VetBooks.

ir
Farm health
and
productivity management
of dairy young stock

Siert-Jan Boersema
Joao Cannas da Silva
John Mee
and
Jos Noordhuizen
Wageningen Academic
P u b l i s h e r s
VetBooks.ir

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

 Farm health
VetBooks.ir

and
productivity management
of dairy young stock

Siert-Jan Boersema
Joao Cannas da Silva
John Mee
Jos Noordhuizen

Wageningen Academic
P u b l i s h e r s
VetBooks.ir

This work is subject to copyright. All rights

are reserved, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned. Nothing from this
publication may be translated, reproduced,
stored in a computerised system or published
in any form or in any manner, including
electronic, mechanical, reprographic
or photographic, without prior written
ISBN: 978-90-8686-129-3 permission from the publisher, Wageningen
e-ISBN: 978-90-8686-694-6 Academic Publishers,
DOI: 10.3920/978-90-8686-694-6 P.O. Box 220, 6700 AE Wageningen,
the Netherlands,
www.WageningenAcademic.com
Photo cover by courtesy of John Mee
This publication and any liabilities arising
from them remain the responsibility of the
First published, 2010 authors.

The publisher is not responsible for possible

© Wageningen Academic Publishers damages, which could be a result of content
The Netherlands, 2010 derived from this publication.
VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

Contents

List of acronyms and short explanation of some technical terms 9

Preface 11

Section I. The population medicine approach to young stock rearing 13

Chapter 1. Economic aspects of young stock rearing 15

Chapter 2. The population-medicine approach to young stock rearing 29
Chapter 3. Execution of a farm health and productivity management
programme for young stock 39
Chapter 4. Applied biosecurity in young stock rearing 59
Chapter 5. The concept of cattle comfort, applied to young stock rearing 67
Chapter 6. Quality risk management programmes for young stock rearing 73
Chapter 7. Discussion and conclusions 83
Annexes to Section I 91

Section II. Diseases of young stock 131

Chapter 8. Introduction to Section II 133

Chapter 9. Perinatal disorders 135
Chapter 10. Infectious calf diarrhoea and septicaemia 145
Chapter 11. Reflections about IBR (BHV-1 virus) infections 161
Chapter 12. Reflections about BVD (BVD virus) infections 169
Chapter 13. Summarising other diseases in young stock 177
Chapter 14. Tropical and subtropical diseases in young stock 189

References 193
Keyword index 203

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 7

VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

List of acronyms and short explanation of some technical terms

BCS body condition score (an estimate to score muscle and fat coverage
of the animal's body at the lumbar and tail head area)
BRD bovine respiratory disease
Business unit part of the whole chain of on-farm production process elements
(for example: the colostrum period; or: the pasture period)
BVD bovine virus diarrhoea
BW body weight
C/B ratio costs-to-benefits ratio
CCP critical control point (in quality risk management, QRM)
DM dry matter
FAO food and agriculture organisation of the United Nations, Rome,
Italy
FHPM farm health and productivity management (programmes); highly
comparable to HHPM, but addressing the farm as a whole,
including the animals, their environment, and the management
GDF good dairy farming (code of practice)
HACCP hazard analysis and critical control points
HHPM herd health and productivity management (programmes); mainly
focusing on the ‘herd’ as unit of concern
IBR infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
IgG immunoglobulin type G
IM intramuscular (injection)
IRR internal rate of return
IU international units
IV intravenous (injection)
NPV net present value
OIE Office Internationale d'Épizooties, Paris, France
OR odds ratio (an epidemiological risk quantification parameter: OR
>1 means risk increase, OR < 1 means risk decrease, OR= 1 means
no association between factor and disorder)
PI persistently infected animal (BVD)
POPA point of particular attention (in quality risk management, QRM)
PPM parts pro million
QRM quality risk management (programmes), addressing animal
health, animal welfare and public health issues at farm level
SC subcutaneous (injection)
SMART specific-measurable-achievable-relevant-time based (method to
raise focussed questions and to set operational goals, e.g. in FHPM)
TQM total quality management

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 9

VetBooks.ir

Work instruction practical, technical instruction sheet for clarifying activities in a

certain, specific area (for example, hygiene and disinfection of calf
houses)

10 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Preface

The rearing of young stock until calving on dairy farms is often neglected, as compared
to the management of adult – lactating – cattle.

Some farmers believe that calves and maiden heifers are non-productive, for at least
two years. Others say they can not do without them because they will sooner or later
replace older cows that will be culled some day.

It is often not realised that young stock represent a critical investment in the future
of the dairy farm and this should be a reason to pay sufficient attention to the rearing
period to safeguard that investment and get the best efficiency out of it. Productivity
in the rearing period can be regarded as the optimal weight gain during the whole
rearing period, paralleled by an optimal animal health state, given the herd health
state, and an optimal reproductive potential. The ultimate goals of this rearing are the
heifer after its first calving entering into milk production up to her genetic potential,
and that she will show an optimal health and longevity in the herd.

This book has been designed to provide the reader (practising veterinarians, herd
health veterinarians, extension officers and other farm advisors, but also dairy
farmers) with practical tools to manage the whole complexity of young stock rearing.

We have chosen a population-medicine approach because it is with a herd of healthy

animals that the farmer earns his income, and not with individual, diseased ones
which cost him money. This approach provides the farmer with structure, planning,
evaluation, organisation, and coaching.

Risk identification and risk management are key aspects of the population medicine
approach, and therefore the Annexes comprise a series of practical and useful
worksheets.

Ultimately, a section on diseases in young stock which affect the herd rather than
just individuals is added as a quick reference guide because they have become rather
complex and are economically relevant to the farmer. Nevertheless, this book should
not be regarded as the textbook on calf diseases; other, more comprehensive books
are available.

We hope that this text will be a beneficial tool in your daily practice, and, if you
are currently not approaching young stock problems using a population-medicine
methodology, that this book will assist and encourage you to do so. Young stock
rearing is about investing in the future of the farm by both the farmer and the

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 11

VetBooks.ir

veterinarian. Optimising herd health and production management of dairy young

stock means optimising performance, and at the same time, reducing losses and costs,
and, hence, increasing animal welfare and farm profitability. Veterinarians have a
substantial role to play.

January 2010
The authors:

Siert-Jan Boersema (the Netherlands)

Veterinary Practice ‘Van Stad tot Wad Dierenartsen’, Loppersum, the Netherlands
Institute for Risk Assessment Studies IRAS, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Utrecht University, the Netherlands
VACQA-International, Santarém, Portugal

Joao Cannas da Silva (Portugal)

Facultade de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidade Lusofona, Lisboa, Portugal
VACQA-International, Santarém, Portugal

John Mee (Ireland)

Teagasc, Moorepark Dairy Production Research Centre, Fermoy, Ireland

Jos Noordhuizen (France)

VACQA-International, Santarém, Portugal
Associé à l'École Nationale Vétérinaire de Lyon, France

Photos in this book are reproduced by courtesy of John Mee, Joao Cannas da Silva,
Siert-Jan Boersema and Jos Noordhuizen

12 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Section I. The population

medicine approach to
young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

Chapter 1. Economic aspects of young stock rearing

(estimation of disease losses, and the cost-benefit
assessment of intervention measures)

1.1. General issues

The rearing of young stock (replacement heifers) on a dairy farm is a costly business
without instant revenues. Not only because it takes, by-and-large, two years to raise
a heifer until her first calving, but also because during that period different diseases
and disorders may occur which all have an economic impact and cause (more or less
considerable) economic losses (Dirksen et al., 1984; Noordhuizen, 2004).

Young stock rearing is – from an economic and enterprise point of view – a specific
component of dairy farming, a particular farm process, next to cow husbandry and
feed harvesting, pasturing and feeding management (Figure 1.1). Young stock rearing
can be considered as an investment in the future, while at the same time the revenues
are rather indirect. These revenues as features of productivity are, for example, an
optimal growth pattern throughout the rearing period, animals in good health and a
good genetic make-up.

In order to be able to make estimations on economic losses, or on costs and benefits, we

need information, such as about disease prevalence, the variation between farms, and
price elements. And even if we have that information, the outcome of our estimations
is not always the same. The latter is caused by the fact that the effects of disease are not
always clear and manifest, that these effects show a temporal distribution, and that

Lactating and Feed harvesting,

dry cows pasturing, feeding
husbandry management

Young stock
rearing

Figure 1.1. The three major economic components of a dairy farm.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 15

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

these effects are affected by other factors such as nutrition, barn climate or housing
conditions. This multifactorial nature of disorders is a major reason to implement a
population-medicine approach to young stock rearing (Noordhuizen et al., 2004).

1.2. Disease losses

There are different elements to consider when assessing economic loss due to diseases
or disorders. The major elements are listed in Table 1.1. Of the elements listed in Table
1.1, the three most relevant ones are: productivity loss; reduced slaughter or market
value; and premature culling (Huirne et al., 2002).

International literature is not very abundant regarding the estimation of economic

losses due to the different diseases during the period of young stock rearing. This
means that we can only address some rearing issues in a fragmentary way.

1.2.1. The costs of rearing young stock

Rearing costs can be considered as the second largest production cost component on
a dairy farm (Cady and Smith, 1996). This should be reason enough to pay sufficient
attention to young stock rearing, and its associated costs.

Table 1.1. Overview of major elements concerning the economic losses due to diseases in dairy
cattle.

Major elements comprised in economic losses due to disease in dairy cattle

Costs related to:

treatment (medicinal products)
discarded milk due to treatment (with e.g. antibiotics)
extra labour by farm worker(s) and reduced productivity and labour satisfaction
retarded growth in calves and maiden heifers
delayed age at first calving in heifers
loss of body condition and body weight (loss in carcass value)
longer dry periods
higher mortality
premature culling and lower cull animal value
loss of milk production or deviating quality
loss of genetic potential
loss of production potential (due to lung or udder tissue problems)
diagnosis (veterinarian; laboratory testing; post-mortem)

16 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 1. Economic aspects of young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

The different countries have different price systems and are, hence, not really
comparable. Based on generally accepted target values for rearing (e.g. pre-weaning
death rate of calves <10%; first age at calving approximately 25 months; herd culling
rate 25%; average herd calving interval <13 months), we can make an estimation of
those costs, or changes in those costs when the herd performance deviates from the
given target value.

A study by Tozer and Heinrichs (2001) showed that rearing costs may be around
$32,000 (≈ €26,600) for a 100 cow herd. If herd culling rate increased from 25% to
30%, there would be too few heifers to replace cows. If, however, herd culling rate
dropped from 25% to 20%, the rearing costs would decrease by about $8,000 (≈ €6,600
or 24.6%). And if the age at first calving dropped from 25 to 24 months, the rearing
costs would decrease by $1,400 (≈ €1,160 or 4.3%).

They also calculated that, at an average age at first calving of 21 months, any increase
in herd culling rate or in pre-weaning calf death rate caused an increased shortage of
heifers to replace cull cows: up to 10-12 heifers (that is, at a pre-weaning death rate
25% and a herd culling rate of 35% – note that these are USA data!). Or, summarised
in other words, each 1% of reduction in herd culling rate leads to a $1000 to $1,500
(≈ €1000) less rearing costs on a 100 cow farm.

1.2.2. Costs of dystocia in first calf heifers

A questionnaire survey by McGuirk et al. (2007) has shown that in the UK the
economic losses of a slight dystocia could be estimated at £110 (≈ €165), while for
severe dystocia this was £350 to 400 (≈ €525-600 ) on average.

The most important determinants of these costs were labour, followed to a lesser
extent by increased number of days open, increased mortality and premature culling.

1.2.3. Comparing pasteurised, non-saleable milk feeding with commercial milk

replacer feeding to calves

There are always cows with mastitis, or cows that have been treated with antibiotics
for other reasons in dairy herds. What to do with this milk? Throw it away or could
it be valued by feeding it to calves? A study by Godden et al. (2005) reported the
comparison of such milk –after pasteurization – with regular milk replacer.

The milk replacer group of calves showed:

• less growth per calf per day (120 g less);
• at weaning a lower body weight (5.6 kg less);

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 17

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

• a higher probability for being treated (OR 4);

• a higher probability for premature death (OR 30).

Pasteurising discarded or antibiotic milk can hence be an attractive option. The authors
calculated a benefit of $0.69 (= €0.57) per calf per day less costs. The method would
only be valid for (large) herds which can feed at least 23 calves per day. Moreover, one
has to invest in the pasteurisation equipment, and it might be more interesting to look
into the udder health situation in the herd to reduce the volume of waste (mastitic)
milk on the farm.

1.2.4. Estimation of economic losses due to respiratory disease in young stock

A study by VanderFels-Klerx et al. (2001) addressed both pneumonia in calves

younger than 3 months and a seasonal outbreak of respiratory disease in maiden
heifers up to 15 months of age. The components of economic losses were:
• treatment costs;
• mortality;
• premature culling;
• reduced growth;
• lowered reproductive performance; and
• milk yield loss in first lactation.

The calf pneumonia model showed an average loss of €31 per maiden heifer present
(variation from €18 to €57), while the seasonal outbreak caused in average a loss of
€27 per maiden heifer present (variation from €17 to €43).

In estimating the costs due to bovine respiratory disease (BRD) and its control, one
should not assume that once control measures have been instituted, e.g. vaccination,
that costs will be lower than if such measures had not been instituted. Mee et al.
(1995) demonstrated that it could be economically more advantageous to treat cases
of BRD as they occurred, rather than to institute prophylactic vaccination. This can
occur because vaccination is an additional farm cost and is not 100% effective in BRD
where mixed infection is the norm. Additional risk management plans may help to
further reduce costs.

1.3. Feed efficiency in young stock rearing

Monitoring and surveillance of growth performance and the feed costs related to
young stock rearing over time can provide the farmer and the veterinarian with a
tool to detect pending problems and to start an in-depth analysis of a problem, if any.

18 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 1. Economic aspects of young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

When two farms are compared for the young stock growth performance, measurements
often do not differ greatly (Boersema, 2006). However, when the same farms are
compared for their feed costs per animal per day, the differences may be large. See for
example Figure 1.2. Young stock on farm L grow faster and more gradually in the first
year of life, the growth on this farm declines rapidly in the 2nd year, whereas young
stock on farm S shows more growth persistency. However, if farms are compared for
their feed costs per animal per day, the differences are large; farm S rears young stock
for almost half of the costs as compared to farm L. In order to calculate feed costs
per animal per day, one needs to know daily DM intake per (age-) group, the costs
of feedstuffs per kg DM and the period during which a specific ration was fed per
age-group.

An example calculation is as follows:

Feed costs per animal per day for a specific age-group is calculated as
∑[(cost feedstuff X per kg DM × amount fed/day), (cost feedstuff Y per kg DM ×
amount fed/day), etc.]

In Figure 1.2a it can be seen that on farm S, the first 4 months and last month of the
rearing period are the most expensive ones. In the first 2 months expensive milk

750 3.5
700
650 3.0
600
550 2.5
Costs (€/animal/day)
500
Body weight (kg)

450 2.0
400
350
1.5
300
250
200 1.0
150
100 0.5
50
0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
Age in months
target growth curve
individual calf/heifer body weights as measured
upper and lower 10% deviation from the target growth curve
average Dutch growth trend line for young stock
feed costs per period a ration was fed

Figure 1.2a. Evaluation of growth in young stock on dairy farm S, together with data on feed
costs per period a certain ration was being fed.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 19

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

replacer (high protein level) is fed. During the 2 months after weaning, calves are
fed a high protein calf starter, representing the most costly rearing period. From 4-8
months of age, feed costs decline as a result of the concentrates: roughage ratio getting
smaller when feed intake increases. From 8-15 months feed costs gradually rise in
accordance with the increase in feed intake. From 15-23 months feed intake of the
same ration increases, resulting in a small rise in feed costs. Pregnant heifers are
housed with dry cows 4 weeks before calving, feed costs rise because the ration of the
milking cows mixed with straw was fed to this group.

Young stock feed costs on farm L presented in Figure 1.2b are much higher
compared to farm S. The main difference is that an increasing amount of expensive
concentrates is fed during the first 11 months of the rearing period on farm L. The
concentrates:roughage ratio does not decline, resulting in high feed costs per day. In
the period 11-23 a ration of very little concentrate and straw was fed on farm L., still
being twice as expensive as the ‘grass silage, straw and little brewers grain’ – ration
on farm S.

When growth performance between the two farms is compared, it can be concluded
that growth in the first year is comparable. If body condition scores (BCS) are taken

750 3.5
700
650 3.0
600
550 2.5
Costs (€/animal/day)
500
Body weight (kg)

450 2.0
400
350
1.5
300
250
200 1.0
150
100 0.5
50
0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
Age in months
target growth curve
individual calf/heifer body weights as measured
upper and lower 10% deviation from the target growth curve
average Dutch growth trend line for young stock
feed costs per period a ration was fed

Figure 1.2b. Young stock growth charts for farm L, together with data on feed costs per period
a certain ration was being fed.

20 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 1. Economic aspects of young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

into account as well, it can be observed that there is a tendency towards fattening in
the age group from 6 to 12 months on farm L. High concentrate levels (resulting in
high feed costs as well) may cause this tendency on farm L. The decline of growth
persistency in the 2nd year of life on farm L might be caused by the poor ration fed after
the 1st year of life. Note that e.g. disease losses and costs, investments in preventive
programmes and labour costs are not taken into account in these calculations.

Young stock of the same breed, reared under two different farm circumstances,
have developed better on farm S and under cheaper feeding conditions. Farm S has
performed economically more efficient in this area.

A comparison of Figure 1.2a and 1.2b shows that one farm has much higher feed costs
than the other. The reason for this difference may be in e.g. health disorders leading to
poor feed intake and weight gain, poorly managed pastures, endo-parasite infections
with poor feed conversion rates, and or feedstuff purchased at high costs.

1.4. Prevention and intervention: costs and benefits

Preferably, the costs and the benefits (or effects) associated with different specific
intervention options are estimated before deciding which option to choose. This
estimation can be done through partial budgeting and through cost/benefit analysis
(or cost-effect assessment), while a decision-tree analysis approach can be helpful in
making the proper choices when different – e.g. treatment – alternatives are presented
against different prices and results (Fetrow, 1985; Cockcroft and Holmes, 2003). It is
outside the scope of this text to elaborate in detail about the inputs and outputs, or
methods of such estimations; we will only provide some basic outlines.

Partial budgeting is applied when a simple economic comparison of different disease

control measures or of risk management measures must be made, and when the
result is not depending on a time-related pattern, and does not show a high level of
uncertainty. This method quantifies the economic consequences of particular changes
in on-farm management, for example like in the case of applying yes or no a herd
health programme, or expand an existing herd health programme with a strict anti-
endoparasites component. In partial budgeting, only the cost and return elements
which will most probably change because of the proposed measures are taken into
consideration.

In partial budgeting, the general lay-out follows four components:

1. additional returns which will show up thanks to the proposed measures and not
in the original management procedure;

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 21

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

2. reduced costs, showing a list of costs of the original management procedure which
will be eliminated by applying the proposed measures;
3. lost returns which formerly were part of the original management procedure and
which will show up as lost once the proposed measures are executed;
4. additional costs associated with the proposed measures and which were not
involved in the original procedure.

The proposed intervention or prevention measures should be adopted and applied if

components (1)+(2)>(3)+(4).

The other method, the cost-benefit-analysis, is often applied when longer term disease
control programmes are at stake. By this method we can determine the profitability
of such control programmes over a longer period. In this method three components
are involved:
1. summing up the costs and the returns;
2. establish the discount rate (due to the longer term evaluation);
3. define the decision criterion.

The effects of the proposed measures (e.g. decrease of disease incidence) have to
be transformed into economic entities. And because the various cost and benefit
elements do not occur all at the same time, but most probably at various time points
in the near future, we have to account for a certain (interest) change in value and price
level to make costs and benefits over a period of time comparable: the discount rate
(Huirne et al., 2002).

The methodology largely implies the following formula:

Present Value (of a future cost or benefit) = Former Value divided by (1+r/100)n

Where FV is the former (higher) value of the cost or benefit, r is the interest rate (here
called discount rate; expressed in %) and n is the number of years a programme is
running. Most often the inflation rate is not taken into account in detail. The discount
rate is usually calculated as the difference between the current market interest rate
(say 7%) and the inflation rate (say 4%) yielding the real rate of interest (hence 3%)
also called discount rate.

The decision criterion, as third component of the method, should be chosen before
starting the programme, because each of the three suggested here have their advantages
and disadvantages. The three suggested criteria are:
1. Net Present Value, NPV. This NPV expresses the difference between the total
present value of costs and benefits at today price level. NPV gives a scale but not a
size view of the costs and benefits.

22 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 1. Economic aspects of young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

2. Costs-to-Benefits Ratio, C/B ratio. This ratio is calculated by dividing the total
present value of all benefits by the total present value of all costs. This criterion
does show the size (or volume) of the costs and the benefits. However, the scale of
investment level is not shown by this method. The requested minimum ratio is 1.
3. Internal Rate of Return, IRR. The IRR reflects the interest rate that would make
the total present value of benefits equal to the total present value of costs. In other
words, the interest value that should be charged to reduce the net present value
to zero. This is a simple comparison parameter and no discount rate is necessary.
Point is, however, that one should recalculate at different interest rate levels until
the right one is found; there are no simple formula to handle these.

Given the elements named in Table 1.2 on the one hand (Radostits, 2001a,b), and a
set of parameters related to the different intervention options on the other hand, we
should be able to assess both costs and benefits of a certain intervention. Intervention is
defined as ‘any strategy or action that should lead to recovery from disease, to premature
culling, or to prevention of a certain disease in young stock’. Such a strategy or action
could comprise treatment and surgery, diagnostic testing, risk identification and risk
management, or wait-and-see.

In case of neonatal disease, commonly infectious in nature, the economic loss elements
are diagnostic costs, treatment costs, retarded growth (retarded growth in mild
diarrhoea cases is negligible!), increased probability of death, increased probability
of other subsequent disease.

An intervention A could be to wait-and-see, and intervention B could comprise

antibiotics orally and/or by injection, and physiological salt infusions intravenously
during 3 or 5 days in a clinic setting. In practice, only an intravenous or intra-
abdominal infusion of 0.5 l of Ringer solution followed 1 to 2 hours later with a
Lodevil® solution, followed by an oral re-hydration for 3 days (electrolytes) together
with 2 milk meals per day at reduced volume (1 to 1½ l per day), will be feasible. See
also the Annex on young stock treatment.

Intervention A does not cost anything but has an increased risk of death of the calf.
Intervention B requires the veterinarian to make farm visits every day during the 3
to 5 days, and comprises the costs of treatments as well as extra labour of the farm
worker. However, the intervention B has a higher probability of the calf to recover,
although the recovery of daily weight gain afterwards may be reduced as compared
to the calf 's potential.

At the same time, one should bear in mind that in veterinary practice it is very hard
to make statements on the exact probability of infection or disease, or on the exact

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 23

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 1.2. Example of some costs and benefits of activities related to diarrhoea in neonatal
calves, respiratory disease and cryptosporidiosis in older calves respectively.

Diarrhoea in neonatal calves

Costs Vaccination dam

Good hygiene disinfection
Benefits Less diarrhoea in neonates
Less costs due to disease
Better growth
Less costs of treatment
Respiratory disease

Costs Vaccination
Good housing
Good climate
Benefits Lower morbidity
Lower mortality
Less treatments
Better growth
Cryptosporidiosis Coccidiosis

Costs Oral prophylaxis

Good management
Good hygiene disinfection
Benefits Lower morbidity
Lower mortality
Better growth
Less treatment

(After Dirksen et al., 1984; Baumgartner, 1999)

success rate of a therapeutic or preventive intervention! This phenomenon is caused by,

among others, the most often multi-factorial nature of disease and the unpredictable
outcome of certain biological processes.

By assigning a certain cost to a given element for both the loss side and the intervention
side, one is able to – at the end – consider the total costs and expected total benefits
of a chosen intervention.

24 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 1. Economic aspects of young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

The basic economic health and management principle for young stock rearing should
be prevention. Prevention (or prophylaxis) is the best investment to avoid large
economic losses due to disease and/or mortality of young stock.

If we have different treatment options, or if we want to implement vaccination

programmes, it is best to estimate the costs and the expected benefits, not least in
order to convince the farmer to participate or not, or to assist him in his decision-
making process; given the different disease histories between farms, such estimation
must be done on a farm-specific basis. An example:
Suppose that the average treatment of one diseased calf costs €50 (all-in).
(Remark: €1 is set at about US $1.50)
Suppose also that we have 30 calves at high risk for that disease on the
farm.
Suppose that if one calf gets sick, the probability that all calves get sick is
100% (respiratory virus infection for example).
The losses would be at herd level 30×€50 = €1,500 at least (subsequent
losses not included, neither is mortality). If vaccinating these calves
would cost in total 30×2 times vaccination × €8 = €480 + 2×€30 extra
veterinary visit costs = €540, then the benefits are clear to the farmer and
it will ultimately be his choice whether or not to conduct prophylaxis.
Note: costs of a farm visit by the veterinarian are proportionally weighed
in the mentioned €50 for illustration purposes.

In the example above, the cost of losses and benefits of a preventive programme
are quite straight forward, direct costs and direct benefits are clear in advance. This
depends strongly on the disease one is dealing with. A disease which has major
impact on the profitability of a farm business is clinical paratuberculosis (Johne's
disease). Estimated losses are over €1000 per clinically affected adult cow! (excluding
the losses due to culling and laboratory sampling costs when the farmer decides to
lower the prevalence on his farm). Since the infection takes place in the first year
of life, prevention of infection should be done during that same year. Prevention
and control of paratuberculosis infection need investments in internal biosecurity,
time and effort with improvements/benefits only visible many years after installing
preventive measures in young stock rearing.

Moreover, the will to change and decision-making is, next to rational arguments, also
based on irrational arguments, which are influenced on their turn by perceptions,
impressions, emotions, attitude, motives and preferences. Humans (farmers) rather
choose a status quo than changes that might lead to losses on the short term (even
if these losses will be compensated for by future profits). This typical psychological
phenomenon is called ‘behavioural economics’ (Rabin, 1998; McFadden, 1999).

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 25

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Not all farmers are sensitive to the rational approach of cost-benefits calculations.
Especially when preventive costs lie in the near future and disease losses and benefits
of the preventive programme many years from now, it is sometimes hard to convince
farmers of the existence of risks in their young stock rearing. A truly professional
type of communication, addressing not only the rational arguments, but also the
non-rational aspects like emotions, perceptions and attitude of the farmer can help
in finding the right way of convincing and decision-making. For example, a recent
Danish study showed that an important distinction between herds which had high
and low calf mortality rates was whether the calf manager had a basic belief that calf
mortality is a permanent crisis that has to be expected. Issues of empowerment were
key to helping the calf manager to take control of and believe in his or her ability to
do so (Vaarst and Sorensen, 2009).

The way and the extent to which different types of risks are managed depends on such
factors as: a farmer’s degree of risk aversion, the costs involved, (economic) impact
of risk, the relative size of a risk, the correlation of the risk with other risks, other
sources of indemnity, a farmer’s perception of the nature of risk, and a farmer’s income
and wealth (Hardaker et al., 1997; Harrington et al., 1999; Barry et al., 2000). Risk
attitude of farmers (who are entrepreneurs these days) is in general based on positive
evaluating behaviour and therefore farmers are often seen as ‘risk-takers’. Farmers
believe that the outcome of decisions is mostly determined by themselves, based on a
feeling for their efficacy, keeping their own risk perception in mind (Bergevoet, 2005).

Entrepreneur-success is the accomplishment of multiple targets. According to

Bergevoet (2005) – Dutch – farmers are mainly interested in job satisfaction (expressed
in intrinsic values, like public image; working with animals; food safety as a primary
characteristic of their business; challenges are ‘chances, and no threats’). They are not
completely driven by economic targets; the afore-mentioned intrinsic values of the
farm are at least as important.

In general, it is assumed that farmers are willing to pay a price to reduce exposure
to risk. If farmers can manage the risks on their farm at acceptable cost, they should
consider themselves to be better off as a result (Arrow, 1996; Harrington et al., 1999).
However the exact benefits of preventive programmes (e.g. in HACCP like quality risk
management programmes, see Chapter 6) are often unclear to livestock producers,
and substantial education is necessary to change this scepticism (Gardner, 1997).

From the text above it becomes clear that the rational approach by only taking costs
and benefits into account, is sometimes not enough to convince farmers. Many
irrational factors determine the risk attitude of farmers and their willingness to invest
in preventive programmes. It is of major importance for the consulting veterinarian

26 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 1. Economic aspects of young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

to recognise and handle the rational and or irrational drives of a farmer. Expert
veterinary knowledge remains important, but above that, communication skills and
sufficient psychological insight in advisory relationships have become essential too.

Farm or herd health and productivity management (FHPM, HHPM) programmes,

if professionally executed, take these elements into account. They can provide the
farmer with a type of coaching because on a frequent basis farm visits are made (see
Chapter 2 and 3).

In general, programmes of preventive measures yield the benefits as listed in Table 1.3.

Figure 1.3 presents in a schematic way the different input areas of young stock
rearing which are paramount to achieve optimal rearing results. The upper level of
the pyramid can be reached when the farmer is willing to invest in a different risk-
attitude and in high quality management, and to apply rather comprehensive rules
and management protocols derived from e.g. farm or herd health and production
management programmes. The various areas are dealt with in subsequent chapters.

The basic economic health and management principle for young stock rearing should
be prevention. Prevention (or prophylaxis) is the best investment to avoid large
economic losses due to disease and/or mortality of young stock. However, prevention
is not about vaccination only; it is also about providing a good environment, an
optimal comfort and high quality management. That is why a population-medicine
approach to the management of young stock is proposed here.

Table 1.3. The major benefits resulting from preventive measures on dairy farms.

Major benefits of preventive programmes in dairy cattle

Reduced losses due to direct costs of diseased animals (e.g. treatment, death)
Reduced losses due to indirect disease costs (e.g. culling, discarded milk, extra labour costs)
Targets weight and age at first calving are achieved, therefore less young stock needed
Animals are able to fully develop their production and genetic potential
Increased labour satisfaction
Farms become more sustainable and more profitable

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 27

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

More healthy young stock,

less diseased animals, less
treatment costs, better
growth → more profit

Good quality Prophylaxis Good Dairy FHPM or

management and Farming HHPM
Metaphylaxis codes of programme
practice and protocols and
work action plans
instructions

Figure 1.3. Input areas for achieving optimal end results in young stock rearing.

28 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Chapter 2. The population-medicine approach to young stock

rearing
2.1. Population-medicine, herd health and productivity management, farm
health and productivity management

Population-medicine is the scientific discipline which addresses both healthy and

diseased animals at population (i.e. herd, group) level, with the objective of increasing
the health status of the animals and, hence, their profitability. Population-medicine
is an interdisciplinary science. Quantitative epidemiology and farm economics are
examples of domains involved (Noordhuizen et al., 2004, 2008).

Herd health and productivity management (HHPM) programmes represent the

practical execution of population medicine in the field (Brand et al., 1996). Herd
health and productivity management programmes have been introduced into the dairy
sector from the 60's onwards, in different formats. First, there was the udder health
control scheme (Bramley and Dodd, 1984), followed by herd fertility schemes in the
70's (De Kruif et al., 2007). Later on, more integrated herd health and productivity
management programmes have been developed and largely implemented in several
dairy industries (Brand et al., 1996).

Recently, the term Farm health and productivity management (FHPM) programmes
has been introduced to better express the fact that – from a professional point of view
– it is more reasonable to address not only the animals, but also their environment as
well as the management regime implemented on a dairy farm.

Professionally executed FHPM or HHPM can be characterised by the features shown

in Table 2.1 (after Noordhuizen et al., 2008).

The ultimate objective of young stock rearing is to raise healthy heifers of good genetic
make-up and with good body weight and conformation, which are able to produce
at a high level of milk production in a durable way. This objective can be translated
into technical, operational performance-related goals. These will be dealt with in
subsequent chapters and paragraphs.

Farm or enterprise goals are very farm/enterprise-specific and cannot be copied from
one farm to another. A farm/herd health and productivity management (FHPM/
HHPM) programme can be developed for the young stock rearing, as it has been
developed for dairy cows. Providing the philosophy and the core elements of such a
professional FHPM approach is the ultimate objective of this book.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 29

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 2.1. Overview of the 16 most important characteristics of a farm/herd health and
productivity management (FHPM, HHPM) programme on dairy farms.

Mutual trust and confidence between farmer and veterinarian

Broad competencies in veterinary and zootechnical disciplines in veterinarians
Professional, functional network of other specialists to be established by the veterinarian
Proper communication skills and knowledge about behavioural economics
Minimal but necessary records are kept by the farmer and by the veterinarian
Planned farm visits with a frequency depending on herd size, stage of production cycle, and
problems prevailing (at least once a month)
FHPM/HHPM provided on the basis of farmers’ priorities and farming goals
The FHPM/HHPM contents are clearly defined, documented and agreed upon
The fee structure is transparent and agreed upon beforehand
FHPM/HHPM activities are well defined, organised, structured along protocols and work
instructions
Routine activities comprise routine monitoring, problem analysis, and preventive measures
Cost-benefit assessments of disease losses and proposed interventions are made
Written reports on farm visits and on problem analysis are provided each time
Introduction of technical instructions for particular areas
Installation of on-site training sessions for farm workers as appropriate
A contract between farmer and veterinarian is on the basis of compulsory efforts engagement,
and not on the basis of a goal-achievement-engagement

The first step in this approach is adopting a business-like attitude. This is highlighted
in Paragraph 2.2.

2.2. Young stock rearing as a business: organisation, structure and lay-out

Young stock rearing can be regarded as a specific business. This business can be divided
into different business units, as summarised in Figure 2.1. Each business unit has its
own specifications and characteristics, its own resources, materials and methods, its
own performance parameters for evaluation purposes. Moreover, each business unit
has also specific disease risk periods. The latter are depicted in Figure 2.2, using the
example of the colostrum period business unit.

In fact, throughout the whole young stock rearing period we can distinguish different
disease risks and risk periods as is summarised in Table 2.2 and depicted schematically
in Figure 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3. See also the Annexes.

30 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 2. T
 he population-medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Selection of Healthy cow Birth of a Colostrum

sire and dam during gestation calf period

Milk replacer Roughage and Pasture

period concentrates starter-period period

Development into a maiden Reproduction Gestation period

heifer up to 12 mo. age period

First calving

Figure 2.1. The division of the total young stock rearing business into different business units.
(The shaded business unit of the Colostrum Period is further elaborated in Figure 2.2.)

Business unit
e.g.
the colostrum
period

Features Materials and Performance Disease risks

e.g. colostrum methods parameters e.g. insufficient
quality and e.g. use of e.g. number of quality or quantity
quantity, storage, colostrometer, calf calves with low IgG of colostrum fed,
method of feeding, blood test, etc. test results, pooling colostrum,
frequency, etc. diarrhoea cases in etc.
the first week

Figure 2.2. Characteristics of young stock rearing business units, using the Colostrum Business
Unit as an example.

Note that the different business units can be considered as subsequent process steps
in the rearing process. This implies, for example, that the business unit Colostrum
Period should be properly managed in order to provide the next business unit, the
Milk Replacer Period, with healthy newborn calves which drink well.

The Annexes comprise specific sheets on, for example, hygiene standards around
birth, the colostrum management, and the housing of the neonatal calf.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 31

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 2.2. The 9 major business units of the whole young stock rearing period.

Business Age Features Disease risks e.g.

unit period category

Birth 0 Hygiene, assistance, separation Oversize, mal-presentation

Colostrum 0-4 d Quality, quantity, feeding Inadequate colostrum management
Milk replacer 4-56 d Quality, temperature, mixing Poor feeding routine
Weaned 2-3 mths Stress Poor housing, additional stressors
Pasture 3-10 mths Growth rate, udder development Grass quality, endo-parasites
Housing 10-15 mths Puberty, heat detection, vaccines Delayed first ovulation
Breeding 15-18 mths Heat detection, synchrony, AI Poor heat detection, AI
Pregnancy 15-24 mths Nutrition of dam and fetus Abortifacients
Calving 24 mths Hygiene, assistance Obesity, small pelvis
Milk replacer

Calving
Colostrum

Weaning
Birth

Pasturing

0d 4d -3m -6m -8m - 12 m - 14 m - 18 m - 24 m

Puberty oestrus Gestation

Oestrus detection/
insemination Grouping stress
Dystocia
Husbandry errors
Poor weight
Poor weight gain Poor heat detection
Overfeeding & Poor insemination management & results
fatty udder tissue
Poor weight gain
Endo- and ectoparasites
Weaning stress and problems
Poor weight gain
Diarrhoea
Respiratory diseases
Colostrum quality errors
Colostrum management failure
Neonatal diarrhoea
Birth history
Dystocia
Figure 2.3. The total rearing period, divided into different business units related to age or main
activity, with the main features per age category, and respective disease risks per business unit
(d= day; m= month). See also the first Annexes.

32 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 2. T
 he population-medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

2.3. Mission and farming goals

The rearing of calves and maiden heifers on a dairy farm is an investment in the future
of the dairy farm. This means that the farmer (or farm manager, or contract heifer
rearer) has a general mission, such as ‘to provide, at the end of the rearing period, the
milking herd with newly calved lactating heifers of better genetic make-up than the older
cows, in a healthy (immune-) state and with good reproductive potential, of sufficient
development and body weight, and having given birth to a healthy calf without any
difficulty, while being fit for high milk yield’.

This rearing requires many efforts during, on average, two years without any directly
tangible output like milk. On the contrary, the indirect outputs are named implicitly
in the forenamed mission. Productivity in young stock rearing comprises the issues
of good health, good body development and body weight (daily weight gain) and
optimal milk production potential. As a reminder, the Annexes comprise a summary
of microbiology and diseases in young stock (adapted after Radostits et al., 2000, 2007;
Boersema, 2006; Smith, 2009).

The mission statement for rearing has to be translated into technical goals or targets
for the different business units, and when needed for sections of those, as were named
in Figure 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3.

The basic scheme for setting operational goals, programme execution, monitoring,
making decisions and evaluating performance outcome, commonly called the
management cycle is used. Management is pivotal in young stock rearing (Waltner-
Toews et al., 1986). The management cycle is presented in Figure 2.4.

Operational goals

Adjust operational goals Execute the programme

Monitor process evolution

Adjust farm processes Make the decisions, take actions

Evaluate farm performance

in the various areas

Figure 2.4. Schematic presentation of the management cycle with its respective components.
(Adapted after Radostits et al., 1994; and Brand et al., 1996)

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 33

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

In every area of the young stock rearing process, this management cycle should be
used to specify its respective components. These form the basic outlines of a HHPM
programme.

For the weight gain targets, target curves for several breeds have been developed (see
Brand et al., 1996). Weight gain must preferably be checked once every month, twice
yearly at least, using a weigh band (heart girth measurement) as necessary (see Figure
2.5 and 2.6).

Figure 2.5. Monitoring of growth of young stock by using heart girth measuring tape. The tape
indicates the estimated weight of the HF animal (Note that the cm-kg conversion on the tape
is for an average HF animal, growth and development varies between farms).

34 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 2. T
 he population-medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Figure 2.6. An example of a weight band for heart girth measurement of young stock. Growth
performance can be assessed using a weight scale or using a weight band. The latter can easily
be used in practice for heart girth measurements because centimetres can be converted into
kilograms body weight. The conversion from cm to kg has to be adapted for each breed.

An example of a target growth curve together with growth data of one farm is
presented in Figure 2.7 for Holstein-Friesian young stock. Note that this curve is not
applicable to other cattle breeds.

750
700
650
600
550
Body weight (kg)

500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Age in months
standard curve
acceptable margin
young stock weighing data
average Dutch growth trend line for young stock

Figure 2.7. An example of a growth chart for Holstein-Friesian young stock.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 35

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

For health, growth and reproduction performance during rearing, several farm-specific
target figures have been developed (Brand et al., 1996). The most important ones have
been listed in Table 2.3. Performance can be evaluated each month (large herds), or
each 3 or 6 months (smaller herds). For evaluation purposes, there is always a need
to compare animal performance with the target figures of the farm itself (internal
evaluation) and with reference values from a larger population than the farm itself
(external evaluation). These reference values originate from a group of comparable
farms or a region, or even the national level. Most of these values are either economic,
biological or epidemiological in nature; that is one reason why they should be adapted
to a local situation.

The target or reference values listed in Table 2.3 must be adapted to the specific
farm conditions and priorities of the farmer. In order to be able to calculate these
performance figures, each animal must be properly identified (e.g. animal passport or
calf chart with diagnoses set and treatments given).

Moreover, appropriate records must be kept on the farm, e.g. in a young stock diary
(handwritten or digital). It is advisable to mark in advance on a kind of farm-planning-
calendar some key tasks that need to be carried out at a particular time, such as weigh
check, order vaccines, dose calves, vaccinate heifers. In that young stock diary, all
events of the young stock rearing are recorded. Suggested headings of such a farm
diary for calves and maiden heifers are given in Table 2.4a. The event is listed in the
respective column, together with date and treatment if any.

Routine monitoring (see Chapter 3) of young stock rearing can also be conducted
by using the field scoring sheets which are published on the website www.vacqa-
international.com. In Table 2.4b an alternative system for recording events in young
stock rearing is presented. Each farm can develop its own diary, provided that the
necessary components will be addressed in the most practical way.

36 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 2. T
 he population-medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 2.3. Target or reference values for exeternal evaluation of Holstein-Frisian young stock
rearing performance (to be adapted to a specific situation, country or region).

Reference values1

Health performance
% of calves born alive > 95%
with poor birth history (e.g. at dystocia of dam) < 10%
received poor colostrum quality (colostrometer) < 15%
with serum IgG levels < 10 g/l in colostrum period < 15%
with navel disorder 5%
with diarrhoea < 5% / < 10%
with health problems around weaning < 15%
with respiratory disorders < 5% or <10%
with ecto-parasite infection < 10%
with endo-parasite infection < 10%
with other health problems < 15%
dead in the first year of age < 5%
Reproduction performance:
average age at 1st detected heat 11-12 months
average body weight at 1st detected heat 275-300 kg
average age at 1st insemination 15 months
average weight at 1st AI 325-350 kg
pregnancy at 1st AI > 60%
pregnancy at all AI > 95%
heifers with > 3 AI < 10%
heifers with repro problems (abortion, COD) < 5%
heifers assisted at first calving < 25%
heifers with dystocia < 10%
heifers'calves with perinatal mortality < 10%
average age for final pregnancy diagnosis 17-19 months
average age at first calving 24-25 months
average weight at first calving 540-580 kg
average body condition score at calving (scale 1-5) 3.0-3.25
Other management issues:
average age of calves at weaning 9 weeks
availability of feeding schemes/age group > 5 days age
availability of strategic de-worming schemes on indication
presence of hygiene barrier/disinfection tub always
presence of a farm diary for rearing events always
calves with deviant weight gain < 10%

1 Variation in parameters occurs due to differences in husbandry systems, breeds, and/or climates

(adapted after Morrow, 1986; Radostits et al., 1994; Peters and Ball, 1995; Chassange et al., 1999;
Intervet, 2006; Collel Verdaguer, 2007; Youngquist and Threlfall, 2007; Jimeno Vinatea, 2009;
www.partners-in-reproduction.com).

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 37

 VetBooks.ir

Table 2.4a. Example of headings in a young stock diary for the rearing period.

38
ID of calf Work Birth date Barn Weaning Weight + Repro event Weight at AI Health Culling
number lot weight and date2 problems date +
age reasons

046678 22 2-3-2009 2 Diarrhoea

11-3-2009

Table 2.4b. An alternative example of a system for recording events in young stock rearing.

Farm diary date Event (related to animals, management, environment)

Monday April 9 Vaccinated 33 replacement heifers in Barn 2 with BVD-vaccine (product; dose; animal numbers) for the first time
Tuesday April 10 Heifer 0543 coughing badly, treated with (product; dose)
New calf pellets ordered (2,000 kg)
Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Chapter 3. Execution of a farm health and productivity

management programme for young stock

Before starting a farm health and productivity management (FHPM) programme for
young stock it is advised to make a general young stock herd inventory. This general
inventory serves as a baseline for further activities to come (see the schematic outline
in Figure 3.1). Based on the outcome of this inventory, priorities can be set (e.g. related
to problem areas) for the FHPM programme, and the outcome can also be used for
later comparison to monitor improvement. In Table 3.1 an example is presented of
such a general inventory sheet of young stock rearing. All together, this checklist
comprises 80 scoring elements, predominantly focussing on management (Waltner-
Toews et al., 1986). One may decide to assign an overall total score to young stock
rearing (for example, overall score is good if >70 of all points were scored positive), or
an area score (for example, area score is good if >70% of area points is scored positive).

Request by a farmer for a

veterinary FHPM
programme for young
stock

Mutual agreement about Execution of the FHPM

contents, farm visits, fees programme
Preparation, execution and
follow-up of farm visits

General young stock

inventory
during first farm visit

Definition of predominant
problem areas.
Detailing of programme
content

Regular farm visits 1. Monitoring (animals;

environment +
management; farm data)
2. Risk factor analysis
3. Preventive measures
On indication: problem
analysis and interventions

Figure 3.1. Schematic outline of activities when setting up a FHPM programme for young stock.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 39

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 3.1. Example of a general inventory checklist, used at the start of a FHPM programme for
young stock rearing (the bold items represent the reference values for assessment).

Area + item Scoring class 1 Scoring class 2 Scoring class 3

1. Dry cow management

Average BCS <3 3.0-3.5 > 3.5
Supply of minerals and As prescribed Abnormal
vitamins
Hygiene status Good Moderate Poor
Udder/teats are clean Yes No
2. Calving pen
Present Yes No
Hygiene status Good Moderate Poor
Cleaned/disinfected Yes No
before each calving
Calf separated from the dam Immediately Within 1 day After 1 day
3. Birth management
Navel disinfection Yes No
Calf is rubbed dry Yes No
Housing of calf With its dam In straw pen In hutch/single
pen
Cleaning/disinfection before Yes No
arrival of calf
4. Colostrum period
1st colostrum within 2 h Yes No Left with dam
Quantity 1st colostrum <1½l 1 ½-2 ½ l >2½l
Colostrum quality Serum IgG < 10 g/l Serum IgG 10-20 Serum IgG > 20 g/l
g/l
1st colostrum also for 2nd Yes No
feeding
2nd feeding max 8 h after 1st Yes No
feeding
1st colostrum stock in freezer Yes No
+ identification
Colostrum intake/day <4l 4-6 l >6l
Colostrum meals / day 2 3 Unlimited
Colostrum hygiene Good Moderate Poor
5. Milk replacer mixing
Water quality checked Yes No
Mixing temperature < 40 °C 40-65 °C > 65 °C
Concentration Unknown ± 100 g/l ± 125 g/l

40 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 3. Execution of a FHPM programme for young stock
VetBooks.ir

Table 3.1. Continued.

Area + item Scoring class 1 Scoring class 2 Scoring class 3

6. Milk replacer feeding

Drinking temperature Lukewarm < 38 °C 40-42 °C
Use of feeding schedule Yes No Intuitively
Check of quantity Yes No
Check drinking temp. Yes No
Litres of 1st feeding <1½l 1 ½-2.0 l >2l
Drinking system Automated Teat-bucket Bucket
Hygiene status Good Moderate Poor
7. Supplying cow's milk
Feeding schedule used Yes No Intuitively
Drinking system Teat-bucket Trough Bucket
Dilution Yes No
Additions to milk Yes No
Mixing of cows milk Yes No
Antibiotic or high cell Yes No
count milk supplied
Maximum quantity per <2l 2-3 l >3 l
Meal
Fermentation applied Yes No
Pasteurization applied Yes No
8. Single pen housing
Days in single pen < 5 days 5-10 days > 10 days
Extra water supplied No Yes Yes, + electrolytes
Water supplied when Not applicable After the milk Between meals
Concentrates supplied (kg) No Calf pellets Cow pellets
Roughage supplied No Maize High fiber
Hygiene status Good Moderate Poor
9. Group housing
Age difference/group < 2 weeks > 2 weeks
Water supplied Unlimited Limited No
Freshness of water Always fresh Daily Not fresh
Concentrates supplied (kg) Unlimited Limited
Type of concentrates Calf pellets Cow pellets Beef cattle pallets
Frequency of concentr. Once daily Twice daily Unlimited
Roughage supplied Maize Silage High fiber
Freshness and quality Good Moderate No attention
of roughage

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 41

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 3.1. Continued.

Area + item Scoring class 1 Scoring class 2 Scoring class 3

10. Health status

Diarrhoea No 0-2 weeks > 3 weeks
Colour of faeces at 5 Yellow Brown Grey
weeks age
Faeces consistency Solid Cake Runny
Hair coat condition at 5 Shiny Dull
weeks age
Hair coat condition at Shiny Dull
10 weeks age
Digestion of nutrition Good Moderate Poor
11. Barn climate
Air inlet Yes No
Wind breaking netting Yes No
Additional heating is Yes No
available
Air ventilation Yes No
Air distribution Good Moderate Poor
Humidity < 60% 60-80% > 80%
Air quality – NH3 Good Stench
Infections older calves Yes No
12. Monitoring and Evaluation parameters
Mortality rate first 3 mo < 5% > 5% Unknown
Weight gain first 3 < 800 g/day 800-900 g/day > 900 g/day
months of age
Concentrates intake < ½ kg/day ½-1 kg/day > 1 kg/day
at 6 weeks age
Moment of weaning < 6 weeks 6-10 weeks > 10 weeks
Weight at 3 months < 90 kg 90-110 kg > 110 kg
Age at 1st AI < 15 months ≥ 15 months
st
Weight at 1 AI < 380 kg (168 cm) > 380 kg
Diarrhoea prevalence < 5% > 5%
Respiratory disease < 10% > 10%
prevalence
Other disease < 10% > 10%
prevalence
Age at 1st calving < 22 months 22-24 months > 24 months
Weight after 1st calving < 580 kg ≥ 580 kg

(Adapted after Brand et al., 1996; Towery, 2000; Sellers, 2001; Rydell 2002; Van Trierum, 2005)

42 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 3. Execution of a FHPM programme for young stock
VetBooks.ir

As in each professional FHPM programme, one should work according to a well-

organised and structured programme. Such a programme comprises the following
core elements:
1. Routine monitoring of animals, their environment and management, and farm
data. It is executed during regularly planned farm visits, for example once a month,
and is recorded in short, concise sheets or reports.
2. Problem and risk factor analysis, following a structured protocol for analyzing
disorders which have a large economic impact or a high prevalence. Risk analysis
and risk management are key words here. For details of such a protocol see Figure
2.4.
3. Preventive measures (including risk management), because it is economically
much more attractive to prevent certain disorders than to cure them.

Most of these activities are executed during farm visits by the veterinarian. Such
FHPM farm visits comprise the following 3 elements (Noordhuizen, 2004):
1. Preparation of a farm visit:
–– check the farm (problem) history, check available documents and data;
–– check current farm records – when available – beforehand.
2. Farm visit itself:
–– routine inspection of the animals;
–– routine monitoring of the animal environment;
–– checking farm-records;
–– taking samples for laboratory examination if needed;
–– plan of actions for the short and for the mid-long term;
–– start of procedure for problem analysis;
–– discussion with the farmer;
–– preliminary farm visit report 1 A4 to be written on the farm (double-copying)
and to be put in the Farm Young Stock document map (see Figure 3.2).
3. Follow-up – after the farm visit:
–– consult other specialists when indicated;
–– conduct a problem analysis when indicated (if needed, additional farm visits
will be done for particular areas);
–– design work instructions to implement preventive measures and to uniform
operational activities;
–– prepare specific preventive measures plan;
–– design a written report (3 to 5 pages A4) and send it to the farmer, and in case
there are other farm advisors, to the latter too. Try to combine the reports of
different farm advisors into one concise report.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 43

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Figure 3.2. An example of a Farm Young Stock document map from the field: Veterinary Practice
‘Van Stad tot Wad Dierenartsen’, Loppersum, the Netherlands.

The latter three steps should also be followed by other farm advisors when they visit
the farm and do inquiries; it would really help in drawing one line for the farmer and
clarify the different view points.

Young stock rearing is a complex business with different business units (see Figure
2.1). Moreover, within each business unit, different features and activities can be found
(see Table 2.2 and Figure 2.3). The organisation of a farm visit is to be conducted in a
logical sense in order to prevent disease- spread, starting from the younger calves up
to the pregnant heifers, and following each time the sequence of routine monitoring
taking notes and scores.

3.1. Routine monitoring

The elements to consider in the routine monitoring are listed in Table 3.2. Note that not
all elements are dealt with during each farm visit, because it is not always necessary.
Body condition, as a result of e.g. breed+health/disease/surgery+nutritional status,

44 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 3. Execution of a FHPM programme for young stock
VetBooks.ir

will only change over weeks, not days; lameness may not change in weeks or months.
Routine monitoring is meant to obtain early signals of potentially deviating areas
and parameters, in order to prevent a high prevalence of certain diseases and/or
large economic losses (early warning principle). And although the sensitivity of each
individual parameter may be low, the fact that this activity is conducted at each farm
visit and conducted by combining several parameters at the same time, will increase
the sensitivity (Thrusfield et al., 2001). The environmental parameters (Table 3.2)
most often represent risk factors which predispose for the occurrence of diseases and
disorders. If disease data and risk factor data would be available in sufficiently large
numbers, the impact of such risk factors can be assessed (Thrusfield et al., 2001).

The items in Table 3.2, as well as the methodology to deal with these items on the
farm, have been extensively described elsewhere (e.g. Brand et al., 1996; Zaaijer
and Noordhuizen, 2003; Noordhuizen et al., 2008; www.vetvice.com; www.vacqa-
international.com).

Examples of a body condition score (BCS) chart for young stock of a dairy farm are
presented in Figure 3.3a and b (Boersema, 2006). With the surveillance of the BCS data
over time, one can detect potentially pending problems in weight gain, due to e.g. poor
management, health disorders, poor nutrition, or poor environmental conditions. At

Table 3.2. Review of elements forming part of routine monitoring during farm visits (i.e. general
diagnostic evaluation). Monitoring activity depends on farm objectives, actions planned,
age-group, herd size, prevalence of disorders, management quality, time available, problems
present).

Animals Their environment Farm data

Body condition scores Housing (boxes, cubicles, areas) Farm diary1

Rumen fill scores Barn climate (T, RH, draught) Milk replacer
Rumination frequency Feed quality of roughages instructions
Faeces quality Feed quality of concentrates Laboratory results
Hair coat condition Feeding management Post-mortem results
Skin lesions Colostrum management Disease records
Ecto-parasite prevalence Milk replacer management Growth results
Claw lesions; posture Hygiene Water quality2
Endo-parasite checks Pasture history and- quality AI+sire data

1 Such records comprise e.g. colostrum data, oestrus and insemination data, pregnancy diagnosis

data, semen quality checks, bull testing results.

2 Comprising microbiological, chemical and organoleptic parameters.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 45

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

the same time, the chart can be used to convince the farmer that something should be
changed. In Figure 3.3a, the older young stock get over-conditioned; in Figure 3.3b,
both at younger and older age there are calves over-conditioned.

5.0

4.0
Body Condition Score

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age (months)

Figure 3.3a. An example of a body condition score (BCS) chart for young stock on farm S. Dots
represent individual calves; the lines give the upper and lower limits of the target margin.

5.0

4.0
Body Condition Score

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age (months)

Figure 3.3b. An example of a body condition score (BCS) chart for young stock on farm L. Dots
represent individual calves; the lines give the upper and lower limits of the target margin.

46 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 3. Execution of a FHPM programme for young stock
VetBooks.ir

For monitoring the different elements in the animals, we use scoring forms and check
lists where each element is scored from 1 (poor) to 3 (moderate) to 5 (good) at group
level or herd level. The same applies for scoring environmental elements or farm data.

When young stock are kept in different barns and lots, it is advised to conduct the
scoring for each barn or lot separately. For that purpose, different scoring forms can
be designed for use in the field.

The practical objective of routine monitoring, the general diagnostic evaluation (of
animals; environment/management; farm data) is to detect important strong points
and weak points on the farm, in the herd and in farm management, in relation to
animal health, animal welfare or young stock comfort, and productivity. The outcome
of this monitoring is put into a written report, where the weak points are translated
into issues for improvement. In this way, the written report comprises a Plan of
Action for the short term and for the mid-long term. The short term (priority) advice
must never exceed 3 to 5 adaptation measures in order to retain the motivation of
the farmer. It is, hence, highly crucial, to install a certain timing in the execution
of actions and to indicate the person responsible for a certain action. There exists a
website (www.vacqa-international.com) where scoring lists for finding strong points
and weak points in young stock rearing can be downloaded and – once filled in –
saved for comparison with findings at a later date.

3.2. Problem and risk factor analysis

The second core component of the FHPM programme concerns the protocol of
problem and risk factor analysis. A problem is either a (too) high prevalence or
incidence of a certain disorder which often is not (economically) visible to the farmer
at all, or a disorder with a (too) high economic impact on the farm business. This
protocol comprises, in a structured way, the most relevant steps to take in a sequential
order during the analysis procedure. Basically, the protocol is applicable to every kind
of problem, although sometimes fine-tuning of the protocol is needed due to particular
conditions of a problem. For example, a herd health problem with a nutritional basis,
e.g. young stock mortality or illthrift possibly caused by a micronutrient disorder, will
require a problem analysis protocol with emphasis on a whole farm micronutrient
audit (Mee, 2004).We will stick to the basic model of a protocol for illustration
purposes. The schematic outlines of a problem analysis protocol with its 10 steps are
given in Figure 3.4.

One paramount element in this protocol regards the in-depth risk factor analysis.
Table 3.3 comprises some relevant risk factors for diarrhoea in neonatal calves and
for respiratory disease in calves between 2 and 7 months of age.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 47

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 3.3. Some risk factors for diarrhoea in neonatal calves and for respiratory disease in
young calves.

Risk factors for diarrhoea Risk factors for respiratory disease

Non-vaccinated dam Overcrowding in the animal facility (high animal

density)
Poor hygiene in the animal facilities (e.g. Mixing of calves from different origin
maternity and calf pen)
Poor hygiene at calving/birth Poor animal transport conditions (in case of
feedlot calves)
High animal density Stress factors (housing; social; climate stress)
Failure to remove calf quickly from dam Poor environment, poor climatic conditions
(temperature, humidity, draughts)
Poor colostrum feeding management Poor hygiene and ventilation in barns
Poor quantity of IgG per litre colostrum No vaccination programmes applied
Poor milk replacer strategy (transition and Poor disease detection abilities of farm workers
scheme)
Poor water quality Heat stress conditions
Environmental and other managerial stress Poor management of handling bedding
factors (e.g. irregular feeding) material (chopped straw blown into calf barn)
High animal density

(After Radostits et al., 2000 and 2007; Howard, 1993; Smith, 2009; Andrews et al., 2008; Dirksen et
al., 1984, 2005).

The results of our risk factor analysis will provide the means to design a prevention
plan of risk management. First, the different risk factors – after their identification on
the farm – have to be weighed by farmer and veterinarian, and all factors ranked in
descending order of estimated importance. The most important 5 to 10 risk factors
are addressed in priority.

Examples of how to handle problem analysis protocols such as listed in Figure 3.4 can
be found in e.g. Brand et al. 1996 and De Kruif et al. 2007 and will not be elaborated
on here any further.

48 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 3. Execution of a FHPM programme for young stock
VetBooks.ir

1. Problem detected by farmer, or

by veterinarian during farm visits

2. Confirmation and definition of the problem by checking farm

data and/or anamnesis
Question: what has happened since when, where, among which animals,
which show what signs, under which conditions?

3. Examination of affected
animals (if applicable)
Set differential diagnoses

4. Routine monitoring of the animals, and their environment and

management (address non-affected animals in particular)
On indication, an in-depth risk factor analysis

6. Interpretation of findings, 5. If indicated and needed,

Synthesis, and Conclusions conduct further testing,
sampling and/or
Probability Diagnosis and investigations in particular
working hypothesis areas

7. Plan of actions for short and mid-long terms, to be discussed

with and approved by farmer (timing; responsibility)

8. Execution of the plan of actions under guidance of the veterinarian

9. Evaluation of effects during subsequent farm visits; adjustment of the
plan of actions when needed
10. Restart procedure when indicated

Figure 3.4. Schematic representation of the problem analysis and risk management protocol
with its 10 steps.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 49

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

3.3. Preventive measures (including risk management)

The third core component of the FHPM approach is the component of preventive
measures. Although this may look like the smallest component in volume, it is
maybe the most important one from the economic point of view of the farmer. Since
preventive measures are targeted to avoid diseases entering or spreading on the farm,
and hence to avoid economic losses due to disease and milk production losses, these
measures must be cost-effective, highly focussed and farm-specific.

The results of our monitoring activities and an in-depth risk factor analysis will
provide the means to design a prevention plan of risk management (see below).

We distinguish two different categories of preventive measures, which are either

general or specific in nature:
1. General preventive measures, regarding general hygiene and farmer attitude (e.g.
Good Dairy Farming code of practice, OIE, 2006; Noordhuizen et al., 2008).
2. Disease-specific measures:
a. risk identification and risk management measures, related to a specific disease
or disorder (e.g. diarrhoea; respiratory disease);
b. vaccination programmes and de-worming strategies (both not addressed in
this text).

In the first category we can find the listings of very general preventive measures.
Examples of such measures are given in Table 3.4 (after Noordhuizen et al., 2008).

Under general preventive measures we also can find the so-called Good Dairy Farming
(GDF) codes of practice, general guidelines about how to do certain things and how to
stop executing other things. These guidelines (OIE, 2006) are focussed on creating the
proper understanding, attitude and mentality in the farmer and farm workers. Some
of these general guidelines are (partly) translated into technical work instructions and
standard operational procedures for specific farming areas. For example, the guideline
of Good Medicine Application may comprise a working instruction like the Young
Stock Treatment Advisory Plan. The latter addresses the question ‘what exactly must
be done how and when’. For details of such plans and instructions, see Noordhuizen
et al. (2008).

In Table 3.5 we present some examples of general GDF guidelines and of technical work
instructions. These guidelines and work instructions are very helpful in explaining
to farmers and farm workers the relevance and responsibility of risk management.
Moreover, they contribute to a quality-oriented attitude. In some cases it is necessary

50 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 3. Execution of a FHPM programme for young stock
VetBooks.ir

Table 3.4. Examples of general preventive measures (note that the lay-out of this list facilitates
its use as an on-farm checklist too).

Preventive measures Execution Remarks

Date Person
Time

Hygiene and housing

Boxes and cubicles are cleaned
New bedding material is added
Exercise areas are cleaned, dry
Biosecurity plan is operational
Record keeping
Sick animal records are updated
Sick animal pen is disinfected
Heat detection
Heat detection records are updated
Expected-heat-date list is used/updated
Water, feed and feeding
Water system is checked, running and clean
Automatic calf feeder is cleaned and calibrated
Feeding equipment is washed
Other management
Maternity pen is clean and dry before next calving
Calves are removed from dam immediately after birth
House the neonatal calf in a clean, dry box

Table 3.5. Examples of Good Dairy Farming (GDF) guidelines and related work instructions in
young stock rearing.

Guideline (GDF) example → Related work instruction

Good medicine application → Young stock treatment advisory plan
Good colostrum management → Preparing deep freezer colostrum
Good feeding practice → Preparing milk replacer rations
Good hygiene practice → Hygiene rules at colostrum feeding
Good pasturing practice → Pasture rotation schedule for different age
groups of young stock

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 51

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

to explain the relevance of these guidelines and work instructions to farm workers
and their responsibility to comply with the rules therein.

During the first inventory farm visit, the veterinarian presents his findings about the
animals, the farm data, as well as the environmental issues to the farmer. Summarising
the findings before the discussion is very helpful in retaining the farmer’s attention.
The discussion is about problems and causes, about alternative options for solutions
and about losses and costs. Finally, the aforementioned issues are written down in
a farm visit report. In this way a better awareness is created. If needed, a further
explanation and discussion will be conducted when sitting around the table in the
office or farm house. The findings can also be used as a starting point to conduct an in-
depth analysis, for example when a problem appears to be pending or already present
and is a priority area for the farmer. It is always preferable to prepare the farmer for
the analysis steps that are ahead and for the options for potential solutions.

Preventive measures, oriented toward risk management, are also part of the discussion,
because we have to know what would be feasible for a farmer and what not. The latter
issue raises the question ‘why not?’.

A golden question to be raised in that respect is: ‘what are – in your opinion – the
advantages and disadvantages of the action plan or preventive measures that I have
proposed?’. At each following farm visit, the same summing-up and discussion
procedure is followed. In providing farm health services it is an axiom that it is ‘better
to progress step by step and gradually over time than by sudden, big changes’.

Farm health service concerns a chain of events and activities; all elements should be
addressed to some extent which is more effective than not to address a certain area at
all. If not, the chain will breakdown somewhere and failure of the farm health service
is the result.

3.4. Executing a FHPM farm visit: a summary

A farm visit in the context of a farm health and productivity management programme
which is focussed on young stock rearing is built up from three components:
a. preparation of the visit;
b. executing the visit;
c. follow-up after the visit.

52 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 3. Execution of a FHPM programme for young stock
VetBooks.ir

3.4.1. Preparation for the visit

Farm visits should be planned 1 to 3 month ahead, executed on a regular basis, on

a fixed day and time of the week (e.g. Wednesday at 08:30 hrs). On a farm with 50
young stock or less, one could count with one farm visit each month, with a duration
of about 1 hr. On farms with more calves, the frequency of the visits will increase and
or the duration increased to about 2 hrs per visit. Each farm visit is equalled by at least
one follow-up hour (e.g. for data analysis, consulting other specialists, or reporting).
This facilitates the calculation of the fees for both activities, on either per head basis,
per hour basis or as package deal.

The preparation of a farm visit concerns the checking of findings and advice, as
mentioned in the previous farm visit report(s), the screening of latest farm information
(e.g. the farm diary on young stock rearing events and/or young stock data from the
farm management system on PC), and a farm calendar on which seasonal items have
been listed which – based on the farm history – are relevant to address on the farm
or to discuss with the farmer. Among the latter items are, for example, the timely
vaccination of young stock against Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus (BRSV) or
lungworm, the discussion of adjusting the housing facilities of maiden heifers, or the
rotation scheme for young stock to be pastured.

3.4.2. Executing the farm visit

Executing the farm visit starts with implementing Good Veterinary Practice, that is,
at least:
• be sure to park the car in the designated area;
• change boots and clothes;
• wash hands at the entry of the farm;
• follow other biosecurity measures when indicated at the farm, like signing in,
changing equipment, providing medicines (see also Chapter 6).

The routine monitoring of animals, as named above, starts with the youngest and
healthy calves and from there we go to older age groups and ill animals. The activities
as named in Table 3.2 are executed, but in a selective way, that is adapted to the
individual farm. Together with the routine monitoring of animals, a monitoring of the
environment of the animals is conducted (detection of risk factors), and record our
findings of strong points and weak points on a farm visit sheet for each pen, section
or area in the rearing. All along, the farmer is accompanying the veterinarian, which
facilitates the immediate discussion on findings and thoughts regarding improving
certain issues. It could be indicated that samples have to be taken (blood, urine,
faeces) in particular pens or animal groups for additional laboratory investigation,

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 53

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

like serology, virology, biochemistry, bacteriology. If needed, further information

and possibly samples are collected to start a problem analysis. A farm visit always
ends with a discussion on all findings, conclusions and the advice or intervention
proposed. This discussion is indispensable because one has to find out which activities
for improvement fit well within farm management and which activities will cause
more or less problems for changing management habits. Moreover, the discussion
helps in training the farmer or farm workers to improve their practices.

Finally, a preliminary farm visit report is written (1 page A4 and preferably not
more) which summarises the activities, findings as strong points and weak points,
conclusions, and the proposed activities in the short run and the mid-long run for
improving farm management. In case there are several farm advisors attending this
farm visit, it is paramount that they stick to their own knowledge- or expertise-area.
Preferably, the veterinarian takes the role of moderator of the farm visit. An example
of a short-hand written farm visit report for farm XX is presented in Table 3.6. Such
farm visit reports must be adapted to the individual farm.

Table 3.6. An example of a short-hand written farm visit report, with findings and actions points
as well as some planning issues.

Farm: XX Veterinarian: YOYO Date: April 9th 2009

Strong points Points for improvement

Animals Body condition in all groups is okay. Claw health in calves from 6-12
Rumen fill scoring results okay. Hair months age seems worsened. To be
coat shiny in all groups. See list. checked in more detail at next visit.
Environment + Barn climate conditions are in order. Bedding material in calves under 4
management Housing of animals is okay. month age must be renewed once
Colostrum management is okay; daily.
colostrum quality is okay. Reduce the proportion of mais in
ration for maiden heifers to avoid
fattening.
Farm data Weight check did not show --
deviations from target graph.
Planning item 1 Planning item 2

Next farm visit = Pasture plan for calves and maiden In June, we have to check on
May 10th heifers to be checked and discussed. gastrointestinal parasites (samples to
be taken).
Duration of visit = 1 hr 15

54 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 3. Execution of a FHPM programme for young stock
VetBooks.ir

A farm visit report should be clear, short and concise, and preferably not exceed the
volume of 1 page A4. If the on-farm situation indicates it, the veterinarian can design
specific work instructions for improving staff performance in a given (problem) area.
An example of such a work instruction for the colostrum management is presented in
Table 3.7. Note that this work instruction is a mixture of operational and prevention
issues. See also the Annexes.

3.4.3. Follow-up

The follow-up of the farm visit implies activities such as finalising the farm visit report
on the computer and send it to the farmer within one week after the visit (laboratory
results are sent later as an annex to this report), consulting other specialists (nutritionist;
climate specialist), conducting a problem analysis according to the protocol presented
in Figure 2.2, and elaborate preventive measures for the farm (e.g. work instructions
or GDF guidelines). A problem analysis is always followed by a written report (3 to 5
pages A4 at the most) which must be discussed with the farmer at the next farm visit.

Note: during FHPM farm visits one should never mix up the consultancy activities
with clinical activities, such as setting a diagnosis and treatment for a sick calf, or
dehorning young calves. A mixing up deviates the farmer from the headlines of
consultancy and instead of being focussed on advisory practice, he will start thinking
to collect clinical work for each coming farm visit. Best is to make a separate farm
visit for this clinical work.

The chain of farm visits is an ever changing one because of its dynamics: at each visit
new issues may be put forward that need attention. However, the basic model with
the 3 components always remains the same, though its content may change. This
uniform basic structure is also needed for the farmer, so he will know where he stands.
It takes time to get this structure properly adopted and implemented, but it is worth
the investment. Moreover, it helps in keeping up the motivation of the farmer. The
veterinarian is supposed to follow a professional way of communication (see Chapter
7) because that is the only appropriate manner to get things done or changed. Making
changes in daily routines of a farmer which exist for many years is not an easy job;
good communication will largely contribute to convincing of a farmer to indeed make
certain changes.

For further details on the implementation of this herd health and production
management approach in practice, we refer to the text books of Brand et al. (1996),
De Kruif et al. (2007) and Radostitis et al. (1994, 2000, 2007).

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 55

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 3.7. Example of a work instruction for colostrum management (see also Annex 10).

Colostrum management work instruction of farm X

Feeding routine:
1. For colostrum feeding, always put on the same clean coverall; feeding must be done at fixed
hours of the day: 08:00 hrs; 12:00 hrs; 16:00 hrs; 20:00 hrs, and in the same feeding order.
Colostrum collection and storage:
2. Collect aseptically a minimum of 5½ l of colostrum within 1-2 hrs after birth of the calf.
3. Feed the first meal (see point 8) and chill the rest of the colostrum immediately after
collection.
4. Store the colostrum in a covered bucket in a cool place, protected from pets, flies and dirt.
5. If storage is predicted to be for > 24 hrs, the surplus colostrum is to be deep frozen (-20 °C)
in volumes of < 1 l to facilitate thawing.
6. Never add water, antibiotic milk or mastitis milk to colostrum.
7. Measure colostrum quality with a colostrometer (see Figure 3.5a,b and Annexes). At
measuring, the colostrum must be at 20-23 °C (68-72 °F) according to manufacturer's
instructions. Only good quality colostrum (SG > 1050) must be fed at first feedings.
Colostrum feeding:
8. Feed colostrum aseptically immediately after collection.
9. Always use clean teat-buckets for feeding; clean them after each meal. If a calf does not
drink, use a clean disinfected stomach-tube, and insert 2 l of colostrum (see Figure 3.6a,b).
10 Never supply colostrum that contains blood or other substances.
11. Colostrum feeding schedule1:
2 l within 1 hr after birth (assuming an IgG
level > 48 g/l colostrum);
2 l within 8 hrs after birth;
1½ l at 6-8 hrs after preceding feeding;
1½ l each subsequent meal (at 8 hrs interval);
continue colostrum feeding for 3 days.
12. Each calf must receive 100 g IgG immediately after birth, and 100 IgG within 12 hrs after
birth
13. When colostrum is not available in sufficient quantity, use the (fresh or frozen) colostrum
from an older, healthy cow and record this.
14. Thawing of frozen colostrum must preferably done ‘au bain Marie’; not in a microwave
oven, nor by heating > 50 °C. Feeding must be done at a temperature of 39 ± 2 °C.
15. Record feed refusals on the calf-chart, together with the time of the day.
16. Record also the signs of other possible deviations (behaviour; disease). In case of disease,
follow the protocol of the Young Stock Treatment Advisory Plan (see Annex 4).

1 After: Foley and Otterby, 1978; Towery, 2000; Van Trierum, 2005; Boersema, 2006.

56 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 3. Execution of a FHPM programme for young stock
VetBooks.ir

Figure 3.5a,b. Examples of a colostrometer with different colours as indicated on the scale to
differentiate colostrum IgG quality.

Figure 3.6a,b. Examples of an oesophagal tube for forced feeding of a calf.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 57

VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

Chapter 4. Applied biosecurity in young stock rearing

4.1. General principles of biosecurity

Of all cattle on a dairy farm, the calves are in general the most susceptible ones for
infection and disease. Transmission of infections may occur in different ways: faecal/
oral route, faecal/navel route, via colostrum or milk, nasal/saliva route, and even in
utero. This is depicted in Table 4.1.

Given this broad spectrum of infections and their routes of transmission, it is

well worthwhile to pay attention to strict hygiene measures and other preventive
management measures to avoid the introduction and spread of such infectious diseases
on the dairy farm, or in specific young stock areas. A core element in this management
strategy regards the development and implementation of biosecurity plans.

In dairy cattle operations, the application of biosecurity plans is slowly increasing,

either as a stand-alone programme, or integrated into herd health and productivity
management programmes. When biosecurity functions well on pig and poultry farms,
as well as on dairy farms, it must be effective in young stock rearing too. The principles
will always be the same, the specifications may vary per species and per farm.

Table 4.1. Some routes of transmission of infectious agents to calves before weaning age.

Faecal/oral Faecal/navel Colostrum Nasal/saliva In utero

or milk

E. coli X X
Clostridium X
Rota, Corona X
Cryptospor 1 X
Coccidia X
M. avium 2 X X X
Salmonella X X X X
BVD virus X X X X
BLV 3 X X
Mycoplasma X
Mastitis 4 X

1 Cryptosporidium parvum; 2 Paratuberculosis/Johne's disease; 3 Bovine leukosis virus; 4 Caused by

M. bovis, St. aureus or Str. Agalactiae.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 59

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Biosecurity is a management instrument, a practical tool (Towery, 2000; Rosenbaum-

Nielsen, 2007; Boersema and Noordhuizen, 2010).

Core elements of biosecurity are:

1. hazard and risk identification;
2. risk management; and
3. risk communication.

These are all associated with different infectious diseases. The objective of biosecurity
plans is to avoid infectious diseases entering the farm and/or to spread on the farm.
In designing a biosecurity plan, there are 10 main steps to take. These steps are
listed in Table 4.2 (after Towery, 2000; Rosenbaum-Nielsen, 2007; Boersema and
Noordhuizen, 2010).

Step 1 addresses the attitude and mentality of the farmer. It is senseless to proceed
to other steps if this first step is not taken. Some general preventive measures for the
dairy have already been addressed above (see Table 3.4). For young stock rearing, one
may consider the general prevention rules as presented in Table 4.3.

Table 4.2. The 10 main steps in designing biosecurity plans on dairy farms.

Steps in designing Short description of each step

biosecurity plans

Step 1 Make the farm more closed (see Table 4.4) and implement general
preventive measures
Step 2 Identify the most important infectious diseases and their associated risk factors
Step 3 Define farm units and sections for a better organisational structure and
management; include performance evaluation
Step 4 Design and implement a farm entrance protocol for visitors and for animals
Step 5 Design and implement Good Dairy Farming guidelines (codes of practice), as
well as necessary work instructions for particular areas
Step 6 Design and install an on-farm monitoring protocol in order to detect non-
compliance or deviations
Step 7 Instruct all farm-workers, assign responsibilities; conduct performance
evaluations each 3 or 6 months
Step 8 Develop an on-site farm-workers training programme for specific issues
Step 9 Schedule evaluation periods throughout the year to assess the critical risks
in all farm units and areas defined
Step 10 Schedule team meetings at least each month and assess whether
adjustment of the biosecurity plan is needed

60 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 4. Applied biosecurity in young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 4.3. Some examples of general prevention rules for young stock rearing.

General prevention rules for young stock rearing

Strict hygiene rules have to be complied with during animal handling

Personal hygiene rules have to be complied with (coverall, boots for each calf barn or lot)
Each calf barn or lot has its own feeding equipment and utensils, which are cleaned after each
meal or use
Sick animals must preferably be separated from healthy ones
Calves should be grouped on the basis of age (in large herds equal attention may be paid to body
weight, development and body condition)
Preferably disposable syringes/needles should be used; if not, one needle must be used for
injections in one barn or one lot of animals
For professional visitors the access road must be separated from the private access road (creation
of a dirty and a clean road)
Goats must not be housed with calves in the same house
Keep calves separated from adult cattle for at least 6 to12 months
Do not pasture calves older than 6 months in plots where adult cattle have grazed nor in plots
where manure from adult cattle was applied
Feed quality (forages, concentrates, by-products) must be of optimum quality
Optimal feeding or grazing management must be applied
Quality of drinking water must be checked and be optimal; water must be always available, be
clean and fresh
Veterinarian attends sick animals after healthy ones, and before moving to adult sick cattle or
other species
Vermin control must be in place, as required
Unsold calves returning from the market must be refused or quarantined; bull calves born on the
farm should be separated from replacement calves and housed preferably close to the area they
will be picked up from by the tradesman

Next to applying general preventive measures, it is paramount to make the farm more
closed. That means more closed against opportunities of diseases entering the farm.

The most relevant features characterising a ‘closed farm’ are listed in Table 4.4
(Boersema and Noordhuizen, 2010). It is obvious that these features can also be
categorised under the heading of general preventive measures.

The selection of certain diseases, considered as most important on a particular

dairy farm is an important step. These diseases are selected as already present on the
farm, or as diseases potentially threatening the farm. For each selected disease, the

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 61

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 4.4. Major features characterising a ‘closed farm’.

Major features of a closed dairy farm

Non-essential visitors are not allowed to enter a farm, or strict hygiene measures are taken
All animal contacts (wildlife; neighbouring cattle) are avoided
Know what your neighbours are doing in health control; explain your own herd health situation
Trucks and lorries from outside are directed on a dirty road, not on a clean road
Dogs, cats, and birds are kept out of the animal buildings, while adequate rodent control is applied
Surface water is not being used as drinking water for animals
Manure from external sources does not enter the farm and is not used on farm fields neither
Own machinery is used; machines from outside must always be disinfected
The milk collection lorry follows the designated ‘dirty road’ to enter the farm
Cull cattle are separated from herd mates and delivered in a separate spot
Embryo transfer is not applied; visits to cattle shows are avoided
Purchased silage feed must have been harvested from fields on which cattle manure – if any
– has been applied from cattle with the same health status (e.g. regarding paratuberculosis;
salmonellosis); best is to record the different events in the fields throughout the year.

associated risk factors are listed and ranked in order of relevance. Table 4.5 comprises
risk factors for IBR and BVD as an example (Boersema and Noordhuizen, 2010). For
each individual farm one has to check which risk factors indeed are present.

Table 4.5. Examples of risk factors for two diseases, IBR and BVD.

Risk factors for IBR Risk factors for BVD

Cattle transport trucks with mixed cattle Running bull is used for breeding the cows
Cattle purchased from unknown health state Cattle are purchased without testing, or no
testing of calves from purchases, no vaccination
applied
Infected herds in the surroundings Pasture contacts are possible
Participation in cattle shows or expositions Calves are housed in mixed units
Contact with other ruminants at pasture No quarantine facility or poorly used
High stress levels in the herd may reactivate Calving pen used for sick cattle too
Farm equipment is used with colleagues Cattle returning from shows are accepted
Maiden heifers pastured with others Calves are fed non-pasteurised milk
Professional visitors without hygiene rules Persistently infected animals present
Pathogen introduction via needles, excreta Pathogen introduction via needles, boots, etc

62 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 4. Applied biosecurity in young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Risk factors which appear to be common for several selected diseases are put into
a general guideline, for example a visitors hygiene protocol. Risk factors which are
considered highly critical can be listed in a specific work instruction (see Paragraph 4.2).

4.2. Examples of a practical biosecurity plan

Several issues of biosecurity as named in Table 4.2 have already been addressed in
earlier Tables and in the previous text; examples of other biosecurity plan components
are given in the next Tables 4.6, 4.7, and 4.8.

Examples of the Risk Management procedure are presented in the Table 4.9. From
Table 4.9 one can deduce that such procedures may be implemented in FHPM
programmes as well, provided that these programmes are highly structured and well
organised.

The art in biosecurity is to develop the most appropriate guidelines and work
instructions, which does not necessarily mean many guidelines or work instructions.
They must be designed when indicated or when needed because of a lack of knowledge
among farm workers. In the latter case, an on-site instruction of the farm workers
about how to use the work instruction properly can be warranted.

The next major component in biosecurity plans is the monitoring, because monitoring
will tell us whether the programme is functioning well.

Table 4.6. An example of a visitors entrance protocol for farm X.

Welcome to our dairy farm! Please strictly follow the rules!

Cars and trucks must use the indicated parking area.

Visitors, please wash your hands upon arrival, change boots and clothes at the hygiene barrier.
Report your arrival by calling the telephone number named on the door; a staff member will come
and guide you.
Register your name, date, reason of visit, hours of arrival and departure in the LOG.
If you need to contact animals, make sure to use our gloves which are in the hygiene barn.
Our staff will guide you over the farm.
At the end of your visit, clean boots, put the overall in the wash bin and wash your hands.
Record delivered or used medicinal products in the farm visitors LOG.
Thank you for your understanding and your visit.
You helped us to maintain our herd health status, minimise infection risks and increase quality!

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 63

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 4.7. An example of a cattle entrance protocol for farm X.

To our esteemed cattle tradesmen

New animals entering the farm must be reported to us beforehand; use the telephone or E-mail.
We do not accept any cattle delivery from a mixed animal truck load.
We expect you to wear clean boots and clothes; pass through the disinfection tub when entering.
Before delivery, the health certificates and identification papers must be handed over. No papers =
no delivery.
Upon delivery, park the truck in the indicated delivery area, call the telephone number listed, and
wait for someone to arrive with a lorry. You do not have access to the farm.
Put the animal in the lorry and get the proper papers signed. Our staff member will take the lorry
into the farm.
Wash your hands and clean your boots before leaving.
List your name + date + time points in the LOG.
Leave the farm again by passing through the disinfection tub.
Unload animals in the designated quarantine area.
Thank you for your cooperation !

Table 4.8. Work instruction for farm workers regarding new cattle, just arrived on the farm X.

Work instruction regarding new cattle

New animals are received in a separate quarantine house; they are brought there in a specific lorry,
and stay for 4 weeks.
This lorry is cleaned and disinfected after delivery.
No dogs and cats are allowed in the quarantine house.
Wash hands, change clothes and boots in the hygiene barrier in the quarantine house.
The feet of new cattle must be trimmed and disinfected in a foot bath.
New cattle are cleaned with pressure cleaner with skin-friendly detergent and afterwards
disinfected.
New cattle are checked for clinical signs; upon suspicion, the vet is called or the Herd Treatment
Advisory Plan is followed. If needed, samples are taken for laboratory diagnostic examination.
New cattle which are healthy (no clinical signs and or not having positive test results) and clean
can enter the herd after 4 weeks.
They must be identified specifically by e.g. colour stick yellow.
After entering the herd, they must be checked for another 2-3 weeks for clinical signs.

64 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 4. Applied biosecurity in young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 4.9. Examples of risk management procedures on a given farm. See also the Annexes.

Example protocols Element in risk management protocol

General management Do not purchase new cattle (nor goats, nor manure) from
unknown sources or sources with lower health status.
Make sure – once a week – that pasture contacts with other cattle
or wildlife is avoided.
Make sure that all non-farm equipment, trucks, materials are
cleaned before entering the farm.
Make sure there is each day a clean and well-organised animal
health care box with medicinal products, several disposable (or at
least) disinfected syringes, and some disposable (or at least new)
needles available.
Medicinal products are stored and locked away in a
dark and cool place (particularly vaccines), and a record is kept.
General pen hygiene After an animal left its pen/single box:
• put the box outside in the designated cleaning area;
• remove straw, manure and dirt;
• clean it with high pressure water;
• disinfect, rinse and let the pen or single box dry.
Calf health care During feeding animals must be checked for sickness signs.
Severely affected animals must be separated from herd mates and put
in a special sick pen.
Affected calves are treated according to the protocol
Young Stock Treatment Advisory Plan (see Annex 4).
The check result is registered on the calf-chart with date/time and
name of observer.

Monitoring is the structured and formalised method to check on a routine basis

the functioning of people in biosecurity, the risk management procedures and the
compliance to the preventive rules that have been set in the biosecurity plan. A once a
week assessment of the young stock rearing diary, the calf-charts and the performance
evaluation sheets will assist in finding errors and deviations in this compliance or
functioning. Sampling for laboratory examination and the laboratory results form
part of the monitoring component too. In biosecurity, this type of monitoring can be
easily integrated with other, operational herd health monitoring issues, as have been
listed in Table 3.2.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 65

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Biosecurity plans appear to be effective (Collins and Morgan, 1992; Vonk Noordegraaf
et al., 1998; Groenendaal et al., 2002; Groenendaal et al., 2003; Weber et al., 2004;
Nuotio et al., 2007) as has been proven for diseases such as paratuberculosis, BVD
and IBR (see Figure 4.1).

20
% of infected cattle in the herd

15

b
10

c
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Infection in herd

Figure 4.1. The results of an economic modelling study on the outcomes of various strategies to
control paratuberculosis (Johne's disease) as adapted after Collins and Morgan (1992).
The highest infection level (a) was observed following the strategy ‘wait-and-see’; the
intermediate situation was achieved by the ‘test-and-cull’ strategy (b); the lowest level was
achieved with ‘general preventive measures + biosecurity measures + test-and-cull’ (c).

66 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Chapter 5. The concept of cattle comfort, applied to young stock

rearing

Consumers are increasingly concerned about the quality of the food of animal origin.
Quality comprises issues such as technological features and taste, but also food borne
disease risks, and the way these products are being produced. Consumers want these
products to be produced in an animal-friendly way. Hence, producers have to pay
attention to the welfare of their animals during the on-farm production process.
Moreover, welfare is an economic issue too, because it impacts animal health and
productivity.

In the domain of animal welfare, there are various concepts known, some being more
theoretical while others being somehow more practical in nature. The one concept
best known regards the Five Freedoms described by the FAWC (1992) and by Webster
(1995). However, these five freedoms appear to be somewhat anthropomorphic and
not to be very practical to deal with in the daily life at a farm. Therefore, Bracke et al.
(2002, also cited by Metz and Bracke, 2003) have developed, on the basis of the five
freedoms, the so-called 12 biological needs of the animals. These 12 biological needs
are divided into 7 primary needs and 5 secondary needs (Table 5.1).

Table 5.1. The 12 Biological needs according to Bracke et al. (2001).

Primary needs
1. Feed and feed related behaviour
2. Water and drinking related behaviour
3. Resting, laying and sleeping
4. Movement (locomotion)
5. Social comfort (rank; interactions)
6. Health
7. Security (fear, flight behaviour and aggression)
Secondary needs
8. Excretion (manure and urine)
9. Thermoregulation
10. Exploration and orientation
11. Body care (grooming: comfort behaviour)
12. Reproduction

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 67

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Bracke et al. (2001) state that animals have goal-directed-behaviour, called motivational
systems. These systems are called biological needs, each having functionally related
sets of behaviours or physiological responses that can be activated by certain stimuli
and deactivated by a specific event or behaviour. To what extent animals are able to
satisfy these biological needs, determines whether their welfare is sufficient.

For properly assessing the welfare among cows at the farm level, at least the primary
needs should be translated into practical and clinical monitoring elements. Welfare
disorders are, like many cattle diseases (which in fact form part of welfare), multi-
factorial in nature and should be addressed following risk identification and risk
analysis procedures (imbedded in HACCP-like programmes (Noordhuizen, 2005).
Welfare is about adaptational processes and adaptability, which should be as optimal
as possible, for both animal and farmer (‘biological needs’ versus ‘financial needs’) to
ensure optimal economic profit.

The concept of Cattle Comfort, in its turn, is derived from the concept of the 12
biological needs, by translating the biological needs into practically observable or
measurable, clinical parameters (Noordhuizen and Lievaart, 2005; Juaristi et al., 2007).

Cattle Comfort comprises 4 sections, each of them with their specific parameters:
1. good quality and quantity of feed and drinking water;
2. good housing and climatic conditions;
3. good health state, especially with regard to legs and feet;
4. allowance of species-specific behaviour.

Within these 4 sections we can find the same type of parameters as we have dealt with
in many previous tables in previous chapters. The various parameters of cattle comfort
(see Table 5.2 for some examples) allow us to monitor during subsequent farm visits
how the current state of cattle comfort is, whether trends have been positive or
negative, which are strong areas and which areas need further improvement.

This approach to cattle comfort is exactly comparable to the approach of health

disorders or production problems in current herd health and production management
programmes, HHPM.

The previously cited website www.vacqa-international.com comprises a scoring list

with different areas for scoring cattle (young stock) comfort in the field to detect
strong points and weak points on a dairy farm. See also another practical publication
on this issue by Juaristi et al. (2007).

68 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 5. The concept of cattle comfort, applied to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 5.2. The four Cattle Comfort sections and related parameters. These parameters are fit for
monitoring Calf Comfort at the farm.

Sections of Cattle (or Calf) Comfort Parameters

Good quality and quantity of feed and water Colostrum quality (e.g. IgG level; feeding warm,
fresh, not sour...)
Colostrum feeding practice (provided warm,
satisfying amount per day, teat-bucket, 10 min.
suckling time, etc.)
Daily fresh food, with sufficient energy level per kg
DM, and adequate number of animals per feeding
space etc.
Good housing and climatic conditions Dry, fresh, clean housing, no draughts
Adequate ventilation and humidity
Sufficient space per calf
No contact among different age-groups
Dry clean bedding
Good health state Good feeding hygiene
Good personal hygiene
Adequate navel disinfection
Cleaning procedures after each meal
Optimal detection of (e.g. claw) disease signs
Clipping the hair – at least on the back (when
housed inside during winter…)
Species-specific behaviour Social contacts (e.g. audio-visual)
Grooming (cow brush, like tree in nature…)
Lying with one front leg pointing straight forward

A screen example of the scoring results regarding cattle welfare and cattle comfort on
a given dairy farm is presented in Figure 5.1, using the www.vacqa-international.com
website information.

Cattle welfare and cattle comfort scoring can be done at the herd level, using 5 clusters
of parameters (see Figure 5.1 upper part). The results are presented in a pentagram,
a histogram, and – on the basis of individual scoring – a listing of good (+) remarks,
moderate results (±) and issues for improvement and action (–).

On a scale from 1 to 5 (the closer to value 1, the better), on this farm the average herd
score was 2.08, with areas of health, health management, management overall and

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 69

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Figure 5.1. An example of scoring results for cattle welfare and cattle comfort on a given dairy
farm (as taken from the www.vacqa-international.com website).

Name: João
Name of the exploitation: Pecbom - Sete Casas
Date: 2009-08-03
Total number of lactating and dry cows: 221
Average milk yield per cow per year: 8,000
Mean somatic cell count (bulk tank): 200,000 (× 1000/ml)
Mean total bacteria count (bulk tank): 10 (× 1000/ml)
Predominant breed(s) on the farm: HF
Farm type is Closed ?: Closed
Yearly culling rate of cows: 10
Is calving pattern spread over the year: Yes
Number of F.T.E. working on farm: 8
The sires/bulls predominantly used on this farm show proper traits regarding calving ease, udder
health, claw/leg health, durability?: No

Herd average

Health & Health Management 2.49

Behavioural Aspects 1.29
Housing, Equipment & Climate 2.43
Feed & Feeding Management 1.45
Management Issues 2.00
Weighted average 2.08

Health
1
2
Herd average

3
Behavioural Management
4
5
Health

Behavioural

Housing

Feed

Management

Housing Feed

70 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 5. The concept of cattle comfort, applied to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Individual parameter scores + ± –

Health and health management

Yearly prevalence of acidosis/SARA X
Yearly prevalence of ketosis/severe NEB X
Herd locomotion scores are okay X
Yearly prevalence of lameness X
Yearly prevalence of hock problems X
Herd claw trimming and checks at least 2x/yr X
Formalin footbathing done properly X
Prevalence of skin lesions/swellings X
Yearly prevalence of clinical mastitis X
Yearly prevalence of infectious diseases X
Good medicine application code of practice operational X
Rumen fill scores on fresh cows okay X
Herd health certificates are present X
Behavioural aspects
General behaviour of cows is quiet X
Cows can be easily approached, no fear X
Man-animal interactions are correct X
Cows behave quiet in the waiting area X
What is the percentage of idle standing cows? X
Cows are quiet during milking process X
Cows lay not down in exercise areas X
Housing, equipmentand climate
Feed rack type, access, position and size okay X
Cubicle sizes or deep litter are okay X
Cubicle bedding material is adequate X
Exercise areas are dry, clean, non-slippery; and of proper X
size
Floor maintenance is okay (condition slats and slots is X
okay and rubber mat topping is applied)
Separate calving and sick cow pens X
Light regimens day/night/parlour are okay X
Ratio of # cows to # cubicles is okay X
Ratio of # cows to # feeding places okay X
Cow barn position, side walls ventilation OK X
Ventilation checks conducted are okay X
No moulds, no dirt or spinrags in cow barn X
Cows do not suffer from heat stress X
Is climate actively controlled by farmer X

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 71

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Individual parameter scores (Continued) + ± –

Feed & Feeding Management

Feed is available at feed rack X
Feed is of observed/tested good quality X
Drinking water of tested, good quality X
Sufficient drinking places present X
No moulds or soil present in silages X
Forages provide good structure in ration X
TMR is fed to lactating cows properly X
Particle length in TMR is correct X
Pasturing is being applied X
Feed changes are rare and gradual X
Management Issues
Hygiene scores on cows, barn, parlour and feed bunk X
okay
Herd Treatment Advisory Plan is applied X
Udder Health Control scheme operational X
Herd Health & Production Management X
Yearly incidence of dystocia + C-sections X
Endo-/Ecto-parasite control scheme operational X
Cattle comfort tools provided (eg brushes) X
Notes or Remarks

housing indicated for overall improvement. On the basis of these outcomes, an action
plan can be designed and discussed with the farmer. Once executed, a follow-up
should be done to evaluate the effects of actions taken and interventions conducted.

There are many items in this scoring system which are quite comparable to the issues
that have been dealt with in the farm health and production management (FHPM)
approach in previous chapters. This makes it particularly interesting to integrate the
FHPM approach with the cattle welfare and cattle comfort approach as presented here.

72 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Chapter 6. Quality risk management programmes for young

stock rearing
(based on the HACCP-principles)

Entrepreneur-like dairy farmers, especially those with hired labour, may wish to
organise the young stock rearing on their farm in a much more formal and structured
way than provided through FHPM alone. In those situations we suggest to use the
Quality Risk Management type of approach based on the principles of hazard analysis
and critical control points, (HACCP), (CAC, 2003; FAO, 1998). As has been pointed
out elsewhere (Noordhuizen and Welpelo, 1996; Cullor, 1998; Lievaart et al., 2005;
Noordhuizen et al., 2008; Boersema et al., 2008), the HACCP-like approach on dairy
farms provide farmers with the means to structure, formalise and organise their
activities in such a way that animal health and welfare, as well as public health and food
safety are safeguarded in the best possible way. The HACCP principles (Pierson, 1995,
Cullor, 1998; Noordhuizen et al., 2008) allow the identification of the most important
hazards (diseases) and associated risks on a dairy farm, and to define critical control
points for the control of the production process on the farm by developing production
process diagrams, monitoring schemes and prevention and correction measures. The
rearing of young stock on a dairy farm can also be regarded as a production process.

To develop a quality risk management programme on the basis of the seven HACCP
principles we follow the 12 steps as presented in Table 6.1. These 12 steps will, by and
large, be followed throughout the following text. Steps 1 to 5 can be considered as the
preparatory phase in the development.

The quality risk management team (step 1), hereafter named as team, comprises the
farm manager and the veterinarian, as well as the nutritionist. If needed or indicated
by prevalent problems or the farming area of concern, one may add other specialists
to the team, like economists, an AI specialist, an extension specialist, a public health
specialist. This team will develop the programme and its components.

The step 2 and 3 issues have been dealt with in the paragraphs on FHPM and are,
therefore, not further elaborated here.

Step 4 on the flow diagrams is a very important one because these flow diagrams
will provide a clear overview and greatly assist in the discussion within the team, of
the team with the farm workers, and with the external professional advisors. Flow
diagrams must be validated on-site with all people involved.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 73

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table 6.1. The 12 steps for developing and implementing a HACCP-like quality risk management
programme for young stock rearing (adapted from Noordhuizen et al., 2008).

Developmental step Short description

Step 1 Assemble a multidisciplinary, facility-based team

Step 2 Describe the final product (heifer) and the way it is introduced into the
herd of lactating cattle (processing requirements)
Step 3 Identify the way these heifers are handled and or identify the targeted
receiver of the heifers
Step 4 Develop flow diagrams of the production process of rearing young
stock from birth to first calving heifers
Step 5 Verify the flow diagrams on-site on correctness with team members and
farm workers
Step 6 (= principle 1) Identify the most important hazards (diseases, disorders) on/for the
farm, their associated risk factors. Conduct risk weighting, prioritise risks
Step 7 (= principle 2) Identify critical control points (CCP) in the production process, required
to reduce or eliminate hazards/risks. Identify points of particular
attention (POPA) which can help in reducing/eliminating hazards and
risks
Step 8 (= principle 3) Establish critical limits and norms for CCP, and target figures for POPA.
Deviations should trigger the implementation of corrective measures
Step 9 (= principle 4) Establish an on-farm monitoring scheme and its requirements regarding
CCP and POPA. The results of monitoring are used to adjust procedures
on the farm and to maintain control of the process. Herd performance
can also be assessed through this monitoring procedure
Step 10 (= principle 5) Determine corrective measures beforehand. Implement when
monitoring points to deviations
Step 11 (= principle 6) Establish sound record-keeping procedures which document that the
programme is functioning and effective
Step 12 (= principle 7) Establish internal validation and external auditing procedures to verify
that the programme is working correctly

Figure 6.1 provides the overall flow diagram of young stock rearing on a dairy
farm, from birth to first lactation. We define 4 main periods in rearing (see also the
Annexes).The different activities are defined and the process steps designed in their
logical order. Although the basic blueprint for flow diagrams shows a lay-out which is
universal for all farms, the ultimate flow diagrams are highly farm-specific. All farm
workers should be informed and should be familiar with reading these flow diagrams
properly. Their practical experience may be useful to adapt the flow diagrams to

74 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

 VetBooks.ir

1.Help with 2.Separation of 3.Navel 4.Identification calf

Birth A delivery calf from dam disinfection

Samples in freezer
Colostrum B 1.Collecting 2.Storing 5.Evaluation 6.Navel
period 3.Preparation
colostrum colostrum colostrum period inspection
(1-4d)
Bull calves 4.Feeding
Separated period
–10 days
OUT
Female calves
C
Milkreplacer 1.Grouping 2.Navel 3.Milkreplacer 4. Hay provision + 5.Milk 6.Dehorning 7.Grouping
period (-2mo) inspection choice concentrate supply preparation
Chapter 6. Q

1.Weighting / measuring height 2.Evaluate daily intake of 3.Grouping

Weaning D water and forage

Rearing E 1.Grazing 2.Deworming 3.(Mortellaro) 4.Weighting / 5.Vaccination 6.Grouping

period/puberty hoof treatment measuring height
(2-8 mo) 1a..Feeding

a1.Grouping a2.Heat a3.Weighting / a4.Sire a5.Insemination

Insemination F detection measuring height selection 1. Pregnancy
/breeding control
period (8-15mo) b2.Weighting / b3 .Grouping b4.Mount-
measuring height detection
b1.Bull selection
+ testing fertility

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

Pregnancy G
period 1.Pregnancy 2.Weighting / 4.Grouping 5. Body
(≥15 mo) control measuring height older cows condition score
3.Feeding
1. Three weeks Bought heifers J
Close up H quarantine
(2-3 weeks 1.Grouping 2.Rumen fill
prepartum) close up score
3. Feeding

Calving I
1.Help with delivery 2.First time milking 3.Care postpartum

75
 uality risk management programmes for young stock rearing

Figure 6.1. Flow diagram of the production process of young stock rearing: from birth to first lactation heifer (after Boersema, 2006).
 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

the conditions on-site (step 5). The flow diagrams will also contribute to a better
understanding of the individual worker contribution to the total process of young
stock rearing. If someone recognises his own place in the total context, this will greatly
improve dedication and motivation to fulfil tasks in the best possible way.

In step 6 we identify within the team the most important diseases and disorders
(hazards) which are either prevalent on the farm or which the farmer does not like to
have on the farm. These may be diseases such as Bovine Respiratory Complex, BVD
and IBR, or diarrhoea, mastitis and gastro-intestinal parasite infections. Among the
disorders may be distinguished e.g. claw lesions, welfare or cattle comfort disorders.
At the same time, lists of associated generic risk factors are set up (see also the Tables
2.3 and 2.4). With these generic risk factors one can check which ones are prevailing
on the farm and which are not, exactly like has been described in Chapter 6 on
biosecurity.

In the Annexes 1, 2 and 3 there are several tables with the most important diseases and
disorders (and the type of hazard, being animal health or welfare, or public health/
food safety hazards), as well as their associated, generic risk factors, distinguished per
period of rearing, as well as the high risk periods of most hazards. With the generic
risk factor lists, we have to detect those risk factors which are prevailing on the dairy
farm, exactly like we have done in Chapter 4 on biosecurity.

Next, the team will determine which risk factors are more important than others;
one can use the formula ‘Probability × Impact’ for that purpose (Heuchel et al.,
1999). Then, the risk factors are put in diminishing order of relevance, and the most
important 10 or 20 are put in the Hazards and Risks Table. An example can be found
in Table 6.2 (Boersema et al., 2008).

In step 7, we have to define the critical control points (CCP) and the points of particular
attention (POPA). Critical control points have to meet several formal criteria to be
considered as such. These criteria are that they must:
• be observable and/or measurable;
• be associated with the disease/disorder of concern;
• have a norm (standard) and upper and lower tolerance limits;
• be crucial for process (step) control;
• be accompanied by corrective measures, which in case of lost control
• be able to fully restore process control.

In young stock rearing there is always the issue of biological variation (biological
variation between animals; variation in diagnostic tests with false-positives and false-
negatives). Due to these issues, not all CCP-criteria can easily be met. Especially the

76 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

 VetBooks.ir


Table 6.2. An example of a Hazards and Risks table from a HACCP-based quality risk management programme with critical control points
(CCP), and points of particular attention (POPA) and the monitoring scheme (adapted after Boersema et al., 2008).

Hazards Main risk factor CCP1 Monitoring Refers to work instruction

POPA2

Diarrhoea (in neonate or Insufficient colostrum • Monitor prevalence • Monthly data evaluation ‘Feeding newborn calves’
older calf) intake • IgG level serum in • Monthly IgG level serum
calves 2-5 days old check
• or
• IgG level colostrum check
Chapter 6. Q

(each calf)
Diarrhoea in neonate Poor hygiene • Monitor prevalence • Monthly data evaluation ‘Hygiene around newborn
• Pens are cleaned prior to calves’
re-housing (according
to ‘Golden cleaning-
standard’)
Poor weight gain 12-24 Insufficient feed/protein • less than 5 % of animals • Young stock ‘Young stock measurements
weeks age intake below target weight measurements 2x per and BCS’
year
Poor pregnancy rate in Poor weight gain 12-24 • # insemination/animal • Monthly data evaluation ‘Feeding young stock of 12-
maiden heifers weeks (see above) 24 months age’

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

1 CCP indicated in bold; 2 POPA indicated in italic.

77
 uality risk management programmes for young stock rearing
 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

third and the last criterion named above are hard to meet on livestock farms, and
therefore, we can add the points of particular attention (POPAs) which are crucial in
process control but which do not meet all formal CCP-criteria (Noordhuizen et al.,
2008). Some examples of CCP and POPA at farm level are given in the Hazards and
Risks Table 6.2. The POPAs do not have a standard value; they have target figures set,
exactly like in FHPM programmes (see Chapters 2 and 3).

The standards and upper/lower tolerance limits for CCP, and the target figures for
POPA need to be defined in step 8. The former may originate from agricultural
handbooks, the latter have to be fixed by the team.

Once, the CCPs and POPAs have been determined, we have to define the methods
to monitor these points (step 9). An example is already presented in the Hazards
and Risks Table 6.2. Included must be: method of monitoring, frequency of
monitoring, where to record the results of monitoring, the person(s) responsible for
the monitoring. Usually, a special monitoring table is used on the dairy farm for that
purpose. Laboratory examinations (including post-mortems) and their results are also
recorded in the monitoring table (for its headings, see Table 6.3).

Corrective measures are developed for each critical control point, and preferably for
the relevant points of particular attention. This is a great difference with current HHPM
programmes: the sets of corrective measures are now well-described beforehand in a
Farm Health and Productivity Plan. They are classified in such a way that every farm
worker can consult these sets of measures because they are in written format and or
in the computer on the farm.

The corrective measures for the POPAs are highly comparable to the ones we have
dealt with in the Chapters 2 and 3 on FHPM and Chapter 6 on biosecurity. However,

Table 6.3. Headings of a monitoring table, focussed on deviations observed in the process.
Responsable person
Deviation observed

Withdrawal period
for milk/meat
Action taken

Action taken
Nr of animal

Lab results

Evaluation
Therapy
Date

78 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 6. Q
 uality risk management programmes for young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

it appears to be very practical to design work instructions for specific areas on the farm
which appear to be in need of particular attention from the farm workers. A major
example is the Young Stock Treatment Advisory Plan (see Annexes), where next to
the farm diagnosis, the treatment options are listed beforehand, as well as the dosage,
route of administration, withdrawal time for meat, and further instructions are listed.

Other examples, appearing in the Annexes, are: Good Colostrum Feeding practice;
Good Hygiene practice in Neonatal Calf Care; Good Hygiene practice in older calves
and heifers; Good Cleaning and Disinfection; Operational Management sheet on
Diarrhoea.

Like in other programmes such as FHPM, we need specific, formal records in the
quality risk management programme if it is based on the HACCP principles (step 11).
Some of these records have already been mentioned, such as the Production Process
Flow diagrams, the Hazards and Risk table, the Monitoring table. Others have been
addressed in other chapters of this book: good dairy farming codes of practice (GDF
guidelines); biosecurity plans for controlling infectious diseases on the farm.

The optimum way to handle these records and documents is to integrate them into
one QRM-Handbook for the farm. This on-farm handbook will comprise the following
chapters:
1. Introduction
a. mission statement of the farm operation
b. names, addresses, telephone numbers, E-mail addresses of all professional
advisors and service providers
c. procedures for emergencies
2. A scheme with the 12 steps to develop the HACCP-based quality risk management
programme, the team members on that particular farm of the current year, the
meeting scheme for the coming year (dates, hours, place, people), handbook
revision meeting
3 The developed production process flow diagrams
4. The hazards and risks tables
5. The monitoring schemes, the operational management sheets (work instructions)
6. GDF-guidelines and deduced work instructions
7. The biosecurity plans in full
8. Other documents deemed necessary for the functioning of the programme (e.g.
logs for recording corrections executed and their respective effects)
9. Training – and coaching – schemes of farm manager and or farm workers
10. Items resorting under the internal validation and external verification

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 79

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

The availability of GDF-guidelines and work instructions is not a formal part of the
quality risk management programme, but they are indispensable for a good functioning
of that programme and must therefore be integrated into the quality risk management
programme. Some authors state that a quality risk management programme even
starts with the adoption and execution of these GDF-guidelines in order to focus
attention of the farm workers and build a stronger mentality (Noordhuizen et al.,
2008).

The integrated programme of HACCP-based quality risk management with GDF-

guidelines and work instructions as well as biosecurity plans is in fact a Total Quality
Management programme, TQM (Noordhuizen and Welpelo, 1996).

The training and coaching component as listed as a separate chapter in the QRM-
Handbook is a highly essential one. It is useless to only address the farm manager
with the QRM issues, and neglect the farm workers. The latter must be involved as
much as possible: in discussions with the team, in communicating decisions that have
been made, in executing the different components of the programme. Once they have
a certain level of responsibility their motivation, engagement and performance will
further improve. When deficiencies among farm workers have been reported by them
and or detected by the team in certain areas, specific on-site short training courses
can be developed and given. This investment in human resource empowerment aids
in a better functioning of the programme and hence to a better functioning of the
farm as a whole.

In step 12, we deal with internal validation of the programme and external auditing
of the programme functioning (verification). The latter part is outside of the scope of
this book and will not be addressed here in much detail. It should be sufficient to say
that if a farmer wants his on-farm production process to be certified (possibly driven
by the supplier demands in the food chain), he will need to address this step. This
could be true in particular for farmers who only rear young stock from and for other
dairy farmers. At the time of publishing this book there are no formal institutions
present to conduct this type of audits on (young stock sections of) dairy farms, to the
authors’ knowledge.

The internal validation, however, is within the scope of our farm health activities. It
regards, among others, the evaluation of the performances of the young stock herd in
its different groups by means of our preset parameters and targets (see Chapters 2 and
3). Again the difference between HACCP-based programmes and FHPM is that in the
former we have to conduct such evaluations at preset times in the year, for example
twice yearly (e.g. in early spring and in late autumn), while this is at free choice in the
latter. The internal validation is meant to assess the efficacy of the farm quality risk

80 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 6. Q
 uality risk management programmes for young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

management programme. Next to the list of parameters and target figures, we address
the hazards and risks table, and the monitoring scheme and discuss within the team
what has gone right and what has gone wrong, and – in the latter case – how it has
been counteracted. When deemed necessary, the team adjusts specific components of
the programme, or alter the lay-out of certain tables and work sheets. The objective of
this evaluation is to improve the programme, its functioning and efficacy.

It is advised to involve the farm workers in the ultimate presentation of the validation
results, and give them the credit and compliments when the programme has been
running smoothly and give constructive criticism when the programme has failed to
a certain extent.

Again it must be stressed that it is better to proceed gradually and in all domains
implicated always to a certain extent than too rapidly or while neglecting one or more
domains. In the latter situations, the farmer and co-workers get de-motivated easily
and the programme fails.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 81

VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

Chapter 7. Discussion and conclusions

Dairy husbandry has dramatically changed over the last decades. Mixed farming
has evolved into mono-species farming like dairy cattle alone. At the same time, up-
scaling took place from small to larger farm sizes; from family-run operations of up
to 150 cows to large dairy enterprises of more than 1000 cows.

Due to a higher level of technology (milking machines and milking robots), new
feed technologies (total mixed rations; movable feed racks; concentrates dispensers),
input of sires with high genetic merit, improved artificial insemination and embryo
transfer procedures and an increase of the number of cows per man and per hectare,
labour productivity has increased. Consequences of this intensification have been the
decrease in time spent per animal and the occurrence of so-called production diseases
or management-diseases (calf diarrhoea, respiratory disorders, claw disorders,
metabolic and reproductive disorders).

In different countries, veterinary herd health and production management (HHPM)

advisory services for the different farming areas have been implemented by bovine
practitioners and farmers to better deal with these diseases and disorders (Brand et
al., 1996). The herd was the unit of interest. However, predominantly lactating and
dry cows have been involved in such programmes, while young stock became the
forgotten population. As a result, the early detection of disease in young stock has
become much more difficult and treatment often comes late, while – on the contrary
– it would be more sensible to invest in disease prevention or health promotion than
diagnosing and treating sick animals alone. Therefore, a more holistic approach has
been proposed, where animals, their environment and the farm management are
addressed at the same time, the veterinary farm health and productivity management
(FHPM) programmes (Noordhuizen et al., 2008). These programmes are much more
professional in nature, and better structured.

In general, dairy farms do well in the areas of handling animals, feedstuffs, cleaning
and disinfection procedures, maintenance and surveillance, as well as pasturing
and pasture exploitation. However, there are other issues that need attention such
as drinking water quality, animal treatment procedures, hygiene, management and
prevention, controlling barn climate conditions. These are all managerial aspects.
They are caused by a lack of observational skills, lack of time or knowledge and or
awareness about e.g. risks, lack of implementing certain measures, inconsistencies
in managerial procedures, lack of self-criticism, changes in attitude or perception,
unawareness about losses involved (IKC, 1994).

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 83

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Veterinary farm health and productivity management programmes (FHPM),

including the biosecurity plans (the latter may imply a self-evaluation or farmer's own
statements, as listed in Table 7.1), provide a platform for proper operational decision-
making and prevention by focusing attention on the strong points and weak points
in farm management and herd health of young stock; they provide the farmer with a
structure and a veterinary coaching to risk identification and risk management, and
hence a preventive approach.

Several chapters in this book have highlighted this type of approach. The FHPM
approach is economically sound and justified; it is the best way to optimise performance

Table 7.1. Example of a short checklist of farmer statements regarding the biosecurity plans in
young stock management (from: DQA, 2000 in: Noordhuizen et al., 2008).

Veterinarian’s YES Best management practices checklist

remarks on farmer or
statements NO

I or the calf raiser never allow replacement heifers on pastures

where manure from mature animals has been spread (micro-
organisms may live in soil for up to 1 year)
All calves are fed colostrum from cows that have been tested clean
of infectious diseases (colostrum is not mixed; each calf receives
milk from a single cow)
I avoid adding whole milk to extend purchased milk replacer (milk
replacer is considered free of infectious pathogens)
Replacement heifers are kept separate from other animals for at
least 6 months (kept away from manure of adult animals)
I ensure that there is no stagnant water in the replacement heifers
pens
Replacement heifers have their own separate source of water
Calves are separated from their dams immediately after birth (no
sucking, no searching for teats allowed)
The calving area is always clean and disinfected
I consult with my veterinarian (at least) annually about calf care
Calves are permanently identified before any grouping
All replacement calves are given a reticulo-ruminal magnet at initial
breeding
I have a strategic de-worming practice plan in place
I routinely dip the entire navel of newborn calves with strong iodine
or other disinfectant

84 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 7. Discussion and conclusions
VetBooks.ir

in young stock. Furthermore, the development and application of good dairy farming
guidelines (GDF) and the practical work instructions derived from those for dairy
farms (FAO, 2004; Cannas da Silva et al., 2006) provide a good basis for expanding
FHPM to a more quality-oriented way of dairy farming. These guidelines and work
instructions can be easily integrated with operational FHPM programmes, the best
examples being the integration of biosecurity plans for preventing infectious diseases
from entering in young stock, and the Young stock Treatment Advisory Plan. Other
examples have been presented in this book.

Quality failure costs are either systems costs or true (management) failure costs, or
a combination of both. Quality failure costs represent missed income, due to e.g.
disease costs, costs of barn renovation, wasted labour (and often unknown losses
which may be hard to identify). Such costs have been estimated at €150 to 250 per
average cow present in the herd; an improvement of €100 per average cow present
must be achievable. In young stock rearing, although hardly addressed in animal
health economics literature, it should be feasible to reduce rearing costs and disease
losses with, on average, €50 per average young animal present.

The adoption of GDF guidelines and work instructions by the farmer and farm workers
would be a sound foundation for installing Quality Risk Management programmes
(QRM) on the basis of the seven HACCP principles, because they adapt the mentality
and attitude of people. The application of the HACCP-concept to animal health on
dairy farms is a logical move because HACCP first of all focuses on microbiological
hazards and risks as can be found in public health and animal health. Moreover, it
focuses on hazards of a different kind like chemical and physical contamination of
products, but also on disorders of another type like welfare disorders (Noordhuizen
et al., 2008).

A QRM programme based on the HACCP-concept can be best designed and

implemented when beforehand the appropriate foundation has been laid (see above).

This foundation comprises:

1. a professionally executed veterinary FHPM;
2. the development and implementation of Good Dairy Farming codes of practice
and work instructions; or
3. preferably, both.

The most important characteristics in HACCP are that structure is provided, that on-
farm organisation and planning are installed, and that the various steps and procedures
are much more formalised than in, for example, veterinary herd health and productivity
management programmes.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 85

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

‘Applying HACCP may seem unwieldy, but it is nothing more than what
a truly good farmer would do anyway’.
 (Ryan, 1997)

The starting point for the development of a QRM programme on the basis of the
HACCP-concept is either a complaint from the farmer about the performance of his
herd, a deviation in herd performance as detected by the veterinarian in his FHPM, or
the wish of the dairy farmer to be supported routinely in his quality control activities.
This QRM approach is very much similar to the FHPM approach.

In both situations, an assessment of strong and weak points regarding animals and their
environment, and the management is warranted. This provides the basic elements for
both operational veterinary herd health and production management and quality risk
management at a more tactical level. For herd health and production management it
provides clear-cut issues for operational control and for intervention, for the quality
risk management it represents the first analysis of hazards and associated risks. These
features already show that activities in the areas of good dairy farming, herd health and
production management, and quality risk management can and should be integrated
as much as possible.

The ultimate merger between FHPM and HACCP-based QRM, has as consequence
that the execution of the FHPM has to become a much more formal one, better
organised and structured, exactly like the HACCP-based QRM-programme is
designed. Overall, the integration of both approaches makes the veterinary service
to the (dairy) farm more professional, more efficient and more beneficial for both the
dairy farmer and the veterinarian.

HACCP-based applications in QRM programmes are not the panacea

for solving all disease and productivity hazards.

The formalisation, organisation and structuring issues are elementary components

of the HACCP concept, and are required by third parties to ultimately get a reliable
insight into the functioning of the HACCP-based QRM programme on the dairy
farm. It should be clear to the farmer, his co-workers and the veterinarian that it is
far better to apply all components of the HACCP-like programme to some extent
(preferably the largest extent) instead of just applying some components! The latter
will undoubtedly result in a zero-efficacy, because too many and or paramount
domains remain untouched (Noordhuizen et al., 2008).

86 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 7. Discussion and conclusions
VetBooks.ir

It can be stated that veterinarians have a role to play in these areas because they are
most strategically positioned in the field and have the best basic skills and knowledge to
conduct such programmes. In many countries, veterinary herd health and production
management programmes are operational; in other countries veterinarians largely
contribute to dairy farm success by designing and implementing biosecurity plans.
The veterinary-zootechnical background of the veterinarian must be thorough and
of high quality; a thorough training in individual animal medicine largely contributes
to his standing. In some instances veterinarians contribute to the development of
good dairy farming guidelines. But before being able to integrate all forenamed
components into an integrated Quality Risk Management programme based on the
HACCP-concept and principles, it is required that he adopts and acquires new skills
and knowledge before being able to fully function as a quality coach-consultant.

The developmental process for a veterinary practice, evolving from a purely curative
practice to a practice where curative work is coupled to advisory activities as illustrated
here takes time and investment from the participating veterinarians. Each veterinary
practice has to define for itself, which goals should be reached, when and at what pace
(Cannas da Silva et al., 2006).

Irrespective of the fact whether a FHPM for young stock, or a biosecurity plan, good
dairy farming codes of practice and work instructions, or QRM are introduced on a
dairy farm, in order to be successful there needs to be an appropriate, professional
communication between farmer and veterinarian (Kleen, 2008). Veterinarians with
good communication skills tend to be more successful and less prone to stress (Brandt
and Bateman, 2006).

While in a curative practice the communication type is rather of the ‘you should do
this’ or ‘I will do that’ kind of approach, in the advisory practice it will rather be a ‘you
have a problem in young stock, I confirm that, and now let us work together and try to
solve the problem’ approach.

Professional communication can be divided into a verbal one and a non-verbal one.
The former is the rather technical content of a message or advice, while the latter
comprises elements like outer appearance, gestures, facial expression, body language,
dominance, voice. Like in decision-making, there is a certain rationality and non-
rationality. Perceptions, impressions, emotions, motivations and preferences play a
substantial role in the latter area. It has been stated that the technical content of a
written or oral message only accounts for about 30% of the effect of that message,
while the other 70% is accounted for by the non-rational elements. Six main factors
influencing the interaction between discussion partners have been identified and

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 87

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

listed by Argyle (1994): amount of speech, emotional tone, degree of dominance,

intimacy, role relations, and definition of the situation.

Taking action, one of the last steps in the advisory process, can involve many different
activities. This may be the purchase and use of a specific product, e.g. a vaccine. It
can also imply changes in management, like milk replacer feeding routine. Starting
to participate in a regular FHPM or QRM programme together with the veterinarian,
or beginning to use computer-based management programmes, also implies taking
action.

Although it may seem the easiest part of the process, this step needs careful planning
and effective communication once interest and desire were evoked. Opening a
‘channel’ for action can facilitate the desired and necessary measures to be taken
(Bertrand et al., 2007).

What does this mean? The client’s behaviour can be interpreted as a dualism. The
preference, of the status quo, and the reluctance to change a well-known (sometimes
poor functioning) system on the one hand, and the desire to try something new and
unusual on the other hand. A simple and uncomplicated plan and a clear schedule
from the consulting veterinarian will open a channel for the action and aid the farmer
in attempting to adopt a new management.

Inversely, the client may not succeed in adopting the changes, if he is left alone in
the early phase. Any problem arising here may block the channel for innovation and
further action is not taken. Therefore, a coaching track should be developed in parallel.

Different personalities and situations require different approaches, depending

on the relationship between veterinarian and farmer. A general rule is, however,
that compliance to a certain option is usually better if it has been developed in a
‘participative’ discussion rather than being ‘imposed’ onto the client. Especially risk-
taking, entrepreneur-like farmers will rather comply with an approach based on a
bilateral activity (Kleen, 2008; Kleen and Rehage, 2008).

FHPM and QRM programmes have to be understood as complex, dynamic and

constantly evolving processes, always subject to changes and pressures (Sibley, 2006).
It is therefore useful to give discussions in the planning process some shape and
direction. The SMART-scheme has proved to be useful in complex situations like
these. The acronym stands for the way questions should be asked and plans should
be made:
• Specific: The communication should apply to the specific conditions and
problems that are dealt with.

88 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 7. Discussion and conclusions
VetBooks.ir

• Measurable: Introducing realistic and objective figures helps to focus on the

actual problem and prevents disagreements (establish benchmark or
farmers’ study groups).
• Achievable: Instead of aiming for unrealistic targets, like completely eradicating
a problem in a herd, both the consultant and farmer should try to
achieve a certain goal that is actually reachable and makes success
measurable. In that way, disappointment is avoided and motivation
kept high for FHPM or QRM.
• Relevant: The planning should focus on actual, costly and immediate problems
rather than spending too much effort on less relevant targets and too
low priorities.
• Time-based: In order to make success visible, thereby motivating both veterinarian
and farmer, deadlines and fixed evaluations should be used. This will
make achievements both visible and objective.

The SMART-scheme can aid in concentrating on the actual problems. It helps

preventing waste of time and energy, and in avoiding disappointments.

Most of the communication process is taking place subconsciously and deals with a
lot more than just the content of a conversation. A veterinarian should take enough
time to analyse the status of the consultation and the role he is expected to play by
the client. Acting according to this principle helps in avoiding misunderstandings and
prevents unnecessary friction that is disturbing the advisory process.

Acknowledging some basic principles of decision-making and communication is

therefore more than a kind of psychological magic. It helps veterinarians improving
their standing in competition and helps in creating a more relaxed and more satisfying
working atmosphere within the changing cattle industry in general, and in young
stock herd health or quality risk management in particular.

Further details about professional communication can be found in Kleen (2008), and
in Kleen and Rehage (2008).

Dairy farmers often say that the rearing of young stock is a costly business, most of
all because it would regard a non-productive period of about two years. However,
we hope to have made clear that young stock rearing is, on the contrary, an highly
economic activity. It is about the investment in the future of the dairy farm. Young
stock rearing has several important productivity performance areas, like health state,
growth rate, reproductive performance and genetic make-up.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 89

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Nevertheless, young stock rearing often seems to be a neglected domain of the dairy.
Consequences are that animals are inappropriately observed for clinical signs of
disorders or for proper daily growth rate. Other problems become manifest when
the reproductive period arrives, because puberty may be delayed and body weight
insufficient, leading to poor oestrus expression if any. Subsequent pregnancy rates
may be too low which results in a late age at first calving.

With this book we hope to have demonstrated that dairy young stock rearing is
indeed a business. A well organised business with operational goals and productivity
performance parameters to monitor closely, with structured methodologies to follow,
and with evaluation procedures which assist in adjusting components in the young
stock rearing process.

The better this organisation functions, the structure applied and the evaluation
conducted, the less the economic losses due to diseases and disorders will be, and the
better the farm income.

In this book, several programmes were introduced: herd health and productivity
management, farm health and productivity management, quality risk management.
Each of these can be extended with the other components addressed, like cow
comfort, and biosecurity plans. The philosophy is to gradually expand a farm health
and productivity programme with the forenamed components, and over time conduct
an up-scaling to a quality risk management programme with a focus on animal health,
animal welfare and public health. In that way, the dairy farm as a whole will be better
prepared for the demands from the dairy food production chain, the consumers and
society.

Veterinary practitioners have a paramount role to play in this field, but they must be
willing to take the challenge, acquire new knowledge and skills, and invest in their
own future (Cannas da Silva et al., 2006). Then they will have added value for both
the dairy farmer, the dairy food production chain and society.

90 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Annexes to Section I

Annex 1. Common causes of infectious disease in young stock (after

Radostits et al., 2000 and 2007; Radostits, 2001a,b; Smith, 2009)

Table A1.1. Diarrhoea in young calves.

Agent Bacteria Virus Parasite Zoonosis Age (days)

Septicaemia by E. coli X <1½

Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) X 0-7
Rotavirus X 5-15
Coronavirus X 5-21
Cryptosporidium parvum X X 5-35
Salmonella spp. X X (?) 5-42
Clostridium perfringens B and C X 5-15
Eimeria spp. X > 30

Table A1.2. Most common infectious agents causing disease in calves from 2 to 10 months of age.

Agent Bacteria Virus Parasite Zoonosis

Respiratory
BRSV X
PI-3 X
BHV-1 X
BVD/MD X
Mycoplasma spp. X
Mannheimia haemolytica; X
Pasteurella multocida
Haemophilus somnus X
Salmonella spp. X X
Dictyocaulus viviparus X
Gastrointestinal
Ostertagi ostertagi X
Trichostrongylus axei X
Nematodirus helvetianus X
Coopereria oncopohra X
Other
Fasciola hepatica X

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 91

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table A1.3. Common infectious causes of abortion in cattle.

Agent Bacteria Virus Parasite Zoonosis

Neospora caninum X X
Brucella abortus X X
Listeria monocytogenes X X
Chlamydia pecorum X X
Leptospira (pomona)/hardjo X X
BVD X
IBR X
Trichomonas fetus X
Campylobacter spp. (?) X X
Bacillus licheniformis X
Arcanobacter pyogenes X
Salmonella spp. X X

92 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Annex 2. Hazards and risk factors of disorders in each of four age groups

Table A2.1. Rearing period from birth to 2 months of age.

Disorders Risk factors

Disorders around Bull calf – More muscular breed sire used – Posterior position at birth (milk
birth fever in dam; heavy stress; low vitality) – 1st parity

Diarrhoea in 1st week Wrong or no anti-scours vaccination (resistant bacteria; GVP not applied) –
of age Poor hygiene around birth (too many calving cows in pen; calves born on
slatted floor; no attention of farmer; lack of time) – Poor housing hygiene
(no attention of farmer) – Poor colostrum quality (unhygienic collection;
low IgG level; unhygienic feeding; poor storage practices; using colostrum
frozen more than 1 year ago; dilution with water; poor thawing practices)
– Too long interval between birth and 1st meal – First colostrum milked is
not given to calf – Insufficient quantity is given to calf each meal – Too early
group housing (too little space; no individual pen) – Inside housing – No
preventive antibiotics – No free choice salt is provided to calves – Large
herds – Too little attention of care-taker – Sudden changes in feeding
practice – No routine monitoring visits by veterinarian – Heat stress in
calves

Diarrhoea in older Use of maternity pen as sick pen – No individual calf hutches – Poor rearing
calves hygiene practice (improper housing and feeding; damp bedding material)
– Milk replacer fed without antimicrobials – Sick calves not isolated –
Drinking water pH >8 – Roughage from plots where manure was spread
without ploughing under – Sudden changes in feeding or ration – No
attention of care-taker

Navel disorders Navel haemorrhage (internal or external) due to inadequate stretching of

umbilicus e.g. after C-section – Infected navel (dirty calving pen; dirty calf
hutch; no navel disinfection applied; navel suckling by others; calf born on
slatted floor)
Navel hernia (genetic cause? sex effect? twin birth) – Navel cord too short
(poor manipulation during birth eg C-section; posterior position at birth) –
Visceral organ eventration through navel (genetic background?)

Poor weight gain Infection in calf (navel disorder; diarrhoea; respiratory) – Feeding poor
quality colostrum (see under diarrhoea 1st week) or hay – Feeding poor
quality milk replacer (wrong composition; poor quality water used
at mixing; milk powder not stored dry; wrong preparation or supply
(temperature; poor mixing; dirty conditions; wrong feeding temperature)
– Stressful calf-handling – No or poor water quality – Too much hay or
grass given – Ad libitum milk replacer given (hampers intake of hay = poor
rumen development=stress and susceptibility after weaning) – Wrong
concentrates composition – Feeding mastitic or antibiotic milk – Stress/
infection at dehorning (poor dehorning practice; wrong timing of
dehorning; stressful handling; too small headspace in feedrack) – Lack of
concern of care-taker

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 93

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table A2.1. Continued.

Disorders Risk factors

Respiratory disorders Poor barn climate (temperature, humidity, draughts; not adapted to meteo
changes) – Housing older calves with younger, or too many age groups
mixed – Ammonia air level too high – Lack of attention of care-taker –
Season – Poor colostrum management earlier – Poor record keeping
practices – Animal density too high – BVD infection present in herd – Poor
bedding material quality – New cattle are purchased – Grazing in summer
– Previous disease (diarrhoea; respiratory)
M. paratuberculosis Unhygienic conditions around birth (calving pen not cleaned and
infections disinfected) – Group maternity pens – Unhygienic birth – Calf not removed
from dam immediately (no supervision; bull calf; other work) – Calf born
on slatted floor – Poor colostrum management (see above) – Borrowed
colostrum –Transplacental infection from infected cow – Purchased
infected dam – Waste milk feeding – Contacts with older cattle
Wrong identification Several cows calve at the same time – Calves born at the same time in the
of calf barn or in pasture – Mixing up ear tags – Poor record keeping – Ear tag of
dead calf placed in another calf – Twins with unknown dam – Computer
crash and loss of data
Wrong extra teat Poor record keeping – Wrong identification of teat to be removed – Wrong
removed teat removal practice

(after Radostits, 2001a,b; Boersema, 2006; Smith, 2009)

94 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Table A2.2. Rearing period from 2 to 15 months of age.

Disorder Risk factors

Poor weight gain Infection causing disease in calf (navel infection; ear infection after tagging;
diarrhoea; respiratory disease) – Overcrowding – Quality of feed or water
too low – Providing insufficient energy/minerals – Too low light intensity in
barn – Wrong weight at insemination
Respiratory disorders Herd-density too high – Care-taker too busy – Poor barn climatic
conditions – Sudden weather change – Poor animal management (no hair
clipping at the beginning of barn period) – Poor grazing management –
Poor lungworm infection prevention strategy
Diarrhoea in older Herd prevalence (e.g. salmonellosis) – Farm size – Fasciola hepatica
calves or maiden infection – Feeding roughage from fields where manure was applied and
heifers not ploughed under during the same growing season – Poor hygiene
practices in calf rearing (damp bedding) – No isolation of sick animals –
Offering water with pH >8.0 – Lack of concern of care-taker – Feed related
– Sudden change of diet
Locomotion Poor claw trimming – Overcrowding – Poor hygiene in cubicles – Too little
problems space in cubicles – Older animals – Inside housing/zero-grazing – Large
herds – Previous Mortellaro infections – Animals in heat
Gastro-intest. worms Poor grazing management – Poor de-worming strategies
Liverfluke infections Animals grazing on wet land (presence of ditches; high ground water level)
– Presence of snail habitats – Poor de-worming
Trichophyton Contact with other infected animals – Poor hygienic practices – Wrong
verrucosum treatment of infected animals – Poor climatic conditions (too high
humidity; high temperature) – Purchase of infected cattle
Fattening of udder Feeding too high energy rations between 3 and 10 months of age
tissue (± 8 mo age)
M. paratuberculosis Contacts with adult cattle or with manure before 1 year of age – Insufficient
inf. separation of calves from adult cattle
Not pregnant < 15 Lack of proper heat detection – Wrong bull selection – Wrong insemination
months of age technique – Lack of mount detection – Heifer not in oestrus before 15 mo
of age – Light intensity too low (less oestrus behaviour signs) – Anoestrus/
suboestrus – Wrong body weight for insemination

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 95

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table A2.3. Rearing period from 15 months of age to 3 weeks prior to the 1st calving.

Disorder Generic checklist of potential risk factors as derived from literature

Abortion Herd prevalence of several abortion causing agents – Large farms –

Buying heifers from other farms – Grazing heifers on pasture next to
infectious animals from neighbouring farm(er) – Lack of vaccination pre-
breeding (e.g. BVD, IBR) – Not in a certified herd health scheme (e.g. BVD,
salmonellosis)
Poor weight gain Wrong weight at insemination – Infection causing disease in calf (navel
infection, ear infection after tagging, diarrhoea, respiratory disease,
gastrointestinal worms) – Overcrowding – Quality of feed or water is too
low – Providing insufficient energy and minerals
Lameness Poor claw trimming practices in young stock – No routine screening of
claws in heifers – Overcrowding – Bad hygiene in cubicles – Too little space
in cubicles – Older animals – Inside housing/zero-grazing – Large herds –
Feeding management failures
Respiratory disorders Too high herd-density – Care-taker too busy – Poor barn climatic
conditions – Sudden weather change – Housing does not allow proper
ventilation – Poor grazing management – Wrong lungworm infection
prevention strategy
Gastro-intest. worms Poor grazing management – Wrong de-worming policy – Grazing heifers
which have never been outside in the preceding season
Trichophyton Contact with other infected animals – Poor hygiene practices – Wrong
verrucosum treatment of infected animals – Poor climatic conditions in the barn (high
humidity; high temperature)
Liverfluke Animals grazing on wet land (presence of ditches; high ground water level)
– Presence of snail habitats – Wrong ‘de-worming’ policy
Mastitis Teat/udder-sucking – Flies in cubicles – Milk leaking before calving – Poor
general hygiene – Poor animal hygiene
Overconditioning Too high energy rations fed between 3 and 10 months of age
Heifer comfort Too small cubicles compared to body size – Introduction of heifers in herd
(rank fights) – Poor hygiene in calving pen and cubicles – Health threats
like mastitis, lameness and abortion – Poor adaptation to ‘lactation-rations’
– Poor climatic conditions (high humidity; high temperature) – Feeding
management failures – Poor quality of feed and or water

96 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Table A2.4. Rearing period: around 1st calving.

Disorder Generic checklist of potential risk factors as derived from literature

Dystocia in heifer Bull with low calving ease index – Heifer body condition < 3 or > 3 ½
(wrong composition (close up) rations or caused by diseases – 1st parity
heifer – Younger age at calving (<22 month) – Calf relatively too large –
Poor social interactions with herd mates – Milk fever/loss of feed intake
Retained placenta Over-conditioned at calving – Stress around calving – Assistance during
labour – Decreased general immune-responsiveness (BVD, ketosis)
Trauma in newborn Dystocia of dam – Too small calving pen – Stressed dam (steps on calf)
calf – Born on slatted floor – Born in pasture without supervision too close
to ditch – Poor management intervention – Imprudent assistance with
calving jack
Wrong identification More cows/heifers calving at the same time – Calves born without
of newborn calf supervision in close up group or in pasture – Wrong recording – Mixing up
ear tags – Tag of dead calf placed in other living calf so calf can be removed
sooner from farm – Computer crash without backup
Mastitis Teat/udder-sucking – Flies – Poor hygiene in cubicles – Milk leaking
prepartum – Milk fever – Blood in milk – Teat oedema – High peak milk flow
– Teat canal protrusion – Over-conditioning of heifer
Milk fever Higher parity – High milk production level – High body condition score –
Positive cation-anion balance in diet – High calcium level in feed – Season –
Climate – Housing – Lush pastures – Lack of exercise – Length of dry period
– Prepartum milking –Loss of feed intake
Displaced Negative energy balance prepartum and subsequent ketosis – High body
abomasum condition score – Suboptimal feed bunk management – Prepartum diets
containing >1.65 Mcal of net energy for lactation/kg of dry matter – Winter
and summer season – Rapidly changing weather conditions – High genetic
merit – Low parity – Milk fever – Puerperal metritis– Mastitis – Stress – Non
social adaptation of heifers in milking herd
Lameness Poor claw trimming – Overcrowding – Large herds – Poor hygiene in
cubicles – Too little space in cubicles – Inside housing (on slatted floor)/
zero-grazing – Unequal or loose slats – Floors (slatted or not) without dung
remover – Feeding failures (ration formulation, ration changes)
Udder oedema Positive cation-anion balance in ration during late gestation – 1st parity
heifer – Too high protein level in ration
Respiratory disease High herd-density – Care-taker too busy – Poor ventilation and barn
climate – Sudden weather change – Housing does not allow proper
ventilation – Poor grazing management – Wrong lungworm infection
prevention strategy

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 97

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table A2.4. Continued.

Disorder Generic checklist of potential risk factors as derived from literature

Liverfluke Animals grazing on wet land (presence of ditches; high ground water level)
– Presence of snail habitats – Wrong 'de-worming' policy
Poor heifer comfort Too small cubicles compared to body size – Introduction of heifers into
milking herd (rank fights) – Poor hygiene in calving pen and cubicles –
Health threats like mastitis, lameness and abortion – Poor adaptation
to lactation-rations – Poor climatic conditions (high humidity; high
temperature) – Feeding management failures – Poor feed and or water
quality – Excessive social interactions – Proper transition into lactation not
achieved
Poor feed intake Poor quality of feed and water offered – Overcrowding/rank fights –
Discomfort due to disease or heat stress (Temperature humidity Index)
– Dystocia and postpartum problems – Negative energy balance/ketosis –
Over-conditioning – Leaving calf with dam.

98 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

 VetBooks.ir


Table A2.5. Summary of the types of hazard for each of the four different age-groups.

Period Major hazards

Animal health Animal welfare Public health Management

(AH) (AW) (PH)
Feeding (FM) Recording (R) Other

I • Diarrhea in • Birth problems • Salmonella • Poor weight gain • Wrong • Wrong extra teat
(0-2 mo) neonate • Dehorning • Cryptosporidium identification calf removed
• Navel disorder • Para TBC 1 • Lacking growth
• Respiratory • E. coli O157 recording calf
disorder
II • Respiratory • Poor locomotion • Trichophyton • Fattening of • Lacking mount/ • Heifer not
(2-15 mo) disorder verrucosum udder tissue • AI recording pregnant before
• Gastrointestinal • E. coli O157 • Poor weight gain 15 mo of age
disorder • Para TBC 1
• Lameness
III • Death of foetus • Heifer comfort • Trichophyton • Poor weight gain • Lacking growth • Abortion and
(15 mo- loss verrucosum • recording heifer (economic) loss of
3 weeks • Lameness • E. coli O157 heifer as a result
prepartum) • Mastitis

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

IV • Mastitis • Heifer comfort • E. coli O157 • Poor feed intake • Wrong • Trauma calf
(-calving) • Lameness loss (incl alimentary identification of
disorders) newborn calf

1 Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in cattle has certain similarities to Crohne’s Disease in humans and therefore is sometimes thought to be potentially

dangerous for public health, but the causal relation has still not been established. Paratuberculosis cannot affect public health in the period calf-milk
heifer, because clinical disease does generally not occur until 3 or 5 years of age. Although infection in calves takes place in the 1st year of life, therefore
precautions in calf rearing management can prevent animals being infected with paratuberculosis (Radostits et al., 2000 and 2007). Hence, in severely
affected herds, paratuberculosis may also spread horizontally among calves; this may cause the calf care-takers to occur the risk of being infected or
at least having contact with the bacteria (GD personal communication, 2009).

99
Annexes
 VetBooks.ir

Table A3.1. Hazerd (disease) occurrence over time in each of four different age groups.

100
Period I Period II Period III Period IV Later
Annex 3. H

Neonate Calf Older calves Maiden heifer Pregnant heifer Pregnant heifer à terme Lactating
1st week - 2 mo 2 - 7 mo 7 - 15 mo 15 mo - 3 w prepartum - calving heifer
groups

Birth problems Dystocia

Arthritis

Wrong identification calf Wrong ID

Diarrhoea in newborn

Navel disorders

Wrong extra-teat removed

Poor weight gain

Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing

Diarrhoea in older calf

Respiratory disorder

M. paratuberculosis infection

Heifer not observed in oestrus

 azard (disease) occurrence over time in each of four different age

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

before 15 mo of age
 VetBooks.ir

Lameness

Gastro-intestinal worm
infections

Stephanurus dentatus
Fasciola
hepatica/gigantica/magna
Dicrocelium dendriticum
Infection
Trichophyton verrucosum

Over-conditioning

Abortion (infectious)

Mastitis

Trauma
of calf

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

Displaced Abomasum

Milk fever

Udder oedema

Poor feed intake

101
Annexes
 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Annex 4. Young stock treatment advisory plan: an example

Table A4.1. Example of young stock treatment advisory plan.

Clinical signs Probable disease Further diagnostics Degree of illness

Watery diarrhoea, ‘sunken E. coli diarrhoea in Laboratory Whenever sick

eyes’, T: >39.5/<38 ºC newborn (0-7d) - faeces Severely weak calf
listlessness - necropsy

Yellow paste-like or more Rota-Corona Laboratory -faeces

liquid diarrhoea, weak and diarrhoea in newborn
listlessness (7-14d) Severely weak calf

Yellowish, paste-like faeces Feed-related Diverse

diarrhoea

Bloody diarrhoea with Salmonella diarrhoea Laboratory - faeces - More animals affected
pieces (tissue), listlessness, in older calf necropsy 1 (severe) sick calf
respiratory disorder and (>3weeks)
abortion in cows T: >39.5 ºC!

White-yellow-green, watery, Cryptosporidiosis Laboratory - faeces

maybe blood

Brown-green, thin, often Coccidiosis Laboratory - faeces

blood. Calf straining and poor
weight gain.

102 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Treatment Follow up Short

term Long term
Drug Application Dose/freque Withdrawal Complementary
time

Contact your veterinarian immediately Recovery within

Quinolones IV, IM See label See label Provide with as few hours-within
(Cephalosporines IM, SC much electrolytes half a day
if sepsis) as possible Follow work
instruction 1

- - - - Electrolyte Recovery
therapy 1 day within one day
Quinolones IV, IM See label See label Provide with as Follow work
Cephalosporines IM, SC much electrolytes instruction 2
if sepsis as possible

No treatment!! Feed 2 times Follow work

half amount of instruction 3
milk. Thereafter
increase amount
gradually.

Contact your veterinarian immediately Follow

Quinolones IV, IM See label See label Provide with as biosecurity
Cephalosporines IM,SC much electrolytes plan -
if sepsis as possible Salmonella

Contact your veterinarian immediately

(Halofuginone) (Disinfection with sodiumhypochlorite,
potassiumperoxymonosulphate; or formalin fumigation if permitted)
Sulfadimidine-Na Oral See label See label Electrolytes Follow work
Diclazuril Oral in case of instruction 1
dehydration
+ NSAID’s in
necessary

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 103

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table A4.1. Continued.

Clinical signs Probable disease Further diagnostics Degree of illness

Brown-grey clay-like or water ‘Ruminal drinker’ -

thin brown. Calf has splashing
sounds in abdomen
Cough, respiration rate↑, Acute respiratory Laboratory
dirty nose disorder (viral or/and - necropsy
bacterial)

Severe weak calf

10-15% calves sick

Swollen, warm and painful Infection umbilicus -
umbilicus cord
Swollen, warm and painful Arthritis -
joints, lameness

Deep/harsh cough (after Respiratory disorder Laboratory All animals preventive

exercise), respiration rate↑, (lungworm) - serology: IgG
anorexia and poor weight - faeces: larvae or
gain eggs
Only calves grazed outside
or fed infected fresh grass Animals with clinical
are at risk! signs
Severely sick calves
Lameness Disease of Mortellaro -

Laminitis

Interdigital dermatitis

104 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Treatment Follow up Short

term Long term
Drug Application Dose/freque Withdrawal Complementary
time

Early: empty rumen with stomach tube and provide teat bucket feeding Follow work
Chronically: wean calf instruction 2

Procaine IM See label See label Provide Follow work

benzylpenicilline Bronchodilatation instruction 3
Florfenicol SC,IM + NSAID’s +
Cephalosporines IM,IV glucocorticosteroi
Quinolones IV, IM See label See label Provide with as
Florfenicol IM,SC much electrolytes
as possible

Contact your veterinarian immediately

Procaine IM See label See label NSAID’s Follow work
benzylpenicilline instruction 2
Trimethoprim/S IM See label See label Veterinarian could Follow work
Ampi-/ flush joint with instruction 3
amoxicilline ringer lactate
Benzylpenicilline/ solution + NSAID’s
neomycine
Specific anti- Topical See label See label Follow
lungworm drug Once in biosecurity
autumn and plan - parasitic
once 2 weeks infections +
after housing follow work
Ivermectine SC See label See label instruction for
grazing calves
Ivermectine SC See label See label NSAID’s AB
OCT-spray Local See label See label Claw care!! Follow
Cephalosporines IM, SC NSAID’s biosecurity
Ration adaptation plan - lameness
Risk management
Claw trimming
Risk management

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 105

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table A4.1. Continued.

Clinical signs Probable disease Further diagnostics Degree of illness

Dry, rough and dull hair, Gastrointestinal worm Laboratory All animals preventive
poor weight gain, anorexia, infection -blood
listlessness and (intermittent)
diarrhoea.
Only calves grazed outside
or fed infected fresh grass Animals with clinical
are at risk! signs
Severe sick calves
Chron.: poor weight gain Fasciola hepatica Laboratory
Acute: submandibular - blood
oedema and pale mucous - necropsy
membranes

Restless, perineum wet and Abortion Laboratory

bloody, placenta appears in - blood
vulva, - necropsy

Round grey-white crusts Infection Trichophyton

verrucosum

Note: Biosecurity plans and work instructions, as mentioned in this Annex, refer to specifically
designed action plans. They are not further elaborated; see the respective chapters.

106 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Treatment Follow up Short

term Long term
Drug Application Dose/freque Withdrawal Complementary
time

Specific anti- Topical See label See label Follow

lungworm drug Once in biosecurity
autumn and plan - parasitic
once 2 weeks infections +
after housing follow keynote
Ivermectine SC See label See label grazing calves

Ivermectine SC See label See label NSAID’s AB

10% Oral See label See label Symptomatic Follow
triclabendazol Once in f.e. NSAID’s if biosecurity
autumn and necessary plan - parasitic
once 2 weeks infections
after housing

Contact your veterinarian immediately Follow

biosecurity
plan -
abortions
Enilconazol Topi-cal See label See label Remove harsh Follow
Econazol crusts first biosecurity
(vaccination) plan -
Trichophyton
verrucosum

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 107

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Annex 5. An example of a risk management procedure in young stock

rearing: diarrhoea (after Boersema, 2006)

Yellow paste-like/
watery diarrhoea

Record number, age, clinical signs,

per nr. of the affected calf

Calf not willing to Calf not willing to

Calf willing to
drink, suckling drink, suckling
drink, suckling
weakly, standing, weakly, lying,
strongly, standing
normal/sunken eyes sunken eyes

Separate calf from peers

1. Injection 2.5 cc Immediate:

1. Feed 1 day each enrofloxacin 1. Injection 5 cc
feeding time half (1×3days) enrofloxacin
daily amount with 1 2. Electrolyte therapy 2. Consult a vet
extra electrolyte for one day
feeding
2. Add 100-150 ml
colostrum to fed
milk for 10 days Therapeutic plan
by veterinarian is
well recorded and
executed
1. Increase amount
of milk 125 ml
each feeding
2. Keep on adding
colostrum

Regroup calf with peer

group after 10 days

Figure A5.1. Example of working instruction ‘Diarrhoea in neonatal calves’.

108 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Annex 6. G
 ood hygiene in neonatal calves: worksheet on hygiene in the
calving pen and around calving

Company: Farm X Date last revision: 21/06/2009

Editor: xx xxxx References: Dutch Dairy Manual (2006)
Resp. person(s): xxxxxx xx Van Trierum (2005)
xxxx xxx xxxxxx Brand et al. (1996)
Aim: Optimal hygiene of neonatal
calves

Contents

• Hygiene: cleaning calving pen: what-where-when-who-

why
• Hygiene during delivery: person, materials used
• Animal care before/after calving: remove udder hair, time to standing heifer,
‘breast-belly’ position calf, disinfect naval,
remove calf, feeding/drinking heifer, regrouping
with herd, etc.

Hygiene

• Clip dams (cows, heifers) before calving and remove udder hair too.
• Clean pen directly after fresh cow re-entered the herd following protocol ‘golden
standards for cleaning and disinfection’.
• Use enough fresh straw for bedding.
• As long as the same cow is in the pen, add new fresh straw when bedding gets dirty.
• Make sure the bedding is clean when cow/heifer starts calving.
• Clip cows/heifers before calving and remove udder hair.
• Never house sick cows together with pregnant cows/heifers.

Hygiene during delivery

• Store materials, equipment and disinfecting solutions in a fixed place. Make a

checklist containing all things necessary for adequate assistance.
• Person who helps during delivery must wash his/her hands properly with substance
from list B in Annex 8.
• Assistents should wear clean boots and overalls or specially designed suits.
• Materials used during the assistance must be clean at the start and kept in bucket
with dilution of substance from list B in Annex 8.
• Perineum and tail must be washed with the same dilution B in Annex 8.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 109

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

• Make sure hands are always clean, or better still: wear gloves, before exploring the
vagina of the cow.
• Clean, disinfect and dry materials and equipment after delivery and store them in
the place they belong. Make sure everything is in place (and everything is present
in sufficient amounts).

Animal care before/after calving

• Cow or heifer should stand within 5 min. after delivery.

• Calf must be removed immediately after birth.
• Umbilical cord should be tied off if excessive haemorrhage is present, and
disinfected by dipping the cord in e.g. chlorhexidine or iodine solution.
• Within one hour after birth cow/heifer should be milked for the first time.
• Heifer/cow is not regrouped until dry matter intake is sufficient and no other
clinical illness-signs occur. Daily rumen-fill score, faeces consistency and fibrosity
scores, temperature measurement, and appearance are conducted and results
recorded.
• House cows/heifers in a way that social (visual) contact with herd mates is possible.

110 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Annex 7. G
 ood hygiene in older calves/heifers: worksheet on hygiene in the
calf/heifer house

Company: Farm X Date last revision: 21/06/2009

Editor: xx xxxx References: Brand et al. (1996)
Resp. person(s): xxxxxx xx Dutch Law
xxxx xxx xxxxxx Dutch Extension Service
Aim: Prevent poor hygiene-
related diseases

Contents

• Calves: General hygiene practice

Single housing: hygiene (cleaning, ‘w-w-w-w-w’, etc.) and housing
Group housing: hygiene (cleaning, ‘w-w-w-w-w’, etc.) and housing

(w-w-w-w-w = what-when-where-who-why; see Annex 6)

General Hygiene Practice (GHP)

• Calf caretaker should wear his boots and overall only in calves department.
• Work with clean hands; even better is wearing gloves.
• Equipment must be clean before use ((teat)buckets, thermometer, measuring cup
and stirrer).
• Oesophageal feeder should be cleaned and disinfected between calves.
• After feeding equipment must be cleaned and dried.
• Feed calves, moving from young to old.

Housing

• Calves must be housed single during the first 10 days of life as soon as possible
after birth.
–– Before calves are moved to their single box, make sure this pen was cleaned
and disinfected (following ‘Worksheet Golden Standards for Cleaning and
Disinfection’, Annex 8).
–– Single pens should measure as wide as wither height and as long as 1.1 times
body length (according to Dutch-law).
• After 10 days calves should be housed in larger pens where social interaction with
calves of the same age is facilitated.
–– Never house calves differing more than two weeks in age, in the same pen.
–– Never allow contact between pre-weaned and weaned calves.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 111

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

–– Do not house calves on slatted floors and cubicles before 10 weeks of age.
–– Before moving a new group of calves in a group-pen, make sure this pen is
cleaned and disinfected (following ‘Golden Standard’).
–– Calves in group-pens need 2-4 m2 space (1.5-1.8 m2 in Dutch Animal Welfare
Law).
–– Check 2 times daily if the pen bedding is still clean and dry. If not, adapt the
bedding material.

112 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Annex 8. G
 ood cleaning and disinfection: golden standards for cleaning
and disinfection

Company: Farm X Date last revision: 21/06/2009

Editor: xx xxxx References: Brand et al. (1996)
Resp. person(s): xxxxxx xx
xxxx xxx xxxxxx
Aim: Prevent poor hygiene-
related diseases

Contents

• Golden standards for cleaning and disinfection

• List A: disinfection solutions
• List B: antiseptic solutions

Golden standard for cleaning and disinfection:

1. Remove straw and manure.

2. Clean walls and floor with high pressure cleaner.
3. Disinfect walls and floor with one of substances from list A.
4. Rinse and let it dry.

List A: disinfection solutions containing one or more of these substances:

• Alkyldimethylbenzylammoniumcloride
• Didecyldimethylammoniumchloride
• Glutaraldehyde
• Isopropanol
• Formaldehyde
• Isopropanol
• Natrium-p-tolueensulfonchloramide

List B: antiseptic solutions used for disinfection of skin:

• Iodine
• Chlorhexidine
• Alcohol

Note: for prevailing infections with Cryptosporidium spp. among young stock, it is
advised to thoroughly clean and disinfect the premises with sodiumhypochlorite

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 113

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

or potassiumperoxymonosulphate. Formalin fumigation can be effective but is

carcinogenic, so at least gloves and mask must be put on when applying, if application
is allowed by law at all.

114 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Annex 9. Major management elements in neonatal calf care

There are two paramount performance parameters for calves in their early life: (1)
health status, (2) daily growth rate and development. In the subsequent life stages,
several other factors may influence this calf performance.

A9.1. Effect of the dam

The dam may influence the health status of the new-born calf in several ways; the
main phenomena are given here (Correa et al., 1993; Baumgartner, 1999; Chassange
et al., 1999; Staufenbiel et al., 2003; Noordhuizen, 2004):
• When they have a (too) high body condition score at the end of the dry period.
• When, in advanced pregnancy, they have fatty liver disease.
• When no prophylactic measures were applied in the dry period, like vaccination
during the last two months of pregnancy against E. coli, Rotavirus and Coronavirus,
to give to the calf, through the colostrum, a good protection, called passive
immunity.
• When they suffer from hypomagnesaemia or hypocalcaemia.
• When they experience a ketosis at late pregnancy (due to e.g. a disease like severe
mastitis), causing lower antibody levels transmitted through the colostrum (i.e.
poor colostrum quality). Colostrum quality can be measured semi-quantitatively
by a colostrometer (Figure A9.1).
• When they show low Se and vit E levels around calving (see Section II for reference
values).
• When they are affected by subacute rumen acidosis (SARA).

Figure A9.1. Colostrometer in a tube with milk. The reading is as follows: red= insufficient
(<20 mg/ml); yellow= doubtful (20-50 mg/ml); green= sufficient (> 50 mg/ml). The colostrometer
is a lactodensimeter; read-outs at 22 °C or 72 °F.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 115

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

• When their dry period Cation – Anion – Balance is too high (causing udder
oedema in heifers and dilution of colostrum in second and higher parities leading
to less quality).

Some addresses to order a colostrometer:

• Biogenetics; 09359 Highway 126. Mapleton, Oregon 97453 USA.
• CalfGard. North Field Laboratories Pty Ltd.; 180 Fosters Rd, Oakden, South
Australia 5086, Australia.
• Colostrum Densimeter, www.kruuze.com.

A9.2. Birth management

There are several ‘golden rules’ to apply when managing the birth of the calf and the
health of the dam. Some of these rules are given here:
• The place of calving must be clean, fresh, not slippery, comfortable, quiet and
separated from the other cows of the herd, but herd mates must be visible and
heard. It is strongly advised to have a special maternity pen.
• The perineum of the dam must be thoroughly washed when calving starts.
• Contamination of the calf by the dam or others must be avoided, and a proper
biosecurity plan at calving/birth should be applied to achieve an acceptable level
of safety.
• If the cow or heifer needs assistance during calving, all the correct managerial and
hygiene procedures must be applied: Using gloves (unless proper disinfection with
chlorhexidine has taken place) and being patient during all procedures, are just
two major issues when we are dealing with a dystocia.
• Decisions must not be delayed, for example a caesarean section must be performed
at the right time, or a uterine torsion must be solved in time and according to the
state of the art.
• A long-lasting intervention must be avoided because it may induce calf acidosis.
• Lay the calf in a lateral position after birth; dry it and apply thorough massage.
• The navel must be externally disinfected with an antiseptic spray immediately after
birth, in a proper way.
• Clear the calf of its meconium when it is obstructing the rectum; also eliminate
obstructions of the oropharynx (e.g. by hanging it upside down).
• Separate the calf from its dam and bring it into a separate unit with single pens
• Give the calf freshly and hygienically milked colostrum several times a day (see
details later on). Disinfect the material used for colostrum supply.

For several of these golden rules it could be advisable to design technical, management
work instructions, which usually do not comprise more than 1 page DIN A4. Such work
instructions are supportive for both the farmer, farm workers and the veterinarian.

116 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

For example, a vaccination scheme is a work instruction; what to do in case of dystocia

is another one.

A9.3. Immediately after birth

Immediately after birth, there are different activities to undertake. These activities
should be embedded in a strict routine on the farm. Again, they may be integrated
in a work instruction called ‘Routine activities after birth’. These activities comprise:
• Separate the calf from its dam, and bring it to a separate unit with single pens.
• Cleaning the calf of fluids from its dam, with movements from tail to nose.
• Not touching the calf with the hands inside its mouth.
• Disinfecting the whole outside of the navel with an appropriate solution (e.g.
iodine or chlorhexidine).
• Following strictly the colostrum work instruction on quality control, timings and
quantities of meals, on the first and following days. Colostrum quality can be
measured by a colostrometer (see Figure A9.1 in this Annex).
• Housing of the calf in a clean, fresh, dry and separate box in a separate barn.
• Calves with diarrhoea must be removed from the calf house and treated separately.
• Biosecurity measures must be implemented (see Section I of this book).

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 117

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Annex 10. Colostrum management issues

A10.1. Adequate colostrum and optimum newborn calf management

Begins with the provision of optimal nutrition to the pregnant dam,

which will result in a vigorous newborn animal and adequate quantities
of colostrum. Ensure optimal health care for the dam to prevent mastitis
in the dry period which reduces colostrum IgG content.
At the time of parturition, surveillance of the calving cows and the
provision of any obstetrical assistance will ensure that the newborn are
born with as much vigor as possible.
The next most important control measure is to ensure that liberal
quantities of colostrum are available and ingested within minutes and no
later than one hour after birth. While the optimum amount of colostrum
which should be ingested at a certain time after birth is well known
(Sellers, 2001), the major difficulty with all species under practical
conditions is to know how much colostrum a particular neonate has
ingested. Because modern livestock production has become so intensive,
it is imperative that the animal attendants make every effort to ensure
that sufficient colostrum is ingested by that particular species.

The colostrum quantities advised by different authors are unfortunately not always
the same. For example Andrews et al. (2008) and Godden et al. (2009) advise the
amount of colostrum to be at least 2 litres in the first 6 hours of life (within 1 or 2 hrs is
however more preferable) and two more additional litres in the first 12 hours. The first
colostrum should be administered as quickly as possible after birth (within minutes
or within 1 hour after birth) to allow a good absorption of the gammaglobulins (IgG)
and to give the calf sufficient passive immunity to protect it from viral and bacterial
infections, that can affect the intestine and induce diarrhoea. For the first feed, farmers
should offer calves up to 3 l of colostrum by nipple-bottle or nipple-bucket and where
calves fail to voluntarily consume this volume the remaining colostrum should be
fed by oesophageal tube feeder (Godden et al., 2009). See also reference values for
colostrum quality below. See Figure A10.1a,b for examples of oesohagal tube feeding.
• When pooled colostrum is used, calves should be fed 3 to 4 l of first-milking
colostrum.
• The stomach pH will be around 5 which reduces the incidence of E. coli diarrhoea.
• Calves should be fed regularly and preferably by the same person. The dairy calf
should be removed from the dam immediately after birth, and put in a single box;
they stay there until weaning.
• Colostrum should be milked from the cow aseptically, and 2½ l fed by nipple
bottle, teat-bucket or by stomach tube as soon as possible after birth (at least

118 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Figure A10.1a,b. Examples of an oesophagal tube for forced colostrum feeding of calves that
do not want or are to weak to drink by themselves.

within 1 hour). A colostrometer can be used to check the colostrum-qualtiy and

to determine whether a calf is fed a sufficient amount of IgG. Whether a high IgG
level has been reached in the calves serum, can be checked through refractometer
readings on blood samples (see Figure A10.2a,b).
• Adequate housing and ventilation must be provided to avoid climatic and social
stress.

Figure A10.2a,b. Examples of a refractometer for checking IgG levels in blood of young calves.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 119

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Some commercial milk – or colostrum – derived oral supplements containing

immunoglobulin are available for newborn calves in which colostral intake is suspected
or known to be inadequate (Table A10.1). However, they contain low immunoglobulin
concentrations compared to those found in high quality first-milking colostrum (Mee
and Mehra, 1995). Calves fed whey protein concentrate as a colostrum substitute and
administered as a single feeding, was ineffective in preventing neonatal morbidity and
mortality compared with a single feeding of pooled colostrum (Mee et al., 1996). See
also Annex 11 in this book on specific features of milk replacer products.

A final remark refers to colostrum replacement products and colostrum supplements.

Although their effect may be (slightly because large quantities are needed) beneficial
in situations where dam's colostrum or deep-frozen colostrum stock is not available,
or of too poor quality, there is a potential risk associated with these products that they
might transfer certain pathogens such as M. avium paratuberculosis, Coxiella burnetii
or BVD virus (Mestdagh et al., 2008). On the other hand, certified paratuberculosis-
free products may be used in paratuberculosis-affected herds to replace maternal high
risk colostrum in order to reduce the spread of disease to the neonate.

In order to eliminate such pathogens – also from colostrum – the heating of colostrum
has been proposed (Philippe et al., 2008). Pasteurisation inactivates the pathogens
but – on the other hand- reduces the quantity of IgG in the colostrum by about 30%.
Heat treatment of colostrum in small quantities at 60 °C during 2 hrs can overcome
that problem, while heat treatment at 60 °C during 30 min appeared to be sufficient
to eliminate M. bovis, L. monocytogenes, E. coli and S. enteritidis, but for M. avium
paratuberculosis a much longer heat treatment would be necessary. In general, a heat
treatment of 60 min at 60 °C is recommended to strongly reduce the bacterial load of
colostrum (Philippe et al., 2008).

Table A10.1. Reference values for colostrum quality, in g per l serum or in mg/ml milk respectively.

Serum IgG Interpretation % of total protein Milk IgG Interpretation

5 very poor okay if

5-10 insufficient at 60±7 <20 insufficient
10-15 sufficient at 48 hrs 20-50 doubtful
>15 good after birth >50 sufficient

120 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Annex 11. Assessing calf milk replacers and whole cows’ milk (adapted after
Rydell, 2002, 2008 and Kunz, 2008)

In choosing milk replacer for the calves, one should pay attention to particular
issues. First, to their protein content, energy content, vitamins supplementation, and,
possibly, medication. Secondly, to the protein source and their suitability for calves
at a certain age.

‘The single best criterion for evaluating a calf milk replacer is calf
performance.’
 (Rydell, 2008)

The energy and protein needs in the milk replacer ration must be adequate to cover
the demands and provide an optimal weight gain. In Table A11.1 is a comparison of
energy and protein contents between milk replacer and whole cow's milk. It provides
the respective volumes and concentration of milk powder to reach the appropriate
levels. However, the needs for energy and protein changes with age!

From the results in Table A11.1 one can read that – after the 3 to 4 days of colostrum
– the milk replacer period starts. For the first 4 weeks give 4 meals of 1½ l (at 160 g/l)
with a maximum of 2 l per meal. After that, give the calf 2 to 2½ l per meal (120 g/l)
for 6 weeks, while good quality hay and starter concentrates are always provided.
Weaning can then take place at 10 weeks of age. In both periods, 4 weeks and 6 weeks
the demands of the calf are being met.

Table A11.1. Comparing the energy and protein contents of milk replacer with those in whole
cow's milk.

Energy and protein When feeding milk replacer When feeding whole cow's milk
requirements for a calf of powder
50 kg body weight, with a daily (with 16 MJ; 21% crude (with 19.3 MJ; 26.4% crude
weight gain of 400 g protein/kg powder) protein/kg milk)

Metabolisable energy 15.6 MJ 975 g 5.8 l

Crude protein 155 g 738 g 4.2 l
Corresponds to a volume of : 8 l with 120 g powder or 6 l non-diluted whole cow's
6 l with 160 g powder milk

(after Kunz, 2008)

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 121

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

For calves between 2 and 20 weeks of age the volumes per meal first increase gradually,
but steeply after 10 weeks of age (= weaning) from 8 to 12 l per day. At 7-8 weeks of
age the volume is already at 7 l per day.

The metabolic programming of the calf starts around its birth. A too low energy level
in the feed after birth leads to a insufficient pancreas function.

It could be that we consider whole cow's milk cheaper than milk replacer powder for
this rearing period. In Table A11.2, a comparison is made between these two options.
Whole cow's milk can be much cheaper than milk replacer powder, depending on the
prevailing prices. On the other hand, one should bear in mind that cow's milk is low
in e.g. Fe and Cu.

There are several kinds of milk replacer powder available on the market. There is milk
replacer with milk powder, and there is milk replacer without milk powder, possibly
with vegetal proteins. Vegetal proteins are not fit for young calves, simply because they
do not have a functional rumen to digest these vegetal proteins!

Large dairy enterprises could supply 2 kinds of milk replacer to play it safely and well.
For the first 4 weeks a milk replacer without, and during the next 4 to 6 weeks a milk
replacer with vegetal proteins. Small dairy enterprises do not have a real choice: they
have to stick to one milk replacer, one without the vegetal proteins.

It is easy to check in the field whether or not vegetal proteins are included in the milk
replacer ration:
→ fill a glass with prepared milk replacer; when the colour is whitish it is
a good milk replacer; when the colour turns yellow, it is a milk replacer
with vegetal proteins.

Table A11.2. A comparison of the feed costs when using whole cow's milk or milk replacer
powder for a period of about 10 weeks.

1 l of whole cow's milk contains 140 g DM Milk replacer powder contains 16 MJ energy +
(19.3 MJ energy + 26.4% crude protein/kg DM) 22% crude protein/kg DM

140 g DM = 2.7 MJ energy → equals 170 g milk replacer powder

140 g DM = 37 g crude protein → equals 170 g milk replacer powder
Market value = 30-40 eurocents 2.00 to 2.45 euro/kg powder
Direct costs are 20 eurocents 1.18 euro/kg powder

122 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Let us now have a look at the fibre content of different protein sources (note that
the level of fibre should be < 5%) as listed in Table A11.3. Table A11.4 presents an
overview of different protein sources and their acceptability as calf feed stuff.

For rearing replacement heifers on a dairy farm, only option 1 is acceptable (the first
column in Table A11.4) as milk replacer protein source.

In addition to acceptability of a protein source for the calf in relation to its fibre content,
there are also other issues to address, such as the economic issue of weight gain.

Table A11.5 provides an overview of the daily weight gain per calf and days with
diarrhoea, up to 4 weeks of age with different ration compositions of milk replacer
(Kunz, 2008). The last two rations contain glycinine which a calf cannot digest.

Note that calves at 2 weeks of age have only 80% of their chymosine capacity and only
20% of their pepsin capacity available! The latter is the reason that they can not digest

Table A.11.3. Fibre contents of different protein sources.

% crude proteins % crude fibres

Whole cow's milk 34 --

Soja protein concentrate 67 3.6
Soja protein isolate 86 0.2
Wheat protein hydrolysate 82 0.5

Table A11.4. Protein sources and their acceptability for calf feed.

Acceptable protein source Acceptable under conditions1? Marginal Not acceptable

+++++ ---- ------------

Dried whey protein concentrate Soy protein isolate Soy flour Meat solubles
Dried skim milk Protein modified soy flour Fish protein
concentrate
Casein Soy protein concentrate Wheat flour
Dried whey Animal plasma 2
Dried whey product Animal blood cells 2

1 Only acceptable when used as partial substitution for milk protein.

2 USA conditions.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 123

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Table A11.5. Daily weight gain and days with diarrhoea in calves fed different rations of milk
replacer with different protein supplements up to 4 weeks of age.

Milk replacer with… Daily weight gain Days with Suitable as calf
(g/day/calf) diarrhoea feed

35% skimmed milk powder + 617 7 +

30% lactoserum powder
12% soja protein isolate + 563 7 ±
50% lactoserum powder
15% soja protein concentrate + 533 14 -
52% lactoserum powder
20% soja meal + 475 30 --
45% lactoserum powder

vegetal proteins (soja contains trypsine inhibitors, polysaccharides causing diarrhoea,

glycinines, and beta-conglycinines with an antigenic function).

There is also the question whether or not to add lactic acid bacteria (Cylactin®) to the
milk replacer and if so, what effect it would have on the health of the calf.

In a study reported by Kunz (2008) 4.8 mg Cylactin® was added per l of milk replacer
(concentration 120 g/l) and the effect on diarrhoea and weight gain observed in calves
with a birth weight of 44 kg, as compared to a group without the supplementation, up
to an age of 9 weeks. The results are presented in Table A11.6.

The author did not find a statistically significant difference in weight gain between
the two groups in the study (Table A11.6). With regard to diarrhoea there was a

Table A11.6. Effect of Cylactin® in milk replacer on diarrhoea and weight gain in young calves
between birth and 9 weeks of age.

Supplemented group Comparison group

Body weight at birth 44.6 kg 43.3 kg

Body weight at 9 weeks 83.1 kg 84.0 kg
Weight gain in period 620 g/day 638 g/day
Diarrhoea cases 4 8
Diarrhoea cases treated 4 12
Mortality cases 0 0

124 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

significant difference in number of cases. This means that it could be beneficial to

supplement the lactic acid bacteria product, especially in problem herds.

Instead of using milk replacer, one could consider using whole cow's milk, but acidified.
In a study reported by Kunz (2008) formic acid (pH 4.0 to 4.6; concentration between
0.25 and 0.30%) was added to cow's milk. The number of coliform bacteria in the
milk was used as outcome parameter and measured at different time intervals and
temperatures:
• After 2 hrs there was no difference in coliform counts between whole milk and
acidified milk at 22 °C nor at 30 °C.
• After 5 hrs, there was no difference in coliform counts between whole milk and
acidified milk at 22 °C, but at 30 °C the coliform count increased to 1 million
bacteria/ml whole milk while in acidified milk it stayed at a zero level.
• After 24 hrs, the whole cow's milk at both 22 °C and 30 °C had a coliform count
of 2.5 million/ml milk, while the acidified milk at both 22 °C and 30 °C stayed at
zero level.

This shows that, indeed, acidifying whole cow's milk could be beneficial to the calf
health, reducing the pH and hampering E. coli infections from establishing.

Method of acidification→
• Take formic acid (pH 4.0-4.6; concentration 0.25-0.30%).
• Dilute a 85% formic acid with water in a ratio 1 to 10 (put the formic acid into the
water, and not the inverse).
• Of this solution, put 30 ml into 1 l of milk.
• Let this combination coagulate for a while, stir it and feed it.
• This solution can be provided on the 2nd day after the colostrum period.

And the question remains: what happens to the calf health if we add lactic acid
bacteria not to milk replacer but to whole cow's milk. This study too was reported by
Kunz (2008).

The following feeding schedule was followed:

• 2×2 l colostrum on day 1 and 2
• 2×1½ l whole cow's milk on day 3-14
• 2×2 l whole cow's milk day 15-28
• 2×2½ l whole cow's milk day 29-56

The study group (about 90 calves) received, moreover, 6.8 mg Cylactin®/l milk. Hay
and starter concentrates were supplied during the entire period.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 125

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

There were no statistically significant differences found in weight gain between the two
groups, not per day, not per period, not in total. The reference group showed 19 cases
of diarrhoea (32 treatments) and 1 dead calf, while the study group showed 5 cases
of diarrhoea and no dead calves. This difference is significant (P<0.01). So, acidifying
whole cow's milk could be beneficial to reduce the number of diarrhoea cases.

Would this mean that whole cow's milk is the ideal feed for young calves (less costly
than milk replacer, good health results with acidification, no weight gain problems)?
To answer this question we need to look to the nutrient contents of whole cow's milk
too (Table A11.7).

The conclusion is appropriate that given the results in Table A11.7, whole cow's milk
is not the optimal solution to our problems! But the problem can even be worse. Of
all calves born without any difficulty, about 18% have a Fe-deficiency. In calves which
experienced a prolonged birth process, this percentage increases to 42%. At the same
time, 33% of calves have a Hb value lower than the threshold value of 5.57 mmol Hb/l
and 5% even less than 4.47 mmol Hb/l (the clinical threshold for anaemia).

Colostrum has a higher Fe level than whole cow's milk (1.16 versus 0.31 mg/l), but on
average 40% of calves have no access to colostrum the first 4 hours after birth. It could,
therefore, be beneficial to administer a Fe product to calves during the first 10 days
after birth. It has been shown that weight gain was much higher in Fe supplied calves.

Other remarks

In wintertime, when ambient temperatures drop below freezing point, it is advised

to supply a higher energy density milk replacer (20% fat). At the same time, the
quantity of each meal must be increased by 20 to 50%. However, if additional heating
in the calf barn is provided, the forenamed advice does not apply! The bags with milk
replacer must be stored in a clean, dark, dry and cool place, not exposed to excessive
heat. Opened bags must be stored in an air-tight manner to prevent exposure to

Table A11.7. Nutrients in whole cow's milk as compared to nutritional needs.

Whole cow's milk Nutrient needs (NRC, 2001)

Fe (mg/kg DM) 0.5 100

Mn (mg/kg DM) 0.3 40
Cu (mg/kg DM) 0.1-1-1 10
Co (mg/kg DM) 0.006 0.11

126 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

contamination, humidity and heat. In Table A11.8 is shown how one can assess the
quality of milk replacers on the farm.

Table A11.8. Assessing the quality of milk replacers on the dairy farm.

Features

Dry powder
Colour Cream to light tan, no lumps, no foreign materials.
If powder has become orange to orange-brown, and has a caramel/burned
smell, there has been a heat exposure causing loss of nutrients and loss of
palatability.
Odour Powder must have a bland to pleasant odour.
If it smells like paint, grass, clay or petrol, the fat portion of the product may
be rancid.
Reconstituted liquid
Mixing Product must be readily and easily soluble. Mix at recommended
temperature, no clots, no deposition/sediment. Do not over-mix to avoid
foam and fat separation.
Colour Cream to light tan.
Odour Pleasant; no off flavours.
Flavour Milky, no off flavours.
If organic acids are involved, the taste is often ‘sweet tart’; this is not the
same as the lactic acid taste of sour milk!!

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 127

 Section 1 – The population medicine approach to young stock rearing
VetBooks.ir

Annex 12. S
 coring tables for the assessment of severity and treatment of calf
diarrhoea in the field (adapted after Heinrichs and Kehoe, 2009)

For a fair assessment of the diarrhoea situation among young stock, three scoring
sheets are handled: (1) on the extent of diarrhoea, (2) on respiration of the calves, and
(3) on appearance of the calves.

Table A12.1 provides a scoring sheet for assessing diarrhoea cases in young calves;
Table A12.2 provides a scoring sheet for assessing the quality and its deviations of
respiration; Table A12.3 gives a scoring sheet for assessing clinical appearance of the
calves (Heinrichs and Kehoe, 2009).

On the basis of the outcome of all scoring tables, a daily total is calculated. When the
daily total exceeds a certain threshold (for example an overall average of 8), rectal
temperature must be taken, and treatment started (antibiotics and or oral rehydration).

Table A12.1. Scoring system for distinguishing different degrees of diarrhoea in young calves.

Score 1 Calves show normal faeces, with ‘pudding’ consistency

Score 2 Calves show slightly less firm faeces which are ‘yoghurt-like’
Score 3 Calves show diarrhoea, with ‘syrup-like’ faeces, which are loose to watery; odour
Score 4 Calves show diarrhoea with ‘ fruit juice’ aspect; faecal material still visible
Score 5 Calves show ‘watery’ diarrhoea without faecal material, with mucous or blood

Table A12.2. Scoring system for distinguishing different degrees of respiration/deviations.

Score 1 Calves show normal breathing, no clinical signs what-so-ever

Score 2 Calves may show a slight cough or runny nose; but respiration is regular
Score 3 Calves show rapid breathing and moderate coughing
Score 4 Calves show severe frequent cough, and rapid breathing
Score 5 Calves show irregular breathing, with severe chronic cough

Table A12.3. Scoring sheet for assessing the clinical appearance of young calves.

Score 1 Calves are alert and active

Score 2 Calves have droopy ears, and are slightly unresponsive to stimuli
Score 3 Calves are moderately depressed, with head and ears drooping
Score 4 Calves are depressed, with drooping head and ears; show no interest in standing up
Score 5 Calves are down all the time (side position)

128 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Annexes
VetBooks.ir

Note that from a score of 2 onwards (for each Table) one can already speak of a
disorder. The summing up of 3 scores at value 2 is 3×2= 6. So, a very strict threshold
would be an overall average daily score of 6.

Example of calculation:
• 15 calves were scored, using the three Tables A, B and C
• Results of scoring are A (10×3+5×2)+B (9×2+6×3)+C (6×2+9×4) = 124
• The overall average is 124/15 calves = 8.3
• If the threshold was set at 8, rectal temperature must be taken and treatment of
calves started

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 129

VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

Section II. Diseases of young

stock

(with special emphasis on diseases affecting

groups of calves, e.g. IBR and BVD)
VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

Chapter 8. Introduction to Section II

Calves are the future of the dairy herd. A minority of the female animals will be kept
on the farm as herd replacements while male calves are sold, except on farms which
are producing males for reproduction or beef production purposes.

Section II does not provide the reader with text-book and detailed descriptions of
all diseases, their diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Textbooks which cover these
areas more comprehensively are available. The objective is rather to provide the reader
with practical and easy-to-consult guidelines on various major diseases and disorders
in calves, affecting the group as a whole rather than individuals. Such diseases and
disorders affect the profitability of the young stock rearing process and hence the
dairy farm. The aim is to help veterinarians (and extension officers or farmers) to
make better decisions, and help them to increase the profitability of the young stock
rearing process.

Presented here are the name of the disease and its occurrence, its clinical signs,
therapeutic (medical and management) measures, prophylactic possibilities and, if
necessary, how to explain to the farmer the problem or problems that he could have
to deal with, when trying to eliminate or reduce the diseases present on his farm. The
selected diseases and disorders are those with the greatest impact on herd health and
productivity which require FHPM programmes to control them rather than diseases
with a low within-herd prevalence affecting only individual animals. They cause either
high mortality or morbidity rates, or in some cases, both (Table 8.1).

The perinatal period is the period of greatest young stock mortality in dairy herds.
Enteric infections are the primary cause of mortality in young calves. Colibacillosis
is the number one cause of enteric mortality in neonatal calves. BVD is economically
the most important endemic viral disease of cattle worldwide, whereas Johne's disease
is one of the most economically important bacterial disease of cattle and potentially
related to Crohne's disease in humans. IBR is one of the most important diseases
affecting national and international trade of cattle and semen and hence the AI
industry globally. The other diseases selected are those which present a serious risk
to young stock through either their high prevalence or the economic consequences
of an outbreak in a dairy herd, or their geographical interest.

In the following paragraphs, the major causes of calf disease and mortality will be
addressed. Then, special attention is given to issues of IBR and BVD, followed by other
major diseases and tropical/subtropical diseases in a summary style. The focus is on
disease, including prevention, in a practical way so it can be useful in the farmer's
daily work. No in-depth explanations of complex pathogenesis of diseases will be

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 133

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

Table 8.1. The most common causes of mortality, by age group, of young stock. Ranking is in
descending order of importance.

From birth to 1 From 1 to 3 From 3 to 12 From 12 months

month of age months of age months of age to 1st calving1

Enteric infections Respiratory Respiratory Respiratory

infections infections infections
Septicaemia/Bacteraemia Enteric infections Clostridial Digestive disorders
(after e.g. enteric or respiratory infections
infection, or navel joint illness)
Respiratory infections Septicaemia/ Enteric infections Dystocia
Bacteraemia
Navel joint illness Gastrointestinal Septicaemia/ Other infections
obstruction or Bacteraemia
torsion
Gastrointestinal obstruction or Abomasal BVD Poisoning
torsion ulceration

1 Note that the primary reason for heifers in this age cohort failing to enter the milking herd is
commonly culling for infertility (freemartins and failure to become pregnant), not on-farm mortality.
(Brickell et al., 2009, RVL, 2008, Svensson et al., 2006)

given; emphasis will be on occurrence, diagnosis, treatment, prevention and overall

management.

Definitions

In the context of this book, the following terminology will be used:

• The transition period refers to the three weeks before and after calving and usually
deals with problems of the dam.
• The perinatal period refers to the time period from 24 hrs prior to birth, the birth
process itself, to 48 hrs after birth.
• An abortion refers to a calf or calves which have died and are delivered by the dam
between 100 and 260 days of gestation.
• A stillbirth refers to a calf or calves (twins or more) which are dead at birth (die
before or during calving) following a gestation period of at least 260 days (excludes
abortions).
• The neonatal period refers to the calf from 3 to 7 days of age.
• Young stock refers to parity 0 animals up to first calving.

134 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Chapter 9. Perinatal disorders

9.1. Introduction

The perinatal period is the most hazardous in the life of all animals. The main causes of
perinatal morbidity and mortality are, in descending order of importance, combined
respiratory and metabolic acidosis, parturient trauma, hypoglobulinaemia, congenital
infections and deficiencies and omphalophlebitis. Perinatal mortality may be defined
as calf death prior to, during or within 48 hours of calving, following a gestation
period of at least 260 days, irrespective of the cause of death or the circumstances
of the calving (Mee, 2009). Perinatal morbidity and mortality are growing welfare
concerns, given their impact not just on losses around calving but also on subsequent
productivity, health, reproduction and farm economics. In this context it is critically
important to pay sufficient attention to the beginning of the calf ’s life, because any
mistake made there will lead to problems, economic loss and stress in the farmer.

Management of the newborn dairy calf is best achieved through implementation of

simple protocols which document the correct strategies to be followed at the herd
level and the correct procedures to be carried out at the individual animal level. These
protocols cover management of calving (monitoring of eutocia and detection and
management of dystocia) and newborn calf care. Discussion with producers about
newborn calf problems or care represents a contact moment which veterinarians
should utilize to expand their role in veterinarian-led dairy herd management support
programmes (Mee, 2007). See also the Annexes.

For an analysis of the incidence of any disease, it is necessary that the farmers record
such data continuously and properly (Noordhuizen et al., 1983). At herd level,
laboratory analysis will be useful in detecting subclinical diseases and risk factors
(Gelfert and Staufenbiel, 2004), which may increase the disease incidence; such data
too must be recorded.

The data recording procedure must be as easy as possible to avoid false entries in the
data base (Krebs et al., 1999). Therefore, before starting such recording, diseases have
to be defined clearly (Kelton et al., 1998). Examples of practical recording systems for
calf rearing have been presented by Brand et al. (1996) and can be found in Section
I too.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 135

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

9.2. Management of the dairy cow at calving to prevent losses in young

stock

9.2.1. Dry cow body condition score

During the transition period particular attention must be given to the body condition
score (BCS) of pregnant heifers and cows. Over-conditioning must be avoided,
because this can induce fatty liver disease, sub-acute ketosis (with high prevalence of
postpartum diseases in cows, a poor colostrum quality, and increased health problems
in calves). Other potential consequences of over-conditioning are the occurrence of
more dystocia and a delayed birth, with acute asphyxia in the neonate or late asphyxia.
Ideally cows should calve down at a BCS of 3.25 (range 3.0-3.5, on a scale of 1-5). In
order to achieve this score, BCS data need to be recorded in late lactation and shortly
before drying off. In case of deviations, the rations for late lactation cows must be
adjusted, and ultimately the length of the dry period if no other means are at disposal
(Cannas da Silva et al., 2006).

9.2.2. Movement to the maternity unit

In order to avoid increased calving problems and perinatal mortality associated

with cows calving in the dry cow accommodation, producers should ensure cows
calve in a maternity unit. Within 36 hours of calving, cows in cubicle housing will
attempt to seek isolation by lying in cubicles furthest from other cows, thus early
movement to the maternity unit fulfils their natural isolation seeking behaviour. It is
recommended that pregnant cows are in the maternity unit at least 24 hours before
calving and heifers earlier, as this is when calving commences. Movement too early to
the maternity unit will affect the cleanliness of the calving environment and increase
the risk of ketosis and displaced abomasum. The movement of animals, particularly
nervous cows and heifers, will suspend their calving behaviour so they should be
left without further disturbance to adapt to the maternity unit and resume calving
progress. Environmental stress can be further reduced in heifers by calving them
separate from older cows, maintaining visual contact with herd mates to prevent
social isolation, not tethering them at calving and avoiding disturbances from routine
farm tasks, such as calf feeding and cleaning out pens.

An alternative strategy is to move cows once stage two (commenced calving) has been
detected. The advantages of this approach are that cows spend hours, not days, in the
maternity pen thus reducing the magnitude of the change in dry matter intake and
freeing up maternity pens for other cows, particularly in large herds. Recent research
indicate that moving animals in stage two is associated with reduced time to first lie
down, duration of calving from entry and reduced assistance, dystocia and stillbirth

136 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 9. Perinatal disorders
VetBooks.ir

rates. These results suggest that it is less detrimental to move animals which have
already commenced calving (stage two) than it is to move animals which are about
to start calving (stage one). However, this strategy requires 24 hour monitoring of
the close-up group with approximately hourly checks and it is not clear whether this
policy may interrupt the calving process and lead to more calving problems than if
these animals were not moved or were moved before stage one commenced.

Currently, moving cows before calving commences, as is widely practised, appears

prudent to optimise newborn calf care. However, the potential management benefits
of alternative strategies, particularly in large dairies, need to be considered by farm
managers (Mee, 2008a).

A system becoming more and more adopted on larger modern dairy farms is the
principle of housing and feeding dry cows in one group in large straw pens. Benefits
of this system are:
1. cows are housed in the herd during dry period but have enough space to separate
themselves at calving;
2. dry cows in late gestation get up more easy on straw compared to the cubicle
situation;
3. no ration changes prior to calving;
4. no need to determine when to move the cow prior to calving, therefore the risk
of moving cows in stage one of calving and no detrimental effects of stress due to
this action.

Prerequisites of this system are that fresh straw should be applied at least once daily
and calves should be removed immediately after calving (which is not different from
any other system).

9.2.3. Calving supervision

Good supervision is dependent upon monitoring calving, particularly stage two,

and intervening if and where necessary, while avoiding excessive direct supervision.
Monitoring approximately every 3 to 6 hours from the first detection of the onset of
stage one is advisable to detect the onset of stage two of normal calving and to detect
abnormal calvings early. If cervical dilation has commenced and no abnormalities
are detectable monitoring should continue approximately hourly. The allantochorion
ruptures approximately an hour before the amnion appears. Undue delay between the
rupture of the allantochorion and the appearance of the amnion or fetal hooves may
indicate a problem such as fetal oversize or maldisposition (Mee, 2008b).

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 137

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

9.2.4. Calving assistance

The vast majority of cows will happily calve unattended and unassisted and where
possible should be allowed to do so. However, a small proportion of cows and a
greater proportion of heifers may require assistance. Phenotypic dystocia rates are
increasing internationally and currently vary between 2 and 15% (Mee, 2008c). Three
simple questions need to be addressed by herd personnel to ensure successful calving
intervention: (1) whether or when to intervene, (2) how to intervene and (3) when to
solicit veterinary assistance. For the veterinarian these queries often come down to
whether to pursue traction or surgery. Potential dystocia may be differentiated from
eutocia by the presence of risk factors for the various types of dystocia. These risk
factors may be assessed from the calf sire, breed and size and body condition and size
of the dam, previous calving history, exploratory examination, calving conditions and
most importantly, calving progress. Addressing the question of whether to intervene
during calving, intervention is recommended in cases of feto-pelvic incompatibility
(FPI), maldisposition, twinning, uterine inertia and vulval or cervical stenosis.
Addressing the question of when to intervene, early intervention is recommended,
during stage one for uterine inertia, and during stage two, for maldisposition and
twinning. Delayed intervention is recommended, during stage two, for FPI and
cases of vulval or cervical stenosis. FPI with a live full-term normal calf in anterior
presentation is the primary reason for intervention during calving, particularly by
herd personnel. The importance of progress, rather than clock-watching during stage
two is emphasised, as the onset of stage two is usually unknown. Signs of progress
during stage two include a recumbent dam straining intermittently but strongly,
with occasional breaks while she stands up and lies down again and progressive
emergence of the fetal legs and head through the vulva. Once progress is normal,
discrete monitoring without disturbance every 30 minutes, or continuously if patience
can be assured, is recommended. Intervention should not be carried out before
the calf ’s muzzle has emerged and not before the calf ’s fetlocks are visible. When
progress ceases over 30 minutes or the calf begins to exhibit signs of reduced vigor
(such as capital or lingual oedema, buccal or lingual cyanosis, scleral haemorrhages
intervention should be conducted. When severe acidosis can be traced back to stage
two of relatively short duration, rapid improvement can be achieved by resuscitative
care. When acidosis exists over a longer period, as in delayed assistance, the efficacy
of supportive care is lower as hypoxic lesions such as meningeal, subepicardial and
subpleural haemorrhages may develop. The stress of a prolonged delivery, rather than
the type of assistance is responsible for reduced calf vigor following dystocia.

138 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 9. Perinatal disorders
VetBooks.ir

9.3. Perinatal mortality

The prevalence of perinatal mortality in dairy herds internationally has increased in

recent years and currently varies between 2 and 10% (Mee et al., 2008; Heinrichs and
Kehoe, 2009). This average figure obscures the fact that perinatal mortality follows a
right skewed distribution where most herds have none or minimal losses but some
herds have high (25%) mortality. Some 90% of calves, which die in the perinatal
period, were alive at the start of calving and so much of this loss is preventable.
Recently an increase in perinatal mortality in heifers following non-apparent dystocia
has become apparent (Mee, 2008d) which may have a genetic basis. Significant herd
and animal-level risk factors are shown in Table 9.1.

Traditionally, the majority of perinatal mortality has been attributed to dystocia.

Recent research indicates that the proportion of perinatal mortality attributable
to dystocia may be decreasing. The main causes of perinatal mortality are anoxia
(asphyxia neonatorum) and trauma, following dystocia, and to a much lesser extent
death-in-utero and premature placental expulsion. Perinatal mortality following
eutocia (often called ‘weak calf syndrome’) may be associated with IntraUterine
Growth Retardation (IUGR) or prematurity, congenital defects, infections, precalving
nutrition, dysmaturity, twins, placental dysfunction or sire-specific genetic weakness
leading to poor perinatal viability, prolonged stage one with premature placental
separation or prolonged stage two with uterine atony. A comprehensive list of possible
causes of perinatal mortality is given in Table 9.2.

9.4. Asphyxia neonatorum

Perinatal asphyxia is complex disease, provoked by a respiratory metabolic acidosis,

which is easy to diagnose clinically because the calf shows respiratory difficulties and
a low vitality. Asphyxia immediately after birth (‘acute asphyxia’) or ‘late asphyxia’

Table 9.1. Herd and animal-level risk factors for perinatal calf mortality.

Herd level Individual animal level

Calving supervision Parity of the dam

Calving environment Dystocia
Nutrition prepartum Gestation length
Congenital infections Birth weight of calf
Herd size? Gender of calf

(after Mee, 2008e)

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 139

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

Table 9.2. Infectious and non-infectious causes of stillbirth and perinatal death in calves.1

Non-infectious causes Infectious causes 1 Infectious causes 2 Congenital

phenomena

Dystocia Virus Bacteria Epitheliogenesis

imperfecta
Cold stress BHV-I Brucella abortus Cardiac defects
Excess or under- BVDV Brucella millitensis Internal hydrocephalus
nutrition
Energy deficiency Bluetongue virus C. pyogenes Cerebellar hypoplasia
Protein deficiency Akabane virus Campylobacter spp. Arthogryposis or cleft
palate
Ketosis Cache valley virus Salmonella spp. Beta-mannodiosis
Umbilical Bacillus spp.
haemorrhage
Copper excess/ Haemetoza Streptococus spp. Gama-mannodiosis
deficiency
Selenium and iodine Anaplasmosis Leptospira spp. Bovine citrullinemia
deficiency
Vitamin A deficiency Theileriosis Listeria monocytogenes Bovine maple syrup
urine disease
Premature placental Fungus Navel infection Congenital joint laxity
separation and dwarfism
Intrauterine growth Aspergillus spp. Protoza Intestinal atresia
retardation
Nitrate toxicity Rickettsia Neospora caninum Omphalocoele
Twinning Clamydia spp. Toxoplasma gondii Anophthalmia
Uterine torsion Coxiella burnetii Tritrichomonas foetus Prosencephalic
hypoplasia

1 Note that the relevance of each cause may differ between countries and/or regions.

(adapted after Smith, 2009)

can be distinguished. Both asphyxia types lead to a high rate of perinatal deaths.
Acute asphyxia develops inside the uterus namely if the cow has a uterine torsion,
the presentation of the calf causes the disease, the uterine contractions are weak, or
when the intervention at calving is too late. The calf suffers from an oxygen deficiency
and shows a high level of CO2 due to a reduced gas exchange between placenta and
foetus; the calf will suffer from a metabolic acidosis which it tries to compensate

140 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 9. Perinatal disorders
VetBooks.ir

by respiration. Two scenarios are possible: (a) intra-uterine death, or (b) neonatal
asphyxia (Grunert et al., 1984). This situation can provoke a high rate of calf losses.
Following successful perinatal resuscitation many calves that experience dystocia or
prolonged calving will still have a mixed metabolic-respiratory acidosis in the first
six hours of life (late asphyxia). In addition, some calves develop secondary acidosis
within 24 hours of birth with a poor suck reflex, tachypnoea, tachycardia, weakness,
depression and hypothermia. Such late perinatal acidosis is significant risk factors
for perinatal mortality. Correction of postnatal metabolic acidosis can be effectively
achieved with drip or bolus intravenous infusion of sodium bicarbonate instituted
after resuscitation and repeated as necessary.

9.5. Perinatal calf evaluation

All calves suffer some degree of respiratory-metabolic acidosis at birth, but calves
born following prolonged calving have increased respiratory and metabolic acidosis.
Calves assisted compared to unassisted or pulled out by strong compared to mild
traction have increased respiratory-metabolic acidosis and take longer to achieve
sternal recumbence. The vigour of the calf can be assessed immediately after calving
by its reflexes and the time it takes to head-right, achieve sternal recumbence, attempt
to stand and to stand (3, 5, 20 and 60 minutes, respectively). If the calf exhibits
superficial abdominal breathing, has poor reflexes or it takes more than 15 minutes
to achieve sternal recumbence the prognosis is poor (Schuijt and Taverne, 1994).

9.6. Calf resuscitation

Most calves which require resuscitation are usually not attended by a veterinary
practitioner as most dystocia and prolonged calvings are attended by herd staff only
or are unattended. Hence, the role of the veterinary practitioner in calf resuscitation
is two-fold. Firstly to draw up a standard operational procedure, SOP, (a technical
and formalised work instruction) for at-risk calves for herd staff and secondly to
resuscitate calves after veterinary-assisted calvings.

The SOP should document for herd staff a standard resuscitation kit to be located
in the maternity pen area and details of first-aid procedures to be followed with at-
risk calves. At-risk calves are those who are likely to need resuscitation because of
their calving outcomes. Before starting resuscitation one should make sure that the
upper respiratory tracts are free from fluid, mucus and attached fetal membranes.
Preferably this is done by elevating the rear of the calf. When a calf in up-side-down
position does not start breathing immediately in response to brisk rubbing on the
chest, resuscitation is needed. A resuscitation kit for herd staff on large dairies should
include a stethoscope, rectal thermometer, compressed air device (e.g. Ambu bag),

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 141

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

needles, suction pump and oxygen delivery equipment. For successful resuscitation of
at-risk calves, herd staff need to practice good calving supervision (i.e. be present to
assist the calf), prompt calf viability evaluation (during and immediately after birth)
and early aggressive intervention (i.e. active management of calving and calf care).
Note that newborn calves are not likely to survive if resuscitation does not result in
spontaneous respiration in 2 or 3 minutes (Noakes et al., 2001).

9.7. Umbilical care

After spontaneous rupture of the umbilical cord, the urachus and vessels normally
retract into the abdomen thus protecting them from environmental contamination.
At assisted calvings there is a tendency to immediately rupture the cord. Though
research in calves is limited, one study found a long-term decrease in efficiency of
pulmonary gas exchange in calves with assisted premature umbilical cord rupture
compared to those with spontaneous rupture. Thus, there may be an advantage to
leaving the cord to rupture spontaneously.

Omphalitis or navel illness occurs in 5 to 15% of newborn calves. As it is generally

untreated, it can lead to reduced growth, joint ill and other sequelae. Prevention
of navel illness is based on maintenance of maternity pen hygiene, reducing the
residency time of calves in unhygienic maternity pens, ensuring adequate early intake
of good quality colostrum and navel antisepsis. Choice of cord care procedure is
under-researched in calves. Topical antiseptics, particularly iodine and chlorhexidine
(dip or spray), are more widely used in calves than topical antibiotic spray or cord
clamping or ligation. In herds without umbilical-associated problems, farmers should
avoid possibly harmful cord application procedures and concentrate on maternity
hygiene and calf immunity. In herds with serious navel-ill problems producers should
consider improving maternity pen hygiene, immediate and repeated cord dipping
with chlorhexidine or iodine, calf snatching, hand-feeding colostrum and regular
checking for omphalitis (swollen and painful navel, pyrexia) with metaphylactic
parenteral antimicrobial therapy as appropriate.

9.8. Calf movement after calving

In herds where paratuberculosis may be present based on a risk assessment, clinical

history or laboratory results, newborn heifer calves in particular should not be allowed
to suckle. After immediately removal from the dam (‘calf snatch’) and placement in
a calf house or hutch, they should be fed hand or machine-milked colostrum from
their dam. Where the risk of infectious disease is acceptably low calves may benefit
from remaining with their dam to increase their opportunities to suckle naturally and
to enhance the absorption of colostral immunoglobulin over colostrum fed in the

142 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 9. Perinatal disorders
VetBooks.ir

absence of the dam. As cows tend to lick off antiseptics applied to the umbilicus, such
antiseptics should be reapplied upon removing the calf from the maternity pen. Where
maternity pen hygiene is poor, calf residency time should be reduced to a minimum to
prevent common calf-hood infectious disorders such as omphalophlebitis, diarrhoea,
pneumonia and septicaemia. Moving the calf from the maternity pen to the calf house
presents an opportunity to conduct a quick check on the calf ’s health status. Problems
to look out for include persistent signs of acidosis, dyspnoea, umbilical bleeding or
organ eventration and hypothermia.

9.9. In conclusion

Despite advances in dairy herd health and productivity management support,

perinatal calf mortality rates are still unacceptably high on many dairy farms. Whilst
some of this loss has a genetic origin and may be outside the producer’s control,
FHPM programmes at the herd level and SOPs at the animal or group level can be
implemented to improve perinatal welfare. The key features of successful newborn
dairy calf management are ensuring heifers and cows are moved in time to calve in
suitable maternity housing, discrete calving supervision and appropriate timing of
any necessary calving assistance, immediate parturient evaluation of at-risk newborn
calves followed by aggressive resuscitation, strategic navel antisepsis, early detection
(and treatment) of perinatal problems and prompt movement of the newborn calf
to hygienic calf housing. Veterinarian-led producer implementation of FHPM
programmes in the management of calving and newborn calf care can improve young
stock welfare and health. A relevant component of such a programme is the recording
and evaluation of the various events in the perinatal period in order to improve overall
performance of farm management and farm employees. The relatively high incidence
of calf mortality warrants a structured and continuous monitoring of calf performance
and an advisor – coaching role of the veterinarian.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 143

VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

Chapter 10. Infectious calf diarrhoea and septicaemia1

10.1. Introduction (principal agents of diarrhoea in calves)

Diarrhoea in the new-born calf is an important cause of calf mortality and hence
economic loss. The primary, new-born calf ’s diarrhoea agents are E. coli, Rotavirus,
Coronavirus, Cryptospidium parvum, Eimeria spp., and Salmonella spp. But C. parvum
has become increasingly important in the last couple of years (Martins et al., 2007a,b).

Besides the agents named, there are other important, contributory risk factors such
as: (a) poor management, (b) inappropriate environmental conditions, (c) deficient
administration of the colostrum (given too late, in wrong quantities or at poor quality),
(d) influence of feeding in the dry period of the dam (low level of antibodies), (e) the
inexistence of prophylactic schemes (Radostits, 2000).

Although there are different infectious agents causing neonatal diarrhoea (0-7 days
old) (Table 10.1), E. coli is still the most important one. Relevance of other agents may
differ between husbandry systems.

Table 10.1. Age occurrence of diarrhoea in calves.

Agent Bacteria Virus Parasite Zoonosis Age (days)

Neonatal
Septicaemia by E. coli X <2
Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) X 0-7
Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli X X 0-7
(EHEC or VTEC)
Scours
Rotavirus X 5-15
Corona virus X 5-21
Cryptosporidium parvum X X 5-35
Salmonella spp. X X 5-42
Clostridium perfringens types B X 5-15
and C
Eimeria spp. X >30

(Radostits, 2000 and 2007, Smith, 2009)

1The text in this chapter is derived from different publications and oral presentations given by
Radostitis (2000), Radostits et al. (2001a,b), Radostits et al. (2007), Smith (2009).

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 145

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

10.2. Infectious calf diarrhoea and septicaemia

10.2.1. Synergism between enteropathogens

The synergism between Rotavirus and enterotoxigenic E. coli in calves older than 2 days
may explain the fatal diarrhoea which can occur in calves at 1 week of age. In short,
septicemic colibacillosis occurs in newborn animals which are agammaglobulinemic
because they have not ingested sufficient colostrum early enough, or absorbed
sufficient colostrum but with too low immunoglobulin content. Enteric colibacillosis
occurs in colostrum-fed animals and is caused by the colonisation and proliferation
of enteropathogenic E. coli. For these infections, the primary infection with either
Rotavirus or Cryptosporidium spp. or their combination, functions as port of entrance.
Rotavirus destroys the top of the villi, enhancing the colonisation by E. coli.

During severe disease outbreaks, it is often necessary to conduct a necropsy on

diarrhoeic animals which have been killed specifically for the purpose of obtaining a
definitive aetiologic diagnosis. The combined use of bacteriological, parasitological
and virological methods, together with histological and immuno-fluorescent studies
of fresh intestinal tissue will provide the most useful information about the location
of the lesions and the presence of entero-pathogens. Post-mortem autolysis of the
intestinal mucosae and invasion of the tissues by intestinal micro-flora occurs within
minutes after death, so gut or rectum samples should be collected immediately
following euthanasia of the animal.

Calf-side tests are also available to have test results ‘within minutes’ and to know
whether E. coli, Rotavirus, Cryptosporidium spp., salmonellae, Clostridium spp.
or Eimeria spp. are present. These tests are cheap and reduce the interval between
sampling and test result; moreover, they can be used to show the farmer what is the
likely cause of the calf diarrhoea in his herd.

Rotavirus

• Occurrence: as single case or as mass infection in the first weeks of life.

• Signs: loss of appetite, tenesmus, profuse bubbly diarrhoea with mucosa particles.
Further, severe complications occur when also C. parvum is present as co-infection.
• Diagnosis: ELISA, PCR. Calf-side tests are available.
• Prevention: through vaccination of dam 2 months prior to calving date, and the
provision of sufficient quantity and high quality colostrum to the calf after birth.
High hygiene standards must be achieved, see also risk factors and prophylaxis
further down.

146 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 10. Infectious calf diarrhoea and septicaemia
VetBooks.ir

• Treatment: electrolyte solutions intravenously and orally. Antimicrobials to avoid

secondary bacteriological infections.

Corona virus

• Occurrence: as single case or as mass infection. A massive destruction of epithelial

cells of the mucosa of the intestines occurs, with loss of villi.
• Signs: loss of appetite, tenesmus, profuse bubbly diarrhoea with mucosa particles.
From signs it can not be distinguished from Rota-infections; often in combination
with Rotavirus
• Diagnosis: ELISA, PCR. Calf-side tests are available.
• Prevention: through vaccination of the dam 2 months prior to calving date, and the
provision of sufficient quantities and high quality colostrum to the calf after birth.
High hygiene standards must be achieved, see also risk factors and prophylaxis
further down.
• Treatment: electrolyte solutions intravenously and orally. Antimicrobials to avoid
secondary bacteriological infections.

Cryptosporidiosis: C. parvum

• Occurrence: as single case or as mass infection in the first weeks of life. Is associated
with Rota-, Corona virus and E. coli.
• Diagnosis: ELISA, PCR ELISA, Immunofluorescence, Oocyst detection by
flottation.
• Prevention: separation of calves from dams; high hygiene standards; identification
and elimination of carrier cows. High hygiene standards must be achieved, see also
risk factors and prophylaxis further down.
• Treatment: halofuginon lactate (most effective until about 7 days of age).
Electrolyte solutions intravenously and orally. Antimicrobials to avoid secondary
bacteriological infections.

Salmonellosis (S. typhimurium; S. dublin)

• Occurrence: between 2 and 26 weeks of age most frequently.

• Signs: fever, anorexia, yellow diarrhoea, brownish, fetid, cough, arthritis, respiratory
problems, septicaemia.
• Diagnosis: faecal samples (but intermittent shedding can occur), blood (paired
samples 3 weeks apart for seroconversion), aborted fetus (for S. Dublin-induced
abortion).
• Prevention: vaccination is a means to prevent the disease, if allowed.
• Treatment: with sulfamethazin, or other appropriate antibiotics.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 147

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

• Prophylaxis: could be through strict hygiene (and possibly vaccination?).

• The disease must be notified to the proper authorities.

Clostridiosis (Cl. perfringens types a, b, c, d, e; Cl. sordelli)

• Occurrence: types B and C are uncommon infections in calves at the age of 7-10
days up to 10 weeks of life. Type D:Veal calves between 1 and 4 months of age.
• Signs: colic, frequent diarrhoea with blood, arthritis, bloat, opisthotonus,
commonly a rapid death.
• Diagnosis: clinical signs, necropsy findings and bacteriology.
• Treatment of Cl. perfringens or Cl. sordelli often comes too late; one could try the
betalactamates.
• The disease is not very contagious, and often endemic in a dairy farm.

Eimeria spp.

• For Eimeria spp. see Chapter 5 of Section II.

Nutritional diarrhoea

Risk factors:
• Wrong temperature of colostrum or milk replacer when given to calf.
• Too high quantity of colostrum given in one meal.
• Irregular or incorrect feeding interval between colostrum or milk replacer meals.
• Poor quality or type/composition of milk replacer given the age of the calves (see
Annex 8).
• Poor composition of feedstuffs and management failures at feeding.

10.3. Colibacillosis

10.3.1. E. coli infections

Infection with pathogenic serotypes of E coli is called colibacillosis. There are two
types of colibacillosis; septicaemic and enteric. These infections affect new-born
calves and the prevalence of enteropathogenic E. coli varies between herds. There are
4 broad categories of enteropathogenic E. coli infections: septicaemic, enterotoxigenic,
enterohaemorrhagic and necrotoxigenic.

The most common enteropathogens which cause diarrhoea in neonatal farm animals
are the enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) which are not invasive and cause hypersecretion
by adhering, colonising, and producing enterotoxins in the small intestine. E. coli

148 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 10. Infectious calf diarrhoea and septicaemia
VetBooks.ir

infections in the first 2 days of life often cause enteric septicaemia, often followed by
post-sepsis diseases like (poly-)arthritis.

Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) is an uncommon cause of disease of newborn farm

animals and attach to the colon and distal small intestine, ‘attaching and effacing E. coli
(AAEC)’, resulting in a haemorrhagic colitis. They are also known as verocytotoxic E.
coli (VTEC) because they produce verocytotoxins. Necrotoxigenic E. coli (NTEC) lead
to necrotic diarrhoea (after Radostits, 2000).

Risk factors for colibacillosis include for example: (a) colostrum deprivation or poor
quality colostrum, (b) overcrowding, (c) adverse climatic conditions, (d) poor quality
milk replacers or poor milk replacer management, (e) poor hygienic conditions.

Zoonosis: certain serotypes of enterohaemorrhagic E. coli found in animals are

pathogenic for humans and the zoonotic implications must be considered when
dealing with coliform infections in farm animals (Table 10.2). Cattle are an important
but limited reservoir for E. coli serotype O157H7 (prevalence about 12%) which causes
haemorrhagic colitis and the haemolytic uremic syndrome in humans (Radostits,
2001; Smith, 2009).

Table 10.2. Enteropathogenic E. coli infections (colibacillosis) of calves.

E. coli serotypes Primary risk Age group Mechanisms of Clinical signs Zoonosis
factors affected action risk

Septicaemic Insufficient 0-4 d Invasive, Septicaemia, No

colostral IgG endotoxins diarrhoea
absorption
Enterotoxigenic ETEC infected 0-4 d Adhesion, Diarrhoea and No
cows and colonisation, shock
environment enterotoxins
Enterohaemorrhagic EHEC infected 2-5 wks Shiga and Haemorrhagic Yes
cows and verocytotoxins colitis
environment
Necrotoxigenic NTEC infected <3 mths Necrotoxins Necrotic No
cows and diarrhoea
environment

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 149

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

Septicaemic E. coli

• Disease type: Enteric septicaemia

• Occurrence: in newborn calves. May occur as early as 12 to 18 hours after birth;
occasionally in calves up to several days of age - mixed infection with viral
enteropathogens. Often seasonal pattern.
• An adequate level of serum immunoglobulins, IgG, protects calves from death.
• Risk factors:
–– Age/parity of dam; the risk of diarrhoea in calves born from heifers may be
about 4 times greater than in calves born to cows because conformation of the
udder of heifers may hamper suckling. Poor mothering due to mistaken identity
may occur, resulting in the calf not receiving any or adequate colostrum.
–– Weight at birth and birth process; calves weak or having an oedematous tongue
after a dystocia, may not be able to suck properly for several hours.
–– Calf pen conditions; cold, wet, windy weather during the winter months and
hot dry weather during the summer months have a significant effect on dairy
calf mortality. Overcrowding is commonly followed by an outbreak of acute
diarrhoea in calves. Housing and hygiene practices are probably the most
important risk factors influencing the incidence of septicaemic colibacillosis
in calves.
–– Colostrum management; newborn farm animals could be agammaglobulinemic
if they do not ingest a sufficient amount of high quality colostrum soon enough
after birth.
–– Farm and feeding management; the person feeding and caring for the calves is
an important factor influencing calf morbidity and mortality due to diarrhoea
or other diseases. Heifers are commonly more closely confined during the
calving season for more effective observation and assistance at parturition; this
may lead to increased contamination of the environment.
–– Simultaneous enteric infections; Rotavirus and Cryptosporidium spp. may
enhance colonisation of the E. coli.
• Signs:
–– As early as 12 to 18 hours after birth; diarrhoea; dehydration; acidosis; death.
–– Arthritis is a common sequel in calves as well as meningitis. If fluids are
lost extensively, hypovolemia and shock occur, as well as lactic acidosis,
hypothermia, tachycardia, weak, recumbent, capillary refill time may be
prolonged, cold extremities, weak peripheral pulse.
–– The illness is peracute, the course can vary from 24 to 96 hours with a survival
rate of less than 12%. There are no clinical signs of strict diagnostic value.
–– If a calf survives the septicaemia state, clinical evidence of post-sepsis localisation
may appear in about 1 week. The clinical signs of such situation are: arthritis,
meningitis, panophthalmy, pneumonia, opisthotonus, convulsions, tremors.

150 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 10. Infectious calf diarrhoea and septicaemia
VetBooks.ir

• Necropsy findings
–– Findings: No gross lesions (diagnosis may depend upon isolation of organism
from filtering organs). In less severe cases: may present 1-subserosal,
2-submucosal haemorrhages. Enteritis and gastritis may be present.
Fibrinous exudates occasionally found in joints and serous cavities. Possible
omphalophlebitis, pneumonia and meningitis.
–– Samples for confirmation of diagnosis:
▷▷ Bacteriology: spleen, lung, liver, culture swabs of exudates, umbilicus,
meninges.
▷▷ Histology: formalin-fixed samples of spleen, lung, liver, kidney, brain and
any gross lesions.
• Differential diagnosis:
–– Salmonella spp.; Listeria monocytogenes; M. haemolytica; Streptococcus spp.;
Pneumococcus; Cryptosporidium parvum.
• Treatment:
–– Oral re-hydration; fluid therapy intravenously.
–– Oral antibiotics and parenteral antibiotics.
• Prophylaxis:
–– Ensure the calf ingests sufficient and high quality colostrum and absorb
colostral immunoglobulins within minutes to 1 hour after birth to obtain
proper protection against septicaemia and enteric colibacillosis.
–– Natural sucking by the calf may possibly enhance the efficiency of absorption
of colostral immunoglobulins, but should not be the preferred practice because
control on intake is lacking! For biosecurity reasons calves should be separated
from their dam immediately after birth (paratuberculosis, see Paragraph 6.7).
High hygiene standards must be achieved.

Enterotoxigenic E. coli

• Disease type: Enterotoxigenic colibacillosis

• Occurrence: at 3 to 5 days of age is the most common form.
• Risk factors: as mentioned above.
• Signs: subnormal temperature, cold skin, pale mucosa, wetness around the mouth,
collapse of superficial veins, slowness and irregularity of the heart, mild convulsive
movements and periodic apnea.
–– Diarrhoea is usually not evident although the abdomen may be slightly
distended; auscultation may reveal fluid splashing sounds suggesting a fluid-
filled intestine; diarrhoea in which the faeces are profuse and watery to pasty,
usually pale yellow to white in colour, and occasionally streaked with blood
flecks and very foul-smelling. The course of the disease is often acute and has
already been fatal before diarrhoea occurs.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 151

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

• Necropsy findings:
–– Findings: dehydrated carcass, flaccid and fluid-filled intestine, distended
and fluid-filled abomasum (which may contain milk clots). Numerous small
haemorrhages on abomasal mucosa, hyperemic intestinal mucosa, mesenteric
lymph nodes – oedema. Mild atrophy or even fusion of jejunal and ileal villi
is often seen, bacilli adherent to the brush borders of enterocytes. Increased
epithelial cell loss from the villi. Presence of pseudomembranous ileitis,
mucohaemorrhagic colitis and proctitis.
–– Samples for confirmation of diagnosis:
▷▷ Bacteriology: segments of and contents of the ileum and colon.
▷▷ Histology: formalin-fixed duodenum, jejunum, ileum, colon and mesenteric
lymph node.
• Differential diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis: as mentioned above.

Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli

By and large, the disease picture is as named above. In calves kept longer than 10 days
on a dairy farm before being sold as veal calves, a haemorrhagic enteritis due to E. coli
may occur. This is most frequently a fatal syndrome.

Possible signs are: anorexia, fever, diarrhoea with mucus containing faeces which
become bloody in the later stages, haemorrhagic diathesis on the conjunctivae and
mucous membranes of the mouth and nose. Affected calves are depressed, weak,
ataxic and sometimes recumbent and appear comatose The best treatment is to give
sodium bicarbonate intravenously. Prophylaxis comprises the vaccination of the dam
8 to 4 weeks before calving, and good hygienic conditions.

Necrotoxigenic E. coli

See under enterotoxigenic E. coli and enterohaemorrhagic E. coli.

10.3.2. Zoonotic aspects of collobacillosis

Cattle have been implicated as a source of E. coli which infect and cause food borne
disease in humans. Several strains of enterohaemorrhagic E. coli associated with
enteric disease in humans produce a verotoxin also known as a Shiga-like toxin.

In the last 5 to 10 years, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), and especially
E. coli O157, has been shown to be an important zoonotic agent causing haemorrhagic
colitis in humans, with potentially further complications, such as the hemolytic
uraemic syndrome particularly in children (Karmali et al., 1985; Tesh and O’Brien,

152 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 10. Infectious calf diarrhoea and septicaemia
VetBooks.ir

1991). Cattle act as the main reservoir for E. coli O157 without showing disease signs
themselves (Heuvelink et al., 1998). The main routes of infection are considered to be
beef products, raw milk and direct contact with farm animals (Heuvelink et al., 2002;
Van Duynhoven et al., 2002).

The majority of the E. coli O157-isolates obtained from dairy cattle and veal herds had
one or two stx-genes encoding for Shiga toxin-production and can thus be considered
potentially pathogenic to humans. The crude prevalence estimates for E. coli O157 in
dairy herds in e.g. the Netherlands increased in recent years to a prevalence of 14%
in 2002. This increase of STEC O157 in dairy cattle and veal herds may represent an
increased risk of STEC O157 infections in humans (Bouwknegt, 2004).

10.4. Treatment of infectious calf diarrhoea

Intensive critical care is required for the treatment of neonatal coliform septicemia.
Early identification of septicemia and early therapeutic intervention can improve
treatment success. While E. coli may be cultured from the blood of septicemic
calves, a significant percentage of isolates are gram-positive which justifies the use
of antimicrobials which have a broad-spectrum. The ideal protocol comprises the
isolation and/or culturing of micro-organisms from blood samples and a sensitivity
test for antimicrobials, though this may not always be practical under field conditions.
Antimicrobials are given parenterally (intravenously), more than once daily and daily
until recovery is apparent. Intravenous fluid and electrolyte therapy are administered
continuously until recovery is apparent. Whole blood transfusions could be used in
calves especially when immunoglobulin deficiency is suspected from the history or is
determined by measurement of serum IgG in blood samples; however, large quantities
of transfusions are required.

10.4.1. The general protocol for clinical outbreaks of infectious calf diarrhoea

• The veterinarian should make a visit to the farm.

• He should make an inventory of risk factors.
• He has to examine each risk factor and the way in which that factor can be
eliminated or reduced.
• He has to examine the affected animals, as well as the healthy herd mates.
• All affected animals should be identified and isolated if possible.
• All affected animals are to be treated as necessary (see above for details).
• Laboratory samples are to be taken from affected and healthy animals, or calf-side
tests are executed.
• Recommendations for the control of diarrhoea in animals to be born in the near
future must be made.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 153

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

• Prepare and submit a report to the owner describing the clinical and laboratory
results and how the disease can be prevented in the future (risk management, see
below).

10.4.2. Considerations regarding the treatment of calf diarrhoea

The veterinarian in the field has to decide whether calves, which are affected with
enteric colibacillosis, are bacteremic or septicemic. Commonly, more animals are
treated parenterally than strictly required to avoid deaths from septicemia. However,
the time does not allow a pre-treatment culture of the causative organisms and
determination of the drug sensitivity, so that broad-spectrum antimicrobials are
applied. Calf-side tests can – partly – solve this problem.

The advantage of parenterally administered antimicrobials is that the entero-hepatic

circulation provides a level of the drug in the intestinal lumen, which may not require
the oral administration of the drug.

Multiple antimicrobial drug resistance does occur in E. coli and other enterobacteria,
when drugs are used on a continuous prophylactic basis.

There is evidence that E. coli isolated from the faeces of young farm animals with
diarrhoea has developed resistance to trimethoprim-containing antimicrobial
products which have been used widely for the treatment of diarrhoea.

Antimicrobials have been used extensively for the treatment of colibacillosis in calves.
Some preparations consist of a single antimicrobial, while others are combinations
with or without absorbents, astringents and/or electrolytes. It has been difficult
to evaluate the efficacy of antimicrobials for the treatment of enteric colibacillosis
because of the complex factors affecting the outcome in naturally-occurring cases.
These include the presence of concurrent infections, the effects of whether or not milk
is withheld from the diarrhoeic calves, the effects of the immune status of individual
calves, the variable times after the onset of diarrhoea when the drugs are given, the
possible presence of antimicrobial resistance, and the effects of supportive therapy
such as fluid and electrolyte therapy.

10.4.3. Oral and intravenous fluid and electrolyte therapy

Oral and intravenous fluid and electrolyte therapy is indicated for:

1. calves in the early stages of diarrhoea;
2. after they have been successfully re-hydrated following parenteral fluid therapy.

154 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 10. Infectious calf diarrhoea and septicaemia
VetBooks.ir

–– Severely dehydrated or moribund calves may not respond favourably to oral

fluid therapy alone, and are too weak to drink or to swallow, or do not drink
at all.
–– Farmers must be encouraged to provide oral fluid and electrolyte therapy to
diarrhoeic calves as soon as possible after the onset of diarrhoea.
–– Oral fluid and electrolyte therapy is effective in colibacillosis of calves, because
glucose continues to be absorbed by the small intestine by an active transport
mechanism accompanied by glucose-coupled sodium absorption and
absorption of water.
–– In enterotoxigenic (ETEC) colibacillosis, while there is net hyper secretion
caused by the enterotoxin, the intestinal mucosa is sufficiently intact: so that
water and sodium will be absorbed in the presence of glucose.
–– The calf must be returned gradually to a milk diet within a few days in order to
avoid the effects of malnutrition.

Extent of dehydration and oral rehydration and electrolyte therapy

Diarrhoea in young calves is still an important disease in young stock. Recently, a

survey showed that calf mortality in the USA mounted up to about 9% per year, while
about 62% of these were due to preceding diarrhoea (Heinrichs and Kehoe, 2009).

Because young calves may dehydrate very rapidly, it is paramount to closely monitor
calves in their first weeks of life. Farmer and employees must be able to detect diarrhoea
and dehydration quickly in order to administer a treatment – when needed – as soon
as possible. When diarrhoea persists irrespective of oral rehydration, the veterinarian
should be called, who will take faecal samples for microbiology laboratory diagnosis,
and start a antibiotic treatment if indicated.

Diarrhoea may cause a daily loss of 5 to 10% of body weight in affected calves. Fluid
losses over 8% requires an IV rehydration, while losses over 14% may be lethal. A rule
of thumb for clinically assessing the extent of dehydration in calves is given in Table
10.3 (after Heinrichs and Kehoe, 2009).

Dairy farms should have a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for the diagnosis
and treatment of diarrhoea in young calves. This SOP comprises the ‘when’ to use
oral rehydration and the ‘how much to give’ of oral rehydration, as well as other
management measures. See Annex 12 for additional information.

Oral electrolyte solutions containing acid phosphate salts are undesirable

because they cause net acidification of the blood with a fall in blood pH.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 155

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

Table 10.3. Clinical signs in aid to assess the extent of dehydration in young calves.

% of dehydration Clinical signs observed in affected calves

5-6 Diarrhoea, persistent suckling reflex, no other signs

6-8 Slight depression, neck skin fold stands for 2-6 sec, calf is still suckling,
sunken eyes, weak calf
8-10 Depressed calf, laying down, very sunken eyes, dry gums, neck skin fold
stands for over 6 sec
10-14 Calf does not stand, extremities are cold, neck skin fold does not flatten
when tented, comatose
>14 Death

Oral rehydration solutions should not be confused with electrolyte solutions, the
latter being more frequently administered to calves after weaning and in cattle under
stress conditions.

Table 10.4 comprises the advised concentrations of ingredients in oral rehydration

products (after Heinrichs and Kehoe, 2009).

In Annex 12 one can find 3 practical scoring tables for assessing the severity of calf
diarrhoea and determining treatment under field conditions (Heinrichs and Kehoe,
2009).

Table 10.4. An overview of ingredient concentrations for rehydration solutions (as reference).

Ingredient Concentration Concentration Remark

mmol/l g/l

Sodium 70-<145 <3.3 Body water regulator

Sodium bicarbonate 50-80 4.2-6.7 Buffering metabolic acidosis
Sodium citrate 50-80 14.7-23.5 Buffering metabolic acidosis
Sodium acetate 50-80 6.8-10.9 Buffering metabolic acidosis
Potassium 20-30 0.8-1.2 For maintaining pH
Chloride 50-100 1.8-3.5 For maintaining pH
Glucose (dextrose) <200 <36 As energy source
Glycine <145 <10.9 Absorption enhancer

156 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 10. Infectious calf diarrhoea and septicaemia
VetBooks.ir

Intravenous fluid therapy

Diarrhoeic calves older than 8 days of age could be nearly twice as acidotic as
younger calves, and require more bicarbonate to correct the acidosis. It is estimated
that sternally recumbent calves under 8 days of age require 1 litre of isotonic sodium
bicarbonate to correct the acidosis in addition to the necessary quantities of saline to
correct the dehydration; for calves older than 8 days of age, 2 litres of isotonic sodium
bicarbonate are required.

For laterally recumbent diarrhoeic calves under and over 8 days of age, 1 and 3 litres
are required, respectively. Isotonic sodium bicarbonate is a safe IV solution, and when
uncertainty exists about the degree of acidosis, up to several litres can be used safely
for the correction of acidosis and volume depletion.

An equal mixture of isotonic saline (sodium chloride 0.85%), isotonic sodium

bicarbonate (1.3%) and isotonic dextrose (5%) is a simple but effective product for
parenteral use in severe cases of dehydration and acidosis.

The bicarbonate requirements are calculated using the formula (Radostits, 2001):
Weight (kg) × Base Deficit (mmol/l) × 0.6(Extracellular Fluid Space).

The base deficit will range from -5 to -20 mmol/l with an average of about -15 mmol/l.
The bicarbonate requirements for a 45 kg calf with a base deficit of 15 mmol/l, are
45×15×0.6=405 mmol, requiring 33.75 g of sodium bicarbonate(1 g of sodium
bicarbonate yields 12 mmol of bicarbonate). This can be delivered in 2.5 litres of
1.3% isotonic solution.

For moderate dehydration (6 to 8% of BW) fluids should be replaced as follows:

hydration therapy 50 ml/kg BW IV in the first 1 to 2 hours at the rate of 50 to 80 ml/
kg BW per hour followed by maintenance therapy as described above.

For severe dehydration (10 to 12% of BW) fluids should be replaced as follows:
hydration therapy 100 ml/kg BW IV in the first 1 to 2 hours, at the rate of 50 to
80 ml/kg BW per hour, followed by maintenance therapy at 140 ml/kg BW over the
next 8 to10 hours at the rate of about 20 ml/kg BW per hour.

For example, a 45 kg calf which is 10% dehydrated should receive 4.5 litres of fluid
in the first 1 to 2 hours as hydration therapy followed by 6 to 8 litres of fluid over the
next 8 to 10 hours.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 157

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

Initially, both the acidosis and the dehydration can be treated by the use of isotonic
sodium bicarbonate, followed by the use of a combined mixture of isotonic saline
and isotonic sodium bicarbonate or multiple electrolyte solutions for maintenance
therapy.

Maintenance therapy may be provided using oral rehydration fluids, if the calf is
well enough to suck from a nipple bottle or drink from a pail. The use of solutions
containing potassium chloride is sometimes recommended on the basis that total
potassium stores may be depleted in severely affected calves.

However, they should be used with caution because a severe hyperkalaemia may be
present when there is a severe acidosis. If the acidosis and hypoglycaemia are corrected
with glucose and bicarbonate, the administration of potassium may be beneficial in
restoring total potassium levels. However, solutions containing potassium can be
cardiotoxic, particularly if the renal function is not restored. There is no information
available on its use in naturally occurring endotoxaemia associated with coliform
septicaemia in calves.

Some calves from 10 to 20 days of age with a history of diarrhoea in the previous several
days may be affected with metabolic acidosis without obvious clinical evidence of
dehydration. They are ataxic, weak, sometimes recumbent and may appear comatose.
The IV administration of 2 to 3 litres of isotonic (1.3%) sodium bicarbonate results
in recovery within an hour. Hypertonic saline solutions containing 2,400 mOsmol
NaCl/l, at a rate of 4 to 5 ml/kg BW IV over a period of 4 minutes has been advocated
for the treatment of experimentally-induced endotoxic calves (Radostits, 2001).

10.4.4. Supportive therapies

Additional treatment:

a. Antimotility drugs and intestinal protectants There is no strong, scientific evidence

that these additional treatments have a beneficial effect.
b. Alteration of the diet It is still an issue of debate whether newborn diarrhoeic
calves should be given milk or not. In the field it is common practice to limit
the milk intake of diarrhoeic dairy calves for 1 or several days, or until there is
clinical improvement. Stopping milk supply to diarrhoeic calves is based on the
assumption that lactose digestion is impaired and that `resting’ the intestine for
a few days minimises additional osmotic diarrhoea caused by fermentation of
undigested lactose in the large intestine. In favour of continuing the milk supply is
that the intestinal tract requires a constant source of nutrition (e.g. energy) which
it receives from the ingesta in the lumen of the intestine. Starving diarrhoeic calves

158 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 10. Infectious calf diarrhoea and septicaemia
VetBooks.ir

from milk can result in malnutrition, suboptimal growth rates, and prolonged
recovery.
In the field it is also common practice to use oral fluids and electrolytes as milk
replacement during the period of diarrhoea. Such fluids are inexpensive, easy to
use, readily available and, if used by the farmer when diarrhoea is first noticed, will
usually successfully treat existing dehydration and prevent further dehydration
and acidosis. Following recovery, calves should be offered reduced quantities of
whole milk three times daily (no more than a total daily intake equivalent to 8%
of body weight) on the first day and increased to the normal daily supply in the
next few days. Milk should not be diluted with water as this may interfere with the
clotting in the abomasum.

10.4.5. Prognosis following treatment

One important determinant for the survival of calves affected by enteric colibacillosis
is the serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) status of the animal before it develops the
disease. The prognosis is unfavourable if the level of immunoglobulins IgG is low at
the beginning of the diarrhoea, irrespective of an intensive fluid and antimicrobial
therapy being applied or not.

This has stimulated interest in the possible use of purified solutions of bovine
gammaglobulin in diarrhoeic calves which are hypogammaglobulinemic. However,
they must be given by intravenous route and in large amounts, the cost of which
would be prohibitive for its use in practice.

Whole blood transfusion for severely affected calves may be used as a source of
gammaglobulins but – unless given in large quantities – would not significantly
elevate the serum immunoglobulin levels in deficient calves.

10.5. Prevention of infectious calf diarrhoea

10.5.1. Vaccination of the dam

The immunisation of calves against colibacillosis, Rota- and Corona virus by

vaccination of the pregnant dam is a feasible practice in dairy farming (Radostits
2000; 2001; 2007). The oral administration of a K99+-specific monoclonal antibody
to calves during the first 12 hours after birth may be an effective method of reducing
the incidence of fatal enterotoxigenic colibacillosis particularly when outbreaks of the
disease occur in unvaccinated herds.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 159

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

Vaccines with both the K99-antigen of enterotoxigenic E. coli and the Rotavirus, and in
some cases the Corona virus, have shown variable results. To be effective the Rotavirus
and Corona virus antibodies must be present in the milk after the colostrum period
for several days, that is during the period when calves are most susceptible to the viral
infection. Vaccination of pregnant cows twice during the dry period at intervals of 4
weeks can increase the colostral antibody levels to E. coli K99+. Much lower increases
occur at the levels of Corona virus and Rotavirus. Each year thereafter they must be
given a single booster vaccination.

The decision to vaccinate will depend on the recognition of risk factors. Such risk
factors include those which have been highlighted earlier. Risk management is at least
as important as vaccination itself.

Vaccination is an aid to good management and never the replacement

for inadequate management.

160 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Chapter 11. Reflections about IBR (BHV-1 virus) infections

11.1. BHV-1 (Bovine Herpes Virus-1; Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, IBR)2

Bovine Herpes virus Type 1 (BHV-1) is the viral factor that causes:
1. infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR);
2. infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IPV);
3. infectious pustular balanoposthitis (IPB).

11.1.1. Main virus characteristics

After infection, BHV-1 virus establishes latency in the neuronal cells of the sensory
ganglia that innervate the mucosa at the site of inoculation. The immune system
cannot clear the latent virus and reactivation can occur later on in life spontaneously
and is usually induced by stressful situations (calving, transport, infections, etc.).
Therefore any infected animal should be considered as infected for life and a potential
shedder of BHV-1 virus.

11.1.2. The disease

Introduction of the virus in a naive herd results in a very rapid spread of the infection,
with morbidity ranging between 20% and 100%, while the mortality level is very
variable and may reach up to 15%.

Transmission can take place through direct contact with animals shedding the virus,
by aerosol transmission (e.g. in poorly ventilated houses), through semen and embryo-
transfer, by contaminated equipment or clothes of e.g. nutritionists, AI technicians,
feed suppliers or veterinarians.

An acute IBR infection is characterised by fever, depression, loss of appetite,

hyperthermia of the mucosae (red eye), mucosal lesions and discharge, dramatic drop
in milk production, and in pregnant cows abortion may occur. Infections may occur
sub clinically. Opportunistic bovine respiratory disease (BRD) infections may occur
simultaneously (see further down).

The disease is still important given the trade-barriers for semen, AI-bulls and other
high genetic merit cattle, when infected.

2 Text summarised from and adapted after Franken (2009).

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 161

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

11.1.3. Marker vaccines and diagnostic tests

The current marker vaccines available commercially are based on the deletion of the
glycoprotein gE. Vaccination of cattle with these marker vaccines will not induce
antibodies against gE while infection with the field virus strains will induce a positive
antibody response against the gE. The usefulness of a marker vaccine depends on the
existence of a reliable parallel diagnostic test to evaluate the results of e.g. eradication
programmes.

There are currently two types of IBR ELISA tests:

1. The first type detects the presence of antibodies against gB, therefore these tests
cannot differentiate between field antigen and vaccination antigen with both
marker and non-marker vaccines.
2. The second one detects antibodies against gE enabling it to differentiate between
field infections and vaccination with a marker vaccine.

Both gB and gE antibodies can be measured in serum and individual or bulk tank
milk samples. Antibodies against gB are detectable between 11 and 42 days after
infection, while gE antibodies are detected 2-3 weeks later.

Vaccination of cattle with an IBR marker vaccine has a dual purpose: first to reduce
the severity of clinical signs due to a BHV-1 infection and second to reduce virus
circulation when there is a new introduction of IBR in the herd or reactivation of a
latent infection. This second objective is very important in IBR eradication programmes
because the final aim of the scheme is to reduce the number of gE positive animals to
a minimum. If these animals contact field virus, their gE negative status will change
and from that moment they will be considered infected.

11.2. IBR eradication issues

11.2.1. National level

In some countries the prevalence of IBR is very high and culling of IBR positive cattle
is economically not feasible. In countries with a low prevalence, such as in the Nordic
countries, the strategy of choice for eradication was testing-and-culling.

But in countries with a high proportion of seropositive cattle, the only feasible way to
eradicate IBR is to first reduce the prevalence of seropositives in the national herd. The
use of DIVA (Differentiating field Infected from Vaccinated Individuals) vaccines, also
known as marker vaccines, can be a useful tool in this process. Animals are vaccinated
twice yearly (spring and autumn).

162 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 11. Reflections about IBR infections
VetBooks.ir

The speed of the eradication programme will depend mainly on the initial herd sero-
prevalence, the culling rate and the rate of new infections/re-activations.

11.2.2. Herd level

Control strategies:

For controlling IBR, there does not exist a universal strategy to follow in each and
every country. We present a few strategies as an example:
1. In some countries free from IBR, vaccination is not allowed. Bulk tank analysis,
and individual blood testing will give the status of the farm. ELISA tests must be
done and positive animals will be culled immediately.
2. In other countries, where the farmer does not use marker vaccines but only
conventional vaccines, it will be impossible to differentiate from vaccinated
animals and naturally infected animals. The antibodies remains for more than 5
years.
3. If the farmer does not vaccinate at all, it is clear that using ELISA gB diagnostic
tests facilitates the detection of positive animals and negative animals. If there
are up to 10% of positive animals, eradication is feasible by culling the positive
animals.
4. If marker vaccines are authorised, the ELISA gE negative test could be used and
negative animals will be protected. If we like to achieve an IBR free status after
some years (normally 5 years after starting the programme it is expected to have
less than 5% of positive animals) we can cull those animals from the herd. But this
depends heavily on whether or not we have a closed farm (biosecurity measures)
and whether or not it is sufficiently isolated from other farms.
5. Bulk tank analysis and blood tests must be done to set the diagnosis. Biosecurity
plans must be in place. All young animals must be tested, and if the farmer buys
new animals, it is not enough to conduct only one single test. It can be negative,
because the virus can remain in the lymph nodes or in some nerves. Due to this
phenomenon, the farmer should buy his new animals from IBR free herds. The
application of glucocorticoids in such animals will induce clinical disease, as stress
will.

Vaccination strategies at herd level:

The strategy is to vaccinate – if allowed – with gE deleted vaccines (alive or attenuated).

This will make the control more easy. But this is not the case for all farms and countries.
The gB vaccines are used in several countries where no gE deleted vaccine is allowed.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 163

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

One of the principles is to vaccinate all animals twice a year, and starting as soon as
possible.

Management of IBR outbreaks (again, there is no panacea available):

• Case 1- Free countries. Application of test and cull or eradication when it is not
allowed to vaccinate first.
• Case 2- In countries where marker vaccines are allowed: start vaccination with
marker vaccines. Live vaccines must be used intra-nasally in acute outbreaks, for
interferon stimulation.
• Case 3- Countries where only gB vaccines are available. Emergency vaccination
and antibiotics therapy to prevent secondary infections – like M. haemolytica, P.
multocida, or H. somni. There remains the risk of other virus infections.

Remark: it is good veterinary practice to sample young stock to see whether they are
positive or negative. This gives also a good feedback about the vaccination efficacy.
Note that prior to 6 months maternally derived antibodies may hamper the proper
diagnosis.

An IBR free herd surrounded by infected herds is at high-risk and in order to

maintain a good immune status in these animals, it is important to prevent a severe
IBR outbreak should a new infection take place, e.g. good biosecurity and vaccination.

Monitoring of an IBR free status varies between countries. Bulk milk testing or
individual blood sampling is carried out every 6 to 12 months depending on the
country (see below).

Control: once a herd achieves an IBR free status, farmers will aim to avoid new
infections entering the farm by buying cattle exclusively from other, IBR-free certified
farms and applying additional biosecurity measures as well as good hygiene control.

Long distance transport, a new environment with a different climate, mixing of stock,
a change of diet and a different treatment create severe stress. This means the animals
are more susceptible to diseases like IBR. Cattle that are vaccinated with the IBR
marker vaccine will be protected against IBR.

In addition, all biosecurity plans must be operational (see Section I in this book).

Make sure that blood samples are taken at the farm or farms or origin, from which
the animals originate to make sure that they are BHV-1 gE-free. Upon arrival, cattle
must be put into quarantine for at least 3 weeks, and sampled for BHV-1 gE testing.

164 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 11. Reflections about IBR infections
VetBooks.ir

Remark: note that maternally derived antibodies (MDA) against BHV-1 virus will
hamper the proper detection of an actual IBR infection in calves when these are
sampled before the age of 6 months.

11.2.3. Marker vaccination

A cow infected with the IBR-virus forms antibodies against the virus. With laboratory
tests these antibodies can be detected in milk and blood.

Vaccination of a cow with the conventional vaccine, results in the production of

antibodies that are similar to antibodies against the field virus. Therefore, milk and
blood tests do not discriminate between infected and conventionally vaccinated
animals. The IBR marker vaccine (Figure 11.1) however, does not contain the
glycoprotein E (gE-deleted vaccine) which is part of the IBR virus. If cows are
tested for IBR with the gE-ELISA test, it is possible to detect infected animals, while
vaccinated non-infected animals will be identified as IBR-free. The test can be run in
serum and milk.

Figure 11.1. The marker vaccine principle (after Franken, 2009a,b).

Result blood test (gE)

Infected cow + IBR-virus positive

Non-infected cow negative

Vaccinated cow + conventional vaccine positive

Marker vaccinated cow + marker vaccine negative

Marker vaccinated and + marker vaccine positive

infected cow + IBR-virus

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 165

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

11.2.4. Epidemiological issues regarding the certification of IBR-free herds

Not all infected animals, nor all infected herds can be detected due to the diagnostic
test characteristics which are never 100%; however, newly infected herds can be
detected in time when one executes regular monitoring of the herds through bulk
milk tank sampling. Note that maternally derived antibodies against BHV-1 virus
hamper the proper detection of an actual IBR infection in calves when these are
sampled before the age of 6 months.

Follow the O.I.E. guidelines and manual (see OIE website).

On a national and regional basis it would be (politically, socially and economically)

highly valuable to know what the risk is at a given moment in time of a (more or less
severe) outbreak, and whether detection and control measures would be adequate to
avoid spread to other farms.

Not all countries have procedures that are identical to those in the O.I.E. guidelines.
Regardless of what method of qualification or monitoring is chosen, it should specify
scientific data about:
• the risk of an outbreak;
• the detection of an outbreak before transmission to other herds takes place.

There must be a balance between scientific justification, objectives, methods,

practicality on the one hand, and politics, socio-economics, costs on the other hand,
for example when estimating a necessary sample size for testing.

The standards for monitoring IBR-free herds vary per country, for example:
• Country A: Testing blood samples twice a year
• Country B: Testing bulk milk samples every 6 months
• Country C: Testing bulk milk samples monthly
• Country D: Testing bulk milk varies per area

11.2.5. Potential risks of outbreaks of IBR

The sensitivity of a diagnostic test (how effective the test is in identifying animals with
the disease) is not 100 %. So, herds with positive animals that test false-negative may
get a certificate. This means that an outbreak in a certified herd can occur, which can
lead to outbreaks in other certified herds if not detected in time. The frequency that
this might occur is unknown.

166 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 11. Reflections about IBR infections
VetBooks.ir

How to reduce these risks?

• intensify the intake procedure (testing 2 or more times at a certain interval);

• increase sensitivity of the intake test by e.g. serial or parallel testing;
• intensify the herd and animal monitoring procedures;
• put further restrictions on contacts (test animal before it goes to another certified
herd);
• institute vaccination programmes.

11.2.6. IBR – aspects of epidemiological modelling

The IBR epidemiology regards the within herds dynamics of infection, as well as
the between herds dynamics of infection, because it is determined by: animals,
herds, animal movements (EU directive 64/432), other contacts, IBR virus features
(incubation and reactivation of the herpes virus), detection, vaccination.

Epidemiology modelling research shows that – without vaccination – one infected

cow/herd will transmit the infection to (on average) 5.6 other cows/herd (= R-value).
This means that once one animal gets infected, the virus spreads quickly through the
whole herd.

Vaccination and other measures that reduce the risk of an IBR infection will decrease
this R-value. In an effective eradication programme, one outbreak in an IBR-free herd
will (on average) induce less than one subsequent outbreak, which means that the
R0-value between herds must be below one. Qualifying and monitoring of IBR-free
herds must be justified in this respect.

BHV-I-infected cattle can reactivate BHV-I virus especially under stress conditions.
In some cases when transmission occurs, the virus can spread in the herd. In a herd
this risk depends on the number of infected animals, on whether they are tested sero-
positive or false negative, on the reactivation rate, the herd size and the vaccination
status, general immune status. Based on these data a risk can be calculated for closed
herds.

Table 11.1 indicates that in case of a single or a few infected animals only a small risk
of an outbreak exists (1-5%). In the qualifying of IBR free herds the whole herd testing
does eliminate largely this small effect of the sero-positives. Because of the imperfect
tests there is always the risk of a false negative test result (Franken, 2009a,b).

Table 11.1 also shows that in case of a herd of 100 cattle with a prevalence of 30%, the
risk of circulation due to reactivation increases drastically up to 25%. In even larger

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 167

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

Table 11.1. Risk of an outbreak of IBR beacuse of reactivation (closed herd) and size of the
outbreak.

Herd size (number of cattle (n))

Vaccination

40 60 80 100

no dead live no dead live no dead live no dead live

0 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Number of seropositive cattle

1 1%a 1%a 0%b 1%a 1%a 0%b 1%a 1%a 0%b 1%a 1%a 0%b
2 3%a 1%a 0%b 3%a 1%a 0%b 3%a 1%a 0%b 3%a 1%a 0%b
3 4%a 2%a 0%c 4%a 2%a 0%b 4%a 2%a 1%b 4%a 2%a 1%b
4 5%a 3%a 0%c 5%a 3%a 1%b 5%a 3%a 1%b 5%a 3%a 1%b
5 6%a 3%a 0%c 6%a 3%a 1%c 6%a 3%a 1%b 6%a 4%a 1%b
10 10%a 5%b 0%c 11%a 6%a 0%c 12%a 6%a 1%c 12%a 7%a 1%c
15 12%a 5%b 0%c 15%a 7%b 0%c 16%a 8%b 0%c 16%a 9%a 0%c
20 11%b 3%b 0%c 17%a 8%b 0%c 19%a 10%b 0%c 20%a 11%b 0%c
25 5%b 0%c 0%c 17%b 7%b 0%c 21%a 10%b 0%c 23%a 12%b 0%c
30 0%c 0%c 0%c 16%b 5%b 0%c 22%a 10%b 0%c 25%a 13%b 0%c
40 3%c 0%c 0%c 20%b 6%b 0%c 27%b 12%b 0%c
50 0%c 0%c 0%c 10%b 0%c 0%c 25%b 8%b 0%c
75 0%c 0%c 0%c 0%c 0%c 0%c
100

a >80% of seronegative cattle will be infected.

b 20-80% of seronegative cattle will be infected.
c <20% of seronegative cattle will be infected.

(ASG, 2000)

herds with higher proportion of infected animals this risk is up to 75%. Another
important outcome of the model calculations as shown in the table is the effect of the
live vaccine compared to inactivated vaccine on the risk of an outbreak in larger and
high prevalence herds. The explanation is only the difference in Ro: live 1.5; inactivated
2.6. A higher Ro value stands for a better protection of the susceptible part of the
population. Although the inactivated vaccine has proven to reduce the reactivation
in infected animals, the net effect on the risk of an outbreak is less as compared to live
vaccine. In order to get the advantages from both vaccines to improve the results of
the live vaccine one should know the infection status of the individual animals in the
herd, for instance by serological testing.

168 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Chapter 12. Reflections about BVD (BVD virus) infections3

12.1. Introduction

Bovine virus diarrhoea (BVD), can be a highly virulent and contagious disease that
causes high morbidity and mortality. There are 2 biotypes of the ruminant BVD virus:
cytopathic and non-cytopathic based on cellular culture characteristics. The non-
cytopathic type is the most common and most important. This type is able to cross
the placenta and might cause a persistent infection in the fetus.

12.2. Pathogenesis

The pathogenesis of the BVD virus is dependent on several host factors:

1. immunocompetence or immunotolerance to the virus;
2. age of the animal;
3. transplacental infection and gestational age of the fetus;
4. (passively or actively derived) immune status;
5. genetic different isolates of the virus;
6. presence of stressors (e.g. other infectious cattle diseases, suboptimal feeding).

Usually, most cattle will successfully control a natural infection, develop immunity
and eliminate the virus so that latency and shedding does not occur.

12.2.1. Different disease appearances and their most important signs

• Subclinical BVDV in immunocompetent cattle: fever, depression, mild diarrhoea,

inappetence for a few days. Source: persistently infected animals (PI) in the herd.
• Peracute BVDV in cattle of all ages: can provoke severe diarrhoea, fever, agalactia
and rapid death. Thrombocytopenia and haemorrhagic syndrome in adult cattle
and veal calves. Source: introduction of (PI) animals into a inadequate vaccinated
herd.
• Reproductive failure: abortion, still birth, weak neonates, congenital defects,
decreased conception rates.
• Mucosal disease in PI animals: signs of infection with a cytopathic strain: fever,
diarrhoea, oral erosions and high case-fatality rate. PI animals often have a retarded
growth and a weak immune system.
• The BVD virus may also cause general immuno-suppression.

3 Text summarised from and adapted after Radostitis (2001) and Cannas da Silva (2002)

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 169

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

12.3. Reproductive failure during different reproductive stages

In general, seronegative virus-free cattle (often heifers) are at risk of a BVD infection
that leads to reproductive failure and transplacental infections. Examples are given
here:
• Prior to insemination: failure of or delayed ovulation.
• Insemination with BVD infected semen: poor conception rates; often occurs only at
the first insemination of seronegative virus-free heifers.
• 0-40 days gestation: decreased conception rate and pregnancy rate; often
seronegative -heifers.
• 40-125 days gestation: BVD virus crosses the placenta causing death of the fetus,
abortion, mummification, congenital defects or persistent infected calves (PI) with
a lifelong infection without signs.
• 125-175 days gestation: transplacental infections in this gestation period lead to
cerebellar hypoplasia and ocular abnormalities (retinal atrophy, optic neuritis,
cataract and microphthalmia). Calves born may be smaller and have a curly hair
coat.
• 180 days gestation - birth: approximately after day 150 of gestation a BVD infection
induces a immune response and the fetus is able to eliminate the virus. If abortion
does not occur, born calves are BVD virus free and are BVD antibody positive.

12.4. Economic impact of BVD

Considerable economic losses are caused by BVD: increased calving interval;

infertility; embryonic death; mummification; abortions; calves with malformations;
decreased milk production; decreased immune status e.g. more susceptible for other
infectious diseases, and persistently infected animals.

To estimate the economic losses of BVD infections in a herd, several factors are
important to consider:
• the structure and size of the herd;
• the proportion of susceptible animals in the herd;
• the manifestation (or absence) of clinical signs;
• level of production loss;
• the yearly risk of (re-)infection (e.g. number of PI animals on the farm);
• costs of vaccination and eradication.

The final sum is calculated by adding up the products of the different factors. In
practice, all these factors, except the structure and size of the herd, can only be
estimated. The percentage of susceptible animals can be estimated by sampling
the herd (bulk milk or serology). The risk of infection of these susceptible animals

170 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 12. Reflections about BVD infections
VetBooks.ir

is determined by the prevalence of PI animals and management factors (separate

housing of age groups, etc.).

12.4.1. An estimation of losses due to BVD

The level of losses was estimated for an average susceptible dairy herd in Germany
(Wolf, 1997). In this average herd, there were 100 animals, 15 calves of 0-3 months, 20
young stock of 4-18 months, 15 heifers and 50 cows. Calving took place throughout
the year. An infection is introduced with the birth or the purchase of a PI animal. A
calculation of the economic loss from BVD requires modeling the disease in the herd
and weighting the different production parameters affected. The spectrum of disease
ranges from infertility (return to oestrus, resorption of the fetus, abortion, birth of
malformed or weak calves), to respiratory and gastro-intestinal diseases of varying
severity. Beside this, different disease signs occur in different age groups on the farm.
Also, the morbidity of the different diseases (the proportion of the herd affected)
depends on the immune status of the herd. To model the effects of BVDV infection
in the herd in the first place, the percentages of different age groups are shown in the
column A of Table 12.1.

The susceptibility to BVD of the animals in the different age groups is also given.
While the herd is completely susceptible (antibody free), the risk of infection after
introduction of a PI animal is 100% (column C).

After the disappearance of colostral antibodies, PI animals will shed more than 100,000
animal infective doses per gram of excreta. Not only direct, but also indirect contact
will ensure virus spread. Although transiently infected animals shed less virus than
PI animals (e.g. one animal infective dose per gram of excreta over several weeks),
the number of these animals is much larger than the number of PI animals. Even in
a completely susceptible herd, not all animals will suffer from clinical disease. Post-
natal infections often follow a subclinical course. Severity of symptoms, morbidity
and mortality also differ with the virulence of different virus strains. It is clear that the
greatest damage is caused by abortion, resulting in milk loss (Cannas da Silva, 2002b).

12.5. Persistently Infected (PI) animals

• Occurrence: if pregnant seronegative cows get infected with the BVD virus in the
period 40-125 days of gestation, one of the possible outcomes is that fetuses get
immunotolerant for the BVD-virus, since in that period the immune system of
the fetus starts to develop. The virus is not eliminated from the fetus and the calf
is born as a persistently infected (PI) calf. Most of the PI animals die within a few
months suffering from a weak immune system and rarely live for more than 1-2

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 171

 VetBooks.ir

Table 12.1. Modelling the epidemiological and economic effects of BVDV infection in a dairy herd.

172
A B C D E F G
Age group Proportion of the Susceptibility (%) Clinical signs Probability of Costs per case Losses per animal
herd (%) occurrence of (€) (€)
clinical signs (%) (BxCxExF)

Calves 0-3 months 15 100 RDS 25 12.50 0.48

Young stock 4-18 20 100 RDS 25 12.50 0.64
months
Heifers 15 100
Section II – Diseases of young stock

Cows 50 100
1 month pregnant 5.4 100 Repeat breeding 80 10 0.44
2-3 months 11 100 PI animals >> 100 153 16.88
pregnant mortality
4-7 months 22 100 Abortion 50 307 33.75
pregnant Stunted growth of 25 103 5.63
calves
8-9 months 11 100 Calf mortality/ 25 77 2.11
pregnant stunted growth
Total average loss 59.92
per affected animal

(after Wolf, 1997)

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 12. Reflections about BVD infections
VetBooks.ir

years. But a PI animal may also still give birth to a new PI calf. A PI animal over
2 years of age causes severe problems in the herd because it constantly infects
pregnant herd mates.
• Signs:
1. Birth and growth are apparently normal (these animals are rarely detected). They
develop the typical form of ‘Mucosal Disease’, if in contact with heterologous
strains of cytopathologic strains (= super infection).
2. Born weak, poorly developed, dying a short while after birth (differential
diagnosis with neonatal asphyxia). Congenital lesions may be present: cerebral
hypoplasia; cataracts; optic nerve degeneration; brachygnatia; alopecia of
various degrees. After birth, they show signs of diarrhoea and/or respiratory
distress, or death. Death is usually attributed to other causes than BVD (e.g. E.
coli, rota-/corona virus, BRSV, Pasteurella). Usually, because blood and tissue
tests to detect the virus are not made, and hence, the real cause of death is not
correctly identified.
3. The calves can show repeated or chronic disease (kerato-conjutivitis, enteritis,
pneumonia, ecto- and endoparasitosis), that does not respond to treatment.
The animals show signs of other disease, so BVD remains hidden, e.g. BLAD
(Bovine Leukocyte Adhesin Deficiency), chronic injuries, healing failure.
• Differential diagnosis: it is always justified to suspect BVD when animals do not
react to treatment and or suffer from severe anorexia. Some animals may have
prolonged fever, haemorrhages, blood in faeces, diarrhoea and thrombocytopenia.
Whenever there are too many abortions, abnormal fetuses, decreased conception
rate, BVD should be suspected too. Whenever there are signs of Mannheimia
haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Histophilus somni, PI-3, bovine respiratory
syncytial virus, IBR, viral respiratory infections, or infectious enteritis, a PI calf
may be present.
• Diagnosis: detecting the virus (ELISA blood samples) in animals that have chronic
diseases (e.g. chronic diarrhoea, parasitism) is paramount.

12.6. Diagnosis of BVD – Mucosal disease

• Occurrence: when PI calves get infected by a cytopathic strain during the (early)
rearing period, they often will develop mucosal disease. Calves born from PI-dams
are always seronegative (antibody negative). Presence of PI animals in the herd
could be discovered when some animals develop mucosal disease after vaccination
with a modified (cytopathic) live vaccine. However, not all PI animals in contact
with a cytopathologic strain will develop this clinical picture, because they may
have antibodies against some heterologous cytopathologic strains.
• Signs: high hyperthermia (bi-phasic fever 40-41 °C), weight loss, poor growth,
poor body condition, prolonged and profuse diarrhoea, leucopenia, mucosa

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 173

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

lesions like erosions (mouth, teats, vagina, interdigital space, tongue, oesophagus,
abomasums, scrotum), mucopurulent nasal discharge, corneal edema and often
death occurs within several days. Sometimes the only clinical sign in a PI calf is
limited to swollen mouth papillae, without the animals showing typical erosions
of the disease.
• Differential diagnosis: confusion may occur with BRD (bovine respiratory disease
complex, see elsewhere in this Section II). Diagnosis is ‘relatively easy’ in calves
which show the typical signs of mucosal disease.
• Postmortem findings: the typical lesions particularly in the oesophagus (erosions)
and also in the gastro-intestinal organs (mucosal disease).

12.7. Diagnostic testing and herd screening on BVD

It is important to obtain or exclude the diagnosis of BVD infections in case of a

suspected acute infection or the screening of herds (regularly or in case e.g. a PI calf
has been detected).
• Acute infections: as early as 3 days to 8-10 days after infection. ELISA/PCR antigen
screening can be done in serum blood samples. Nasal swabs can be submitted for
screening for virus. In herd outbreaks, paired blood samples of ‘normal’ animals
could be collected 30 days apart, in order to detect a four-fold increase in serum
antibody titers (seroconversion).
• Abortion: in dams without BVD-antibodies, BVD could be ruled out as a cause of
abortion. Some aborted calves are antibody positive.
• Calves with congenital defects: blood for antibody screening must be drawn before
feeding the first colostrum.
• Persistently Infected calves: in practice, calves can be tested at dehorning (around
4-8 weeks of age) for antigen presence; with nearly 100% confidence the test-
positive calves are PI calves, and hence re-testing is not considered. The RT-PCR
allows detection of PI animals and it is not needed to repeat the test.
• Herd screening: blood samples from all animals of the herd are tested for the
presence of BVD antigen. Calves born during the coming 9 months should also
be tested to detect any additional PI animals that are infected intra-uterine at the
time the herd infection occurred.
• Quick scan: in order to predict whether BVD plays a role on a specific farm,
several young animals in the age of 8-12 months are screened for BVD antibodies.
Simultaneously the bulk tank milk is tested for BVD antigen by PCR (GD, the
Netherlands).

174 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 12. Reflections about BVD infections
VetBooks.ir

12.8. Considerations regarding the control of BVD at the herd level

A BVD control and elimination programme has 5 phases:

1. Prevention of introduction of infection onto the herd Testing all purchased animals
for BVD virus antigen, before introducing them into the herd. Furthermore strict
biosecurity measures should be carried out.
2. Identification and elimination of PI animals Blood samples from all animals of the
herd are tested for the presence of BVD antigen. Calves born during the coming
9-12 months should also be tested to detect any additional PI animals that are
infected intra-uterine at the time the herd infection occurred. All identified PI
calves should be culled as soon as possible.
3. Vaccination before breeding The chosen vaccine type and the vaccination
programme make the difference in achieving a BVD-free status and is part of
any eradication programme. If one is working with killed vaccines – one needs
to revaccinate 30 days later. After this primary vaccination, all animals should be
vaccinated every 6 months or yearly depending on the vaccine used, to achieve a
high antibody level. This is particularly important for heifers before the 1st AI; the
dams are fully protected 4 weeks before mating or AI (depending on the vaccine).
4. Control of BVD Vaccination is to be followed by control. The most effective method
to control BVD is to test all animals for antigen presence. For example, testing the
newborn calves is a good method that allows assessment of vaccine efficacy, test-
positive animals are for almost 100% certainty identified PI-calves and should be
slaughtered as soon as possible.
5. Screening of free herds In some countries free from BVD, bulk milk tank screening or
regularly random antibody screening in older calves are good control procedures.
However, in other countries slaughtering the PI and not vaccinating is a high risk
strategy, because full biosecurity measures may not in place and it is common to
buy animals from herds or countries of unknown BVD status.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 175

VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

Chapter 13. Summarising other diseases in young stock4

(in alphabetical order)

A quick reference guide to normal diagnostic criteria is useful in daily practice. It is

presented in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1. Normal diagnostic parameters in young stock.

Diagnostic parameter Normal range in young stock

Rectal temperature (°C) 38.5-39.5

Respiratory rate (bpm) 20-40
Heart rate (bpm) 70-90
Body condition scores 3-3.5
Conformation and development in relation to age
Growth performance per age category See Section I and Annexes
Hair coat appearance
Turgor (skin fold in the neck)
Rumen fill scores 3-4
Locomotion scores and posture of back legs 1-2

13.1. Blue Tongue (BT)

• Occurrence: infectious disease. Transmitted by Culicoides spp. ( imicola, variipennis,

fulvis, obsoletus, mudipalpis, orientalis, wadai, actoni, brevitarsis, peregrynus,
oxystoma, brevipalpis, fuvus, sonorensis). Present all over the world, including parts
of Europe. Serotype 8 and 4 affecting cows. Serotype 8 much more severe for cattle.
Epidemic areas connected with the conditions of the vector spreading. Culicoides
can survive in winter periods. Several serotypes according to the area (1-24). Cattle
are the reservoir and amplifying host.
• Causal agents: Orbivirus. Family Reoviridae, 24 serotypes worldwide.
• Signs: typical blue tongue, loss of appetite, catarrhal stomatitis, rhinitis, enteritis,
lameness due to coronitis and myositis, fever, salivation, fetive breath, also found
in semen.
• Diagnosis: clinical signs. Differential diagnosis with BVD-MD, FMD, MCF,
Rinderpest, Rift valley fever, vesicular stomatitis, IBR (Bexiga et al. in OIE, 2009).
• Laboratory: Virus-isolation; ELISA; PCR; RT-PCR; RT-qPCR. The two latter are
preferred (e.g. for mass detection) (De Clerq et al. in OIE, 2009).
4 Text adapted after and from Andrews et al., 1992; Radostits, 2000, 2007; Smith, 2009

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 177

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

• Treatment and prevention: symptomatic treatment is indicated and most bovines

recover from the disease, depending on serotype. Vaccination – against one or
more serotypes – is a very effective method of prevention (combination serotypes
1 and 8 available). Insect repellents like Permethrim; insecticides. Housing animals
for the night.
• For a recent update, please check OIE (2009).

13.2. Bloat

• Occurrence: chronic tympany occurs in unweaned or recently weaned calves. This

may be associated with poor transitioning due to inadequate ruminal development
and function. Though hairballs have been found in affected calves their aetiological
significance is debatable.
• Signs: swelling of the left paralumbar fossa or entire upper flank.
• Diagnosis: clinical signs.
• Treatment: in acutely affected cases passage of a stomach tube will relieve the
tympany. In chronic cases insertion of a permanent ruminal cannula may be
required.
• Prophylaxis: alter weaning management with earlier introduction of hay and
concentrate ration and delay weaning until calves are consuming adequate
quantities of these feeds.

13.3. Bovine Respiratory Disease Syndrome, BRD

Differential diagnosis include:

Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus, BRSV

• Frequently, the infection is transmitted from older to younger animals.
• Respiratory problems (pneumonia), sometimes sudden death.
• Treatment is intensive (antibiotics; acetylsalicylic acid) and can be expensive.
Vaccination is a preventive option.

Histhophilus somni
• Occurs at an age of 1 to 6 months.
• Signs are pneumonia-like, but difficult to differentiate because they form part of a
complex of diseases and often refractive to treatment.

Mycoplasma spp. (haemolytica)

• May cause a pneumonia in calves.
• Signs are severe pneumonia, inspiratory and expiratory dyspnoea, orthopneic
position, sudden death.

178 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 13. Summarising other diseases in young stock
VetBooks.ir

• Diagnosis by tracheal lavage swabs and culturing.

• Treatment with broad spectrum antibiotics.
• Vaccination is a preventive measure.

Para-Influenza 3 virus
• Occurs frequently together with BRSV. Vaccination is an option. Treat secondary
complications with antimicrobials.

Pasteurella multocida
• Commonly a secondary infection after viruses, causing a severe pneumonia.
Treatment with the proper antibiotics. Prevention through vaccination is an
option.

13.4. F
 atal aplastic haemorrhagic syndrome of calves (bleeding calf
syndrome): a new, emerging disorder

Throughout 2008 and 2009, various cases of a so far unknown disease in young calves
have been reported in Europe (e.g. Germany, Italy, UK, the Netherlands, Belgium). It
regards a haemorrhagic diathesis or bleeding calf syndrome (e.g. K. Doll – Germany;
W. Klee – Germany; D. Black – UK; A. Gentile – Italy; J. Verhoeff – the Netherlands).
These calves are commonly born healthy, but develop this syndrome after colostrum
intake (changing blood composition: thrombocytopenia; bone marrow damage;
pyrexia; spontaneous bleeding) (Fridrich et al., 2009). Calves bleed to death through
body orifices or skin lesions. It is thought that the syndrome is not infectious, and it
has been hypothesised that the dams develop antibodies to immune cells of their calf.
Other hypotheses point to a potential association with BVD or BTV-8 vaccination
campaigns, but this is contradicted by the fact that in traditional beef cattle herds in
Scotland the syndrome also occurs while no BVD vaccination campaigns have been
conducted. So far, no unanimous scientific evidence about etiology and pathology
is available (yet). The hypothesis that a circovirus, with high similarities to porcine
circovirus type 2b (PCV2b), may be involved is currently being investigated (Kappe
et al., 2009). The disorder has recently been named ‘Fatal aplastic haemorrhagic
syndrome in calves’.

13.5. Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis (pink eye)

• Occurrence: most common and costly ocular disease of cattle; ubiquitous; most
common in summer and autumn; could have epizootic cases; transmission:
flies and dust. More common in white-faced breeds, e.g. some Hereford and its
crossbreeds.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 179

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

• Causal agent: Moraxella bovis. Solar radiation, flies and dust are contributing
factors.
• Signs: conjunctivitis, lacrimation, blepharospasm, photophobia, central corneal
opacity.
• Diagnosis: culture; pink eye or fluorescent antibodies.
• Signs: corneal opacity with small elevation. Lacrimation.
• Treatment and prevention: self limiting disease; topical antibiotics; subconjunctival
penicillin; parenteral oxytetracyclines. Vaccination.

13.6. Navel and joint illness

These are common problems in the young calf. At birth there is a sudden change
from the fetal circulation to that of the newborn calf. The umbilical vessels in the
umbilical cord rapidly loose most of their blood but still remain patent, allowing the
introduction of infection.

Infection can be caused by a single or a mixture of organisms (see Table 13.2), usually
provoked by poor hygienic conditions, inappropriate colostrum management and or
an open urachus.

13.7. Parasitic diseases

Strongylus spp.: Strongylus papulosus

• Signs: dirty stables, emaciation, cachexia. May also occur after colostrum feeding.
• Diagnosis: faeces analysis.
• Treatment: anthelmintics.

Ascaris: Toxocara vitolorum

• Larvae are eliminated in the dam with the first colostrum, and in the pastured or
fresh grass fed calf. A galactogenic or true milk infection.
• Signs: the typical smell of the faeces, diarrhoea of the calf, sometimes colic. Is a
sporadic infection.
• Diagnosis: faeces analysis (parasites present in faeces).
• Treatment: anthelmintics.

Coccidiosis: Eimeria zuerni, Eimeria elipsoidalis, Eimeria bovis

• Infection by oocysts ingestion.
• Signs: hypothermia or normal temperature, anaemic animals, faeces with blood,
decolouration of mucosae, ataxia, recumbence, death.
• Diagnosis: through microscopic faeces examination.
• Treatment: coccidiostatics, not in calves weighing over 80 kg/ after weaning.

180 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 13. Summarising other diseases in young stock
VetBooks.ir

Table 13.2. Overview of some micro-organisms predominantly involved in navel illness.

Streptococcus spp
• Signs: local inflammation, swollen navel, pain, localised peritonitis, depression, pyrexia,
tachypnoea, varying degree of dehydration, acidosis, recumbence and death; inappetitence,
dullness, urachus infection- animal unthrifty and rather slow to move, endocarditis,
panophthalmitis with hypopyon, meningitis and nystagmus, hyperaesthesia and tonic-clonic
convulsions
• Diaginosis: swollen navel, differential diagnosis with hernia umbilicalis
Escherichia coli
• Signs: diahrroea, sudden death, swollen articulations
• Diagnosis: swollen navel, differential diagnosis with hernia umbillicalis
Erysipelothrix insidiosa
• Signs: depression, pyrexia, hyperthermia
• Diagnosis: swollen navel, differential diagnosis with hernia umbillicalis
Pasteurella multocida
• Signs: together with pneumonia
• Diagnosis: swollen navel, differential diagnosis with hernia umbillicalis
Actynomyces pyogenes
• Signs: swollen navel, abcess
• Diagnosis: swollen navel, differential diagnosis with hernia umbillicalis
Fusobacterium necrophorum
• Signs: swollen navel, abcess, necrotic tissue
• Diagnosis: swollen navel, differential diagnosis with hernia umbillicalis

Adapted after Andrews et al., 1992; Radostits, 2000, 2007; Smith, 2009

Dictyocaulus viviparous and other spp. (lungworm)

• Occurrence: in pastured or fresh grass-fed calves and maiden heifers in pastures
with a history of lungworm. Often in pastures used exclusively every year for rearing
young stock. Age immunity occurs in exposed animals but not if unexposed hence
the condition may occur in older young stock also.
• Signs: coughing, dyspnoea, illthrift, loss of body condition.
• Diagnosis: clinical signs, age of animals, husbandry practices, larvae in faeces,
eosinophilia in blood sample.
• Treatment: anthelmintics some with residual activity (Note: never use these in
heifers just prior to lactation).
• Prophylaxis (applicable to all parasite infections above): pasture management to
avoid build up of parasite, early prophylactic repeated anthelmintic administration,
vaccination.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 181

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

13.8. Paratuberculosis (Johne's disease)5

Agent:
• Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis, also known as Map. It is very
common world wide and affects usually adult animals. In one study, the most
common animals to be detected as Map-positive using individual animal faeces
culture were older Holstein-Friesian cows and beef bulls, particularly Limousins
(Richardson et al., 2009). The culture of faeces is the best method for detection
of the disease in a farm. Antibody ELISA kits are also available but they can give
false-negative results (low sensitivity). It means that a test-negative animal today
can be test-positive 1 month later and after another month again test-negative.
• The incubation period is long; most frequently calves are infected after calving, and
they will be test-positive after 12 to 18 months, and then can show clinical signs.

Clinical findings:
• Silent infection in calves, heifers and young stock up 2 years of age. No clinical
signs and no effects on growth performance. No influence on body condition
scores. They can shed the agent. Possible detection in faeces. Subclinical disease
occurs in adults as carriers; 15 to 25% can be positive to individual faeces culture.
Normally negative in all serological tests.

Clinical disease:
• Clinical signs are typically detected at 4 years of age (SD 1.6 yr) (Richardson et al.,
2009). Chronic diarrhoea without pyrexia, sometimes intermittent, body weight
loss, BCS loss. Appetite remains normal. Decrease of milk production and increase
of somatic cell count in lactating animals. Those animals will become thin with a
poor body condition. A cachectic syndrome is common.
• Risks of infection decrease with time during the first year of age; animals over 1
year old have an age-resistance against the pathogen.
• Recent evidence suggests horizontal transmission in older heifers, and even in
cows.

Diagnosis:
• Faeces culture, PCR, ELISA, agar gel immunodifusion (AGID). The golden
standard for Map diagnosis is the faeces culture, but this is highly time-consuming.
If one detects a single animal with the ELISA test and the culture of faeces is
positive, this means that much more infected animals are present in the herd, or
that the test-positive animal was a purchased one.

5Adapted after Baumgartner, 2006; Barrett et al., 2008; Radostits et al., 2007; Richardson et al.,
2009; Smith, 2009

182 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 13. Summarising other diseases in young stock
VetBooks.ir

Risk factors:
• Open herds, large herds, old herd age profile, communal calving facilities, feeding
pooled colostrum, feeding unpasteurised waste milk, management of rearing
female calves, herd depopulation, contacts among animals and with humans,
hygiene and disinfection, purchase, geographic region, hygiene, handling and
storage of manure, access of wild animals to the feed storage, and quality of water,
among others (after Barrett et al., 2008).

Strategy:
• No treatment is available. Best practice is: (a) controlling the infection of newborn
calves and young stock up to one year of age, (b) detection and culling of infected
animals, including the last calf born from a clinically diseased dam. Other
measures are: cleaning the teats of the dam before colostrum milking, clean and
disinfect calving pen, milking colostrum aseptically and giving it with a teat-bottle.
Remove the calf as quickly as possible from its mother. Calves are infected via e.g.
colostrum: the pasteurisation of colostrum can reduce the risk of this transmission.
Feeding of silage or hay from pasture plots where no paratuberculosis-positive
manure has been spread.

Control:
• Identify and cull clinical cases. Install strict biosecurity plans. Clean facilities
regularly and thoroughly (no manure rests must be present).
• Eradication is highly costly and takes a long time (see Chapter 4 on biosecurity
in Section I). Controlling the disease, with biosecurity, and culling of clinically
affected animals, can reduce the risk of transmission.
• Biosecurity plans must be developed. The farm faeces must be taken out of the
barns as quickly as possible, contact between younger calves and older animals
must be avoided (this includes the use of separate boots and clothes too), and
different pastures according to the age must be assigned. Control of environmental
conditions, properly handling the manure and the avoidance of contact of
paratuberculosis with calves under one year of age are a few key elements in this
biosecurity.
• The Crohn's disease in humans seems somehow related with Map, but evidence of
a sole agent causal link is currently inconclusive.

Vaccination:
• A killed vaccine is available but will interfere with the Tuberculosis test. It reduces
clinical cases, but it is not possible to eradicate the disease only with vaccination!
• Herd management (preventive measures and biosecurity) is the key point for
controlling this disease.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 183

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

13.9. Q-fever

• Occurrence: high prevalence in ruminants; latent infection, and excretion at

parturition. Direct contact and via inhalation. Very important zoonotic disease,
worldwide spread.
• Causal agent: Coxiella burnetii.
• Signs: at any age: anorexia, usually not apparent.
• Diagnosis: difficult to diagnose from clinical signs alone.
• ELISA; indirect immuno-fluorescence; complement fixation; micro agglutination,
PCR and RT-PCR in the milk.
• Treatment and prevention: vaccination with killed vaccines.

13.10. Ringworm (Trichophyton verrucosum)

• Occurrence: young stock over winter in high stocking density housing, fungal
spores survive for years in housing, particularly in wooden fittings, immunity
develops after infection.
• Signs: circular partial alopecia followed by grey dry crust formation on young
stock and erythematous circular lesions on the hands, arms and head of humans
attending affected stock.
• Diagnosis: classical lesions and distribution on body.
• Treatment: in-feed or topical anti-mycotic medication, self-cure upon turnout
to pasture in well-fed stock, need to treat in-contacts as initial phase of lesion
development is inapparent.
• Prophylaxis: disinfection of the young stock housing, prevention of comingling of
young stock with older stock, vaccination, wear protective clothing when handling
affected stock. Infection has a zoonotic character: children and elderly people are
most susceptible.

13.11. Urolithiasis

• Occurrence: housed calves with milk substitute, pastures in problem areas, high
plant oestrogen, oxalate or silica levels, calculi in the males in sigmoid flexure.
• Causes: urinary calculi are either organic (less common) or inorganic, calculi in
housed animals – Ca or magnesium ammonium phosphate, pasture: carbonates of
Ca, magnesium and phosphorus, more frequent in castrated animals.
• Signs: partial or total blockage of the urethra, calculi at the prepucial orifice hairs,
mild or severe colic, kicking and bellying, if there is a rupture then septicaemia
can be expected.
• Diagnosis: history, area of feeding, sex, urinary crystals may be present on prepucial
hairs; differential diagnosis includes ascites, intussusception and constipation.

184 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 13. Summarising other diseases in young stock
VetBooks.ir

• Treatment and prevention: surgery; no treatment → slaughter; treatment with

success only in early stages: urethrotomy and remove the calculi. Medical-
Hyoscine butylbrumide IV or IM at a dose of 20-40 mg/animal. Prevention- feed
changes. Correct ratio Calcium-to-Phosphor, low Mg levels in the diet, urinary
acidifiers like ammonium sulphate or phosphoric acid, in pasture supply salt to
reduce the silica acid concentration in the urine.

13.12. Vitamins and trace elements

Calcium, Phosphorus and vitamin D deficiencies

• Calcium deficiency when high levels of cereals are fed, so often in the best growing
calves. The diagnosis is based on clinical signs like stiffness, fracture of long bones,
poor growth and dentation. Daily requirements are 10 to 30 g Ca.
• Phosphorus deficiency can occur with low vitamin D levels in the ration, high Ca
or vitamin A levels, excessive Ca feeding, on particular pasture plots or soils, when
Fe and Al levels are high.
• Vitamin D deficiency can be seen when poor quality hay is fed. The back of the
animal is arched. The daily requirements are 7-12 IU/kg bodyweight.

Copper deficiency (Cu)

• Occurrence: few old calves, normally 2-3 months of age.

• Causes: lack of copper in the diet or secondary deficiency due to a dietary antagonist
most commonly molybdenum, failure of digestion, low copper in (cow)milk ~~
see Annex.
• Signs: skeletal defects, illthrift and possibly poor coat colour.
• Treatment: oral administration of 1.5 g copper sulphate.
• Prevention: assure that levels of copper in the diet of dams and calves are at least
10 mg/kg bodyweight.

Iodine deficiency

• Occurrence: new born calf often death, abortions.

• Causes: primary lack of iodine, high intake of brassica, high calcium ingestion,
low level intake of linseed meal, areas with high rainfall, Iodine forms part of the
hormone thyroxin – necessary for metabolism and respiratory function. Iodine
deficiency interacts with selenium deficiency.
• Signs: new born calves with thyroid enlargement, alopecia areas very rare, weak
live calves, which do not suck.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 185

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

• Diagnosis: thyroid enlargement (goitre), abortion of several heifers or cows or

stillborn calves, very week calves.
• Treatment and prevention: ensure that the dam has an adequate intake of iodine
and of selenium during pregnancy. Assure that calf sucks, dry and draught-free
environment, intravenous sodium iodine injections, dose: 1-2 mg per kg body
weight.

Iron (Fe) deficiency

• Occurrence: in veal calves or others fed predominantly raw cow milk or

unsupplemented milk substitute The calf has only sufficient hepatic iron reserves
for about 3 weeks after birth, only source is milk substitute.
• Causes: veal calves without access to roughage, after haemorrhages, heavy
infestation with lice (Haemathopinus eurysternus and Linognathus vituli).
• Signs: reduction of appetite and poor weight gain, mucous membranes, pale, death
is extremely rare, moderate anaemia.
• Diagnosis: necropsy – pale muscles – blood is thin and watery and clotting slowly,
enlarged liver; diagnosis depends on the history of the diet and signs.
• Treatment and prevention: 1 injection of 1 g of Iron on a weekly basis.

Selenium (Se) and vitamin E deficiency

• Occurrence: at any age after birth, also in adult animals, affects muscles (cardiac,
skeletal and diaphragmatic), suckler calves sucking dams with low Se or vitamin
E levels.
• Causes: deficiency in vitamin E and Se, soils poor in Se, vitamin E – type of crop
grown and its storage, oxidation of calves diets very rich in unsaturated fatty acids
with rancidity and destruction of vitamin E.
• Signs: muscular dystrophy – white muscle disease, sudden death syndrome within
a minute of collapse, lateral recumbence, respiratory distress, heart rate irregular
and 150-200 beats per minute, rectal temperature normal; in adult animal related
with infertility.
• Diagnosis: weak calf and will not stand for long, remains conscious with normal
appetite, affected muscles could be swollen, increased risk of pneumonia, response
to treatment, blood analysis (see Table 13.3).
• Treatment and prevention: application of vitamin E and or Se, dose: D2 – Alfa
tocopherol is about 6 IU/kg BW, as prevention supplementation, supplement of
vitamin E in the last 60-45 days before calving, add Se to drinking water or apply as
a slow release rumen bolus. Reference values for vitamin E for both the individual
animal and groups are given in Table 13.3.

186 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 13. Summarising other diseases in young stock
VetBooks.ir

Table 13.3. Reference values for vitamin E in blood (in mmol alpha-tocopherol/l):

Individual animal Pooled sample (n=5) Interpretation

<4 <4.9 deficient

4.0-7.4 4.9-7.9 suboptimal
>7.4 >7.9 sufficient

Zinc (Zn) deficiency

• Occurrence: in calves from 6 to 10 weeks of age, period after weaning and normally
housed calves.
• Causes: primary due to a lack of Zinc, secondary due to impaired intake, congenital
form in Friesian calves.
• Signs: 2 weeks after the introduction of the Zn-deficient diet, poor growth, alopecia,
parakeratosis, wounds will take longer to heal.
• Diagnosis: biopsy shows parakeratosis, high serum globulins and serum alkaline
phosphatase, low albumin and amylase levels.
• Treatment and prevention: oral administration of zinc sulphate – 2 g weekly, diets
containing 50 ppm.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 187

VetBooks.ir
VetBooks.ir

Chapter 14. Tropical and subtropical diseases in young stock6

14.1. Anthrax

• Occurrence: highly contagious disease; grazing contaminated soil and or animal

by-products.
• Worldwide spread, mainly in Africa and Asia, United States, and also in some
Mediterranean countries.
• Causal agent: Bacillus anthracis
• Signs: peracute disease with sudden death. Bloody exudates from body cavities.
• Diagnosis: anamnesis, clinical signs, contagiosity. Differential diagnostics with:
plant poisoning, mineral deficiencies. Examination of direct blood or tissue smears
and bacterial culture (intact eye) – samples from lymph nodes, fluids.
• Treatment and prevention: according to the OIE this is an immediately notifyable
disease. No treatment!!
• Destruction of the carcass must be done.Vaccination with a live acapsular vaccine
strain.
• Important note: do not open the carcass!! This is a zoonotic disease!!

14.2. Besnoitiosis (Elephant skin disease)

• Occurrence: endemic disease in some tropical and subtropical areas with high rate
of morbidity and low mortality; in other areas a rare disease.
• Causal agents: Besnoitia besnoti. They are coccidian parasites in the family
Sarcocystidae.
• Signs: anasarca; alopecia; hyperpigmentation and scleroderma; loss of condition,
inspiratory dyspnea; pin point nodules on the scleral, conjunctival, nasal,
pharyngeal and laryngeal mucosa. Parasitic cysts in dermis, subcutaneously.
• Diagnosis: clinical signs. Parasitic cysts in dermis, subcutaneously. Fever, painful
swellings, generalized edema of the skin. Superficial lymph nodes are swollen.
Diarrhoea may occur. Lacrimation and nasal discharge.
• In the chronic stage the skin becomes grossly thickened, corrugated and alopecia.
Cysts on the scleral conjunctiva are considered to be a important part of the
diagnostic process. Demonstration of Besnoitia bradyzoites in skin biopsy smears
or scleral conjunctival scrapings.
• Treatment and prevention: not available. Vaccination might be an option.

6 Text summarised from and adapted after Dirksen et al. (2000), Radostits (2000), Radostits et al.
(2007), OIE (2004), Divers and Peek (2008), Smith (2009). Diseases with any relevance for HHPM
are retained.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 189

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

14.3. Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, CBPP

• Occurrence: rarely present in Europe; mainly in Africa, and South America in

endemic areas.
• Causal agent: Mycoplasma mycoides.
• Signs: severe pneumonia but can also evolve without evident clinical signs.
• Diagnosis: severe pneumonia, not reactive to any kind of treatment. Blood samples
and complement fixation test. Differential diagnosis with MCF, BRD, and other
pneumonia.
• Treatment and prevention: No treatment!! Slaughter all positive animals; transport
control.
• In infected areas: restrict animal movements, apply biosecurity measures; close
the area.

14.4. Foot-and-mouth disease, FMD

• Occurrence: all over the world; highly contagious disease with low mortality. Large
economic impact.
• Causal agent: Apthovirus.
• Signs: fever, excess salivation, vesicles in mouth, feet. Sudden death in young
animals.
• Erosive – ulcerative stomatitis and oesophagitis.
• In neonates – interstitial mononuclear and necrotic myocarditis.
• Diagnosis: blood samples, virus isolation, serology, RT-PCR detection.
• Treatment and prevention: no treatment, only symptomatic with some good results
reported.
• Mass vaccination with killed vaccines in endemic areas.
• Eradication by slaughter. Different types of eradication campaigns exist (with and
without (ring) vaccination and buffer zones.

14.5. Haemoparasitic diseases

14.5.1. Anaplasmosis (Rickettsiosis)

• Occurrence: in calves in the first 6 to 9 months of life, but much more severe in
older animals. Incubation time 15 to 30 days after tick infestation; normally in
enzootic areas; widely spread in Southern Europe, Mediterranean countries, South
and Central America, UK, Africa.
• Causal agents: protozoan parasites: Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma centrale.
• Signs: progressive anemia; subclinical infection; anorexia; in adult cattle high fever
and if no treatment, decreasing temperature and death.

190 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Chapter 14. Tropical and subtropical diseases in young stock
VetBooks.ir

• Diagnosis: icterus, fever, depression, anemia, severe dyspnea. Sometimes it is

possible to find ticks (Boophilus spp., Ixodes ricinus, Dermacentor andersoni, D.
variabilis, Rhipicephalus species) and flies.
• Peripheral blood samples, and blood smears on Giemsa or Elisa tests, PCR.
Hystology – fixed spleen, liver, bone marrow.
• Treatment and prevention: tetracyclines 11 mg/kg BW IV or long acting
oxytetracycline at 20 mg/kg BW IM at 72 hours interval; blood transfusion
as supportive therapy; Diminazine aceturate at 3 to 5 mg/kg; Phenamidine
diisethionate at 8 to 13 mg/kg; Imidocarb diprionate at 1 to 3 mg/kg, or
Amicarbalide diisethionate at 5 to 10 mg/kg. Baths or spraying with Amitraz;
Permethrin products.

14.5.2. Babesiosis

• Occurrence: 2 to 3 weeks after tick infestation; normally in enzootic areas; widely

spread in Southern Europe, Mediterranean countries, South and Central America,
British Isles, Africa.
• Causal agents: Protozoan parasites; Babesia bigemina; B. bovis (B. argentina, B.
berbera); B. divergens; B. major; B. jakimov; B. ovata.
• Signs: fever up to 40 °C-42 °C; depression, icterus, anorexia, tachycardia, tachypnea,
anemia, haemoglobinemia, haemoglobinuria, abortion, and death. Cerebral
babesiosis with hyperexcitability, convulsions, opisthotonus, coma, and death.
• Diagnosis: clinical signs, icterus, fever, depression, anemia. Sometimes it is possible
to find ticks (Boophilus annulatus, B. decoloratus, B. microphus, B. microplus, Ixodes
ricinus,
• Haemaphysalis punctata, Haemaphysalis longicornis, Dermacentor, Hyalomma,
Rhipicephalus species, Haemaphysalis species). Peripheral blood samples, and
blood smears on Giemsa.
• Treatment and prevention: Boviprovicona; Tetracyclines; blood transfusion;
Diminazine aceturate at a dose of 3 to 5 mg/kg BW; Phenamidine diisethionate
at 8 to 13 mg/kg BW; Imidocarb diprionate at 1 to 3 mg/kg, or Amicarbalide
diisethionate at 5 to 10 mg/kg BW.
• Vaccination with live vaccine. Baths or spraying with Amitraz; Permethrin
products.

14.5.3. Theileriosis (East Coast Fever, ECF)

• Occurrence: endemic disease mainly in east and central Africa; also widely spread
in Southern Europe, Mediterranean countries, South and Central America.
• Causal agents: protozoan parasites: Theileria parva, T. taurotragi, T. annulata, T.
buffeli, T. Mutans, T. sergenti.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 191

 Section II – Diseases of young stock
VetBooks.ir

• Signs: fever; enlarged superficial lymph nodes; jaundice; dyspnea; wasting and
terminal diarrhoea.
• Diagnosis: icterus, fever, depression, anemia, severe dyspnea. Sometimes it is
possible to find ticks (Rhipicephalus apendiculatus, Rhipicephalus spp., Hyalomma
anatolicum, Haemophysalis spp., Amblyomma spp., H. longicornis, H. punctata,
Haemophysalis spp.). Peripheral blood samples, and blood smears on Giemsa.
• Treatment and prevention: limited success with halofuginone at 1.2 mg /kg BW;
Buvaparvoquone 2.5 mg/kg BW, or Tetracyclines at 20 mg/kg BW. Aplication of
acaricides and vaccination. Baths or spraying with Amitraz; Permethrin products.

14.6. Rinderpest

• Occurrence: affects ruminants in Asia, Middle East, Africa. Highly contagious and
high mortality. Cattle of all ages are animals at risk.
• Causal agents: Morbillivirus. Family Paramyxoviridae. Many strains.
• Signs: hyperthermia, ocular and nasal discharge, salivation, ulcerative stomatitis,
diarrhoea – severe and dysentery with tenesmus. Skin lesions affecting perineum,
later on with scabs, oesophagitis, dehydration and dead. Could be peracute, acute,
subacute or innapparent in other species. Discrete lesions, greyish, raised necrotic
lesions, first in the lower lip (1-5 mm) and adjacent gum or in the tongue.
• Diagnosis: necrotic stomatitis, oesophagitis, enterocolitis (ulcerative and
haemorrhagic), massive necrosis of lymphnoytes in Peyer’s patches, lymph
nodes and spleen. Marked leucopenia. Virus isolation; serology; immuno –
histochemistry; Agar gel diffusion (AGID). Differential diagnosis: BVDV, FMD;
MCF.
• Treatment and prevention: no treatment!! Apply strict biosecurity measures.

192 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

References

Andrews, A.H, Blowey, R.W, Boyd, H., Eddy, R. 1992. Bovine Medicine, Diseases and
Husbandry of Cattle. Blackwell Science, London, UK, pp. 231-252.
Andrews, A.H, Blowey, R.W., Boyd, H., Eddy, R.G. 2008. Medicina Bovina, segunda edição,
editado por Editora Ltda Roca, Sao Paulo, Brasil.
Anonymous, 2009. Outbreaks of idiopathic haemorrhagic diathesis syndrome in young calves.
Veterinary Record 165: 139-142.
Argyle, M. 1994. Face, gaze and other non-verbal communication. In: The psychology of
interpersonal behaviour, 5th ed., Penguin Psychology, London, UK, pp. 23-55.
Arrow, K.J. 1996. The theory of risk-bearing: small and great risks. Journal of Risk and
Uncertainty 12: 103-111.
Barrett, D., Mee, J.F., Good, M., Mullowney, P., Cleg, T., More, S. 2008. Risk factors for Johne’s
disease in Irish dairy herds: A case-control study. Cattle Practice 6: 209-215.
Barry, P.J., Ellinger, P.N., Hopkin J.A., Baker C.B. 2000. Financial management in agriculture.
Interstate Publishers, Danville, IL, USA.
Baumgartner, W. 1999. Klinische Propaedeutik der inneren Krankheiten und Hautkrankheiten
der Haus – und Heimtiere. Parey Buchverlag, Berlin, Germany.
Baumgartner, W. 2006. What are we doing against paratuberculosis in Austrian cattle?
Document of the UVG Conference, Coimbra, Portugal, 4th July 2006.
Bergevoet, R.H.M. 2005. Entrepreneurship of Dutch dairy farmers. PhD thesis University of
Wageningen, Dept. of Farm Management, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Bertrand, M., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E. 2007. Behavioral economics and marketing in aid
of decision-making among the poor. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 25(1): 8-23.
Bexiga, R., Guyot, H., Saegerman, C. 2009. Differential diagnosis of bluetongue. In: Blue
Tongue in Northern Europe (Saegerman, Reviego-Gordejo and Pastoret, editors). Edition
of the OIE, Paris, France, pp. 61-71.
Boersema, J.S.C. 2006. Development of a HACCP-compatible programme in aid to quality
risk management on dairy farms (with emphasis on the rearing of the dairy replacement
period). MSc thesis Utrecht University, August 2006, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
Boersema, J.S.C., Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M., Vieira, A., Lievaart, J.J., Baumgartner, W. 2008.
Imbedding HACCP principles in Dairy Herd Health and Production Management: case
report on calf rearing. Irish Veterinary Journal 61(9): 594-602.
Boersema, J.S.C., Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M. 2010. Applied biosecurity on dairy farms. Bulletin of
the SNGTV. SNGTV, Paris, France (in press, in French).
Bouwknegt, M., Dam-Deisz, W.D.C., Wannet, W.J.B, Van Pelt, W., Visser, G., Van der Giessen,
A.W. 2004. Surveilance of zoonotic bacteria in farm animals in the Netherlands. Report
330050001/2004. State Institute of Public Health and Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven,
the Netherlands.
Bracke, M.B.M., Spruijt, B.M., Metz, J.H.M., Schouten, W.G.P. 2002. Decision support system
for overall welfare assessment in pregnant sows: model structure and weighing procedure.
Journal of Animal Science 8: 1819-1834.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 193

 References
VetBooks.ir

Bramley, A.J., Dodd, F.H. 1984. Reviews of the progress of dairy science: mastitis control –
progress and prospects. Journal of Dairy Research 51: 481-512.
Brand, A., Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M., Schukken, Y.H. 1996. Herd health and production management
in dairy practice. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Brandt, J.C., Batemann, S.W. 2006. Senior Veterinary Students’ Perceptions of Using Role Play
to Learn Communication Skills. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education 33 (1): 76-80
Brickell, J.S., McGowan, M.M., Pfeiffer, D.U., Wathes, D.C. 2009. Mortality in Holstein-Friesian
calves and replacement heifers, in relation to body weight and IGF-I concentration, on 19
farms in England. Animal 3:1175-1182.
CAC, Codex Alimentarius Commission. 2003. General principles of food hygiene (CAC/RCP
1-1969, Rev. 4-2003), incorporating the hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP)
system and guidelines for its application. WHO and FAO, Rome. Available at http://www.
codexalimentarius.net/web/standard_list.do?lang=eng.
Cady, R.A., Smith, T.R. 1996. Economics of heifer raising programs. In: Proc. Calves, Heifers
and Dairy profitability. National Congress Harrisburg PA. NRAES publ.74, Ithaca, NY, USA.
Cannas da Silva, J. 2002a. Controlo do IBR i BVD (the control of IBR and BVD). Congresso de
Reprodução Animal, Porto, Portugal, pp. 3-9.
Cannas da Silva, J. 2002b. Perspectivas e métodos para controlo do BVD (perspectives and
control methods of BVDV). In: Proceedings of the IIId Congresso Ibérico de Reprodução
Animal, pp. 65-69.
Cannas da Silva, J., Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M, Vagneur, M., Bexiga, R., Gelfert, C.C., Baumgartner,
W. 2006. Veterinary dairy herd health management in Europe: constraints and perspectives.
Veterinary Quarterly 28(1): 23-32.
Chassange, M., Barnouin, J., Charconac, J.P. 1999. Risk factors for stillbirth in Holstein heifers
under field conditions in France: a prospective study. Theriogenology 51: 1477-1488
Cockcroft, P., Holmes, M. 2003. Evidence-based medicine: What is it? Why is it important?
What skills do I need? Cattle Practice (BCVA) vol. II part 4, pp. 373-384.
Collell Verdaguer, J. 2007. Reproduccion en vacuno lechero. Cuadernos de Campo, Merial
Europe, pp. 114, 125.
Collins, M.T., Morgan I.R. 1992. Economic decision analysis model of a paratuberculosis
test-and-cull program. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 199(12):
1724-1729.
Correa, M.T., Erb, H., Scarlett, J. 1993. Path analysis for seven post partum disorders of
Holstein cows. Journal of Dairy Science 76: 1305-1312.
Cullor, J.S. 1998. HACCP: is it coming to the dairy? Journal of Dairy Science 80: 3449-3452
De Clerq, K., Vandenbussche, F., Van Binst, T., Vandenmeulebroucke, E., Goris, N., Zienstra,
S. 2009. Blue tongue: laboratory diagnosis (chapter 9). In: Blue Tongue in Northern
Europe (Saegerman, Reviego-Gordejo and Pastoret, editors). Edition of the OIE, Paris,
France, pp. 72-83.
De Kruif, A., Mansfeld, R., Hoedemaker, M. 2007. Tierartzliche Herdenbetreuung beim
Milchrind. 2nd Edition. Enke Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany.

194 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  References
VetBooks.ir

Dirksen, G., Gruender, H.D., Stoeber, M. 1984. Innere Medizin und Chirurgie des Rindes.
Parey Buchverlag MVS, Stuttgart, Germany.
Dirksen, G., Gruender, H.D., Stoeber, M. 2005. Medicina Interna y Cirurgia del Bovino, 4ª
Edição. Inter-Médica XXI-2005, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Divers, T.H.J., Peek, S.F. 2008. Rebhun's Diseases of Dairy Cattle. 2nd Edition. W.B. Saunders/
Elsevier, St. Louis, MO, USA.
Dutch Dairy Manual. 2006. Handboek Rundveehouderij, WUR, Lelystad, the Netherlands.
DQA. 2000. Biosecurity guidelines (Ruegg, P. chief-editor). Dairy Quality Assurance, the Milk
and Dairy Beef Quality Assurance Center Inc., Stratford IA, USA.
FAO, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. 1998. A training manual on
food hygiene and the hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) system. FAO,
Rome (I). Available at http://www.fao.org/documents/index.asp.
FAO, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. 2004. Guide to good dairy
farming practice. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FAWC. 1992. Farm Animal Welfare Council: FAWC updates the five freedoms. Veterinary
Record 131: 357.
Fetrow, J. 1985. Economic decisions in veterinary practice: a method for field use. Journal of
the American Veterinary Medical Association 186 (8): 792-797.
Foley, J,A., Otterby, D.E. 1978. Availability, storage, treatment, composition and feeding value
of surplus colostrum: a review. Journal of Dairy Science 61: 1033-1060.
Franken, P. 2009a. IBR control: the Dutch approach. Symposium LMV Lda, 27th March 2009,
Evora, Portugal. Proceedings available at www.lmv.com.pt.
Franken, P. 2009b. Bovine Virus Diarrhoea control: the Dutch approach. Symposium LMV
Lda, 27th March 2009, Evora, Portugal. Proceedings available at www.lmv.com.pt.
Fridrich, A., Rademacher, G., Weber, B.K., Kappe, E., Carlin, A., Assad, A., Sauter-Louis,
C., Hafner-Marx. A., Buettner, M., Boucher, J., Klee, W. 2009. Gehaueftes Auftreten
von Haemorrhagischer Diathese infolge Knochenmarkschaedigung bei jungen Kaelber.
Tierartztl. Umschau, 64: 423-431.
Gardner, I.A., 1997. Testing to fulfill HACCP (hazard analysis critical control points)
requirements: principles and examples. Journal of Dairy Science 80(12): 3453-3457.
Gelfert, C.C., Staufenbiel, R., 2004. Early detection of metabolic diseases of dairy cattle by
using milk data, body condition and metabolic profiles. In: Proceedings of the 23rd World
Buiatrics Congress, Québec, Canada, 11-16 July 2004, p. 82.
Godden, S.M., Fetrow, J.P., Feirtag, J.M., Green, L.R., Scott, M.S., Wells, J. 2005. Economic
analysis of feeding pasteurized nonsaleable milk versus conventional milk replacer to dairy
calves. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 226(9): 1547-1554.
Godden, S.M., Haines, D.M., Konkol, K., Peterson, J. 2009. Improving passive transfer of
immunoglobulins in calves. II: Interaction between feeding method and volume of
colostrum fed. Journal of Dairy Science 92: 1758-1764.
Groenendaal, H., Nielen, M., Jalvingh, A.W., Horst, H.S., Galligan, D.T., Hesselink, J.W. 2002.
A simulation of Johne's disease control. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 54(3): 225-245.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 195

 References
VetBooks.ir

Groenendaal, H., Galligan, D.T. 2003. Economic consequences of control programs for
paratuberculosis in midsize dairy farms in the US. Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 223(12): 1757-1763.
Grunert, E. 1984. Buiatrik, Band I, Verlag Schaper, Hannover, Germany.
Hardaker, J.B., Huirne, R.B.M., Anderson, J.R. 1997. Coping with risk in agriculture. CAB
International, Wallingford, UK.
Harrington, S.E., Niehaus, G.R. 1999. Risk management and insurance. The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Boston, USA.
Heuchel, V., Parguel, P., David, V., Lenormand, M., Le Mens, P. 1999. Maitrise de la qualité
hygiénique en production laitière: l’application d’HACCP en élevage. In: Proceedings du
Rencontres de Recherches en Ruminants, pp. 291-297.
Howard, J.L. 1993. Current Veterinary Therapy 3, Food Animal Practice. W.B. Saunders
Company, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Huirne, R.B.M., Saatkamp, H.W., Bergevoet, R.H.M. 2002. Economic analysis of common health
problems in dairy cattle. In: Proceedings of the XXIIth World Buiatrics Congress (Kaske,
Scholz and Holterschinken, editors), 18-23 August 2002, Hannover, Germany, pp. 420-431.
Heinrichs, J., Kehoe, S.I. 2009. Electrolytes – oral rehydration solutions for scouring calves.
International Dairy Topics 8(5): 13-15.
Heuvelink, A.E., Van den Biggelaar, F.L., Zwartkruis-Nahuis, J.T.M., Herbes, R.G, Huyben,
R., Nagelkerke, N., Melchers, W.J.G., Monnens, L.A.H., De Boer, E. 1998. Occurence of
verocytotoxin producing Eschirichia coli O157 on Dutch dairy farms. Journal of Clinical
Microbiology 36: 3480-3487.
Heuvelink, A.E., Van Heerwaarden, C., Zwartkruis-Nahuis, J.T.M., Van Oosterom, R., Edink,
K., Van Duynhoven, Y.T.H.P., De Boer, E. 2002. Escheria Ecoli O157 infection associated
with a petting zoo. Epidemiology and Infection 129: 295-302.
IKC. 1994. Quality control in dairy farming. IKC Lelystad and Landbouwschap, The Hague,
the Netherlands (in Dutch).
Intervet. 2006. Compendium of Animal Reproduction. Intervet International, Boxmeer, the
Netherlands, p. 18.
Jimeno Vinatea, J.V. 2009. Alimentacion de novillas de reposicion. EUIT Agricola, Madrid,
Spain. Postgraduate course, Universidade Lusofona, Lisbon, Portugal, July 4th and 5th 2009.
Juaristi, J.L., Bach, A., Rodriguez, P. 2007. Cow comfort. Cuadernos de Campo, Merial Europe.
Kappe, E.C., Halami, M., Schade, B., Bauer, J. 2009. Fatal aplastic anaemia with haemorrhagic
disease in calves in Germany. Proceedings of the 27th Meeting of the European Society of
Veterinary Pathologists and European College of Veterinary Pathologists. 9-12 September,
2009, Olsztyn-Krakow, Poland, p.118.
Karmali, R.A., Marsh, J. and Fuchs, C. 1985. Effects of dietary enrichment with gamma-
linolenic acid upon growth of the R3230AC mammary adenocarcinoma. Journal of
Nutrition and Growth Cancer 2: 41-51.
Kelton, D.F., Lissemore, K.D., Martin, R.E. 1998. Recommendations for recording and
calculating the incidence of selected clinical diseases of dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy
Science 81: 2502-2509.

196 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  References
VetBooks.ir

Kleen, J.L. 2008. Communication for veterinary advisory tasks on large dairy farms. In:
Proceedings of the ALLTECH and VACQA-International Workshop on Veterinary
Management on Large Dairy Farms (Noordhuizen and Andrieu, editors), at the XXVth
World Buiatrics Congress, Budapest, Hungary, 10th July 2008, pp. 31-34.
Kleen, J.L., Rehage, J. 2008. Communication skills in veterinary medicine. Tierarztliche Praxis
36: 293-297.
Krebs, S., Danuser, J., Audigé, L., Kihm, U. 1999. Evaluation eines Monitoringsystems zur
Erfassung der Tiergesundheit beim Milchvieh. Schweiz. Archives Tierheilkunde 141:
559‑565.
Kunz, H.J. 2008. Milk replacers for dairy young stock. DSM Annual Meeting on Ruminants,
Poitiers (F), March 18th 2008, DSM, Paris, France.
Lievaart, J.J., Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M., Van Beek, E., Van der Beek, C., Van Risp, A., Schenkel,
J., Van Veersen J. 2005. The hazard analysis critical control points concept as applied to
some chemical, physical and microbiological contaminants of milk on dairy farms. The
Veterinary Quarterly 27(1): 21-29.
Martins, S., Sousa, S., Madeira de Carvalho, L.M., Bacelar, J., Cannas da Silva, J. 2007. Prevalence
of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in Northwest Portugal dairy calves and efficacy of
halofuginon lactate on the prevention of cryptosporidiosis. BCVA Cattle Practice vol.15,
part 2, pp. 152-156.
Martins, S., Madeira de Carvalho, L.M., Cannas da Silva, J. 2007. Cryptosporidium parvum:
major aetiological agent of neonatal diarrhoea in dairy calves. In: Proceedings of the 21st
International Conference of the WAAVP ‘From EPG to Genes’, Ghent, Belgium, 19-23
August 2007, p.31.
McFadden, D. 1999. Rationality for economists? Journal of Risks and Uncertainty 19 (1-3)
73-105.
McGuirk, B.J., Forsyte, R., Dobson, H. 2007. Economic cost of difficult calvings in the United
Kingdom dairy herd. Veterinary Record 161(20): 685-687.
Mee J.F., Mehra, R. 1995. Efficacy of colostrum substitutes and supplements in farm animals.
Agro-Food-Industry Hi-Tech 6: 31-35.
Mee, J.F., Wafa, S., O’Farrell, K.J. 1995. Clinical response and economic value of vaccinating
dairy calves with two types of vaccines. Agri-Practice 16: 15-19.
Mee, J.F., O’Farrell, K.J., Reitsma, P., Mehra, R. 1996. Effect of a whey protein concentrate as a
colostrum substitute or supplement on calf immunity, weight gain and health. Journal of
Dairy Science 79: 886-894.
Mee, J.F. 2004. The role of micronutrients in bovine periparturient problems. In: Proceedings
of the Cattle Association of Veterinary Ireland Annual Conference, Bunratty, Co. Clare,
pp. 39-56.
Mee, J.F. 2007. The role of the veterinarian in bovine fertility management on modern dairy
farms. Theriogenology, 68S: 257-265.
Mee, J.F. 2008a. Newborn dairy calf management. Veterinary Clinics of North America Food
Animal Practice, 24: 1-17.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 197

 References
VetBooks.ir

Mee, J.F. 2008b. Managing the cow at calving time. Proceedings of the American Association
of Bovine Practitioners 41: 35-43.
Mee, J.F. 2008c. Prevalence and risk factors for dystocia in dairy cattle: A review. The Veterinary
Journal 176: 93-101.
Mee, J.F. 2008d. Perinatal mortality in heifers – An emerging problem. Cattle Practice 16:
166-173.
Mee, J.F. 2008e. Stillbirth in dairy cattle – From science to solutions. In: Proceedings of the
XXV Jubilee World Buiatrics Congress, Budapest, Hungary, pp. 82-86.
Mee, J.F., Berry DP, Cromie AR. 2008. Prevalence of, and risk factors associated with, perinatal
calf mortality in pasture-based Holstein-Friesian cows. Animal 2: 613-620.
Mee, J.F. 2009. Bovine perinatology: Current understanding and future developments. In:
Animal Reproduction: New Research Developments (L.T. Dahnof, editor). Nova Science
Publishers, Inc. New York, pp. 67-106.
Mestdagh, C., Raboisson, D. Schelcher, F. 2008. Colostrum substitutes: how to use them. Le
Nouveau Praticien Vétérinaire 167: 19-26 (in French).
Metz, J.H.M., Bracke, M.B.M. 2003. Assessment of the impact of locomotion on animal
welfare. In: Abstracts of the EAAP annual meeting, Rome, Italy. Wageningen Academic
Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands, p. 212.
Morrow, D.A. 1986. Current therapy in Theriogenology 2. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia,
PA, USA, pp. 414-422.
Noakes, D.E., Parkinson, T.J., England G.C.W. 2001. Arthur’s Veterinary Reproduction and
Obstetrics. Saunders/Elsevier Science Ltd, St. Louis, MO, USA.
Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M., Brand, A., Dobbelaar, P. 1983. Veterinary herd health and production
control on dairy farms. I: introduction to a coupled basic system and flexible system.
Preventive Veterinary Medicine 1: 189-199.
Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M., Welpelo, H.J. 1996.Sustainable improvement of animal health care by
systematic Quality Risk Management according to the HACCP concept. The Veterinary
Quarterly 18: 121-126.
Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M. 2004. Dairy Herd Health and Production Management practice in
Europe: state of the art. In Proceedings of the 23rd World Buiatrics Congress, Québec,
Canada, 11-16 July 2004.
Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M., Lievaart, J.J. 2005. Cattle welfare and Cow comfort. In: Proceedings of
the 1st Buiatrissima Congress, Bern, Switzerland, pp. 1-12.
Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M., Cannas da Silva, J., Boersema, J.S.C., Vieira, A. 2008. Applying HACCP-
based quality risk management on dairy farms. Wageningen Academic Publishers,
Wageningen, the Netherlands.
NRC, National Research Council. 2001. Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle. 7th Revised
edition. The National Academies Press, Washington DC, USA.
Nuotio, L., Neuvonen, E., Hyytiainen, M. 2007. Epidemiology and eradication of IBR/IPV
virus in Finland. Acta Veterinaria 49: 3.

198 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  References
VetBooks.ir

OIE, Office Internationale d'Epizooties. 2004. Blue tongue, updated 22/4/2002. - Classified as
an OIE List A disease (A090). Available at www.oie.int/Eng/maladies/fiches/a_A090.htm,
assessed on 15 July 2009.
OIE, Office Internationale d'Epizooties. 2006. Animal production food safety challenges in
global markets. Revue Scientifique & Technique de l'Office Internationale des Epizooties,
Paris, France. Vol. 25 (2).
Peters, A.R., Ball, J.P. 1995. Reproduction in Cattle. 2nd Edition. Blackwell Science, Osney
Mead, Oxford, UK.
Philippe, P., Raboisson, D., Schelcher, F. 2008. Effects of heat treatment of colostrum. Le
Nouveau Praticien Vétérinaire 167: 79-82.
Pierson, M. 1995. An overview of HACCP and its applications to animal production food safety.
Symposium on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points. Conference of Research Workers in
Animal Diseases, November 12th, 1995. Chicago, IL, USA.
Rabin, M. 1998. Psychology and Economics. Journal of Economic Literature 36(1): 11-46.
Radostits, O.M., Leslie, K., Fetrow, J. 1994. Herd Health, Food Animal Production Medicine.
2nd Edition. W.B. Saunders Company Ltd, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Radostits, O.M., Gay, C.C., Blood, D.C., Hinchcliff, K.W. 2000. Veterinary Medicine: A
textbook of the disease of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses. 9th Edition. W.B. Saunders
Company Ltd, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Radostits, O.M. 2001a. Diarreia aguda indiferenciada dos animais recém nascidos:
Criptosporidiose dos vitelos. (Undifferentiated acute diarrhoea of newborn animals,
Cryptosporidiosis). Revista Portuguesa de Buiatria, 1(December): 4-16.
Radostits, O.M. 2001b. Exame neurológico dos bovinos e diagnóstico diferencial de algumas
doencas comuns do sistema nervoso dos bovinos: exame clinico em bovinos. (Neurological
examination of cattle and differential diagnosis of some common diseases of the bovine
nervous system). Revista Portuguesa de Buiatria, 1(December): 28-54.
Radostits, O.M., Gay, C.S., Hinchcliff, K.W., Constable, P.D. 2007. Veterinary Medicine. 10th
Edition. Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Richardson, E.K.B., Mee, J.F., Sanchez-Miguel, C., Crilly, J., More, S.J. 2009. Demographics
of cattle positive for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis by faecal culture,
from submissions to the Cork Regional Veterinary Laboratory. Irish Veterinary Journal
62: 398-405.
Rosenbaum-Nielsen, L. 2007. Biosecurity in cattle herds. In: Proceedings of the Buiatrie
Francaise, European Meeting, Paris, France, 15-16 November 2007, pp. 43-45.
RVL. 2008. Regional Veterinary Laboratories – Surveillance Report 2008, Irish Department of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, pp.1-28.
Ryan, D. 1997. Three HACCP-based programmes for quality management in cattle in Australia.
Dairy Extension, NSW Australia.
Rydell, J. (editor). 2002/2008. A guide to calf milk replacers (types, use and quality). Publication
of the Bovine Alliance on Management and Nutrition, revised 2002 and 2008, AFIA,
Arlington VI, USA.

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 199

 References
VetBooks.ir

Schuijt, G., Taverne, M.A. 1994. The interval between birth and sternal recumbency as an
objective measure of the vitality of newborn calves. Veterinary Record 135: 111-115.
Sellers, R. (editor). 2001. A guide to colostrum and colostrum management for dairy calves.
Publication of the Bovine Alliance on Management and Nutrition. AFIA, Arlington, VI USA.
Sibley, R. 2006. Developing health plans for the dairy herd. In Practice 28: 114-121.
Smith, B.P. 2009. Large Animal Internal Medicine. 4th Edition. Mosby/Elsevier, St.Louis,
Missouri, USA, pp. 248-251.
Staufenbiel, R., Schröder, U., Gelfert, C.C., Panicke, L. 2003. Körperkondition und
Stoffwechselstabilität als Grundlage für eine hohe Milchleistung bei ungestörter Fruchtbarkeit
und allgemeiner Gesundheit von Milchkühen. Archives Tierzucht. 46, 513-526.
Svensson, C., Linder, A., Olsson, S.-O. 2006. Mortality in Swedish dairy calves and replacement
heifers. Journal of Dairy Science 89: 4769-4777.
Tesh, V.L., O’Brien, A.D., 1999. The pathogenic mechanisms of Shiga toxin and the Shiga-like
toxins. Molecular Microbiology 5: 1817-1822.
Thrusfield, M., Ortega, C., De Blas, I., Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M., Frankena, K. 2001. WinEpiscope,
improved epidemiological software for veterinary medicine. Veterinary Record 148: 567-572.
Towery, D. (editor). 2000. An introduction to infectious disease control and biosecurity on
dairy farms. Publication of the Bovine Alliance on Management and Nutrition, published
by AFIA, Arlington VI, USA.
Tozer, P.R., Heinrichs, A.J. 2001. What affects the costs of raising replacement heifers: a
multiple component analysis. Journal of Dairy Science 84(8): 1836-1844.
Vaarst, M., Sorensen, J.T. 2009. Danish dairy farmers’ perceptions and attitudes related to calf-
management in situations of high versus no calf mortality. Preventive Veterinary Medicine
89: 128-133.
VanderFels-Klerx, H.J., Horst, S.S., Dijkhuizen, A.A. 2000. Risk factors for bovine respiratory
disease in dairy youngstock in the Netherlands: the perception of experts. Livestock
Production Science 66: 35-46.
Van Trierum, G. 2005. How efficient is calf rearing on your farm? International Dairy Topics
4(2): 16-17.
Vonk Noordegraaf, A., Buijtels, J.A., Dijkhuizen, A.A., Franken, P., Stegeman, J.A., Verhoeff,
J. 1998. An epidemiological and economic simulation model to evaluate the spread and
control of IBR in the Netherlands. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 36(3): 219-238.
Waltner-Toews, D., Martin, S.W., Meek, A.H. 1986. Dairy calf management, morbidity and
mortality in Ontario Holstein herds III – association of management with morbidity.
Preventive Veterinary Medicine 4: 137-156.
Weber, M.F., Groenendaal, H., Van Roermund, H.J., Nielen, M. 2004. Simulation of alternatives
for the Dutch Johne's disease certification-and-monitoring program. Preventive Veterinary
Medicine 62(1): 1-17.
Webster, J. 1995.Animal Welfare: a cool eye towards Eden. Blackwell Science Publishers,
Oxford, UK, 273 pp.

200 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  References
VetBooks.ir

Wolf, G. 1997. BVD/MD als Herdenproblem. ITB-Schriftenreihe, Verlag Hieronymus,

Munchen, Germany.
Youngquist, R.S., Threlfall, W.R. 2007. Large Animal Theriogenology. W.B. Saunders Company,
St.Louis, MO, USA, pp. 258, 270-473, 489.
Zaaijer, D., Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M. 2003. A novel scoring system for monitoring the relationship
between nutritional efficiency and fertility in dairy cows. Irish Veterinary Journal 56: 145-151.

Websites which we advise for further consulting:

http://healthmap.org/r/OOTT
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/cs/BlobServer/Scientific_Opinion/biohaz_op_1189_dairy_cows_
en.pdf?ssbinary=true
htpp://www.efsa.europa.eu/etc/medialib/efsa/science/colloquium_series/no4_animal_
diseases/1179.Par.0017/File.dat/ses_summary_report_coll4_en1.pdf
http://www.focus.de/magazin/archiv/jahrgang_2009/ausgabe_40/
www.agri-ed.com/catalog.html
www.agri-ed.com/heifer.html
www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/
www.DQACenter.org/university
www.fao.org
www.nahms.usda.gov/
www.oie.org
www.partnersinreproduction.com
www.vacqa-international.com
www.vetvice.com

• subscribe to [email protected] through mail to [email protected]

Examples of software for HACCP applications:

• doHACCP by Norback, Ley & Associates LLC, 3022 Woodland Trail, Middleton,
Wisconsin USA. www.norbackley.com
• QSA software Ltd. PO Box 306, St.Albans, Herts AL 1 3 DW, United Kingdom,
HACCP (demo)software packages through www.qsa.co.uk

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 201

 References
VetBooks.ir

A simple and easy, public-domain software program for applied veterinary

epidemiology:

• WINEPISCOPE (see also literature reference of Thrusfield et al., 2001) available

for free at either www.zod.wau.nl/qve or at http://winepi.unizar.es or at http://
solismail.uu.nl
• Calculate yourself the sensitivity and specificity of a diagnostic test; estimate the
sample size needed for answering a specific question; calculate the odds ratios for
testing risk associations between a certain factor and a disease.

202 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

VetBooks.ir

Keyword index

A –– virus diarrhoea (BVD) 169

AAEC See attaching and effacing E. coli BRD See bovine respiratory disease
abortion 92, 134, 170 BRSV See bovine respiratory syncytial
acidification 125 virus
acidosis 158 BT See blue tongue
action plan 72 bulk milk testing 164
additional treatment 158 business 30, 44, 90
advisory –– units 30, 44
–– activities 87 BVD See bovine virus diarrhoea
–– services 83 –– control 175
age
–– at first calving 17, 90 C
–– groups 100 calf
anthrax 189 –– milk replacers 121
antibiotic milk 18 –– movement 142
antimicrobial drug resistance 154 –– resuscitation 141
antiseptic solutions 113 calf-side tests 146, 154
ascaris 180 calving
attaching and effacing E. coli (AAEC) 149 –– assistance 138
–– supervision 137, 142
B cattle comfort 68
BCS See body condition score CBPP See contagious bovine
behavioural economics 25 pleuropneumonia
besnoitiosis (elephant skin disease) 189 C/B ratio See costs-to-benefits ratio
BHV-1 See bovine herpes virus-1 CCP See critical control point
biological chymosine capacity 123
–– needs 67 circovirus 179
–– variation 76 closed farm 61
biosecurity 53, 59, 63, 65, 78, 79, 84, 87, clostridiosis 148
106, 117, 163, 164, 175, 183, 190, 192 coach-consultant 87
birth management 116 coaching 80, 143
bleeding calf syndrome 179 coccidiosis 180
bloat 178 colibacillosis 148
blue tongue (BT) 177 colostrometer 57, 115
body condition 44 colostrum 116, 142, 145, 149, 150, 180, 183
–– score (BCS) 115, 136, 182 –– management 118
bovine –– pooled 118
–– herpes virus-1 (BHV-1) 161 –– quality 115
–– respiratory disease (BRD) 18, 178 –– quantities 118
–– respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) 178 –– replacement 120

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 203

 Index
VetBooks.ir

–– substitute 120 economic

–– supplements 120 –– losses 15, 16, 17, 18, 25, 45, 50, 90, 170
communication 26, 87 –– modelling study 66
consultancy 55 EHEC See enterohaemorrhagic E. coli
contagious bovine pleuropneumonia Eimeria spp. 148
(CBPP) 190 elephant skin disease See besnoitiosis
control strategies 163 elimination programme 175
corona virus 147 enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) 149, 152
corrective measures 78 enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) 148, 151, 155
costs and benefits 15 entrepreneur 26, 73, 88
–– analysis 21 eradication 162
costs-to-benefits ratio (C/B ratio) 23 ETEC See enterotoxigenic E. coli
critical control point (CCP) 76
–– criteria 76 F
cryptosporidiosis 147 farm
culling rate 17 –– economics 29
–– health and productivity management
D (FHPM) 27, 29, 39, 47, 52, 55, 72, 73,
dairy food production chain 90 78, 83, 88, 133, 143
decision-making 25, 84, 87 –– records 43
decision-tree analysis 21 –– visit report 43, 52, 53, 54
dehydration 157 –– visits 43
diagnostic criteria 177 fatal aplastic haemorrhagic syndrome of
diarrhoea 91, 108, 117, 124, 128, 145, calves 179
150, 153, 158, 182 Fe-deficiency 126
–– nutritional 148 feed costs 18, 19, 20, 21, 122
–– operational management sheet 79 FHPM See farm health and productivity
Dictyocaulus viviparous 181 management
discount rate 22 fibre content 123
disease risk periods 30 field scoring sheets 36
disinfection 113 Five Freedoms in welfare 67
–– solutions 113 flow diagrams 73
dystocia 116, 138, 139 fluid and electrolyte therapy 153, 154
FMD See foot-and-mouth disease
E follow-up 55
E. coli food borne disease 152
–– attaching and effacing (AAEC) 149 foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) 190
–– enterohaemorrhagic (EHEC) 149, 152 formalisation 86
–– enterotoxigenic (ETEC) 148, 151, 155
–– necrotoxigenic (NTEC) 149, 152 G
–– septicaemic 150 GDF See good dairy farming
–– verocytotoxic (VTEC) 149

204 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Index
VetBooks.ir

general incidence 47, 135, 143

–– diagnostic evaluation 47 infectious agents 91
–– hygiene practice (GHP) 111 infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis 179
–– preventive measures 50 infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) 161
GHP See general hygiene practice –– ELISA tests 162
golden standard 112, 113 –– eradication issues 162
good infectious disease 91
–– cleaning and disinfection 79, 113 inflation rate 22
–– colostrum feeding practice 79 interest rate 22
–– dairy farming (GDF) 50, 79, 85 internal rate of return (IRR) 23
–– hygiene in neonatal calves 79, 109 intravenous fluid therapy 157
–– hygiene in older calves and heifers inventory 39
79, 111 investment 15, 25, 33, 89
–– veterinary practice 53 IRR See internal rate of return
growth performance 18
guidelines 50, 63, 79, 133 J
job satisfaction 26
H Johne's disease See paratuberculosis
HACCP 26, 68, 73, 85
haemoparasitic diseases 190 L
hazards 76, 86, 93, 99, 100 laboratory investigation 53
–– and risks table 76
Hb value 126 M
heart girth measurement 34 management 29, 88, 133
herd health –– cycle 33
–– and productivity management (HHPM) –– -diseases 83
27, 29, 34, 55, 68, 78, 83, 189 Map See Mycobacterium avium subspecies
–– programme 21 paratuberculosis
HHPM See herd health and productivity marker vaccination 162, 165
management maternity
Histhophilus somni 178 –– pen 143
housing 111, 117, 119 –– unit 136
husbandry 83, 145 metabolic
hygiene 59, 109, 111, 142, 164 –– acidosis 139
hyperkalaemia 158 –– programming 122
hypoglycaemia 158 milk replacer 17, 125, 127
mission statement 33
I moderator 54
IBR See infectious bovine rhinotracheitis monitor 78
IgG See immunoglobulin G monitoring 18, 33, 36, 53, 63, 68, 135,
immunoglobulin G (IgG) 118, 159 137, 143, 164
impact 76 morbidity 135, 150, 161, 169

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 205

 Index
VetBooks.ir

mortality 134, 135, 150, 155, 161, 169 persistently infected (PI) animals 170, 174
motivation 76 PI animals See persistently infected animals
Mycobacterium avium subspecies pink eye 179
paratuberculosis (Map) 182 planning 85
mycoplasma 178 plan of action 47
pneumonia 18
N points of particular attention (POPA) 76
navel and joint illness 180 POPA See points of particular attention
necrotoxigenic E. coli (NTEC) 149, 152 population-medicine 16, 27, 29
neonatal 134 post mortem 146
–– calf care 115 premature culling 16
net present value (NPV) 22 prevalence 43, 47, 133, 139, 162
NPV See net present value prevention 25, 27, 43, 83, 175
NTEC See necrotoxigenic E. coli (NTEC) preventive measures 43, 50, 52, 55, 60,
nutritional diarrhoea 148 61, 183
probability 76
O problem analysis 43, 55
oesophagal tube 57 production process 73
oral rehydration 155 productivity 33
organisation 85 –– loss 16
outbreak 166 prophylactic measures 115
prophylaxis 25, 27
P protocol 43, 47, 135, 153
para-influenza 3 virus 179
parasitic diseases 180 Q
paratuberculosis (Johne's disease) 25, 66, Q-fever 184
120, 142, 182 QRM See quality risk management
partial budgeting 21 quality
passive immunity 118 –– failure costs 85
Pasteurella multocida 179 –– of food 67
pasteurisation 120, 183 –– risk management handbook 79
pepsin capacity 123 –– risk management (QRM) 26, 73, 79,
perceptions 87 88, 90
performance quantitative epidemiology 29
–– figures 36
–– parameters 90, 115 R
perinatal rearing
–– asphyxia 139 –– costs 16, 17
–– calf mortality 143 –– period 93, 95, 96, 97
–– disorders 135 records 36, 79, 135
–– mortality 136, 139 reduced
–– period 134, 135 –– market value 16

206 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock

  Index
VetBooks.ir

–– slaughter value 16 surveillance 45

reference values 36, 187 synergism 146
refractometer 119
rehydration solutions 156 T
respiratory-metabolic acidosis 141 target 80
resuscitation 141 –– figures 78
revenues 15 –– growth curve 35
rinderpest 192 –– values 17
ringworm 184 team 73, 76, 80
risk 26, 170, 192 technical goals 33
–– analysis 43, 47 technology 83
–– aversion 26 testing-and-culling 162
–– factors 45, 93, 145, 160 total quality management (TQM) 80
–– management 18, 43, 48, 63, 84, TQM See total quality management
108, 154, 160 training 80
–– perception 26 transition period 134
–– periods 76 transmission 161, 183
rotavirus 146 –– of infections 59
Trichophyton verrucosum 184
S
salmonellosis 147 U
SARA See subacute rumen acidosis umbilical cord 142
scoring upper/lower tolerance limits 78
–– sheet 128 urolithiasis 184
–– tables 128, 156
screening 174 V
sensitivity 45 vaccination 18, 25, 50, 53, 152, 159
septicaemic E. coli 150 validation 80
SMART 88 veal calves 152
society 90 vegetal proteins 122
SOP See standard operational procedure verification 80
standard verocytotoxic E. coli (VTEC) 149
–– operational procedure (SOP) 141, visitors hygiene protocol 63
155 vitamins and trace elements 185
–– value 78 VTEC See verocytotoxic E. coli
stillbirth 134
stomach tube 118 W
strong points and weak points 47, 68, 84 wait-and-see 23
Strongylus spp. 180 weaning 121
structure 55, 85, 90 weigh band 34
subacute rumen acidosis (SARA) 115 weight gain 124
supportive therapies 158 –– targets 34

Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock 207

 Index
VetBooks.ir

welfare 67
whole cow's milk 121
work instruction 43, 50, 55, 63, 79, 106, 116

Y
young stock 134
–– treatment advisory plan 79, 102

Z
zoonosis 149
zoonotic
–– character 184
–– disease 184, 189

208 Farm health and productivity management of dairy young stock