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II. Anglo-Saxon Poetry

1. Pagan Poetry
Beowulf
Beowulf is the oldest poem in the English language. It is the most important
specimen of Anglo-Saxon literature, and also the oldest surviving epic in the
English language. It consists of more than 3,000 lines. It had been passed from
mouth to mouth for hundreds of years before it was written down in the 10th
century or at the end of the 9th century. The main stories in the poem are based
on the folk legends of the primitive northern tribes.
Hrothgar, king of the Danes, has built near the sea a mead-hall called
Heorot. It is the most splendid hall in the world. Every night the king and his
thanes gather there to feast and enjoy the songs of his gleemen. But later on
misfortunes befall them. One night, after they have gone to sleep, a frightful
monster called Grendel comes. He breaks into the hall, kills thirty of the
sleeping warriors, carries off their bodies and devours them in his lair under
the sea. The appalling visit speedily repeats, and fear and death reign in the
great hall. The king’s warriors fight at first, but flee when they find that no
weapon can hurt the monster. The splendid mead-hall is left deserted and
silent. For twelve winters Grendel’s horrible raids continue, and joy is changed
to mourning among the Danes.
Beowulf is the nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats who live in Juteland,
Denmark. He is a great hero, noted for his strength and bravery. When he hears
that Hrothgar, the good friend of his uncle, is in great trouble, he determines to
help the unhappy king. Then he crosses the sea with 14 soldiers to rid Hrothgar
of the monster. When they get there, they are given a feast of welcome in the
hall, and then they lie down in the hall for the night. At midnight, Grendel
comes and kills one of Beowulf’s soldiers. Beowulf has a hand-to-hand fight
with him. Finally he wrenches off one of the monster’s arms. Then the monster
flees to his den and dies. The next night, Grendel’s mother descends upon
the hall to avenge her son. She carries away the king’s dearest friend. In the
morning, Beowulf chases her into her lair and slays her with a sword wrought
by the giants hanging on the wall. When he finds the corpse of Grendel, he
cuts off his head and brings it back triumphantly. The Danes award him many
treasures, and Beowulf returns to his uncle happily.

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 Chapter One Anglo-Saxon Literature

Later on, Beowulf inherits the crown from his uncle and has reigned
over his kingdom for 50 years. He is a nice king loved and respected by his
people. But a disaster befalls his kingdom. A fire-spewing dragon that lives
on a mountain begins to devastate the land of his kingdom because it thinks
somebody has stolen a golden cup from the mountain cave that he has guarded
for 300 years. Therefore the angry dragon determines to punish the people
of the kingdom. It spews fire every day to burn the land and kill the people.
To save his people from the disaster, with 11 chosen warriors the aged king
goes to fight against the dragon. In the end, the dragon is killed, but Beowulf
is severely wounded during the battle. He dies a heroic death. The poem ends
with the scene of the grand funeral held for the hero by his people.

Writing Features of the Poem

1) It is not a Christian but a pagan poem, despite the Christian flavour
given to it by the monastery scribe who wrote it down. It is the product of
an advanced pagan civilisation. The whole poem presents to us an all-round
picture of the tribal society. The social conditions and customs can be clearly
seen in the poem. It helps us a lot when we study the primitive society of
Europe. So the poem has a great social significance.
2) The use of strong stresses and the predominance of consonants are
notable in the poetical lines. Each line is divided into two halves, and each half
is made to have two heavy stresses.
3) The use of alliteration is another notable feature of the poem. Three
stressed syllables of each line are arranged in alliteration, which makes the
whole line even more emphatic.
4) A lot of metaphors and understatements are used in the poem. For
example, the sea is called “the whale-road” or “the swan-road”; the soldiers are
called “shield-men”; the chieftains are called “treasure-keepers”; the human
body is referred to as “the bone-house”; God is called “wonder-wielder”; the
monster is referred to as “soul-destroyer”.

2. Religious Poetry
Caedmon
Caedmon (610-680) is the first known religious poet of England. He is

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 英国文学新编（修订版）

known as the father of English songs. His life story is vividly described in
Bede’s Historia Ecclesiastica. Caedmon, who was a humble and unlearned
man, looked after cattle for an abbey on the Yorkshire coast. On the eve of the
New Year, a feast was held in the abbey. When songs were called for, he stole
out quietly, because he felt ashamed that he could contribute nothing to the
amateur entertainment. Then he lay down in the cowshed to sleep. In his sleep,
he heard a voice asking him to sing. “I can’t sing,” he said. “And that is why I
left the feast and came here.” “Nevertheless,” said the mysterious voice, “You
shall sing to me.” “What shall I sing?” asked Caedmon. “Sing me the song of
creation.” Then Caedmon sang a song, which became his first poem and was
named The Hymn of Praise. Later on, encouraged by the success of his first
poem, Caedmon composed many other poems by using the biblical material.

Cynewulf and His Poems

Cynewulf lived in the early 9th century. Except the unknown composer
of Beowulf, he is regarded as the greatest Anglo-Saxon poet. Of his life story
we know very little. He was probably an ecclesiastic and a scholar. His name
remained unknown until 1840.
He produced four poems: Christ, Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles, and
Elene.
Of all these poems the most characteristic is Christ, which is a didactic
poem in three parts: the first part celebrates the Nativity; the second part
describes the Ascension; and the third part deals with the Doomsday.
Cynewulf took his subject matter partly from the church liturgy, but more
largely from the homilies of Gregory the Great. The poem expresses a deep
love for Christ and reverence for Virgin Mary.

III. Anglo-Saxon Prose

Prose literature arrived later than poetry. It did not show its appearance
until the 8th century. There appeared three famous prose writers: Venerable
Bede, Alfred the Great and Aelfric.

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 Chapter One Anglo-Saxon Literature

1. Venerable Bede
When we speak of the Old English prose, the first name that comes into our
mind is Venerable Bede (673-735), who is the first scholar in English literature
and has been regarded as the father of English learning. His works, over 40
in number, were written exclusively in Latin and covered the whole field of
human knowledge of his day.
The most important of his works is The Ecclesiastical History of the
English People. The book not only tells us how religion was introduced and
spread in England but also recounts some historical events of that period as
well as some Anglo-Saxon mythological legends. It is in this book that Bede
describes Caedman’s legendary life story.

2. Alfred the Great

Alfred the Great (848-901), king of Wessex kingdom, is another important
figure in prose writing of Anglo-Saxon period. During his reign, he tried every
means to improve education by founding colleges and importing teachers from
Europe. He was a well-known translator. He translated some important Latin
works into English, among which, the most important is The Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle. This book records the main happenings of the Anglo-Saxon period.
It is the best monument of the Old English prose.

3. Aelfric
Aelfric (955-1010) was a clergyman. He wrote a large number of religious
works in Greek and Latin. In his works he introduced a lighter, clearer and
more musical prose, and the Old English prose was attaining high quality.

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