making. Its concise format
allows a large algorithm to be displayed on a single.
Benefits of Structured Text
● People trained in computer languages can easily program control logic
● Symbols make the programs easy to understand
● Programs can be created in any text editor
● Runs as fast as ladder
Example 1
We have Motor that will be controlled manually by 2 push buttons (Start Push Button, and Stop Push
Button). When the Start Push Button is pushed then the Motor will be turned ON. and when the Stop Push
Button is Pushed then we want to stop the Motor. (Security logic has been taken off this logic, for the
purpose of demonstration.)

iv. Sequential Function Chart

These are similar to flowcharts, but much more powerful. This method is much different from flowcharts
because it does not have to follow a single path through the flowchart.
SFC programming offers a graphical method of organizing the program. The three main components of an
SFC are steps, actions and transitions. Steps are merely chunks of logic, i.e., a unit of programming logic
that accomplishes a particular control task. Actions are the individual aspects of that task. Transitions are
the mechanisms used to move from one task to another. Control logic for each Step, Action and Transition
is programmed in one of the other languages such as Ladder Diagram or Structured Text.
Is a kind of graphic language (see Figure ). Elements are the steps, transitions, choice and parallel branch.
Each step shows the status of the control program processes the active or inactive. One step consists of
action based on the transition. The action consists of the sequence structure itself.

v. Function Block Diagram

Like SFC, FBD is a graphical language that allows programming in other languages (ladder, instruction list,
or structured text) to be nested within the FBD. In FBD, program elements appear as blocks which are
"wired" together in a manner resembling a circuit diagram. FBD is most useful in those applications
involving a high degree of information/data flow between control components, such as process control.

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WEEK 10
Section 1
1a. Operation cycle of PLC: Input scan, Program scan and Output scan.

The Scan Cycle

TU
PLCs operate by continually scanning programs and repeat this process many times per second. When a
PLC starts, it runs checks on the hardware and software for faults, also called a self-test. If there are no

C
problems, then the PLC will start the scan cycle. The scan cycle consists of three steps: input scan,
executing program(s), and output scan.

LE
Input Scan : A simple way of looking at this is the PLC takes a snapshot of the inputs and solves the logic.
The PLC looks at each input card to determine if it is ON or OFF and saves this information in a data table

K
for use in the next step. This makes the process faster and avoids cases where an input changes from the
start to the end of the program.

G
Execute Program Scan (or Logic Execution) : The PLC executes a program one instruction at a time using
only the memory copy of the inputs the ladder logic program. For example, the program has the first input

P A
as ON. Since the PLC knows which inputs are ON/OFF from the previous step, it will be able to decide
whether the first output should be turned ON.

AP
Output Scan : When the ladder scan completes, the outputs are updated using the temporary values in
memory. The PLC updates the status of the outputs based on which inputs were ON during the first step

N
and the results of executing a program during the second step. The PLC now restarts the process by
starting a self-check for faults.

AN

1b. Operation modes of PLC: program, run and test modes. Data files and program files.

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There are basically two modes of operation for plc processors program mode and variations of run mode.
Number of modes changes with the manufacturer.

P
G
V
K
R
E
Program Mode:
R
The mode in which new programs are entered. The program mode is also used to edit or update existing

TU
program and used to upload, download files, document programs (print out). When the PLC is switched into
the program mode, all outputs from the PLC are forced off regardless of their rung logic status, and the
ladder I/O scan sequence is halted.

Run Mode:

EC
The run mode is used to execute the user program. Input devices are monitored and output devices are

L
energized accordingly. After entering all instructions to a PLC program, the processor is put into run mode.

Test Mode:
K
This feature is often used after developing or editing a program to test the program execution before

G
allowing the PLC to operate real-world outputs. Without energizing any output a new or modified program is
tested with the inputs. There are different types of the test mode can include the single-step test mode,

A
which directs the processor to execute a selected single rung or group of rungs; the single-scan test mode.
which executes a single processor operating scan or cycle; and the continuous-scan test mode, which

P
directs the processor to continuously run the program for checking or troubleshooting.

AP
Remote Mode:
The Remote position gives remote access to a PLC to select the program and run mode by a personal
computer connected to the PLC processor. The remote mode may be beneficial when the controller is in a

N
location that is not easily accessible.

N
A

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Section 2
Configuration of I/Os and Addressing I/Os, study of PLC symbols.

Section 3
Procedure for drawing ladder diagram, connection of inputs and outputs to input and output module
and entering ladder program into PLC (CPU).

Ladder Diagram
● L
A very commonly used method of programming PLCs is based on the use of ladder diagrams.
●
K
Writing a program is then equivalent to drawing a switching circuit. The ladder diagram consists of
two vertical lines representing the power rails. Circuits are connected as horizontal lines, i.e. the
rungs of the ladder, between these two verticals.

G
How to Draw a Ladder Diagram?
● In drawing a ladder diagram, certain conventions are adopted:

A
● The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails between which circuits are connected.
The power flow is taken to be from the left-hand vertical across a rung.

P
● Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control process.

AP
● A ladder diagram is read from left to right and from top to bottom. The figure shows the scanning
motion employed by the PLC. The top rung is read from left to right.
● Then the second rung down is read from left to right and so on. When the PLC is in its run mode, it
goes through the entire ladder program to the end, the end rung of the program is clearly denoted,

N
and then promptly resumes at the start. This procedure of going through all the rungs of the
program is termed a cycle. The end rung might be indicated by a block with the word END or RET

N
for return since the program promptly returns to its beginning.

Draw the ladder diagram for a simple example of one-contact, one -coil circuit and connection
diagram showing how inputs are connected to the input and output module of PLC

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Fig (a) two inputs A & B connected parallel (OR) to one coil output (Q)

Fig (b) two inputs I0.0 and I0.1 connected series (AND) to one coil output (Q2.0)

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WEEK 11
Section 1
1. Most commonly used PLC programming instructions and their applications:
XIC, XIO, OTE. Latch, Unlatch

XIC Examine if Closed

Symbol

P
Definition
VG
●
●
Examines a bit for an On condition
Use the XIC instruction in your ladder logic to determine if a bit is ON. K
●
●
0 = False
1 = True R
Devices
R
●
●
●
Start/Stop push buttons
Selectors
Limit switch
TU
●
●
●
Proximity switch
Light
Internal bit
EC
XIO Examine if Open

Symbol K
G
Definition
PA
●
●
●
P
Examines a bit for an off condition.

A
Use an XIO instruction in your ladder logic to determine if a bit if off.
1 = True
●
N
0 = False

Devices

●
N
Start/Stop push buttons
● Selectors
● Limit switch
● Proximity switch
● Light
● Internal bit

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OTE Output Energize

Symbol

Definition

●
●
Turns a bit on or off
P
G
Use OTE instruction in your ladder logic to turn on a bit when rung condition is evaluated as true.

Devices

●
●
Light
Motor run signal KV
● Internal bits

OTL Output Latch

ER
R
Usually we latch a signal with a condition and then unlatch it when a different condition becomes true. Most of
time the Latch / Unlatch go together.

Symbol
TU
C
E
Definition L
● Turns a bit on when the rung is executed, and this bit retains its state when the rung is not executed or a

G
power cycle power occurs.
● OTL is a retentive output instruction. OTL can only turn on a bit. This instruction is usually used with

A
OTU with both OTL and OTU addressing the same bit.
● Ladder logic can examine a bit controlled by OTL as often as necessary.
●

PP
When you assign an address to the OTL instruction that corresponds to the address of a physical output,
the output device wired to the screw terminal is energized when the bit is set. When rung conditions
become false, the bit remains set and the corresponding output device remains energized.
●
A
Actuating the latch input turns the function on or causes it to change state. The function then stays on

N
even if the latch input is turned off. To turn the function off, another input must unlatch which turns the
function off.

OTU Output Unlatch

A
Symbol

Definition

● Turns a bit off when the rung is executed, and this bit retains its state when the rung is not executed or
when power cycle occurs.
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● OTU is a retentive output instruction. OTU can only turn off a bit. This instruction is usually used with
OTL with both OTL and OTU addressing the same bit.
● Ladder logic can examine a bit controlled by OTU as often as necessary.
● When you assign an address to the OTU instruction that corresponds to the address of a physical
output, the output device wired to the screw terminal is de-energized when the bit is cleared.
● The unlatch instruction tells the controller to turn off the addressed bit. Thereafter, the bit remains off,
regardless of the rung condition, until it is turned on.

Section 2
Describe Timer instructions and their application: Describe Timer On Delay (TON), Timer Off Delay
(TOF), Retentive Timer On (RTO)
Introduction to Timers
In this section we will cover timers used in ladder logic programming. Timers are very important in ladder
logic programming. Timers give the precision in time. Timer on delay starts timing when instruction is true.
Timers are used to track time when instruction is on or off. They could also keep track on a retentive base.

Definition
The following is a list of timer instructions:
● TON - Timer On Delay
● TOF - Timer Off Delay
● RTO - Retentive Timer

TON Timer On Delay

Symbol

Definition
● Count time base intervals when the instruction is true
● The Timer on Delay instruction begins to count time base intervals when rung conditions become
true. As long as rung conditions remain true, the timer adjust its accumulated value (ACC) each
evaluation until it reaches the preset value (PRE). The accumulated value is reset when rung
conditions go false, regardless of whether the timer has timed out.

TOF Timer Off Delay

Symbol

Definition
● Counts time base intervals when the instruction is false.

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● The Timer Off Delay instruction begins to count time base intervals when the rung makes a true to
false transition. As long as rung conditions remain false, the timer increments its accumulated value
(ACC each scans until it reaches the preset value 18 (PRE). The accumulated value is reset when
rung conditions go true regardless of whether the timer has timed out

RTO Retentive Timer

Symbol

Definition
● Counts time base intervals when the instruction is true and retains the accumulated value when the
instruction goes false or when power cycle occurs.
● The Retentive Timer instruction is a retentive instruction that begins to count time base intervals
when rung conditions become true
● The Retentive Timer instruction retains its accumulated value when any of the following occurs
● Rung conditions become false.
● Changing Processor mode from REM run /Test / program mode
● The processor loses power while battery backup is still maintained and a fault occurs.

Section 3
3. Describe counter instructions and their application: COUNT UP, COUNTDOWN, UP/DOWN COUNTER
Examples of use of counter and timer instructions.
Introduction to Counters
In this section we will cover the count up count down and reset instruction. Counters are very essential in
ladder logic programming. Counters are used to index, increment or decrement values.
The following is a list of counter instructions:
Definition

PA
The following is a list of counter instructions in SLC 500:

A
CTU - Count Up
● CTD - Count Down

N ● RES - Reset

AN
CTU Count UP

Symbol

Definition

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● Increments the accumulated value at each false to true transition and retains the accumulated value
when the instruction goes false or when power cycle occurs.
● The CTU is an instruction that counts false to true transition. When this transition happens the
accumulated value is incremented by one count.
● A CTU accumulation is reset by the RES instruction.
● If the accumulation value is over the maximum range then the overflow (OV) bit will be true.

CTD Count Down

Symbol

P
G
Definition
V
K
●

E
Decrements the accumulate value at each false to true transition and retains the accumulated value
when the instruction goes false or when power cycle occurs.
●
R
The CTD is an instruction that counts false to true transition. When this transition happen the
accumulated value is decrements by one count.
●
●
TU
A CTD accumulation is reset by the RES instruction.
If the accumulation value is below the minimum range then the underflow (UN) bit will be true.

RES Reset

Symbol
EC
L
K
Definition

●
G
A
Resets the accumulated value and status bit of a timer or counter.
● Use a RES instruction to reset timers or counters. When the RES instruction is enabled, it resets the

PP
Timer On Delay, Retentive Timer, and Counter Up, Counter Down instruction having the same address
as the RES instruction.

A
N
AN

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WEEK 12
Section 1
Wiring sensors to PLC
1. Wiring push button to PLC, and selector switch to PLC

adder Logic

P
G
KV
R
E
U R
T
C
●
LE
Now, as soon as toggle switch is pressed the NO contact of I0.0 becomes NC and the
corresponding rung logic goes true. As a result output coil Q0.0 gets energized and the bulb will ON.
●
K
On the other hand, if we want to switch OFF the bulb, the toggle switch is again pressed and I0.0
again becomes an NO contact and rung goes false ,which in turn switches OFF the bulb.

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Section 2 & 3
How do tell NPN and PNP type
The wiring of the proximity switch is brown（+）, blue（-）, black signal, this is no doubt, the difference between them
lies in the black line, the black line output 24V for PNP proximity switch, and vice versa for NPN.

P
G
V
K
R
E
R
U
T
How do connect with PLC wire?
●

LEC
To connect the PLC, first look at the rules for the PLC to collect digital quantities, that is, to ensure that there
is current flowing out or into the PLC (this involves source and sink types, not too much expansion here to

K
prevent confusion).
● In some factories, there are many kinds of PLC, some are connected according to NPN, and some are
connected according to PNP, each company has a habit. There are many sensors on site, such as proximity

G
switches and safety gratings, which are also divided into PNP and NPN types, so many electricians are
confused when they see the PNP and NPN on the sensors. Here, we want to analyze the difference between

● PA
PNP and NPN from the perspective of practical application. You can easily judge when to use which one
when you see the two in the future.

P
The power supply of the PLC is generally DC 24V. The digital input module on the PLC has a common end,
because the PLC needs to detect the voltage difference to confirm the detection of the input signal, and the

● A
input signal has only one wire. This common end is for the input Signal for comparison.

N
The common terminal is connected to the 0V of the 24V power supply, which means that the voltage
difference can only be detected when the input signal reaches about 24V. Therefore, this connection is PNP

N
connection, 24V is high compared to 0V, PNP connection, high voltage Effective.

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P
G
V
K
R
E
UR
The PNP connection of the same PLC, the high-level input is valid, and the common terminal is connected to the 24V
of the 24V power supply, which means that the input signal is equipotential at 24v, and there is no potential difference,

T
only when the input signal is 0V The PLC can only detect the input signal due to the potential difference, so the
connection is NPN, and the low level is valid.
C
E
L
K
G
A
P
P
A
N
N
A ● For the NPN connection of the same PLC, the low-level input is valid, but why is there a difference between
the PNP connection and the NPN connection in the factory’s PLC?
● The reason is that these two connections have their own advantages. PNP connection method, generally
foreign companies in Europe and the United States are accustomed to this connection method, the advantage
is that it is easy to judge the fault when a fault occurs, because 24V is more obvious than 0V, and the electrical
environment of the factory is relatively harsh, and various electromagnetic fields interact, 24V is also better

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than 0V The anti-interference ability is much stronger. NPN connection method. Generally, Japan and some
domestic factories use this connection method because the voltage delivered to the field is 0V. When the cable
is damaged in the field, the 0V cable will not cause the upper level switch to touch the ground wire. The
power supply is tripped or damaged, so the adaptability is stronger and the system can be better protected.
● So the question is, can a PNP-connected PLC use NPN sensors? Or vice versa.
● The answer is not necessarily. You need to distinguish what kind of sensor is. For example, a proximity switch
with a common function can be converted by a relay.
● The following is a picture for you to help you use it when possible:

P
G
V
K
R
E
R
U
T
PLC with PNP connection uses two kinds of sensors

LEC
K
G
A
P
P
A
N
N
A
NPN-connected PLC uses two kinds of sensors, but there is a disadvantage of using relay conversion, that is, the
immediacy is not good, because the relay takes time to pull in, if the sensor has a very high immediacy requirement, it
will not be possible if precise positioning is required. , Or encoder-like pulses are not possible because of the
timeliness. If you encounter this situation, you still need to find a suitable sensor.

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WEEK 13
Section 1
1.Meaning of SCADA
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a combination of hardware and software
enabling the capture of data within, and automation of, industrial processes. SCADA
connects the sensors that monitor equipment like motors, pumps, and valves to an onsite
or remote server.
https://youtu.be/nlFM1q9QPJw
Functions of each component of SCADA system,

Components of SCADA Systems

1. Field data interface devices
● one or more, usually RTUs or PLCs, which interface to field sensing devices and local control switch
boxes and valve actuators
2. Communication system

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● transfers data between field data interface devices and control units and the computers in the
SCADA central host
● can be radio, telephone, cable, satellite, etc., or any combination of these
3. Central host computer server or servers
● sometimes called a SCADA center, master station, or Master Terminal Unit (MTU)
4. Software systems
● A collection of standard and/or custom software - sometimes called Human Machine Interface (HMI)
or Man Machine Interface (MMI) software systems
● used to:
a. provide the SCADA central host and operator terminal application
b. support the communication system
c. monitor and control remotely located field interface devices

Describe SCADA Hardware and software

SCADA Hardware
A SCADA System consists of a number of Remote Terminal Units (or RTUs) collecting field data and
sending that data back to a master station via a communications system. The master station displays the
acquired data and also allows the operator to perform remote control tasks
On a more complex SCADA system there are essentially five levels or hierarchies:
● Field level instrumentation and control devices
● Marshaling terminals and RTUs
● Communications system
● The master station(s)
● The commercial data processing department computer system

SCADA Software
● SCADA Software can be divided into two types, Proprietary or Open. Companies develop
proprietary software to communicate to their hardware. These systems are sold as “turn key”
solutions. Open software systems have gained popularity because of the Interoperability they bring
to the system.
● Citect and WonderWare are just two of the open software packages available on the market for
SCADA systems

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Applications of SCADA.
SCADA Systems are widely used in the following:

● Oil and Gas. Pipeline monitoring and control. ...

● Plant/factory automation.
● Water and Wastewater. Water treatment centers and distribution. ...
● Utilities. Electrical power distribution from gas-fired, coal, nuclear. ...
● Agriculture / Irrigation.
● Manufacturing.
● Food and Beverage.
● Pharmaceutical.

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Section 2
Meaning of HMI and its applications.

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An acronym for Human Machine Interface. An HMI is a software application that presents
information to an operator or user about the state of a process, and to accept and implement
the operator's control instructions.
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Application
HMIs can be found in multiple locations such as portable handheld devices, on machines, centralized

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control rooms, as well as factory floor machine and process control. Applications include industrial and
building automation, digital signage, vending machine, medical, automotive, and appliances.
Need & types of HMI.

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Basic Types of HMIs

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There are three basic types of HMIs: the pushbutton replacer, the data handler, and the overseer.

There are three basic types of HMIs: the pushbutton replacer, the data handler, and the overseer.
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Fundamentals of Automation Technology 20EE43P
● The Pushbutton Replacer
Before the HMI came into existence, a control might consist of hundreds of pushbuttons and LEDs
performing different operations. The pushbutton replacer HMI has streamlined manufacturing
processes, centralizing all the functions of each button into one location. The pushbutton replacer
takes the place of LEDs, On/Off buttons, switches, or any mechanical device that performs a control
function. The elimination of these mechanical devices is possible because the HMI provides a visual
representation of all these devices on its LCD screen, while performing all the same functions.
● The Data Handler
The data handler is perfect for applications requiring constant feedback from the system, or

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printouts of the production reports. With the data handler, you must ensure the HMI screen is big
enough to display information such as graphs, visual representations of data, and production

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summaries. The data handler includes such functions as recipes, data trending, data logging and
alarm handling/logging. The data handler is used for applications that require constant feedback and
monitoring. Often these data handlers come equipped with large capacity memories.
● The Overseer
Anytime an application involves SCADA or MES, an overseer HMI is extremely beneficial. The

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overseer HMI will most likely require Windows to operate, and have several Ethernet ports. The
overseer works with SCADA and MES. These are centralized systems that monitor and control
entire sites or complexes of large systems spread out over large areas. An HMI is usually linked to

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the SCADA system's databases and software programs, to provide trending, diagnostic data, and
management information.

Advantages of HMI and Why We Need It

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Why do we need HMI? For plants and facilities, there are several benefits of installing an HMI system.

1. Alarms/Warnings
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Below are a few of the many benefits of having an HMI system:

An HMI can allow plant operators to view alarms and locate a malfunction in the equipment, allowing

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them to react more quickly. Alarms can be preventive, so the operator is alerted before the system
reaches an emergency level. Alarms can also track several different problems and increase productivity

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by optimizing manufacturing processes.
2. Reliable Messaging
For faxes, pages and more, operators can depend on HMI messaging. As an example, when a machine

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should be refilled because of a low fuel level, the operator will be alerted automatically.
3. Easier Overall Management of Plant

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Using HMI technology, your company can also easily manage and carry out recipes. The high-quality
graphics of HMI systems provide realistic views of a plant's operations so that operators can control the
facility from central locations. This also helps with any security issues. Now an operator doesn't need to

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approach dangerous areas, and they can control the monitor from another location.
4. Accurate Testing With Simulation

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Plant managers can test equipment and devices easily through the use of an HMI with simulation.

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Testing can be achieved in the office without any piece of equipment. This function improves overall
production and reduces startup time.

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5. Cost Reduction
A human machine interface can reduce operating costs by replacing hundreds of selectors,
pushbuttons, indicator lights and more. This means the need for extra cables, panels and consoles is
also greatly reduced.
6. Improved Communications
HMI can also improve communications throughout the facility by using various types of equipment. This
includes the use of:
● Ethernet
● Data Highway Plus
● DDE (Dynamic Data Exchange)
● Remote I/O
● Serial port

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Various softwares used for Programming HMI.
software for HMI
Best HMI software list in Industrial Automation
● HMI Software – Rockwell Software.
● FactoryTalk View Machine Edition.
● FactoryTalk ViewPoint.
● RSView 32.
● HMI Software – Schneider Electric.
● EcoStructure Operator Terminal Expert.
● EcoStructure Machine SCADA Expert.
● Vijeo Designer.

Interfacing HMI and PLC- General block diagram.

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HMI is a certain device that are capable of handling human machine interactions. The interface
consists of hardware and software that presents information to an operator or user about the state
of an application process, and to accept and implement the operator's control instructions.

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Fundamentals of Automation Technology 20EE43P
Section 3
Concept of DCS

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Suppose we take four operations in it – raw milk processing, pure milk generation, cooling, and

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packaging. Each of these operations will be controlled by respective PLCs.
But, these PLCs can be of different makes too and all of them will be required to communicate with
each other for proper processing of the plant.
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As each of the operations are dependent on each other, proper communication is a must factor
between all these PLCs and transfer of their data with SCADA or other engineering station.

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Distributed Control Systems
●

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●P To overcome this, Distributed Control System was invented. DCS is nothing but a group of similar
PLCs or controllers and distributes them for the complete industrial plant.
Each PLC is defined by a node address. In simpler terms, you can just say that suppose you have a
certain PLC; to make a DCS system, you will have to use only that PLC (same model number).

N● So, DCS comes as a set of controllers to control the whole plant operation by splitting the individual
operations between themselves.

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Functions of each level of DCS.

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Fundamentals of Automation Technology 20EE43P

The operation of DCS goes like this; Sensors senses the process information and send it to the
local I/O modules, to which actuators are also connected so as to control the process parameters.
The information or data from these remote modules is gathered to the process control unit via field
bus. If smart field devices are used, the sensed information is directly transferred to process
control unit via field bus.

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The collected information is further processed, analyzed and produces the output results based on
the control logic implemented in the controller. The results or control actions are then carried to the
actuator devices via field bus. The DCS configuring, commissioning and control logic

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implementation are carried at the engineering station as mentioned earlier. The operator is able to
view and send control actions manually at operation stations.

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