https://doi.org/10.20965/jaciii.2023.

p0837

Research Paper:

Novel Concepts on Domination in Neutrosophic Incidence

Graphs with Some Applications
Siti Nurul Fitriah Mohamad∗,∗∗ , Roslan Hasni∗∗,† , and Florentin Smarandache∗∗∗
∗
College of Computing, Informatics and Mathematics, Universiti Teknologi MARA
Machang, Kelantan 18500, Malaysia
E-mail: [email protected]
∗∗ Special Interest Group on Modeling and Data Analytics,

Faculty of Ocean Engineering Technology and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu

Kuala Nerus, Terengganu 21030, Malaysia
E-mail: [email protected]
∗∗∗ Mathematics & Science Department, The University of New Mexico

705 Gurley Avenue, Gallup, New Mexico 87301, USA

E-mail: [email protected]
† Corresponding author

[Received October 21, 2022; accepted May 8, 2023]

In graph theory, the concept of domination is essen- and geometry, graphs are commonly utilized as a tool for
tial in a variety of domains. It has broad applications addressing combinatorial issues, and their importance in
in diverse fields such as coding theory, computer net- computer science is well known. Weighted graphs rep-
work models, and school bus routing and facility lo- resent the strength of links between the vertices, and can
cation problems. If a fuzzy graph fails to obtain ac- be utilized to define any model that consists of points and
ceptable results, neutrosophic sets and neutrosophic lines. The concept of domination was first established for
graphs can be used to model uncertainty correlated the game of chess in the 1850s. Several chess players in
with indeterminate and inconsistent information in ar- Europe debated the matter of deciding the least number
bitrary real-world scenario. In this study, we consider of queens that could be substituted on a chessboard to en-
the concept of domination as it relates to single-valued sure that all of the squares were occupied by a queen. As
neutrosophic incidence graphs (SVNIGs). Given the a solution to this problem, Ore [1] and Berge [2] first pro-
importance of domination and its utilization in numer- posed the concept of domination in graphs in 1962.
ous fields, we propose the application of dominating In graph theory, domination may be utilized to model a
sets in SVNIG with valid edges. We present some rel- wide variety of systems, such as in abstract formalizations
evant definitions such as those of valid edges, cardi- like the facility location problem, social network analy-
nality, and isolated vertices in SVNIG along with some sis, and problems in matching and coding theory, as well
examples. Furthermore, we also show a few signifi- as the operation of real technologies such as communica-
cant sets connected to the dominating set in an SVNIG tion networks, security systems, clutters, and block cut-
such as independent and irredundant sets. We also in- ters. For example, it aims to address problems about fa-
vestigate a relationship between the concepts of dom- cility location problems in which the number of facilities
inating sets and domination numbers as well as irre- such as police stations, fire stations, hospitals, and super-
dundant and independence sets in SVNIGs. Finally, a markets, and to shorten the routes that travelers must take
real-life deployment of domination in SVNIGs is inves- to reach the nearest facility. In abstract terms, if the max-
tigated in relation to COVID-19 vaccination locations imum distance to a facility is defined and efforts to lower
as a practical application. the number of facilities required to accommodate every-
one are made, similar situations may be expected to de-
velop. Furthermore, the concept of domination has been
Keywords: dominating set, domination number, neutro- considered in applications such as in monitoring commu-
sophic graph, single-valued neutrosophic incidence graph nication or electrical networks, finding sets of representa-
tives, and surveying land.
If vertices are considered to symbolize different cities,
1. Introduction edges can indicate roads that link them. The result of this
arrangement is a fuzzy graph (FG) that depicts the volume
In recent decades, graph theory has been increasingly of traffic from one city to another. Here, the city with the
considered important as a branch of applied mathemat- most residents will have the most entrance ramps. If A
ics, generally referred to as combinatorics. In fields as di- and B are two cities and AB denotes the road that connects
verse as topology, number theory, algebra, optimization, them, we can consider that (A, AB) can display a ramp

Vol.27 No.5, 2023 Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence and Intelligent Informatics 837
© Fuji Technology Press Ltd. Creative Commons CC BY-ND: This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 InternationalLicense (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/)
Mohamad, S. N. F., Hasni, R., and Smarandache, F.

system from road AB to city A. Both A and B exhibit a

Table 1. Basic notations.
one-to-one influence on AB in unweighted graphs. The
impact of A on AB represented by (A, AB) on a directed Abbreviations Description
graph is 1, but (B, AB) is 0. Dinesh [3] presented fuzzy SVNIG Single-valued neutrosophic incidence graph
incidence graphs (FIGs) as an expansion of this concept.
SVNIDS Single-valued neutrosophic incidence domi-
An FIG depicts the extent of the connections between ver-
nating set
tices in a set and the effect of a vertex on a relation pair.
SVNIDN Single-valued neutrosophic incidence domina-
In 1965, the concept of fuzzy sets (FSs) was proposed
tion number
by Zadeh [4], and subsequently generalized to model
fuzziness and uncertainty. Since then, FS theory has SVNIIRS Single-valued neutrosophic incidence irredun-
dant set
been widely explored in a variety of fields. For exam-
ple, Rosenfeld [5] established FG theory and also pre- SVNIPN Single-valued neutrosophic incidence valid
private neighborhood
sented FGs and many important notions such as fuzzy
trees, fuzzy cycles, fuzzy paths, etc., based on Zadeh’s no- SVNIIDS Single-valued neutrosophic incidence inde-
tions on the FS. In addition, Kaufmann [6] presented FGs pendent set
based on Zadeh’s fuzzy relation. However, because the
features of graph issues are frequently indeterminate and Table 2. The list of symbols.
inconsistent, it is considered preferable to handle them
utilizing the approach of neutrosophic logic, which pro- Symbols Description
vides the system greater precision in comparison to the G̃(V, E, I) Incidence graph
classic set and FS.
ξ (A, B,C) SVNIG
To cope with the difficulty, Smarandache [7] proposed
the idea of neutrosophic set (NS) theory as an extension δIVN Minimum cardinality single-valued neutrosophic
of the classic FSs, as well as that of intuitionistic FSs incidence valid neighborhood degrees of ξ (A, B,C)
(IFSs). In NSs, falsity membership functions (F), inde- ΔIVN Maximum cardinality single-valued neutrosophic
terminacy membership functions (I), and truth member- incidence valid neighborhood degrees of ξ (A, B,C)
ship functions (T ) comprise a membership value. Here, γIDN (ξ ) Minimum cardinality of SVNIDS
each membership value is a non-standard or real-standard ΓIDN (ξ ) Maximum cardinality of the minimal SVNIDS
subset of the non-standard unit interval ]0− , 1+ [, and their irN (ξ ) Minimum cardinality among all maximal
sum is not restricted. To model real-world issues more SVNIIRSs
easily by using NS, Wang et al. [8] introduced the idea of IrN (ξ ) Maximum cardinality among all maximal
single-valued NSs (SVNSs), which have three indepen- SVNIIRSs
dent components with values in the standard unit inter- αIDS (ξ ) Minimum cardinality among all maximal SVNIIDS
val [0, 1]. βIDS (ξ ) Maximum cardinality among all maximal
Considering the concept of neutrosophic graphs (NGs) SVNIIDS
is highly effective compared to FGs, it expands the range
of applications of graph theory across various fields such
as in decision-making problems [9–12]. In real-life set- • An original conceptualization of domination on
tings, NGs, together with the theory of NSs and the con- SVNIG based on valid edges is introduced.
cept of domination, serve an important role in implying
and dealing with inconsistent, indeterminate, and impre- • The descriptions of valid edges, cardinality, and iso-
cise information. In recent years, the study of domi- lated vertices in SVNIGs are explained along with
nation in the context of NGs has attracted attention as instances.
a topic of active research. Hussain et al. [13] studied • We consider a few significant sets connected to the
domination numbers (DNs) in neutrosophic soft graphs. dominating set (DS) in SVNIGs, such as indepen-
Moreover, Devi [14] introduced minimal domination via dent and irredundant sets. All basic notation is
neutrosophic over graphs. Mullai and Broumi [15] in- shown in Table 1, and the symbols used are shown
troduced dominating energy in NGs, and more recently, in Table 2.
Khan et al. [16] utilized strong edges to introduce the no-
tions of paired domination, matching, and covering in a • We establish a relationship between the concepts of
single-valued NG (SVNG). To the best of our knowledge, DS and DN as well as those of irredundant and inde-
no prior works have analyzed the concept of domination pendent sets in the context of SVNIGs.
in the context of neutrosophic incidence graphs. There-
• Real-life applications of the concept of domination
fore, motivated by [17, 18], in this study, we consider
valid edges to expand the concept of domination to single- in SVNIGs are discussed.
valued neutrosophic incidence graphs (SVNIGs). The key The remainder of this study is organized as follows. In
contributions of this study are summarized as follows: this introduction, we discussed the historical background
of incidence and domination graphs, as well as the con-
cepts of the FSs and NSs. In Section 2, we briefly review

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and Intelligent Informatics
 Novel Concepts on Domination in Neutrosophic Incidence Graphs

the relevant literature on incidence graphs in fuzzy and Ore [1] and Berge [2] began researching DSs in graphs
neutrosophic environments, and present the concepts of in 1962. Cockayne and Hedetniemi [29] subsequently de-
domination in FGs as well as in FIGs and NGs. Section 3 rived irredundant numbers, independent domination, and
offers a brief introduction to graphs and NSs as used in the concept of domination. A. Somasundaram and S.
this work. In Section 4, we formulate the concept of dom- Somasundaram [30] were the first to establish the con-
ination in SVNIGs and derive some key aspects. In Sec- cept of domination in FGs. They utilized effective edges
tion 5, we implement the proposed approach to construct a to identify domination and total DNs (TDNs) for various
model of the optimal locations for COVID-19 vaccination classes in FGs. Subsequently, Somasundaram [31] found
administration centers (CVACs). Finally, in Section 6, we domination in the product of two graphs and investigated
summarize our findings and conclude with a discussion their domination parameter, as well as many FG opera-
of the limitations of this work along with some suggested tions such as Cartesian product, composition, joining, and
avenues for further research. union. Additionally, Gani and Ahamed [32] pioneered the
concepts of weak and strong domination in FGs and de-
scribed their various characteristics.
2. Literature Review Furthermore, Natarajan and Ayyaswamy [33] devel-
oped the idea of strong (weak) domination in FGs, ex-
Brualdi and Massey [19] first presented the concept of plaining several intriguing findings for this new parameter
an incidence graph in their work on incidence and in- in FGs. In addition, Vimala and Sathya [34] considered
cidence chromatic numbers. Such incidence graphs can FG point set DNs and utilized the FGs neighborhood de-
typically be depicted as a triplet, in which one aspect rep- grees to acquire some limitations. Besides that, Manjusha
resents a fine set of vertices, a second denotes a finite and Sunitha [35–40] have provided some proofs on dom-
set of edges, and a third refers to an incidence function. ination in FGs. Moreover, Ponnappan et al. [41] estab-
Dinesh [3] further developed the theory for unordered lished the concept of the total edge DN, the edge DN,
pairs of vertices that are not incident with end vertices. total edge domination, and edge domination for various
In contrast, fuzzy incidence depicts the relationships be- types of FGs. In addition, Dharmalingam and Rani [42]
tween vertices and offers data on the effect of the vertex suggested the concepts of fuzzy equitable independent
on edges’ influence. Subsequently, Dinesh [20] expanded sets in equitable FGs, fuzzy equitable independent sets,
on the idea of FIGs and introduced some additional con- strong (weak) fuzzy equitable DSs, minimal fuzzy eq-
cepts related to this body of knowledge. uitable DSs, and fuzzy equitable DSs. They presented
Furthermore, Mathew and Mordeson [21] also exam- several remarkable insights for this new parameter. Ac-
ined concepts of connectivity in FIGs. In interconnected cordingly, Dharmalingam and Nithya [43, 44] established
networks with influenced flows, connectivity is crucial. the concepts of excellent and very excellent domination
Hence, investigating the connectivity qualities of graphs in FGs. Here, the notion of a DS was proposed by
is important. The theory of FIGs was then explored Bozhenyuk et al. [45] as an invariant of an intuitionistic
by Malik et al. [22] to address human trafficking prob- FG (IFG).
lems. They argued that the importance of this work is its Nazeer et al. [46] utilized a new concept of domina-
quantification of a country’s vulnerability and of govern- tion in FIGs developed in their previous work and ap-
ments’ actions in response to human trafficking. Simi- plied it to the choice of an adequate medical lab among
larly, Mathew et al. [23] investigated certain connectivity a range of laboratories. Then, Nazeer et al. [47] expand
and incidence cuts properties in FIGs. In graphs modeling on the idea of domination idea by combining FIGs with
human trafficking networks, incidence is used to model strong pairings and applying it to diverse nations’ trading
flows. Finally, Mathew and Moderson [24] described systems. Subsequently, Afsharmanesh and Borzooei [17]
fuzzy incidence blocks (FIBs) and discussed their appli- utilized incidence valid edges to establish DSs in FIGs
cation to the problem of illegal migration. They applied and examined numerous significant sets pertaining to DS,
FIBs to prevent a network’s susceptible linkages from be- such as irredundant and independent sets. Rao et al. [18]
ing ignored, utilizing FIGs as a non-deterministic net- expanded the concept of domination concept in FIGs to
work model with supporting links. Subsequently, Akram VIGs, utilizing valid edges and applying their approach
et al. [25] extended FIGs to a neutrosophic environ- to the optimal locations of COVID-19 testing facilities in
ment, and presented the concept of SVNIGs and exam- another investigation.
ined their connectivity. Building on this research, Akram
et al. [26] investigated the application of bipolar NSs to
incidence graphs and developed a few relevant features. 3. Preliminaries
Subsequently, the theory of neutrosophic vague incidence
graphs (VIGs) was then developed by Hussain et al. [27], In this section, we recall some fundamental definitions
who formulated pair, vertex, and edge connectivity in with respect to SVNSs, FIGs, and domination. In this
neutrosophic VIGs. Furthermore, Mohamad et al. [28] study, maximum and minimum operators are represented
applied the concept of innovative interval-valued neutro- by ∨ or max, and ∧ or min, respectively.
sophic incidence graphs to the safe root travelling prob- Definition 1— [48]: An FG G = (σ , μ ) is a pair of
lem. functions together with an underlying set of vertices V and

Vol.27 No.5, 2023 Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence 839

and Intelligent Informatics
Mohamad, S. N. F., Hasni, R., and Smarandache, F.

a set of edges E, where σ : V → [0, 1] and μ : V × V →

[0, 1] such that μ (uv) ≤ σ (u) ∧ σ (v), ∀u, v ∈ V .
Definition 2— [31]: Let G = (σ , μ ) denote an FG on
V with u, v ∈ V . Note that u dominates v in G if μ (u, v) =
σ (u) ∧ σ (v). A subset S of V is known as a DS in G
provided that for every u ∈ V − S there exists an u ∈ S
given that u dominates v. Meanwhile, a subset S of V is
known as a total DS in G provided that for every u ∈ V − S
there exists an u ∈ S given that u dominates v.
Definition 3— [31]: The minimum fuzzy cardinality
of a DS in G = (σ , μ ) is known as the DN of FGs G =
(σ , μ ), which is expressed by γ f or γ f (G). Meanwhile,
the minimum fuzzy cardinality of a total DS in G = (σ , μ )
is known as the TDN of FGs G = (σ , μ ), which is ex-
pressed by γt f or γt f (G).
Definition 4— [20]: Let graph G = (V, E), where μ Fig. 1. Incidence graph G̃.
and σ are FSs of E and V , respectively. Let V × E pos-
sess an FS δ . Provided that δ (v, e) ≤ σ (v) ∧ μ (e) for ev-
ery e ∈ E and v ∈ V , then δ is known as the fuzzy inci- 4. Domination in SVNIGs
dence of G, while (σ , μ ) is referred to as a fuzzy sub-
graph of G. Let δ be a fuzzy incidence of G. Then, 4.1. Domination in SVNIGs Based on Valid Edges
G = (σ , μ , δ ) is known as an FIG of G.
Definition 7: ξ = (A, B,C) is called an SVNIG of an
Definition 5— [8]: Consider ℵ as a universal set. An
underlying incidence graph G̃ = (V, E, I) if
SVNS A in ℵ is denoted by a falsity-membership func-
A = { TA (v), IA (v), FA (v) |v ∈ V } ,
tion FA (x), an indeterminacy-membership function IA (x),
and a truth-membership function TA (x). An SVNS A may B = { TB (xy), IB (xy), FB (xy) |xy ∈ E} ,
be expressed as C = { TC (v, xy), IC (v, xy), FC (v, xy) |(v, xy) ∈ I} ,
A = {x, TA (x), IA (x), FA (x)|x ∈ ℵ} , such that
where TA (x), IA (x), FA (x) ∈ [0, 1] for each x in ℵ. There- TB (xy) ≤ min {TA (x), TA (y)} ,
fore, the sum of TA (x), IA (x), and FA (x) satisfies the con- IB (xy) ≤ min {IA (x), IA (y)} ,
dition 0 ≤ TA (x)+IA (x)+FA (x) ≤ 3. Now, for an SVNS A
FB (xy) ≤ max {FA (x), FA (y)},
in ℵ, the triplets TA (x), IA (x), FA (x) are denoted as a
single-valued neutrosophic number, resembling a funda- TC (v, xy) ≤ min {TA (v), TB (xy)} ,
mental element in SVNS. IC (v, xy) ≤ min {IA (v), IB (xy)} ,
Definition 6— [49, 50]: An SVNG denotes a pair G = FC (v, xy) ≤ max {FA (v), FB (xy)} , ∀v ∈ V, xy ∈ E,
(V, E), where V is an SVNS in ℵ expressed as V = where TA , IA , FA : V → [0, 1] and
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }. This is known as the set of vertices 0 ≤ TA + IA + FA ≤ 3,
denoting a truth-membership value TA : V → [0, 1], an
0 ≤ TB + IB + FB ≤ 3,
indeterminacy-membership value IA : V → [0, 1], and a
falsity-membership value FA : V → [0, 1] provided that 0 ≤ TC + IC + FC ≤ 3.
TA (vi ) + IA (vi ) + FA (vi ) ∈ [0, 3], for all vi ∈ V . Example 1: Let G̃ = (V, E, I) denote an incidence
For E ⊆ V × V = {(vi , v j )|vi , v j ∈ V, i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n} graph as shown in Fig. 1, in which V = {a, b, c, d}, E =
is referred to as the set of edges that denotes a truth- {ab, bc, bd, cd, ad}, and
membership value TB : V × V → [0, 1], an indeterminacy- I = {(a, ab), (b, ab), (b, bc), (c, bc), (b, bd),
membership value IB : V × V → [0, 1], and a falsity- (d, bd), (c, cd), (d, cd), (a, ad), (d, ad)}.
membership value FB : V ×V → [0, 1] such that From this, it is clear to indicate that ξ = (A, B,C) is an
SVNIG of G̃ as shown in Fig. 2, we have
TB (vi , v j ) ≤ TA (vi ) ∧ TA (v j ) ,
A = {(a, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5), (b, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4),
IB (vi , v j ) ≤ IA (vi ) ∧ IA (v j ) ,
(c, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5), (d, 0.4, 0.6, 0.5)},
FB (vi , v j ) ≤ FA (vi ) ∨ FA (v j ) .
B = {(ab, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5), (bc, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5),
This holds provided that (bd, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5), (cd, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5),
TB (vi , v j ) + IB (vi , v j ) + FB (vi , v j ) ∈ [0, 3], (ad, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5)},
for all vi , v j ∈ E. C = {((a, ab), 0.1, 0.3, 0.5), ((b, ab), 0.1, 0.3, 0.5),
((b, bc), 0.2, 0.3, 0.5), ((c, bc), 0.2, 0.3, 0.5),
((b, bd), 0.2, 0.3, 0.5), ((d, bd), 0.2, 0.3, 0.5),
((c, cd), 0.3, 0.4, 0.5), ((d, cd), 0.3, 0.4, 0.5),
((a, ad), 0.1, 0.3, 0.5), ((d, ad), 0.1, 0.3, 0.5)}.

840 Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence Vol.27 No.5, 2023

and Intelligent Informatics
 Novel Concepts on Domination in Neutrosophic Incidence Graphs

 
 1 + TA (x) + IA (x) − FA (x) 

|A| =  ∑ =P
x∈V 2 
 
 + (xy) + (xy) − (xy) 
 1 T I F 
|B| =  ∑
B B B
=Q
xy∈E 2 
 
 + (v, + (v, − (v, 
 1 T xy) I xy) F xy) 
|C| =  ∑
C C C
 = R.
(v,xy)∈I 2 
Example 2: In Fig. 2, it may be clearly observed that
ab and bc are single-valued neutrosophic incidence valid
edges, from which we obtain
1 + 0.1 + 0.3 − 0.5 1 + 0.2 + 0.3 − 0.4
|A| = +
2 2
1 + 0.3 + 0.4 − 0.5 1 + 0.4 + 0.6 − 0.5
+ +
Fig. 2. SVNIG ξ in Examples 1 and 2. 2 2
= 0.45 + 0.55 + 0.60 + 0.75
= 2.35,
1 + 0.1 + 0.3 − 0.5 1 + 0.2 + 0.3 − 0.5
Definition 8: The SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C) support is |B| = +
sup(ξ ) = (sup(A), sup(B), sup(C)) such that 2 2
1 + 0.2 + 0.3 − 0.8 1 + 0.3 + 0.4 − 0.8
sup(A) = {x|TA (x) > 0, IA(x) > 0, FA (x) > 0} , + +
2 2
sup(B) = {xy|TB (xy) > 0, IB (xy) > 0, FB (xy) > 0} , 1 + 0.1 + 0.3 − 0.9
sup(C) = {(v, xy)|TB (v, xy) > 0, IB (v, xy) > 0, +
2
FB (v, xy) > 0}. = 0.45 + 0.50 + 0.35 + 0.45 + 0.25
Definition 9: Let ξ = (A, B,C) be denoted as = 2.00,
an SVNIG. Thus, H = (Ã, B̃, C̃) denotes as an 1 + 0.1 + 0.3 − 0.5 1 + 0.1 + 0.3 − 0.5
SVNI-subgraph of ξ provided that à ⊆ A, B̃ ⊆ B, |C| = +
2 2
as well as C̃ ⊆ C.
1 + 0.2 + 0.3 − 0.5 1 + 0.2 + 0.3 − 0.5
Definition 10: Let ξ = (A, B,C) denote an SVNIG. + +
Following from there, a single-valued neutrosophic inci- 2 2
dence edge xy of ξ is known as a single-valued neutro- 1 + 0.2 + 0.3 − 0.8 1 + 0.2 + 0.3 − 0.9
+ +
sophic incidence valid edge provided that 2 2
TB (xy) 1 + 0.3 + 0.4 − 0.8 1 + 0.3 + 0.4 − 0.9
≥ 0.5, + +
min (TA (x), TA (y)) 2 2
1 + 0.1 + 0.3 − 0.9 1 + 0.1 + 0.3 − 0.9
TC (x, xy) > 0, TC (y, xy) > 0, + +
2 2
IB (xy) = 0.45 + 0.45 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.35 + 0.3
≥ 0.5,
min (IA (x), IA(y))
+0.45 + 0.4 + 0.25 + 0.25
IC (x, xy) > 0, IC (y, xy) > 0,
= 3.90.
FB (xy) Example 3: Consider an SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C) such
≤ 0.5,
1 + max(FA (x), FA (y)) that V = {e, f , g, h, j}, E = {ef , fg, gh, hj, ej}, and
FC (x, xy) > 0, FC (y, xy) > 0. I = {(e, ef ), ( f , ef ), ( f , fg), (g, fg), (g, gh),
In another way, it is considered as a single-valued neutro- (h, gh), (h, hj), ( j, hj), (e, ej), ( j, ej)},
sophic incidence invalid edge. as shown in Fig. 3. By routine calculation, the edges ef ,
Definition 11: Consider ξ = (A, B,C) as an SVNIG. Its fg, and hg are the single-valued neutrosophic incidence
cardinality  is expressed by  valid edges.
 1 + TA (v) + IA (v) − FA (v)  Definition 12: The SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C) is considered

|ξ | =  ∑  to be complete provided that
x∈V 2 
  TB (xy) = min (TA (x), TA (y)) ,
 1 + TB (xy) + IB (xy) − FB (xy) 
 IB (xy) = min (IA (x), IA (y)) ,
+ ∑ 
xy∈E 2  FB (xy) = max (FA (x), FA (y)) ,
 
 1 + TC (v, xy) + IC (v, xy) − FC (v, xy)  TC (v, xy) = min (TA (v), TB (xy)) ,

+ ∑ . IC (v, xy) = min (IA (v), IB (xy)) ,
(v,xy)∈I 2 
Also, we have the vertex cardinality |A|, edge cardinal- FC (v, xy) = max (FA (v), FB (xy)) ,
ity |B|, and incidence cardinality |C| expressed by ∀v ∈ V, xy ∈ E.

Vol.27 No.5, 2023 Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence 841

and Intelligent Informatics
Mohamad, S. N. F., Hasni, R., and Smarandache, F.

Fig. 3. SVNIG ξ in Example 3. Fig. 4. SVNIG ξ in Examples 4 and 5.

Definition 13: Let ξ = (A, B,C) denote an SVNIG. Definition 15: Let ξ = (A, B,C) denote an SVNIG
Thus, of G̃. Then,
i. a single-valued incidence valid neighborhood of x is 1. x ∈ V incidentally dominates y ∈ V in ξ , provided
expressed by Nsvniv (x) = {y ∈ V |xy is a single-valued that y ∈ Nsvniv [x].
neutrosophic incidence valid edge}.
2. a non-empty set of vertices D ⊆ V denotes a single-
Note that Nsvniv [x] = Nv (x) ∪ {x} denotes a closed valued neutrosophic incidence DS (SVNIDS) in an
single-valued neutrosophic incidence valid neigh- SVNIG ξ , provided that there exists y ∈ D when-
borhood of x. For non-empty set D ⊆ V , we now ever x incidentally dominates y. In other words,
have V = Nsvniv [D], ∀x ∈ V − D.
Nsvniv (D) = {Nsvniv (x)|x ∈ D}, 3. The minimum cardinality of SVNIDS in an SVNIG
Nsvniv [D] = Nsvniv (D) ∪ D. of G̃ is expressed as a single-valued neutrosophic
incidence DN (SVNIDN) of ξ , which is expressed
ii. the single-valued neutrosophic incidence valid by γIDN (ξ ). Clearly, γIDN (ξ ) ≤ P.
neighborhood degree of vertex x is expressed by 4. A set with the minimum single-valued neutrosophic
 cardinality of γIDN (ξ ) is denoted as an γIDN -set or
dNsvniv(x) = ∑ TA (y), ∑ IA (y), minimal SVNIDS.
Example 5: Consider ξ = (A, B,C) to be denoted as an
y∈Nsvniv (x) y∈Nsvniv (x)
 SVNIG as shown in Fig. 4. By routine calculations, the
∑ FA (y) . edges jk, kl, kn, and mn are single-valued neutrosophic
incidence valid edges. The sets
y∈Nsvniv (x)
D1 = {k, m}, D2 = {k, n}, D3 = { j, l, m}, D4 = { j, l, n}
The maximum and minimum, and cardinality single- are SVNIDSs.  By calculating the cardinalities, we obtain

 1 + 0.4 + 0.4 − 0.5 1 + 0.2 + 0.4 − 0.3 
valued neutrosophic incidence valid neighborhood |D1 | =  + 

degrees of ξ are expressed by ΔIVN and δIVN , accord- 2 2
ingly. = 0.65 + 0.65 = 1.30,
 
Definition 14: Consider ξ = (A, B,C) to be denoted as  1 + 0.4 + 0.4 − 0.5 1 + 0.1 + 0.3 − 0.5 
an SVNIG. Then, the vertex cardinality of S ⊆ V is ex- |D2 | =  + 

2 2
pressed as  
 1 + T (x) + I (x) − F (x)  = 0.65 + 0.45 = 1.10,
  
|S| =  ∑
A A A
.  1 + 0.3 + 0.5 − 0.4 1 + 0.2 + 0.6 − 0.5
x∈S 2  |D3 | =  +
2 2
Example 4: Let SVNIG ξ as shown in Fig. 4. Then, 
1 + 0.2 + 0.4 − 0.3 
Nsvniv (e) = { f }, Nsvniv ( f ) = {e, g}, + 
2
Nsvniv (g) = { f , h}, Nsvniv (h) = {g},
= 0.7 + 0.65 + 0.65 = 2.00,
Nsvniv ( j) = 0.
/ 
 1 + 0.3 + 0.5 − 0.4 1 + 0.2 + 0.6 − 0.5
Thus, |D4 | =  +
dNsvniv (e) = (0.3, 0.4, 0.5), dNsvniv( f ) = (0.4, 0.9, 0.9), 2 2

dNsvniv (g) = (0.5, 0.9, 0.8), dNsvniv(h) = (0.1, 0.4, 0.5). 1 + 0.1 + 0.3 − 0.5 
+ 
Therefore, by routine calculation, it is obvious that 2
δIVN = (0.1, 0.4, 0.5) and ΔIVN = (0.5, 0.9, 0.8). = 0.7 + 0.65 + 0.45 = 1.80.

842 Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence Vol.27 No.5, 2023

and Intelligent Informatics
 Novel Concepts on Domination in Neutrosophic Incidence Graphs

Hence, γIDN (ξ ) = 1.10 and D2 = {k, n} is a γIDN -set. 4.2. Irredundant Sets in an SVNIG
Theorem 1: In any SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C), γIDN (ξ ) ≤ Definition 19: Consider ξ = (A, B,C) to be denoted as
P − ΔIVN . an SVNIG, S ⊆ V as well as x ∈ S. The vertex y is
Proof: Let x ∈ V in an SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C). Assume known as a single-valued neutrosophic incidence valid
that dNsvniv (x) = ΔIVN . Then, V − Nsvniv (x) is an SVNIDS private neighborhood (SVNIPN) of x into S provided that
of ξ , such that Nsvniv [x] ∩ S = {x}. In addition, we express the SVNIPN
γIDN (ξ ) ≤ |V − Nsvniv (x)| = P − ΔIVN . of x into S by PN svniv (x, S). This expresses

PN svniv (x, S) = Nsvniv [x] − Nsvniv [y]
y∈S−{x}
Note that D denotes an incidence DS of the SVNIG ξ =
(A, B,C) as well as D1 ⊆ V provided that D1 ⊇ D. Thus, = Nsvniv [x] − Nsvniv [S − {x}].
D1 also denotes an incidence DS. Subsequently, any sub- Clearly, provided that x ∈ PN svniv (x, S), x is isolated
set D2 of D is not required to be an incidence DS. There- in S .
fore, we are inclined to consider an SVNIG’s minimal in- Definition 20: Let ξ = (A, B,C) denote an SVNIG as
cidence DSs. well as 0/ = S ⊆ V .
Definition 16: An SVNIDS D of the SVNIG ξ = 1. S is a single-valued neutrosophic incidence irredun-
(A, B,C) is denoted as a minimal SVNIDS provided that dant set (SVNIIRS) provided that for any x ∈ S,
any proper subset of D is not included in an SVNIDS of ξ . PN svniv (x, S) = 0.
/
The upper SVNIDN ΓIDN equals the maximum cardi-
nality of the minimal SVNIDS in ξ . Obviously, γIDN de- 2. S is considered a maximal SVNIIRS provided that,
notes the minimum cardinality of the minimal SVNIDS for any x ∈ V − S, the set S ∪ {x} is not an SVNIIRS,
in ξ . which explains that there exists at least one ver-
Example 6: In Example 3, the sets tex y ∈ S ∪{x} where it does not possess an SVNIPN.
D1 = {h, j, e}, D2 = {g, j, e}, 3. The minimum cardinality among all maximal-
D3 = {h, j, f }, D4 = { f , j, g} SVNIIRSs is considered as a single-valued neutro-
resemble the minimal SVNIDSs. Thus, ΓIDN = 2 and sophic incidence irredundant number (SVNIIRN)
γIDN = 1.7. and expressed by irN (ξ ).
Definition 17: The vertex’s valid degree x ∈ V in an 4. The maximum cardinality among all maximal-
SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C) is expressed to denote the sum of SVNIIRSs is known as an upper SVNIIRN and ex-
the falsity membership, indeterminacy membership, and pressed by IrN (ξ ). Hence, it may be easily noted
true membership degree of the single-valued neutrosophic that irN (ξ ) ⊆ IrN (ξ ).
incidence valid edges (SVNIVE) incident at vertex x ∈ V , Theorem 3: Let SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C) with vertex car-
which is expressed as dsvniv (x). The maximum and min- dinality P and minimum cardinality single-valued neu-
imum valid degree cardinalities of ξ = (A, B,C) are de- trosophic incidence valid neighborhood (SVNIVN) de-
noted as Δsvniv and δsvniv , respectively. gree δIVN . Then,
Definition 18: Let the SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C), a ver- IrN (ξ ) ≤ P − δIVN .
tex x ∈ V is denoted as an isolated vertex provided that Proof: Let S denote an SVNIIRS in ξ with x ∈ S. Con-
Nsvniv (x) = 0./ This implies that, for any y ∈ V , where clude that x resembles a valid neighborhood to k vertices
y = x, xy is not a SVNIVE. in S. Here, given that the degree of x denotes at least δIVN ,
Example 7: As may be clearly observed from Fig. 4, x must be valid neighborhood to at least δIVN − dN k ver-
j denotes an isolated vertex due to Nsvniv ( j) = 0.
/ tices in V − S in which dN k resembles the cardinality of k
Theorem 2: In an SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C) possess no valid neighborhood vertices x in S.
isolated vertices. Provided that D denotes the minimal Provided that dN k = 0, δIVN ≤ |V − S|, i.e., |S| ≤ P −
SVNIDS in ξ , V − D thus resembles an SVNIDS. δIVN as needed.
Proof: Let D resemble any minimal SVNIDS of ξ . Provided that dN k > 0, each valid neighborhood of x
Meanwhile, the vertex x ∈ D incidentally is not dominated in S must possess a valid private neighborhood in V − S
by any vertex in V − D. Provided that ξ possesses no and k must be distinct.
isolated vertices, x is incidentally dominated by at least Therefore,
one vertex in D−{x}. Thus, D−{x} denotes an SVNIDS,
which contradicts the minimality of D. Hence, any vertex (δIVN − dN k ) + dN k ≤ |V − S|,
in D is incidentally dominated by at least one vertex in δIVN ≤ |V − S|,
V − D. Therefore, V − D resembles an SVNIDS.
Corollary 1: For an SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C) with no iso- where
lated vertex, we now have γIDN ≤ P/2. |S| ≤ P − δIVN ,
Proof: Provided that D denotes a minimal SVNIDS IrN (ξ ) ≤ P − δIVN .
of ξ , so does V − D. Therefore, P = |V | = |D| + |V − D|.
Hence, at least one of the sets D or V − D has a cardinality
P/2 or less. Theorem 4: An SVNIDS in an SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C) is
a minimal SVNIDS provided that it is an SVNIIRS.

Vol.27 No.5, 2023 Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence 843

and Intelligent Informatics
Mohamad, S. N. F., Hasni, R., and Smarandache, F.

Proof: Let S denote a minimal SVNIDS in ξ . Then, thus D ∪ {x} denotes SVNIIDS of ξ , violating the max-
for any vertex x ∈ S, there exists a vertex z ∈ V − (S − {x}) imality of D. Interchangeably, provided that D denotes
that is not dominated by S − {x}. Thus, for any x ∈ S, independent SVNIDS, for any x ∈ / D, D ∪ {x} is not an
PN svniv [x, S] = 0.
/ Hence, any vertex x ∈ S possesses at SVNIIDS. Thus, D resembles a maximal SVNIIDS.
least one incidence valid private neighborhood. There- Theorem 7: Every maximal SVNIIDS of ξ denotes a
fore, S is both an SVNIIRS and an SVNIDS. minimal SVNIDS of ξ .
Therefore, provided that the set S is not a minimal Proof: Proof. Let D be a maximal SVNIIDS of ξ .
SVNIDS, there exists an x ∈ S given that S − {x} is an Then, by Theorem 6, D is an SVNIDS of ξ . Therefore, we
SVNIDS. Because S is an SVNIIRS, PN svniv [x, S] = 0. / must determine whether D is a minimal SVNIDS. If not,
Given that z ∈ PN svniv [x, S], z is not a valid neighborhood there exists at least one vertex x ∈ D in which D − {x} is
for any vertex in S − {x}. Provided that S − {x} is not an an SVNIDS. Interchangeably, provided that D−{x} dom-
SVNIDS, this leads to a contradiction. inates x, at least one vertex in D − {x} must be SVNIVN
Theorem 5: Every minimal SVNIDS in an SVNIG ξ = of x, which contradicts D and resembles an SVNIIDS
(A, B,C) is a maximal SVNIIRS. of ξ . Moreover, D must be a minimal SVNIDS.
Proof: By Theorem 4, any minimal SVNIDS is an Corollary 3: Each SVNIIDS of ξ is a minimal
SVNIIRS. Thus, we need to show that S is a maximal SVNIDS of ξ .
SVNIIRS provided that S is not maximal. Thus, there ex- Proof: Let S be an SVNIIDS of ξ . Then, Theorem 6
ists a vertex x ∈ V − S in which S ∪ {x} is an SVNIIRS. resembles a maximal independent set and Theorem 7 re-
This shows that PN svniv [x, S ∪ {x}] = 0.
/ Thus, there exists sembles a minimal SVNIDS.
at least one vertex y that is a valid private neighborhood The converse of Corollary 3 may not be accurate in gen-
of x into S ∪ {x}. Ultimately, no vertex in S is a neighbor- eral, as shown in the example given below.
hood to y. This contradicts S being an SVNIDS. Corollary 4: For any SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C), we have
Corollary 2: For any SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C), γIDN (ξ ) ≤ αIDS (ξ ) ≤ βIDS (ξ ) ≤ ΓIDN (ξ ).
irN (ξ ) ≤ γIDN (ξ ) ≤ ΓIDN (ξ ) ≤ IrN (ξ ). Proof: By Theorem 7, any maximal SVNIIDS D of ξ
Proof: By Theorem 5, every minimal SVNIDS in ξ = is a minimal SVNIDS of ξ . Then, the result is straightfor-
(A, B,C) is a maximal SVNIIRS in ξ . Thus, the result is ward.
straightforward. By Corollaries 2 and 4, we obtain the following result.
Theorem 8: For any SVNIG ξ = (A, B,C), irN (ξ ) ≤
γIDN (ξ ) ≤ αIDS (ξ ) ≤ βIDS (ξ ) ≤ ΓIDN (ξ ) ≤ IrN (ξ ).
4.3. Independent Sets in an SVNIG
Definition 21: Let ξ = (A, B,C) denote an SVNIG.
Then, 5. An Application of SVNIGs to Determining
Optimal Locations of CVACs
1. The vertices y and x are incidentally independent in ξ
provided that the edge xy is not an SVNIVE. The COVID-19 pandemic is a global outbreak of se-
vere acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2). Vacci-
2. The subset S of V is a single-valued neutrosophic in-
nation is one of the most promising techniques to miti-
cidence independent set (SVNIIDS) of ξ provided
gate the impacts of the pandemic. Since the beginning of
that any two vertices of S are incidentally indepen-
the outbreak, many initiatives have been conducted world-
dent. This shows that all of the vertices of S are
wide to create COVID-19 vaccines. The Special Com-
isolated.
mittee for Ensuring Access to COVID-19 Vaccine Sup-
3. S is referred to as a maximal SVNIIDS in which ply (JKJAV), co-chaired by Malaysian Ministers of Health
for any x ∈ V − S the set S ∪ {x} is not incidence- and Science, Technology, and Innovation was formed to
independent. assure the country’s immediate access to COVID-19 vac-
cine supplies. The government’s objective is to guaran-
4. The maximum cardinality among all maximal tee as many Malaysians as possible attain vaccination to
SVNIIDS is referred to as a single-valued neutro- minimize the mortality and morbidity of the disease as
sophic incidence-independent number (SVNIIDN) quickly as possible. Universities, community halls, con-
of ξ given by βIDS (ξ ). vention centers, stadiums, and other suitable venues will
be established as temporary vaccine administration cen-
5. The minimum cardinality among all maximal ters depending on demand. However, the issue of where to
SVNIIDS is a lower SVNIIDN of ξ given locate these temporary vaccination administration centers
by αIDS (ξ ). is very important. To reduce costs, the government must
Theorem 6: Let ξ = (A, B,C) be an SVNIG. Then, choose the smallest number of cities that are the most ap-
SVNIIDS denotes a maximal provided that it is an pealing so that the remaining cities are connected to at
SVNIDS. most one city with available vaccines by a usable travel-
Proof: Let D be a maximal SVNIIDS of ξ . Then, ing route for better accessibility.
D must be an SVNIDS of ξ . If not, there exists a ver- Therefore, in this section, we attempted to identify the
tex x ∈ V − D that incidentally is not dominated by D, and most suitable cities to construct CVACs using SVNIGs

844 Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence Vol.27 No.5, 2023

and Intelligent Informatics
 Novel Concepts on Domination in Neutrosophic Incidence Graphs


Because D2 has a minimum scalar cardinality among
SVNIDSs, we conclude that C2 , C3 , and C5 can be se-
lected as the preferred cities in which to construct the
CVACs. Considering the facilities and equipment in all
the cities, these locations are most well supplied and
equipped. Thus, we conclude that the government must
allocate sufficient funds to these cities and provide more
health officers and volunteers to established CVACs in or-
der for our country to attain greater immunity as soon as
possible.

6. Conclusion and Future Research

In graph theory, the concept of domination is essential
from both theoretical and practical perspectives. Domi-
nation in incidence graphs has been utilized to formulate
and solve a variety of issues in science and technology,
such as in combinatorial analysis, artificial intelligence,
computer networks, etc. NSs are an extension of IFSs and
Fig. 5. Pictorial diagram of the application of SVNIG.
FS notion. In comparison to classical and fuzzy models,
NS models provide higher compatibility, flexibility, and
precision.
In this study, we integrated the concept of domina-
and DSs to save both expense and time. Moreover, the tion with the idea of SVNIGs and also covered several
cities have diverse circumstances in regards to the CVAC important graph-theoretic concepts. Each of these con-
location’s development, and differ considerably in terms cepts wasexplored with appropriate instances. We also
of their highways in relation to the safety, quality, dis- introduced the concepts of single-valued neutrosophic in-
tance, and the presence of checkpoints and traffic at var- cidence valid edges and a definition of cardinality in
ious levels. The cities in the two regions are modeled as SVNIGs. In addition, we explored many key results re-
the set of vertices (V ), and the routes connecting cities are lating to these dominations, such as irredundant and inde-
represented by the set of edges (E). The city entry and exit pendent sets and DSs in SVNIGs employing valid edges.
points (the ramp between the road and the city) are mod- Lastly, to demonstrate a real-world application of domi-
eled by the set of incidences (I) in this graph. Fig. 5 illus- nation in an SVNIG model, we suggested an exemplary
trates this application for the problem of locating CVACs. scenario relating to the problem of selecting locations for
We considered six cities designated as C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 , CVACs.
C5 , and C6 . In this notation, a vertex C2 (0.2, 0.6, 0.5) Further studies can be carried out to determine the dom-
has 20% of the facilities required to set up a CVAC. A ination in SVNIGs using strong or effective pairs. Fur-
value of 50% indicates a lack of necessary equipment, thermore, we plan to continue our study of various domi-
while 60% indicates a correspondingly more notable in- nation parameters in NSs and identify the bounds of dom-
sufficiency. The edge C2C3 (0.2, 0.3, 0.5) shows that 20% ination parameters.
of the route to the CVAC is not disrupted by any traffic.
Still, unfortunately, 50% of the route between these two
points is congested with vehicles, especially during the Conflicts of Interest
rush hours, while 30% of the route is not disrupted by any The authors declare no conflict of interest.
traffic. The DSs for Fig. 5 were calculated as follows:
D1 = {C2 ,C3 ,C4 } , D2 = {C2 ,C3 ,C5 } ,
Acknowledgments
D3 = {C1 ,C2 ,C4 } , D4 = {C1 ,C2 ,C3 ,C4 } ,
This research has been supported by Universiti Teknologi MARA
D5 = {C2 ,C3 ,C4 ,C5 } , D6 = {C2 ,C3 ,C4 ,C6 } ,
Kelantan (600-TNCPI 5/3/DDN (03) (014/2022)). The authors
D7 = {C1 ,C2 ,C4 ,C6 } , D8 = {C1 ,C3 ,C5 ,C6 } , wish to thank Universiti Teknologi MARA Kelantan for the finan-
D9 = {C2 ,C4 ,C5 ,C6 } , D10 = {C1 ,C3 ,C4 ,C5 } . cial support and to the referees for their constructive comments
After calculating the cardinality of D1 , . . . , D10 , we ob- which improved the paper.
tain
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4914813

846 Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence Vol.27 No.5, 2023

and Intelligent Informatics
 Novel Concepts on Domination in Neutrosophic Incidence Graphs

Name: Name:
Siti Nurul Fitriah Mohamad Florentin Smarandache

ORCID:
Affiliation: 0000-0002-5560-5926
College of Computing, Informatics and Mathe-
matics, Universiti Teknologi MARA Affiliation:
Mathematics & Science Department, The Uni-
versity of New Mexico

Address: Address:
Machang, Kelantan 18500, Malaysia 705 Gurley Avenue, Gallup, New Mexico 87301, USA
Brief Biographical History: Brief Biographical History:
2010 Received B.Sc. degree in Mathematical Science from Universiti 2008- Professor of Mathematics, The University of New Mexico
Sains Malaysia (USM) 2009 Postdoctoral Researcher, Air Force Research Laboratory
2011 Received M.Sc. degree in Mathematical Science from USM 2010 Postdoctoral Researcher, École nationale supérieure de techniques
Main Works: avancées Bretagne
• Neutrosophic graph theory. 2013-2014 Postdoctoral Researcher, Okayama University of Science
2014 Postdoctoral Researcher, Guangdong University of Technology
Main Works:
• Neutrosophic set.

Name:
Roslan Hasni

ORCID:
0000-0003-3695-2145

Affiliation:
Special Interest Group on Modeling and Data
Analytics, Faculty of Ocean Engineering Tech-
nology and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu
Address:
Kuala Nerus, Terengganu 21300, Malaysia
Brief Biographical History:
1998 Received B.Sc. degree in Education (Mathematics) from Universiti
Sains Malaysia
2000 Received M.Sc. degree in Mathematics from Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia
2005 Received Ph.D. degree in Mathematics from Universiti Putra
Malaysia
2012- Associates Professor, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
Main Works:
• Graph theory.

Vol.27 No.5, 2023 Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence 847

and Intelligent Informatics