INTRODUCTION TO AGRONOMY

Code: BSA 1103

Lecture 4: CROP PRODUCTION

1.0 Historical Development of Crop Production

A crop is a group of plants of the same species grown on a particular land area for a
particular purpose desired by man.

Early man lived on wild game, leaves, roots, seeds, berries and fruits. As the population
increased, the food supply was not always sufficiently stable or plentiful to supply his
needs. This probably led to the practice of crop production. Therefore, crop production
began at least nine thousand (9000) years ago when domestication of plants became
essential to supplement natural supplies in certain localities. The art of crop production
is older than civilization, and its essential features have remained almost unchanged
since the dawn of history. The features are:
1) Gathering and preservation of seeds of the desired crop plants
2) Destroying other kinds of vegetation growing on the land
3) Stirring the soil to form a seedbed
4) Planting when the season and weather are right as shown by past experience
5) Destroying weeds
6) Protecting the crop from natural enemies, and
7) Gathering, processing and storing the product.

The early husbandman cultivated a limited number of crops, the cereals being the first to be
grown in most parts of the world. The same crop was often produced continuously on a field
until low yields necessitated a shift to new land. This practice is still common in parts of Africa.
A modification of this practice was the introduction of bare fallow every two or three years. The
primitive husbandman removed by hand the destructive insects in his fields and appeased the
gods or practiced mystic rites to drive away the evil spirits he believed to be the cause of plant
diseases. With advancing civilization, materials such as sulphur, brine, ashes, white-wash, soap
and vinegar were applied to plants to suppress diseases or insects attack.

1
Cultivated plants are products of human achievement and discovery which has enable man to
provide his food and fiber needs with progressively less labour.
The first successful domestication of plants by man has recently been suggested to have
occurred in Thailand in Neolithic times. The value of lime, marl, manures, and green manures
for the maintenance of soil productivity was recognized 2000 years ago. Books on agriculture
written by the Romans about the 1st century A.D. describe the growing of common crops
including wheat, barley, clover, and alfalfa by procedures very similar to those in use today
except that more of the work was done with hand and the implements then used were crude.

The old art of crop production still predominates in farm practice throughout the world. Plant
pathologists and entomologists have found ways to control plant diseases and insect pests more
effectively.

Chemists and agronomists have found supplements for manure and ashes formally used as
fertilisers. Rotations perhaps are slightly improved. Many new crop hybrids and varieties
(cultivars) have been developed. The control of weeds with herbicides was realised in the
20thcentury.

Improved cultural methods, doubtless, followed observations made by primitive farmers. They
discovered that crops yield better where manure, ashes or broken limestone had been dropped,
or where weeds were not allowed to grow, or where soil is darker, deep, or well-watered or
where one crop followed certain other crops. Observations or empirical trials quickly revealed,
roughly, the most favourable time, place, and manner of planting and cultivating various crops.
These ideas were handed down through the generations. Eventually, the exchange of ideas,
observations, and experiences, through agricultural societies and rural papers and magazines,
spread the knowledge of crops.

Sources of food for the world’s population

2
1.2 1.5 Elements of crop production
1. Nutrients supplied by air and water
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
2. Primary macronutrients
Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium
3. Secondary macronutrients
Sulfur, calcium, magnesium
4. Micronutrients
Boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc, nickel

Nitrogen
Required in large amounts, contained in amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, promote
rapid growth, increases leaf size and quality hastens crop maturity and promotes fruit
and seed development
Phosphorus
It is a constituent of nucleic acids, phospholipids, the coenzymes DNA and NADP, and
most importantly ATP. Enhances seed germination and early growth, stimulates
flowering, enhances bud set, aids in seed formation, hastens maturity, provides winter
hardiness,
Sulfur
Ranks equal to nitrogen for optimizing crop yield and quality, essential in the synthesis
of amino acids, required for production of proteins and chlorophyll, increases size and
weight of grain crops, enhances the efficiency of nitrogen for protein manufacture,
increases yield and protein quality of forage and grain crops and quality of fiber crops
Potassium
Regulates many enzymes for metabolic processes required for growth, fruit and seed
development, including photosynthesis, cell division carbohydrate metabolism,
regulates opening and closing of stomata, adds stalk and stem stiffness, increases
disease resistance, increases drought tolerance, improves grain and seed plumpness,
improves firmness, texture, size and color of fruit crops , increases the oil content of oil
crops

3
Calcium
Constituent "bricks" of cell walls and involved in production of new growing points and
root tips, provides elasticity and expansion of cell walls, is immobile within plants and
remains in the older tissue throughout the growing season, acts as a base for
neutralizing organic acids generated during the growing process, aids in carbohydrate
translocation and nitrogen absorption, important in signal transduction
Magnesium
Constituent of the chlorophyll molecule which is the driving force of photosynthesis,
essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates, enzyme activator in the synthesis of
nucleic acids, regulates uptake of the other essential elements, serves as a carrier of
phosphate compounds throughout the plant, facilitates the translocation of
carbohydrates, enhances the production of oils and fats
Boron
An enzyme activator and involved in the production of starch required for production of
cellulose, major function is in sugar transport to meristem regions of roots and tops,
boron is also thought to be involved in cell formation and development, N metabolism,
flower fertilization, active salt absorption, hormone fat and phosphorus metabolism,
and photosynthesis
Iron
Critical for chlorophyll formation and photosynthesis, important constituent of enzyme
systems and for respiration in plants
Manganese
Acts as an enzyme activator for nitrogen assimilation and is essential for the
manufacture of chlorophyll
Zinc
Activates many important enzymes
Copper
It is involved as an enzyme activator and is thought to be involved in chlorophyll
formation and protein synthesis,
Molybdenum
Required for symbiotic nitrogen fixation by legumes and reduction of nitrates for
protein synthesis

4
Chlorine
As the chloride ion is necessary for osmosis and ionic balance it also plays a role in
photosynthesis

1.3 Climatic and agro-ecological zones of Uganda

Uganda's temperatures show little variation throughout the year with maxima ranging
between 25o - 31oC for most areas.

Rainfall distribution has generally been categorized as:-

 High: Over 1 750 mm per annum - 4% of the land area
 Moderate: 1 000 - 1 750 mm per annum 70% of the land area
 Low: Under 1 000 mm per annum 26% of the land area

The influence of soils, topography and climate on the farming systems in Uganda has
led to the dividing of the country into seven broad agro-ecological zones. These zones
are based on soils, topography, rainfall and major crops grown;

The banana-coffee system

In this system, rainfall is evenly distributed (1000 - 1500 mm) on soils of medium to
high productivity. The areas cultivated per capita are small, under one hectare. Banana
and coffee are the main cash crops; root crops and several annual or biennial food crops
are on the increase. Maize is a secondary cash crop and sweet potatoes a secondary food
to bananas. Livestock is generally not integrated into the system, but dairy cattle are
gaining prominence. The typical land holding is 2 - 4 hectares. The vegetation is mainly
forest-savanna mosaic with pastures suitable for intensive livestock production.

The banana-millet-cotton system

Rainfall for this system is less stable than for the banana-coffee system, so there is
greater reliance on annual food crops (millet, sorghum and maize). In the drier areas,
livestock is a main activity. The vegetation is moist Combetrum/Terminalia savanna
with moderate biomass production.

The montane system

This is found at higher elevations between 1500 - 1750 metres above sea level. The area
receives high and effective rainfall and cloud cover. Banana is a major staple as well as
5
sweet potatoes, cassava and Irish potatoes. Arabica coffee is prevalent at above 1600
metres. Some temperate crops like wheat and barley are grown. High population
intensities and intensive agriculture are the norm because of small holdings of about 1.5
hectares. Feeding crop residues to livestock is a common practice.

The Teso system

The area receives bimodal rainfall on sandy-loams of medium to low fertility. The dry
season is longer, from December to March. The vegetation association is mostly grass
savannas; short grassland which is ideal for grazing. The staple foods are millet, maize
and sorghum; other crops are oil seed crops (groundnuts, simsim – Sesamum indicum -
and sunflower) with cotton as the major cash crop. Mixed agriculture (crops and
livestock) is practiced, cultivation by oxen is the main agricultural technology. Livestock
are kept extensively in those areas which are tsetse-fly free. The use of crop residues is
very common in the Teso System. The average farm size is about 3 hectares.

The northern system

The rainfall in areas of this system is less pronouncedly bimodal with about 800 mm
annually. Rainfall in the far north and north-east of the country (Kotido and Moroto) is
unimodal and too low (under 800 mm) and unreliable for satisfactory crop production.
The dry season is so severe that drought tolerant annuals are cultivated; these include
finger millet (Eleusine coracana), simsim, cassava and sorghum. Tobacco and cotton are
major cash crops. The grassland is short and communal grazing abounds. This area is
well-known for its pastoral system with semi-nomadic cattle herding.

The West Nile system

The rainfall pattern resembles that of the northern system, with more rain at higher
altitudes. Mixed cropping is common with a wide variety of crops. The system is in the
sub-humid zone where the vegetation community is grassland. Livestock activities are
limited by the presence of tsetse fly. As in the northern system, tobacco and cotton are
major cash crops.

6
The pastoral system
This system covers some districts in the north-east; parts of Western and Central
Districts. Annual rainfall is low (under 1000 mm). The system is characterized by short
grassland where pastoralism prevails with nomadic extensive grazing. Mixed herds are
common but with no sound information on cattle: small ruminant ratios for optimum
grassland use.

Figure 1: Agro-ecological Zones of Uganda

7
 Table 1: Summary of agricultural systems of Uganda
Farming system Districts
Banana/Coffee System Bundibugyo, parts of Hoima, Kabarole, Mbarara,
Bushenyi, Mubende, Luweero, Mukono, Masaka,
Iganga, Jinja, Kalangala, Mpigi and Kampala
Banana/Millet/Cotton System Kamuli, Pallisa, Tororo, parts of Masindi and
Luweero
Montane System Kabale, Kisoro, parts of Rukungiri, Bushenyi,
Kasese, Kabarole, Bundibugyo, Mbarara, Mbale
and Kapchorwa
Teso systems Soroti, Kumi, Kaberamaido
Northern System Gulu, Lira, Apac, Kitgum
Pastoral System Kotido, Moroto, parts of Mbarara, Ntungamo,
Masaka, Ntungamo, Masaka and Rakai
West Nile System Moyo, Arua and Nebbi

Source: Basic facts on agricultural activities in Uganda, MAAIF; 1995

1.3 Origin of Cultivated Crops

All cultivated plants were domesticated from their wild species. However, the exact
time and place of origin and the true ancestry of many crops are still as highly
speculative as the origin of man. Man has domesticated some crop species that met his
needs before the dawn of recorded history. Most of the domesticated crops were
introduced into new areas far from their centers of origin by migrating human
populations in prehistoric as well as in recorded times. As a result, both indigenous
and introduced crops are grown everywhere in the world.

Centres of Origin of Cultivated Crops

The centres of origin of both agriculture and culture were in populated areas favoured
by a more equitable climate. Nicolai Ivanovic Vavilov(1926) concluded that a centre of
origin was characterized by dominant alleles while towards the periphery of the centre,
the frequency of recessive alleles increased and the genetic diversity decreased. He
reported the following centres of origin:

8
  China
 India/Indo-Malayan
 Central Asia
 Near East
 Mediterranean Sea coastal and adjacent regions
 Ethiopia or Abyssinia
 South Mexico and Central America
 South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, etc.).

However, Harlan proposed three independent systems, each with a center and
surrounding areas
 Near East and Africa
 China and SE Asia
 Meso-America and South America

Spread of Cultivated Crops

9
The spread of crops from their centre of origin to other parts of the world was either by natural
means or by agency of man.

i. Natural dispersal of crops

Coconuts may have floated across the Pacific Ocean from Asia to the western coast of Central
America, and the capsules of sweet potatoes crossed the Pacific Ocean in the same way.

ii. Human migrations

As people migrate, they take along with them cultivated plants to ensure a permanent food
supply and support their culture.

iii. Expansion of world trade

With the expansion of world trade, crops indigenous to the Americans such as: maize,
groundnuts, sweet potatoes, potatoes, tomatoes and cassava were spread to other parts of the
world. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the development of agricultural
enterprises in the tropics was stimulated by the demand from Europe for agricultural raw
materials for use in industry. As a result of these developments, many crops spread from one
area to the other. For example: rubber from Brazil became popular in Malaysia, Sri Lanka and
West Africa; American cotton became popular in the Old World and sugar cane became an
economic crop of the new world.

iv. International agricultural research collaboration

This has included the exchange of seeds or germplasm between agricultural research
institutions in different parts of the world in their programmes. Thus, encouraging crop
transfers across the globe.

Indigenous Crops of Africa

The following are most important crops that are indigenous to Africa:
Cereals
Bulrush millet ------------------- Pennisetum typhoides
Guinea corn ------------------- Sorghum bicolor
Finger millet ------------------- Eleusine coracana
Rice ------------------- Oryza glaberrima
Hungary rice ------------------- Digitariaexillis

Grain legumes

10
Cowpea ------------------- Vigna unguiculata
Pigeon pea ------------------- Cajanus cajan

Oil seeds
Oil palm ------------------- Elaeisguineensis
Niger seeds ------------------- Guizotiaabyssinica
Castor ------------------- Ricinuscommunis
Bambara groundnut ------------------- Voandzeiasubterranean
Shea butter ------------------- Butyrospermumparadoxum

Yam
White guinea yam -------------------- Dioscorearotundata
Yellow guinea yam ------------------- Dioscoreacayenensis

Fibre crops
Cotton ------------------- Gossypium herbaceum
Kenaf ------------------- Hibiscus cannabinus
Bow-string hemp --------------- Sansevieria spp
Kapok ------------------- Pentandra var. caribea
Coffee
Coffee ------------------- Coffea arabica, Coffea liberica

Kolanut
KolanutsGbanja Kola ------------------- Cola nitida
Abata kola ------------------- Cola acuminata
Vegetable
Water melon ------------------- Citrullus lanatus

Crops Introduced into Africa

There are many crops widely grown in Africa that are introduced from other regions of the
world. The most notable among them include the following:
Cereals
Rice --------- Oryza sativa
Wheat --------- Triticum aestivum

11
Grain legumes
Groundnuts --------- Arachishypogaea
Common bean --------- Phaseolus vulgaris
Field pea --------- Pisum spp

Roots and tubers

Cassava --------- Manihotesculanta
Cocoyam ---------- Colocasiaesculenta
Water yam --------- Dioscoreaalata
Tannia --------- Xanthosomasagittifolium
Sweet potato --------- Ipomoea batatas

Oil-seed
Sesame --------- Sesamumindicum

Fiber crops
Cotton --------- Gossypiumbarbadense, Gossypiumhirsutum
Sisal --------- Agave sisalana

Sugar crops
Sugar cane --------- Saccharum officinarum

Drug crops
Tobacco --------- Nicotiana tobaccum

Beverage crops
Tea --------- Camellia sinensi
Cocoa --------- Theobroma cacoa

Latex crops
Rubber --------- Heveabraziliensis

1.4 Classification of Crops

There are Three major methods of classifying crops plants:

12
1. Botanical classification which is based on the morphological similarity of plants parts.
2. Economic classification is based on their uses.
3. Special-Purpose Classification

a. Botanical classification
This classification is based upon similarity of plant parts. Field crops belong to the
spermatophyte division of the plant kingdom, in which reproduction is carried on by
seeds. Within this division the common crop plants belong to the subdivision of
angiosperms, which are characterized by having their ovules enclosed in an ovary wall.
The angiosperms are divided into two classes, the monocotyledons and the
dicotyledons. All the grasses, which include the cereals and sugar cane, are
monocotyledonous plants. The legumes and other crop plants except the grasses are
classified as dicotyledonous plants because the seeds have two cotyledons. These
classes are subdivided into orders, families, genera, species, subspecies, and
varieties.

i. The grass family

They are either annuals, or perennials. Grasses are almost all herbaceous plants, usually
with hollow cylindrical stems closed at the nodes. The stems are made of nodes and
internodes. The leaves are two ranked and parallel-veined. The roots are fibrous. The
small greenish flowers are collected in a compact or open inflorescence, which is
terminal on the stem. The flowers are usually perfect, small, and with no distinct
perianth. The grain or caryopsis may be free, as in wheat, or permanently enclosed in
the floral bracts as in oats.

ii. The legume family

Legumes may be annuals, biennials or perennials. Leaves are alternate on the stems,
stipulate with netted veins, and mostly compound. The flowers are almost always
arranged in racemes as in the pea. The flowers of leguminous field crops are butterfly-
like. The irregular flowers consist of five petals, a standard, two wings, and a keel that
19consists of two petals that are more or less united. The calyx is normally four or five
toothed. The fruit is a pod that contains one or several seeds. The root system is taproot.

13
Often, the roots have an abnormal growth called nodules caused by the activities of
bacterium Rhizobium. E.t.c
b. Economic classification
i. Cereal or Grain crops
Cereals are grasses grown for their edible seeds, the term cereal being applied either to
the grain or to the plant itself. Cereals include wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice, maize,
sorghum, millets, etc.
ii. Legumes
These include pea nuts, field beans, cowpeas, soybeans, lima beans, mug beans,
chickpeas, pigeon peas, broad beans and lentils. They all belong to the family
Leguminosae and are grown for their edible seeds.
iii. Oil crops
The oil crops include soya bean, peanuts (groundnuts), sunflower, sesame, castor bean,
mustard, cotton seed, corn and grain sorghum, rape, flax and perilla, the seeds of which
contain some useful oils.
iv. Root and tuber crops
These include sugar beets, carrots, sweet potatoes, yams, cassava, potatoes and
cocoyam.
v. Fiber crops
These are grown for their fiber. They include jute, kenaf, hemp, ramie and sisal.
vi. Sugar crops
These are crops that are grown for their sweet juice from which sucrose is extracted
and crystallized. They include sugar cane and sugar beet.
vii. Forage crops
These are vegetable matters fresh or preserved that are utilised as feeds for animals.
They include grasses, legumes, crucifers and other cultivated crops.
viii. Vegetable crops
This group includes potatoes, tomatoes and onions.
ix. Rubber crops/latex crops
These crops which include Para rubber are grown for the milky sap, or latex which they
produce.
x. Beverage crops
These crops are also sources of stimulants. They include tea, coffee and cocoa.

14
c. Special-Purpose Classification
i. Cover crops
These are crops planted to provide a protection to the soil against direct beating of
rainfall. When crops are turned under while still green, they are termed green manure
crops. Important green manure crops include alfalfa, soya beans, cowpeas, rye, and
buckwheat.
ii. Catch crops
Catch crops are substitute crops planted too late for regular crops or after the regular
crop have failed. Short season crops such as millet and buckwheat are often used as
catch crops.
iv. Silage crops
Silage crops are those cut and preserved in succulent condition by partial fermentation.
They include corn, sorghum, forage grasses and legumes.
v. Companion crops
These are crops that are grown with a crop such as alfalfa or red clover in order to
secure a return from the land in the first year of a new seeding. Grain crops and flax are
often used for this purpose.
vi. Trap crops
These are crops planted to attract certain insects or parasites. Trap crops are plowed
under or destroyed once they have served their purpose.

15