BSE5511 Occupational Health and Ergonomics

MSc Lecture 5A:

Industrial Hygiene Measurements
and Analytical Instrumentation 1
Dr. Gigi C.H. Lui
(with reference to lecture notes by Professor W.K. Chow and
M.S. Bisesi and J.P. Kohn “Industrial hygiene evaluation
methods”, CRC Lewis Publishers, 2004)
Department of Building Environment and Energy Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hong Kong, China
MScOHE-05A-IHMAI1.ppt
Content
1. Introduction
2. Categories of Hazardous Environmental Agents
and Factors
• Physical Agents
• Chemical Agents
• Biological Agents
• Ergonomic Factors

2
1. Introduction
 Agents and factors in occupational environment
 Adverse health effects to workers
 Occupational exposure limits - degree and
duration of worker exposure
 Monitoring and analysis - determine the levels of
various agents present
 Guidelines set - factors cause adverse impact to
human health
 4 major categories of environmental agents and
factors

3
2. Categories of Hazardous Environmental Agents and Factors
 Physical Agents
– Sound & Vibration
– Nonionizing Radiation
– Ionizing Radiation
– Temperature Extremes
 Chemical Agents
– Toxic Chemicals
– Flammables Chemicals
– Corrosive Chemicals
– Reactive Chemicals
 Biological Agents
– Pathogenic Microorganisms
 Ergonomic Factors
– Worker
– Workplace
4
3. Physical Agents
 Physical energy
Sound,
Nonionizing radiation,
Ionizing radiation, and
Temperature extremes
 Impact on the human system.

5
Sound
 Sound waves
 Disturbances in uniform pressure of air molecules
by vibrating objects
 Human ear
 Vibrate back and forth - compressions and
rarefactions of molecules
 Energy form of vibration
 Various media
 Velocity - mass (density of medium) and elastic
reactions (pressure) of the molecules.
6
 Sound pressure
 Amplitude or intensity
 Deviation of air pressure from normal atmospheric
pressure
 Average pressure changes

7
 Root mean-square (RMS) sound pressures
 instantaneous pressures are squared
 in dynes pre square centimeter, newtons per
square meter, microbars, or more commonly
micropascals.
 Sound power
 amplitude of a sound wave.
 total sound energy radiated by the source.
 in watts.

8
Nonionizing Radiation
 Radiation - energy in motion.
 Transmission of energy by moving particles producing
kinetic energy upon impact or transfer of energy by
wave motion.
 Waves posses:
– Frequency (f) - number of vibrations per unit period
of time (in seconds).
– Wavelength - one complete sinusoidal oscillation.

– Velocity (c) - time rate change of displacement or the

speed at which a wave travels a given distance.

9
 The 3 quantities are related by velocity
 Measured as light speed (3  108 ms-1)
c = fλ
3  108 ms-1 = fλ

Amplitude

Period T

10
 Phenomena: reflection, refraction, diffraction,
absorption, and transmission
 Waves - oscillating electric and magnetic fields
 Perpendicular to each other and each at 90o angles
relative to speed and direction of traveling wave
 Electromagnetic (EM) waves or electromagnetic
radiation
 Spectrum of categories

11
 Ranges of wavelengths (λ) and frequencies (f)
 Differentiated by the quantity of photon energy (E)
 in J
 = product of Planck’s constant (h) and wave
electromagnetic wave frequency (f):
E=hf
= (6.624  10-34 Js) f

12
 Photon energy of electromagnetic radiation
 in electron volts (eV)
 energy gained by an electron when passing
through a potential difference of 1 V.
 1 electron volt = 1.602 10-19J
 Power of electromagnetic radiation
 energy over time
 in watts (W).
 Examples:
– ultraviolet (UV), visible light, infrared (IR),
microwaves (MW), radiowaves (RW), and
extremely low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic
energies. 13
 Difference between ionizing and nonionizing radiation:
 Ionizing radiation:
sufficient energy (>10 eV) to dislodge subatomic
orbital electrons upon impact, thus causing ions to
form.
 Nonionizing radiation:
lower energies
longer wavelengths (>1.24  10-7 m)
is incapable of dislodging orbital electrons
deposit thermal and vibrational energies leaving
atoms in an “excited” state.
14
 Biological effects associated with exposure to
nonionizing radiation - specific form of radiation of
concern.
 Biological effects - optical forms of nonionizing
radiation.
 Exposure to visible light - eyes and surrounding
tissues.
 Acute effects
 retinal burns, eyestrain, tearing, blurring, and
headaches.

15
 Chronic effects to high intensities of visible light:
 degeneration of the cones of the retina
 eyes and skin.
 Skin erythema and burning + lens and corneal
(including photokeratitis and photoconjunctivitis)
effect
 Cataracts and welder’s flash - eye injuries

16
 Specific ranges of wavelengths (0.1 cm to 300
meters) and frequencies (1 MHz to 300 GHz) of
microwave and radiofrequency radiation
 human body
 internal organs.
 Thermal effects
 heat stress, teratogenesis and ocular effects
(cataracts and cornea damage).
 Cellular reactions
immunological, central nervous system,
neuroendocrine, and arthritis effects.
17
 Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation - elicited
increased concern.
 Sources
 high voltage power lines, video display
terminals (VDTs), and close proximity to
electrical wiring.
 Cancer (e.g. leukemia) - biological effects to
preliminary research of ELF exposure.
 Open for debate and need of further investigation.

18
Ionizing Radiation
 Chemical elements or compounds
 Electrochemically unstable will decay
 imbalance of protons (p+) or neutrons (no) in the
atomic nuclei
 emanate energy - ionizing radiation.
 Elements and compounds undergo natural
reactions to achieve stability
 The particles and photons impart excessive energy
to matter with which they interact  ionization.

19
 Ionizing particulate radiation
 alpha particles (2 no + 2 p+ in the form of a
charged Helium nucleus, 42He+2),
 beta particles (negatron as e- and positron as e+),
 protons (p+), and neutron particles (no).
 Photon energies as X-rays and gamma rays.
 Direct or indirect ionization of macromolecular or
cellular components of the human body
 Adverse biochemical and physiological changes
 abnormalities, illnesses, or premature deaths
among those exposed or their offspring.

20
 Ionization energies
 in electron volts (eV).
 Radioactive decay - “activity”
 in curies (Ci) or bequerals (Bq).
 1 curie = 3.7  1010 disintegrations per second (dps).
 unit bequeral (Bq) is a contempary alternative
to curies, where 1 Bq = 1 dps and , therefore, 1
Bq = 2.7  10-11 Ci.
 Half-life
time required for 50% of a radioactive element
to decay and activity to decrease.
21
 “Exposure”
 amount of ionization per mass or volume of air.
 in “roentgens” (or coulombs per kilogram, where R
= 2.58  10-4 coulomb/kg = 2.083  109 ion pairs/cc
air).
 Since 34 eV of energy is required to produce 1 ion pair
in air, 1 R = 2.083  109 ion pairs/cc air  34 eV/ion pair
= 7.08  1010 eV/cc.
 In relation, 7.08  1010 eV/cc multiplied by 1.6  10-12
ergs/eV equals 0.113 ergs/cc air.
 Thus, since 1 cc of air has a density = 0.001293 g/cc, 1R
= 0.113 ergs/0.001293 g air = 87.39 ergs/g air.
 One joule is equivalent to 107 ergs and 1 eV = 1.6  10-12
ergs.
22
 Exposure
 in roentgens
“absorbed dose” = amount of radiation energy
absorbed by the entire body or a specific body site.
 = quantity of ionization energy deposited per unit
mass of tissue
 in “rads” (r = 100 ergs energy/g tissue).
 “gray” = 100 rads which equals 1 J/kg.
 “Equivalent dose”
 quantity of absorbed dose x factors associated with
a given form of ionizing radiation.
 in “rem” and “sieverts” where 1 Sv = 100 rems.

23
Interaction of radiation with matter
 Pair production : Radiation + Matter → e+ + e-
e+

hf
e-
 Compton scattering

hf

 Photo-electric effects: hf 

hf Metal Surface

e
24
Temperature Extremes
 Heat and cold stress
 Physiological responses to extremes of hot and cold
temperatures, respectively.
 Thermal agents - evaluation of occupational
environment.
 Metabolic heat via basal and activity processes
 If environment is too cold, the body loses heat faster
than it can produce heat = cold stress.
 If environment is too hot and the body is not able to cool
fast enough = heat stress (very active and simultaneously
exposed to elevated temperatures)

25
 Body heat exchange
 Convection:
 skin temperature, air temperature, and wind
velocity
 Radiation:
 skin temperature and temperature of the
surrounding objects  rate of heat exchange.
 Evaporation:
 humidity and wind velocity.
 Heat exhaustion, heat cramps, or heat stroke

26
 Heat stress
air temperature in degrees Celsius or
Fahrenheit,
air movement in feet per minute,
humidity measured in percent moisture, and
radiant heat in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit.
 Adverse influence of air temperature is exacerbated
by the presence of excessive water vapor in the air
(high humidity).
 Elevated humidity decreases the evaporation rate of
perspiration from skin.
27
 Perspiration and its subsequent evaporation
 Excessive water vapor in the air
 Radiant heat from various sources penetrated
through the air and is absorbed by the body
 Potential for heat related disorders
physical conditioning, age, weight, gender, and
impermeable protective clothing.
 Temperature measurement - Physical variables:
e.g. mV for thermocouple
– Response
– Accuracy

28
4. Chemical Agents
 Inorganic
 Most notable for toxicity and flammability from an
occupational health perspective.
 Aerosols or particulates
 dusts, mists, fumes, fibers, and smoke.
 Dusts: from mechanical actions.
 Mists: finely divided liquid droplets
 Fumes: metal is heated to sublime

29
 Metal
 vapor and rises into air
 reacts with molecular oxygen
 condenses and forms incomplete combustion
reactions.
 All aerosols, except fibers, are measured weight
per volume in units of milligrams per cubic
meter of air (mg/m3).
 Fibers
 counts per volume in units of fibers per cubic
centimeter of air (f/cc).
30
 Gases and vapors
 True gases exists in gaseous state at standard
temperature and pressure (STP)
 Vapors exist as liquids or solids at STP.
 Gases and vapors
 form true solutions in the atmosphere = expand
and mix completely with ambient air.
 monodisperse in terms of molecule size = all
molecules of a particular gas or vapor will be
the same size.
 of molecules size
31
 Gas or vapor - separated from surrounding air
molecules via absorption or adsorption.
 Toxic gases and vapors
 measured as volume per volume
 in parts per million (ppm).
 Flammability gases and vapors and oxygen gas
 measured as volume per volume
 in percent (%) gas or vapor in air.

32
 Toxic chemicals
 A toxic chemical as any substance which
may be harmful to the environment or
hazardous to health if inhaled, ingested
or absorbed through the skin.
 Natural Toxic Chemicals
 Industrial and Occupational Toxic
Chemicals

33
 Flammable chemicals
 Can burn
 Classified, or grouped, as either flammable
or combustible by their flashpoints
 Specific technical criteria and test methods
 Highly flammable substances in laboratory:
 Acetone/ Benzene/ Cyclohexane/
Ethanol/ Methanol/ Pentane

34
 Corrosive chemicals
 attack and chemically destroy exposed
body tissues
Acids or bases
 Safety precautions
Eye protection
Skin protection
Special handling

35
 Reactive chemicals

36
5. Biological Agents
 Pathogenic organisms.
 Numerous identified pathogenic biologic
agents
 Disrupt biochemical and physiological
function
 Illness and death
 Infectivity - virulence and population
density of organisms present at a given
target site.
37
 Toxicity
 microbiological agents
 synthesize and release a chemical toxin.
 Examples:
bacteria, actinomycetes, rickettsia, fungi,
protozoans, helminths, nematodes, and
viruses.
 All biological agents, except viruses, are
examples of biotic or living organisms.

38
 Viruses = abiotic or non-living agents
composed of biochemicals
 Microbiological agents
counts per volume
in colony forming units per cubic meter
of air (cfu/m3).
 Workplace exposures:
natural or organic materials, animals
and substances of animal origin, food,
organic dust, waste, wastewater; blood
and other body fluids.
39
 Table 1. List of indicative sectors and examples of relevant biological agents to which
exposure may occur.
Industry sector Main biological agents of concern

Allergens, mites, fungi and bacteria and their

Primary agriculture, animal feed
cell-wall constituents, zoonotic viruses,
production, veterinary service
parasites and ticks.

Infectious agents including viruses, bacteria,

Health care, hospitals
fungi, parasites and prions.

Bacteria (Pseudomonas spp, Mycobacterium

Metal processing immunogenum), mould/yeasts (e.g. Fusarium
spp), endotoxins.
Bacteria (mainly gram-negative but
Wood processing also Actinomycetes), fungi (e.g. Aspergillus
spp, Alrernaria spp and yeasts,), endotoxins
Fungi (e.g. Aspergillus fumigatus, and yeasts),
infectious (e.g. Salmonella, ) and non-
Waste collection, treatment and sorting infectious bacteria (e.g. E. oli, actinomycetes).

Endotoxins, glucans, and viruses (e.g. Hepatitis

A, Hepatitis B)
Workplaces with air conditioning and high Fungi (moulds and yeasts), bacteria
humidity (e.g. textile industry, print (e.g. Legionella spp, Pseudomonas spp).
industry, and paper production) Endotoxins, and allergens
Fungi (Aspergillus and yeasts), bacteria.
Archives, museums, libraries
Endotoxins
Moulds, bacteria.
Building and construction industry
Endotoxins 40
6. Ergonomic Factors
 Human attributes, abilities, and limitations
 Optimal conditions
 maximize human health, comfort, and
well-being
 promoting performance efficiency and
effectiveness
 through appropriate design.

41
 Specific human factors
 psychological capabilities,
 physiological dimensions (anthropometrics) and
 capabilities (biomechanics), and
 psychosocial issues.
 Fatigue; boredom; occupational stress; vigilance;
mental abilities/ limitations; circadian rhythms;
sensory capabilities; anthropometric and
biomechanical attributes; and peer, labor-
management, or organizational climate variables

42
 Workplace factors of concern
hazards associated with machines, equipment,
tools, and layout and design variables.
 Confusing displays (gauges); controls which require
excessive force to operate; hand tools requiring
users to assume awkward body postures or
positions; materials that are excessively heavy; or
manual materials handling with unreasonable
frequency.
 Duration, pace, or transfer distance requirements

43
 Holistic ergonomic perspective:
 Exposure to physical, chemical, and biological
agents
 Environmental agents
 temperature extremes, humidity, lighting, noise,
and air contaminants

44