EE4001D Instrumentation systems

Module 1:
Measurement, Instrumentation and
Calibration
Syllabus: Module 1: Instrumentation and Calibration, Signals and
their representation

Measurement, Instrumentation and Calibration - Introduction to

Instrumentation systems - performance characteristics, static and
dynamic characteristics – Errors in measurement - gross Errors,
systematic Errors – statistical Analysis of Random Errors – Calibration
and Standards -Process of calibration, classification of standards,
standards for calibration. Signals and their representation. Electrical
Measuring Systems- Dynamics of Instrument systems – generalized
performance of systems – electrical Networks – Mechanical systems -
Electromechanical systems –Thermal systems – Fluidic systems –
Filtering and Dynamic Compensation.
Introduction
 Measurement provides the means of describe a
natural phenomenon (state, condition or
characteristic of a system) in quantitative terms

 It gives the magnitude, extent, degree etc. of the

condition of the system in terms of some
standard.
 Functional elements of a Measuring
System (Instrument)

Fig 1. Functional elements of an instrument or a measuring

system

The operation of a measuring system can be described in terms of

the functional elements.
 Functional elements of a Measuring System
(Instrument) (Contd.)
 Functional elements of an instrument or a
measuring system consist of three basic
stages
• Primary element : Senses the quantity under
measurement
• Intermediate stage: Variable conversion, variable
manipulation and data transmission stages
• End device: Renders the indication possible on a
calibrated scale, data presentation or/and data
storage
Functional elements of a Measuring System
(Instrument) (Contd.)
 Primary sensing element
◦ Receives energy from the measured medium
and produces an output proportional to
measured quantity (measurand)
◦ Output is a physical variable like voltage,
displacement etc.
◦ Always extract energy from the measured
medium
 measured quantity is always disturbed by the act of
measurement leads to loading effect (ideally should
be zero but theoretically not possible)
Functional elements of a Measuring System
(Instrument) (Contd.)
 Variable conversion element
◦ Converts primary sensing output to more
suitable form
◦ Not necessarily included in every instrument-
some instrument require several
 Variable manipulation element
◦ Change the numerical value while preserving
the physical nature of the variable
◦ Amplification
Functional elements of a Measuring System
(Instrument) (Contd.)
 Data transmission element
◦ Transmit the data from one to another
◦ Shaft bearing assembly, telemetry system
 Data presentation
◦ Translates the measured quantity into a form
recognisable by one of human senses
◦ Indicate a pointer over a scale, pen recording over a
chart
◦ Discrete or continuous
 Data storage/playback
◦ Easily recreate the stored data upon a command
◦ Magnetic tape recorder, digital memory etc.
Identify the functional elements of a
pressure gauge

Fig. Pressure gauge

Identify the functional elements the given system

Functional elements of a pressure gauge
 Primary sensing element- piston – senses the
pressure
 Variable conversion element- piston (converts
pressure to force on piston face)
 Data transmission element-piston rod- force
transmitted to spring
 Variable conversion element- spring – converts
force to proportional displacement
 Variable manipulation element- Linkage- magnify
the displacement
 Data presentation element- Pointer and scale
Functional elements of a pressure gauge
Identify the functional elements of a pressure
thermometer

Fig. Pressure thermometer

Functional elements of a pressure
thermometer
 Performance Characteristics
 The performance of the measuring instrument is
defined in terms of performance characteristics
◦ Static characteristics:
 Are the set of characteristics that are defined for the measurement
of quantities that are either constant or slowly varying with time.
◦ Dynamic characteristics:
 Are the set of characteristics that are defined for the problems
involves the measurement of quantities that are varying rapidly.
 Obtained by examining the dynamic relations between the input and
output.
 Static Characteristics
 Static characteristics are obtained by static calibration

 Calibration is the comparison of specific values of the input an output of an

instrument with a corresponding reference standards.

 Static calibration

◦ All the input except the one under study are kept constant values and
perform the calibration

◦ Input under study is varied over some range of constant values which
causes the output to vary over some range of constant values.

◦ Obtain the input output relationship under the stated condition

◦ Repeated for all other inputs and develop the family of static
characteristics.
Static Characteristics (Contd.)

 Accuracy
 Precision
 Reproducibility and Repeatability
 Stability
 Sensitivity
 Linearity
 Dead zone
 Drift
 Resolution
 Threshold
 Static Error
Accuracy
 Is refers to the closeness or conformity to the true value of the quantity
under measurement.

 Accuracy is specified in uncertainty (or inaccuracy)

 Accuracy indicates the maximum likely departure of the indicated value from
the true value.

(a) Accuracy as % of full scale reading

Eg: Accuracy is 0.1% for full scale of 50 units that means 0.05 units of error

(b) Accuracy as % of true value

(c) Accuracy as % of scale span

Eg: For range 25-225V, scale span is 200V, so if accuracy is 0.2% of span, error
is 0.4 units in any measurement
Precision
 Capability of an instrument to show the same reading when used
each time
 Measure of reproducibility of the measurements
 Indication of precision is obtained from the number of
significant figures (Precision error : 3567897 Ω is read as 3.5
M Ω)
 An instrument which is precise may not be necessarily accurate.

Accuracy vs precision
Static error /absolute error

 Error=measured value- true value

 Positive when m.v is higher than t.v
 Undesirable static characteristics

Static Correction
 Opposite of error
 Correction= t.v- m.v
Relative static error
 Relative static error or relative error= ((m.v- t.v)/t.v)

 percentage error= ((m.v- t.v)/t.v)*100

Limiting Error
The maximum deviation either in positive side or
negative side in the measurement by an instrument
from the nominal value or true value.
Repeatability
 Reflects the closeness of agreement of a group of
output signals obtained by the same observer for the
same input quantity using the same methods and
apparatus under the same operating environment, but
over a shot time span

Reproducibility
 Is the closeness with which the same value of input
quantity is measured at different times and under
different conditions of usage of the instrument and by
different instruments.
 Ensure inter-changeability of instrument
Stability
 Ability of a measuring system to maintain its standard of
performance throughout its specified operating life.

 High stability means need not be calibrated frequently

 Zero stability - ability to restore to zero reading after The

input quantity has been brought to zero, while other
conditions remain same.
Resolution
 Smallest increment of the input quantity to which the
measuring system responds with a detectable increment
in the output
Threshold
 Minimum input quantity that is necessary to cause a
detectable change in output signal from the zero
indication
 This is the minimum value below which no output
change can be detected when the input is gradually
increased from zero.
 Resolution example
A moving coil voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100
divisions, the full scale reading is 200 V and (1/10) of a
scale division can be estimated with a fair degree of
certainty. Determine the resolution of the instrument.

1 scale division = 200/100 = 2V

Resolution = 1/10 * (scale division)
= 1/ 10 * (2) = 0.2 V
Dead band/dead zone/dead space
 Is the largest change in the input quantity to which the
measuring system does not respond
 Reason for dead band
◦ Static friction (Stiction ), back lash, or hysteresis
 Hysteresis
The phenomenon under which the measuring instrument shows
different output effect during loading and unloading
Drift
 is the slow variation in the output signal which is not due
to any change in the input quantity
 It is due to changes in the operating conditions of
components in the instrument
◦ Zero drift
◦ Sensitivity drift/span drift
Drift

a) Zero drift b) sensitivity/span drift c) combined drift

Span and range
 Range convey the information about lower and
upper Limit
 Span - difference between the full scale and
lower scale value
◦ Ex: instrument operates from 50 V - 250 V , range is
from 50- 250 V and span is 200 V

Live zero
 denotes the non zero output value which is
corresponding to a zero input
◦ Ex. 4- 20 mA
Linearity
 Proportionality between input and output quantity
 It is defined as the maximum deviation of the actual
calibration curve from the idealized straight line.
 constant sensitivity over entire range and has no zero error
then the calibration characteristics is linear and is a straight
line passing through zero
 If zero error present the equation given by y= mx+c
 For nonlinear characteristics maximum departure from the
Best fit line gives the nonlinearity
 Best fit line –
◦ assumed straight line drawn from zero
◦ determined by least square method
 Linearity

% linearity = (maximum deviation of output from the

idealized straight line / full scale deflection) * 100
Sensitivity
 Ratio of Change in output to the change in input quantity
 Referred as incremental sensitivity or gain as it relates to
increments in the signal
 Incremental sensitivity is constant for a linear system or
constant over the linear range
Sensitivity
The following resistance values of a platinum resistance
thermometer were measured at a range of temperatures.
Determine the measurement sensitivity of the
instrument in Ω/ºC.

Resistance (Ω ) Temperature(ºC)
307 200
314 230
321 260
328 290

Solution : Sensitivity = 7/30 = 0.233 Ω/ºC

Example:
A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature
of 20ºC and has the load characteristics
Load (kg) 0 1 2 3
Deflection 0 20 40 60
(mm)
It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30ºC and
has the load characteristics. Determine sensitivity drift per ºC in
ambient temperature.
Load (kg) 0 1 2 3
Deflection 5 27 49 71
(mm)

Soln: At 20ºC, sensitivity = 20 mm/kg

At 30ºC, sensitivity = 22 mm/kg
Sensitivity drift per ºC = 2mm / 10 ºC
Example:
A 10000Ω variable resistance has a linearity of 0.1% and the
movement of the contact arm is 320º. (a) Determine the
maximum position deviation in degrees and the resistance
deviation in Ω . (b) If this instrument is to be used as a
potentiometer with a linear scale of 0 to 1.6 V, determine the
maximum voltage error.

Soln:
(a) Maximum displacement deviation = (linearity * full scale reading) / 100
= (0.1 * 320)/ 100
= 0.32º
Maximum resistance displacement = (0.1* 10000)/ 100 = 10 Ω
(b) Displacement 320º corresponds to 1.6V and therefore 0.32º corresponds
to a voltage of
(0.32/320) * 1.6 = 1.6 mV
Dynamic characteristics of measurement system

 The behavior of the system is described by its dynamic

response when the measurand is a function of time.
◦ Transient response

◦ Steady state periodic

 Dynamic error

 Fidelity

 Bandwidth

 Speed of response
Dynamic characteristics

 Dynamic error
◦ Algebraic difference between the indicated value of a
measurand and its true value at any instant, when the
measurand is a function of time.
◦ Is zero only for zero order measuring system
◦ For higher order systems, dynamic error consists of
two components – transient error and steady state
error
◦ For step input, the dynamic error consists of only the
transient error.
Dynamic characteristics

 Fidelity
 Degree to which a measurement system indicates changes
in the measured quantity without any dynamic error.

 Ability to follow instant by instant the variations of the

measurand with time

◦ Zero order system- excellent fidelity- input and output

waveform coincide with each other at all instants under
steady state conditions- Neither amplitude error nor
phase error
Dynamic characteristics

Bandwidth

Is the range of frequencies for which its dynamic

sensitivity is satisfactory

Dynamic sensitivity is required to be within ±2%

of its static sensitivity
Dynamic characteristics

Speed of response
 Ability to respond to sudden changes of amplitude of input
signal

Measuring lag
 Delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in
the measured quantity.

 Retardation type

 Time delay type

Reference

1. D.V.S Murty, Transducers & Instrumentation,1st ed., Prentice

Hall of India (pvt ltd), 2012

2. Ernest O. Doebelin and Dhanesh N, Manik, Measurement

Systems Application & design, 5th ed., Tata McGraw Hill,
2007.
Module 1 part 2
Error , calibration and standards
Errors in measurement
• The errors are classified into three
• Gross error
• Systematic error
• Random error
Gross error
• Human error
• Depend largely on the care and vigilance observed by the experimenter
• lack of knowledge
• Lack of care and judgement
• misreading the scale
• Can be avoided o reduced by
• Great care during reading and recording the data
• Take more number of readings preferably by different experimenters and at different reading
points
• Ex: due to oversight the experimenter reads temp 31.2 °C instead of 21.5 °C
Systematic errors

• Concerned with the instruments and components used in measurement

• Three categories
• Instrumental error
• Environmental error
• Observational error
• Instrumental error
• Due to inherent shortcoming of the instrument
• Due to misuse of instrument
• Due to loading effect of instrument
Systematic errors

Due to inherent shortcoming of the instrument

• Inherent in instruments
• Due to construction, calibration or operation
• Cause the instrument read too low or too high
• Ex: if spring of a permanent magnet instrument is weak the instrument will read high
• Reduce by
• Adding correction factors
• Periodic calibration
• Incorporating carefully planned measurement procedure
Systematic errors

Due to misuse of instrument

• Unintelligent way of using instrument
• Failure to adjust he zero, or initial adjustments
• Some ill practices may cause overloading or overheating and leads to
permanent damage of instrument
Due to loading effect of instrument
• Improper use of instrument for measurement work
• Connecting without considering the loading effect on the circuit
• Altering the actual measurement condition by the measurement process
Systematic errors
• Environmental error
• Due to conditions external to the measuring device
• Due to temperature, pressure, humidity, dust,
vibration etc.
• Corrective measures
• Make arrangements to keep the conditions as nearly as
constant possible
• Seal the equipment
• Provide temperature controlled enclosure etc.
• Use equipment immune to environmental variations
• Ex: use resistance with low temperature resistance coefficient
• Applying computed corrections
Systematic errors

• Observational error
• Parallax error- arises on account of pointer and
scale not in the same plane
• As correction provide meters with mirrored
scales
Random errors

• The errors cause due to the happenings or disturbances about

which we are unaware
• Also called as residual error since they remain even after
systematic errors are taken care.
• Ex: unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply,
mechanical vibrations of experimental set-ups, errors by the
observer taking readings, etc.
Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors

• The limited deviation of the measured value from the true value is known as the
limiting error or guarantee error.

• Relative limiting error or fractional limiting error = (actual value – nominal value) /
nominal value

Example

The nominal value of the resistor is 100Ω and the limiting error of the resistance is
±10 Ω. Determine the relative limiting error.

Soln: Relative limiting error = ±10 Ω /100 = ± 0.1

Combination of Quantities with Limiting
Errors
• When two or more quantities have limited error, it is more beneficial
to compute their limiting error in combinations.

• The magnitude of the limiting error can easily be determined if the

final result of the error is in the form of an algebraic equation.
Sum of two quantities
Example

Three resistors have the following ratings R1= 37Ω ±5%, R2 =75Ω ±5%, R3 =50Ω ±5
%. Determine the % relative limiting error of series combination of the resistances as
well as magnitude and limiting error in Ω.
Soln:

% relative limiting error = ± [(37/(37+75+50)) * 5 +

75/(37+75+50)) * 5 +50/(37+75+50)) * 5] = ±5%
Magnitude of the resistance = 37+75+50= 162Ω
Limiting error in Ω = (5/100)* (162) = 8.1Ω
Difference of two quantities

Always consider worst possible discrepancy

Product of two or more quantities
Quotient of two or more quantities
Example
The solution for the unknown resistance for a Wheatstone bridge is
Rx= (R2 * R3)/ R1 where R1= 100Ω ±0.5%, R2 =1000Ω ±0.5%,
R3 =842Ω ±0.5 %. Determine the magnitude of the unknown resistance
and the limiting error in % and in Ω for the unknown resistance Rx.

Soln:
Unknown resistance = Rx= (R2 * R3)/ R1 = (1000*842)/100 = 8420 Ω
Relative limiting error of the unknown resistance = ± [0.5+0.5+0.5] = ±1.5%
Limiting error in Ω = ±(1.5/100)* (8420) = ± 126.3Ω
The guaranteed values of resistance are between
8420 Ω ± 126.3Ω
Problem

Three resistors having resistances of 250 Ω, 500 Ω and 375 Ω are connected
in parallel. The 250 Ω resistor has a +0.025 fractional error, 500 Ω resistor
has a -0.036 fractional error and 375 Ω resistor has a +0.014 fractional error.
Determine (1) Total resistance neglecting errors (2) Total resistance
considering the error of each resistor (3) The fractional error of the total
resistance based upon rated values.
Solution

(1) R = 1/ (1/R1) +(1/R2) +(1/R3) = 115.38 Ω

(2) Fractional error in R1= 250 Ω is +0.025

δR1= (0.025 * 250) = +6.25 Ω

Hence R1= 250 – 6.25= 243.75 Ω

Similarly compute R2 and R3

Resultant resistance of three resistors in parallel is

R = 1/ (1/R1) +(1/R2) +(1/R3) = 114.45 Ω

(3) Fractional error of the parallel resistances based on the rated values is

(115.38-114.45)/115.38 = +0.8 %
Power of a factor
Composite factors
Summary
• 𝑌 =𝑈±𝑉 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑌 = ±(𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑈 + 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉)
• 𝑌 = 𝑈𝑉 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑌 = ±[ %𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑈 + (% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉)]
𝑈
•𝑌= 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑌 = ±[ %𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑈 + (% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉)]
𝑉
• 𝑌 = 𝑈 𝑛 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑌 = ±𝑛 (% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑈)
Statistical Analysis of Random Errors
 Difficult to locate and isolate the sources of random errors.

 Statistical methods can be used for the estimation of best value from a repeated
number of measurements under same condition

 When a measurement is repeated N times, N readings are obtained say x1, x2….xN.
Each reading xi (i=1,2,…N) is called variate, and the group of n variate is called raw
data.

(1) Arithmetic Mean (AM):

𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3 +⋯+𝑥𝑁 1 𝑁
𝑥= = 𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑁 𝑁

• Arithmetic mean is normally taken as he most probable value or the best estimate of the
nominal vale in electrical measurements
Statistical Analysis of Random Errors (Contd.)
(2) Deviation :
• Departure of a variate or a given reading from the AM
• Departure may be positive or negative
• Algebraic sum of deviations is 0.

𝑑𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥
(3) Average Deviation /mean absolute deviation :

𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑑𝑖
𝑑=
𝑁
Statistical Analysis of Random Errors (Contd.)

(4) Standard Deviation :

S.D also provides the extend of random error in the measurement
when N>20 (very large)
𝑁
1
𝑆. 𝐷 = 𝜎 = 𝑑𝑖2
𝑁
𝑖=1

when N<20
𝑁
1
𝑆. 𝐷 = 𝜎 = 𝑑𝑖2
𝑁−1
𝑖=1

(5) Variance or dispersion :

Square of the standard deviation

Provides the variance of x about the most probable value
Problem
A circuit was tuned for resonance by 8 different students and the values of
the resonant frequency in kHz were recorded as 532, 548, 543, 535, 546, 531,
543, 536. Calculate (1) arithmetic mean (2) deviations from mean (3) average
deviation (4) standard deviation (5) variance.

Soln:

(1) Arithmetic mean: (532+548+ 543+535+546+531+543+536)/8 = 539.25 kHz

(2) Deviation: d1= 532 – 539.25 = -7.25, similarly calculate d2…d8)

(3) Average deviation: 5.75 kHz

(4) Standard deviation: 6.54 kHz, N=8

(5) Variance: 42.64 (kHz)2

Calibration and standards
Calibration
• Calibration is the comparison of measurement values delivered by
a device under test with those of a calibration standard of known
accuracy (either a primary standard , secondary standard or a working
standard)
• Compare the reading of the test instrument with the reading of the
standard - if no error for all input values the test instrument is good
as the working standard.
• Take reading in both the ascending and descending order
Least square calibration curves

• Practically the test input reading may vary from that of calibration
standard.
• Then the calibration characteristics (calibration curve) of the instrument is
represented as

• 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑚𝑞𝑖 + 𝑏
• 𝑞𝑜 = output quantity
• 𝑞𝑖 = input quantity
• m= slop of the calibration curve
• b=a constant
Least square calibration curves

• The readings obtained during calibration may invariably project a pattern

shown below.
• Least square criterion can be used to find the best fit line with minimum
sum of the squares of the vertical deviation from the fitted line.

• The equation for calculating m and C is given as

𝑁 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑜 − 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑜
• 𝑚=
𝑁 𝑞𝑖 2 − 𝑞𝑖 2
𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑖 2 − 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑖
• 𝑏=
𝑁 𝑞𝑖 2 − 𝑞𝑖 2

• N= total number of data points

 Least square calibration curves
• Find out the least square fitted line from the given data
True Indicated pressure
pressure
kPa Increasing Decreasing
0.000 -1.12 -0.69
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑚𝑞𝑖 + 𝑏
1.000 0.21 0.42
m=1.0822 2.000 1.18 1.65
b=-0.847 3.000 2.09 2.48
4.000 3.33 3.62
5.000 4.50 4.71
6.000 5.26 5.87
7.000 6.59 6.89
8.000 7.73 7.92
9.000 8.68 9.10
10.000 9.80 10.20
Classification of standards
• A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement.
Eg: Unit of mass is kg
• Standards have been developed for all the fundamental units as well
as some of the derived mechanical and electrical units
• Standards are classified into
• International Standards (defined based on international agreement)
• Primary Standards (maintained by national standards laboratories)
• Secondary Standards (used by industrial measurement laboratories)
• Working Standards (used in general laboratory)
Classification of standards
• International standards
• Defined and agreed internationally
• Maintained at the international Bureau of weights and measures
• Not accessible outside for calibration of instruments
• Primary standards
• Maintained by national standards laboratories in different parts of the
world
• Not accessible outside for the calibration
• Used for the verification and calibration of the secondary standards
• These are absolute standards of high accuracy that can be used as
ultimate reference standards (considered as state of the art)
Classification of standards
• Secondary standards
• Fixed standards for use in industrial laboratories
• maintained by the particular industry to which they belong
• Periodically send to national laboratories and calibrated against primary
standards
• Working standards
• For day to day use in measuring laboratories
• Periodically calibrated against secondary standards
Instrument Calibration Chain

National Standard Organization (Primary Reference Standard)

Standards Laboratory (Secondary Reference Standard)

(Working Standard)
Company Instrument Laboratory

Process Instruments
Assignment- 1
• question 1: A) Identify the functional elements of D,Arsonval
Galvanometer and draw the block diagram
• B) Consider any other instrument and Identify the functional
elements and r4epresent as block diagram
• question 2:
• Write short note on the standards available for calibration at both the
National physical laboratories and laboratories of industries and
institutions
• Question 3
Assignment 1 question 3
• Static calibration of an instrument gives the data given below.
Calculate the best fit straight line using least square method.

Develop a MATLAB code that performs linear fit on a

given dataset and plots the data points along with the
fitted linear line. Compare the graphical representation Increasing Decreasing
of the fitted line with the algebraically calculated
equation (plot both curve in same graph). (Use the 0 -0.07 +0.01
function polyfit) 5 1.08 1.16
10 2.05 2.10
15 3.27 3.29
20 4.28 4.36
25 5.41 5.45
30 6.43 6.53
35 7.57 7.6
40 8.66 8.75
Module 1- Part 3

1
 Topics to be covered
• Signals and their representation, Electrical measuring systems,
Dynamics of Instrument systems, generalized performance of
systems, Electrical networks, mechanical systems ,
Electromechanical systems, thermal systems, fluidic systems,
Filtering and dynamic compensation

2
 Signals and their representation
• Signal: variation of any physical quantity with respect to time

• Input signal: stimulus to a physical system

• Output signal: the physical quantity which indicate or denote the response of a
physical system corresponding to an input signal

• Signals are
– Analog signal or digital signal
– Continuous time signal and discrete time signal
– Deterministic and random signals
– Periodic and periodic signal

3
 Classification of Signals
• Deterministic and

– Deterministic signals can be represented by an explicit mathematical function of

time so that the value of the function at any time can be measured

– May be periodic or periodic

– periodic signals: repeats itself at regular intervals of time

– Random signals: non deterministic signals- cannot be described mathematically -

amplitude at any instant cannot be determined or predicted
• Analysed by the application of probability theory and statistical analysis

4
Classification of Signals

5
Classification of Signals

6
 Signal analysis Tools
• Laplace transform
• Fourier transform
• Z transform

7
 Dynamic Analysis of Measurement Systems

• Time domain analysis

• Frequency domain analysis

8
 Time domain analysis
• Time response is defined as the output of the system when
subjected to an input which is a function of time

– Under time domain analysis, the dynamic behaviour of the system depend on
the poles of the system and not on type of the input

– Transient and steady state response

9
 Time domain analysis
• It is possible to compute the time response of a system if the nature of input
and the mathematical model of the system are known.
• Different types of inputs, which are a function of time is analyzed at
different intervals of time after the application of input signal
 Dynamic behaviour to any input can be predicted by studying its response to the standard inputs

– Step input
– Ramp input
– Parabolic input
– Impulse input
10
Time Domain : Standard Test Signals
 Step signals : Imitate the sudden change characteristics of actual input
signal.

A= 1 : Unit step signal

 Ramp signals : Imitate the constant velocity characteristics of actual
input signal.

A= 1 : Unit ramp signal

11
Time Domain : Standard Test Signals
 Parabolic signals : Imitate the constant acceleration characteristics of

actual input signal.

A= 1 : Unit parabolic signal

12
Contd…
 Impulse signals : Emphasis on change in the system in reaction to

some external change.

A= 1 : Unit impulse signal

Relationship between
test signals

13
 Frequency domain analysis
• Frequency response of the system - The steady state response of a stable
LTI system for an input sinusoidal signal
– The steady sate output also a sinusoidal signal

• The system is subjected to various types of time varying signals.

• According to Fourier analysis, these signals can be broken down to various
sinusoidal having different frequencies.
• The system may be subjected to inputs which vary periodically with time.
• The analysis with frequency as independent variable is called frequency
domain analysis.

14
Frequency Domain Analysis
• Frequency is the independent variable.

• Analyze the system behavior through application of sinusoidal input

signals because
– System subjected to a periodically varying sinusoidal signal.
– System subjected to a time varying signal of complex nature.
– System subjected to input signals like ramp, step, parabolic.

Frequency response of first order system

15
Modulation of Signals
• Modulation is a process of changing the characteristics of the wave to
be transmitted by superimposing low-frequency information signal on
a high-frequency carrier signal.

Modulation

Amplitude
Angle Modulation
Modulation

Frequency Phase
Modulation Modulation

16
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

The amplitude of carrier signal

varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of
modulating signal.

17
 Angle Modulation

The process in which the

frequency or the phase of the
carrier varies according to the
message signal.

Frequency Modulation (FM)

The frequency of carrier signal

varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of
18
modulating signal.
 Phase Modulation (PM)
The phase shift of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

19
 Mathematical models of instrumentation systems

• Physical system

• An instrumentation system is a physical system.

• Physical system is defined as collection of physical objects connected together to serve an
objective.
• An instrumentation system is an assemblage of diverse physical objects interconnected to
measure, analyze and control electrical, fluidic , thermal and other physical quantities.

• The first step in modeling a system is to obtain its physical model

• It is impossible to obtain a physical model of an instrumentation system which incorporates
all the complexities of the system.
• Model based upon certain idealized assumptions is called a physical model.

20
 Mathematical models of Measurement Systems

 Mathematical modeling is a key enabling tool in the analysis and

design of measurement systems.

 Measurement system: Measure, analyze and control electrical,

mechanical, thermal, fluidic and other physical quantities.

Physical Model

Mathematical
Model

21
 Mathematical models of instrumentation systems

Physical system

• Next step in modelling is to obtain a mathematical model from the conceived physical model.
• A mathematical model is a mathematical representation of the physical model.
• A mathematical model is achieved from a physical model by utilizing the physical laws of the process.
• After a mathematical model of a system has been obtained, the system is solved for various types of
inputs.
• The resulting output response is called the dynamic response of the system.

22
 Linear and Non-linear Systems
• Linear system obeys the principle of homogeneity and additivity.

• Mathematical models describing a system are depicted by differential

equations.

• A mathematical model is described as linear if the coefficients of the

differential equation are independent variables as a function of time.

• A mathematical model is described as non-linear if the coefficients

are a function of dependent variable.
Time invariant systems

Linear systems
Time variant systems

23
 Mathematical models of instrumentation systems

Linear and Non linear systems

The mathematical model of a system is linear if it obeys the laws of superposition and homogeneity.

Mathematical model is described by differential equations

Mathematical model is linear if the coefficient of the differential equation describing it are either constant or are a
function of the time.

24
 Mathematical models of instrumentation systems
Non linear systems
• The principles of superposition and homogeneity are not complied with.
• The differential equation describing the mathematical model has coefficient which are a function of
dependent variable , then the system is called non linear.

Linear systems
• Mathematical model is linear if the coefficient of the differential equation describing it are either constant or
are a function of the time.
 Linear time invariant
 Linear time variant systems

Linear time Invariant system

In case the differential equation describing a system has constant coefficient, it is called a linear time invariant
system.

Linear time variant systems

If the differential equation describing a system have coefficients which are a function of time ( the independent
variable) the system is called a linear time variant system.
25
 Analysis of linear systems

Laplace and Fourier transforms are available for analysis of linear systems.
Linearizing a non linear system, results loss of accuracy.

26
 Electrical networks

R-L-C circuit
• Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law

27
 Mechanical systems

Motion of mechanical elements can be described

1. Translational
2. Rotational
3. A combination of translational and rotational systems

Newtons’ law of motion

28
 Mechanical systems

1. Mechanical Translational systems

Mass, spring, friction

29
 Mechanical systems

1. Mechanical Translational systems

spring
Stiffness : K, provides a restoring force as represented by a spring.
When a force is applied to a spring , the reaction force, fk on each
end of the spring is the same and is equal to the product of the
stiffness K, and x is the amount of deformation .

30
Mechanical systems

1. Mechanical Translational systems

Friction

31
Mechanical systems
1. Mechanical Rotational systems
Inertia, Torsional Torque, Damping Torque

32
Mechanical systems
1. Mechanical Rotational systems
Inertia, Torsional Torque, Damping Torque

33
Mechanical systems
1. Mechanical Rotational systems
Inertia, Torsional Torque, Damping Torque

34
Mechanical systems

35
Thermal systems- Modeling

36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Fluidic Systems

50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62