SELF-MEDICATION PRACTICES AMONG UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS

WHO EXPERIENCED FLU IN ONE STATE COLLEGE

IN NEGROS OCCIDENTAL

A Research Paper Presented to

The Faculty of College of Nursing and Allied Health
Sciences
Northern Negros State College of Science and Technology
Sagay City

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements to the Degree
Bachelor of Science in Nursing

ELY MAE B. ABUNIN

SHYBELLE O. LANGBID
FRANCES PRECILA RAE Q.
MATEOS STEFFI ANDREA D.
PANALIGAN

May 2022
 APPROVAL SHEET

The thesis entitled “SELF-MEDICATION PRACTICES AMONG

UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS WHO EXPERIENCED FLU IN ONE STATE COLLEGE IN
NEGROS OCCIDENTAL” presented and submitted by ELY MAE B. ABUNIN,
SHYBELLE O. LANGBID, FRANCES PRECILA RAE Q. MATEOS, and STEFFI
ANDREA D. PANALIGAN, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Bachelor of Science in Nursing of Northern Negros
State College of Science and Technology has been examined and
recommended for Oral Examination.

KRISTINE A. CONDES, RN, MN, LPT, PhD

Research Adviser
Noted by:
ROSELO A. OCAMPO, JR., RN, MAN AILEEN G. SYPONGCO, RN, RM, MN

Research Coordinator College Dean

THESIS DESIGN COMMITTEE

NATASHA KAY V. CHAN, RN, MN ROSELO A. OCAMPO, JR., RN, MAN
Member Member

AILEEN G. SYPONGCO, RN, RM, MN

College Dean

PANEL OF EXAMINERS

NATASHA KAY V. CHAN, RN, MN ROSELO A. OCAMPO, JR., RN, MAN

Member Member
KRISTINE A. CONDES, RN, MN, LPT, PhD
Member

AILEEN G. SYPONGCO, RN, RM, MN

Chairperson

ACCEPTED AND APPROVED in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
NURSING

JOCELYN D. BANTIGUE, PHD

VP for Academic Affairs
ii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The completion of this research proposal undertaking

could not have been possible without the teamwork

participation, assistance, and advice of those people who

helped in the process. We would like to take this

opportunity to acknowledge and express our gratitude to

the following individuals.

To our Almighty Father, the author of wisdom and

knowledge, thank you for the strength, erudition, and

opportunity to undertake this research study. Without His

guidance, mercy, and blessings, we would not be able to

accomplish this and with our daily endeavors. All Glory

belongs to you.

To our supportive parents, our inspiration to keep

up and finish this research proposal, we thank you for

the endless support, love, and understanding.

To our friends and significant others of whom in one

way or another shared their support, either morally,

financially, and physically, thank you.

To our very helpful friend, Dane Emmanuel Rosel, we

thank you for aiding us with your technical knowledge and

skills in the process of completion of our research.

iii
 To our Dean, the Dean of the College of Nursing, Ms.

Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN, we thank you for the

invaluable insights, comments, and knowledge that were

shared to us, as well as the support she has given us.

To both RLE and academic coordinator, Ms. Natasha

Kay V. Chan, RN, MN, thank you for the guidance and

knowledge to improve our study.

To our adviser, Dr. Kristine A. Condes, RN, LPT,

MN, Ph.D., thank you for providing us the invaluable

guidance, advice, support, comments, suggestions, and

provisions that helped us with the completion of this

research proposal. It was a great privilege and honor to

work and study under her guidance.

To our statistician, Mr. Ponciano Gale Jr., thank

you for the guidance in analyzing and interpreting in the

process of data gathering.

To our Research teacher, Mr. Roselo A. Ocampo Jr.

RN, MAN, thank you for the guidance and support you have

provided us, as well as the expertise and knowledge to

improve our study over the course of the semester.

We thank you all very much. To God be the Glory!

iv
 ABSTRACT

Medicine is defined as the treatment of general diseases

which affects our body. However, some treatments do not
need a prescription from a doctor, which encourages people
to self-medicate by using over-the-counter medications.
The purpose of this study was to determine the self-
medication practice among undergraduate students of one
state college in Negros Occidental. A descriptive
quantitative research design and self-medicating scale
from James and French were utilized to efficiently gather
the necessary data. Data was collected using a survey
questionnaire through Google forms, and analyzed and
interpreted using SPSS version 27. Results showed that the
majority of the respondents who self-medicate are 20-22
years old, female, have a family income of below Php
10,957.00, from Bachelor of Science in Business
Administration, and are third year students. It also
showed that the respondents self-medicate sometimes,
mostly once a month, due to complaints like headache,
stuffy/runny nose, and cough, and 173 out of 366
respondents read the drug’s label always before self-
medicating. Antipyretics, vitamins, and decongestants are
the commonly used medications, and the reasons why self-
medication is practiced are for emergency use or quick
relief, and mildness of the problem. Respondents also
self-medicate sometimes without professional’s advice, and
their primary source of information is the advice of
peers, families, and colleagues. There is a moderate level
of perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, and
barrier, and a moderate level of extent of self-medication
practice. The extent of self-medication practice was found
to have significant relationships between the extent of
perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived
benefits, and perceived barrier. The extent of self-
medication practice among undergraduate college students
is moderate, which still constitutes a health concern that
needs intervention. It is imperative that educational
health programs are implemented in the university to raise
health awareness on the potential problems/risks
associated with inappropriate self-medication practices.

Keywords: Self-medication practice, undergraduate college

students, moderate level, female, quick relief, advice,
headache

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE i
APPROVAL SHEET ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURE xi
INTRODUCTION 1
Background of the study 1
Statement of the problem 3
Hypothesis/Hypotheses 6
Theoretical Framework of the Study 7
Conceptual Framework of the Study 9
Schematic Diagram 9
Scope and Limitation 10
Significance of the Study 10
Definition of Terms 11
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 15
METHODOLOGY 22
Research Design 22
Locale of the Study 23
Respondents of the Study 24
Sampling Technique 24
Research Instrument 25
Data-gathering Procedure 26
Statistical treatment 27
Ethical Consideration 28

vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTINUED

Page
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 30
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS 69
AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary 69
Conclusion 71
Implications 72
Recommendation 73
REFERENCES 74
APPENDICES

Appendix A: Letter for validators 84

Appendix B: Letter for reliability test 88
Appendix C: Letter for ethical clearance 89
Appendix D: Ethical Clearance Certificate 90
Appendix E: Letter for the Dean of each 91

Colleges

Appendix F: Letter to the Participants 99

Appendix G: Good and Scates Validation Form 100

Appendix H: Proposal Evaluation Form 101

Appendix I: Self-Medication Practice 103

Questionnaire

Appendix J: CURRICULUM VITAE 108

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Respondents of the study 25
2. Socio-demographic profile of the 30
Respondents when grouped according
to their;
2.1 Age 30
2.2 Sex 31
2.3 Total family income 32
2.4 Course 34
2.5 Year level 36

3. Extent of Self-Medication Practice 37

when common flu symptoms emerge among

undergraduate students experienced

flu in one state college in Negros.

4. Extent of Self-Medication for common flu 38

among undergraduate students experienced

flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental in the last three months

5. Extent of Perceived Severity of Self- 39

Medication Practice as a whole and when

grouped according to Age, Sex, Total

Family Income, Educational Course, Year

Level

6. The most common complaints of self- 42

medication in the last three months among

undergraduate students experienced flu in

one state college in Negros Occidental.

viii
LIST OF TABLES CONTINUED

Table Page

7. Extent of undergraduate students 43

experienced flu in one state college

in Negros Occidental are reading the

label before self-medicating.

8. Extent of Perceived Susceptibility of 44

Self-Medication Practice as a whole and

when grouped according to Age, Sex, Total

Family Income, Educational Course, Year

Level.

9. Most common medications used by 48

undergraduate students in one state

college in Negros Occidental when

symptoms of common flu emerge.

10. Extent of Perceived Benefits of Self- 49

Medication Practice as a whole and when

grouped according to Age, Sex, Total

Family Income, Educational Course, Year

Level

11. Common reasons why undergraduate students 53

who experienced flu in one state college in

Negros Occidental practice self-medication.

ix
LIST OF TABLES CONTINUED

Table Page

12. Extent of self-medication without 54

professional advice in undergraduate

students experienced flu in one state

college in Negros Occidental.

13. Primary sources of information of self-

55

medication in undergraduate students

experienced flu in one state college in

Negros Occidental.

14. Extent of Perceived Barrier of Self 56

Medication Practice as a whole and when

grouped according to Profile

15. Relationship between the extent of 61

Intervening variables and the extent of

self-medication practice.

15.1 Perceived Severity 61

15.2 Perceived Susceptibility 62

15.3 Perceived Benefit 63

15.4 Perceived Barrier 64

16. Extent of Self Medication Practice as a 65

whole and when grouped according to Age,

Sex, Total Family Income, Educational

Course, Year Level.

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1. The Health Belief Model 7
2. Schematic Diagram of the study 9
3. Map of Negros Island 23
4. Map of Sagay City, Negros Occidental 23

xi
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of Study

Medicine, as defined by the medical dictionary, is a

drug and an art in disease prevention. It is defined as

the study and treatment of general diseases or those

which are affecting the body (More, 2016). However, some

treatments do not need a prescription from a doctor,

which encourages people to self-medicate by using over-

the-counter pills. Thereafter, self-medication has become

a common practice among university students according to

several studies conducted by other researchers (Agawar,

et. al., 2021; Seam, et. al., 2018; World Self-medication

Industry, 2006). Self-medication is defined as the taking

of drugs, herbs or home remedies on one's own initiative,

or on the advice of another person, without consulting a

doctor (Tarciuc et al., 2020). According to Araia, et.

al., (2019), a continuous worldwide increase in self-

medication has been triggered by economic, political, and

cultural factors and the practice is becoming a major

public health problem. Studies also showed that college

students have a very low tendency to consult health

professionals to seek health related information, to get

treatment, or to obtain other healthcare services

1
 (Tesfaye, et. al., 2020). Moreover, over-the-

counter drugs are easily accessed as there are several

pharmacies present in the locality. It is given that

college students, especially medical students, have a

higher level of education and awareness of drugs, hence,

they frequently self-medicate as a form of self-care.

Regardless of the efforts of government and medical

practitioners in raising the public awareness regarding

the use of drugs given that inappropriate self-medication

has potential risks as it will be harmful for

individuals, there are still people practicing self-

medication. Therefore, it is imperative for the

researchers to conduct a study in order to determine the

percentage of students practicing self-medication.

Hence, in our study, our main aim was to determine

the self-medication practice among undergraduate

students of Northern Negros State College of Science and

Technology. This research study is intended to provide

information to the academe in identifying the self-

medication instances in one state college in Negros

Occidental and consequently, it will provide a solution

to the problem.

2
Statement of the Problem

The aim of the study was to determine the self-

medication practice among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental.

More specifically, the study sought to answer

the following questions:

1. What is the socio-demographic profile of the

undergraduate students who experienced flu in one

state college in Negros Occidental according to

a. age;

b. sex;

c. family income;

d. course;

e. year level?

2. What is the extent of self-medication practice when

common flu symptoms emerge among undergraduate

students who experienced flu in one state college in

Negros Occidental?

3. What is the extent of self-medication practice for

common flu among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

3
Occidental in the last three months?

4. What is the extent of perceived severity of self-

medication practice among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental, as a whole and when grouped according to

their profile?

5. What are the most common complaints of self-

medication in the last 3 months among undergraduate

students who experienced flu of one state college in

Negros Occidental?

6. To what extent do undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental are reading the label before self-

medicating?

7. What is the extent of perceived susceptibility of

self-medication practice among undergraduate students

who experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental, as a whole and when grouped according to

their profile?

8. What are the most common medications used by

undergraduate students in one state college in Negros

Occidental when symptoms of common flu emerge?

9. What is the extent of perceived benefits of self-

medication practice among undergraduate students who

4
experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental, as a whole and when grouped according to

their profile?

10. What are the common reasons why undergraduate

students who experienced flu in one state college in

Negros Occidental practice self-medication?

11. What is the extent of self-medication without

professional advice in undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental?

12. What are the primary sources of information of

self-medication in undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental?

13. What is the extent of perceived barrier of self-

medication practice among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental?

14. Is there a significant relationship between

the intervening variables of

a. Perceived severity

b. Perceived susceptibility

c. Perceived benefit

d. Perceived barrier
5
and the extent of practice, as a whole and when grouped

according to their profile?

14. What is the extent of self-medication practice among

undergraduate students of Northern Negros State College

of Science and Technology as a whole when grouped

according to their profile?

15. What is the extent of self-medication practice among

undergraduate students who experienced flu in one state

college in Negros Occidental, as a whole when grouped

according to their profile?

Null Hypothesis

Ho1. There is no significant relationship between the

extent of perceived severity and extent of self-

medication practice among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental?

Ho2. There is no significant relationship between the

extent of perceived susceptibility and extent of self-

medication practice among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental?

Ho3. There is no significant relationship between the

extent of perceived benefits and extent of self-

6
medication practice among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental?

Ho4. There is no significant relationship between the

extent of perceived barrier and extent of self-

medication practice among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental.

Theoretical framework

Figure 1. The Health Belief Model

Note. Adapted from Skbanergt (2021). Copyright 2022 by BSN3.

As seen in Figure 1, the study’s theoretical

framework, Health Belief Model, was developed by social

scientists in the U.S. Public Health Service in the 1950s

and updated in the 1980s.

This model describes the key modifying factors to

7
components of people's beliefs about health problems,

specifically, their perceived threat to sickness or

disease (perceived susceptibility), belief of

consequence (perceived severity), potential positive

benefits of action (perceived benefits), perceived

barriers to action, exposure to factors that prompt

action (cues to action), and confidence in the ability

to succeed (self-efficacy) that influence health-

promoting behaviors through their engagement or lack of

engagement. In addition, an individual’s beliefs about

health and health conditions play a role in determining

your health-related behaviors, which is according to the

model because this model is based on the theory that a

person's willingness to change their health behaviors

primarily comes from their health perceptions (Boskey

Ph.D., 2020).

One of the behavioral models that can be used to

describe this research is the Health Belief Model.

Through this model of the study, the researchers will

further investigate factors that influence each

student’s health beliefs regarding self-medication

practices and their tendency to self-medicate.

Therefore, this study will be undertaken to determine

the self-medication practices among undergraduate

students who experienced flu in one state college in

Negros Occidental, using this model.

8
 Conceptual framework

Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of the study

Independent Variable Dependent Variable Dependent Variable

Socio-demographic Profile Self-Medication Practices

of the Respondents
Self-Medication
Practices Among Among Undergraduate
A. Age Undergraduate
Students Experienced Flu
B. Sex Students
Experiencing Flu in in One State College in
C. Family income One State College in
Negros Occidental Negros Occidental
D. Course

E. Year level

As Figure 2 presents the conceptual framework of the

study, it consists of a theoretical nursing model called,

“Health Belief Model”, and its significance between the

two variables, independent and dependent variables, and

the process of data collection. The independent variable

includes the socio-demographic profile of the respondents

such as age, sex, family income, course, and year level

that will affect the student’s self-medication

behavior/practice, which is the dependent variable and it

will be dependent on the independent variable.

Moreover, the profile has been included in making

the modified standardized questionnaire using google

forms. These variables have the reciprocal relationship

because the dependent variable is what happens as a

result of the independent variable. Hence, the study aim

9
to determine the self-medication practice among

undergraduate students who experienced flu in one state

college in Negros Occidental.

Scope and Limitation

The study focused on the extent of self-medication

practices among undergraduate students who experienced

flu in one state college in Negros Occidental. This

study was limited to three hundred sixty-six (366)

officially enrolled undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental.

The researchers wanted to determine the differences

in self-medication practices of each student when grouped

according to their profiles. The researchers used the

modified standardized questionnaire using google forms

that were undergone through an online survey.

Significance of the Study

The outcome of this study will be based on the data

gathered on the students’ self-medication practices, the

findings of this study will be significant to the

following:

School. The academe may be aware of the self-

medication practices of its students.

10
 School Nurse. The school nurse may be informed

about the self-medication practices of the students and

will consider conducting health teaching about the

appropriate use of medicines.

Students. The students may be more conscious about

self-medication and will be more knowledgeable about its

potential risks, effects, proper use of medicines, and

its dosage so that they will be able to change and/or

correct their practices.

Parents. The parents may be aware and knowledgeable

about the appropriate use of medicines and self-

medication practices of their children so that they will

be able to guide their children in taking medicines.

Future Researchers. This study may provide

information and new insight to future researchers. This

may serve as a guide and basis for those who want to

undergo similar studies related to the scope for its

further improvement and development.

Definition of Terms

The following terms in this study are defined

conceptually and operationally as follows:

Age. Conceptually, this term refers to the interval of

time between the date of birth and the date of the

11
census, expressed in completed solar years, which is

equivalent to the standard's definition of age as "age at

last birthday” (United Nations Recommendations, 2021).

Operationally, it refers to the length of time that the

respondent has lived.

Course. Conceptually, this term refers to a segment of a

subject that is part of an Academic Programme (University

of Delhi, 2018).

Operationally, it refers to the education course of the

respondents of the study.

Family Income. Conceptually, this term refers to the

primary income and receipts from other sources received

by all family members during the reference period, as

participants in any economic activity or as recipients of

transfers, pensions, grants, interests, food and non-food

items received as gifts by the family (Philippine

Statistics Authority, 2022).

Operationally, it refers to the income of the respondents

of the study.

Healthcare. Conceptually, this term refers to an entire

ecosystem with many unique moving parts that are only

connected by virtue of the existence of the patients

(Wax, 2019).

12
Operationally, it refers to each student taking care of

their own health and well-being through prevention,

treatment, and management of illness through health

services offered by the school clinic.

Medicine. Conceptually, this term refers to the field of

health and healing that covers diagnosis, treatment, and

prevention of disease, medical research, and many other

aspects of health (Biggers,2018).

Operationally, it refers to the drugs that are used for

the treatment of their diseases.

Prescription. Conceptually, this term refers to an order

written for a patient by a doctor or specialist for the

preparation, dispensing, and administration of a drug or

device (Talking HealthTech, 2020).

Operationally, it refers to the instruction written by a

doctor that students should have before they medicate

themselves.

Self-Medication. Conceptually, this term refers to the

taking of drugs, herbs or home remedies on one's own

initiative, or on the advice of another person, without

consulting a doctor (Bennadi, 2013).

Operationally, it refers to the practices of the students

in treating their diseases.

13
Sex. Conceptually, this term refers to the

physical differences between people who are male,

female, or intersex (Arquilla, 2021).

Operationally, it refers to the sex of the respondents of

the study.

State College. Conceptually, this term refers to a

tertiary institution funded by the state government

(Learn.org, 2023).

Operationally, it refers to the setting where the study

will be conducted.

Student. Conceptually, this term refers to a student who

is learning at a college or university, or sometimes at a

school (Murungi & Gitonga, 2015).

Operationally, it refers to the individuals studying in

Northern Negros State College of Science and Technology

who are practicing self-medication.

Year Level. Conceptually, this term refers to a class in

school, concerned with a particular year's (Law Insider,

2020).

Operationally, it refers to the year level of

the respondents of the study.

14
 Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

According to the World Health Organization (WHO),

self-care is a practice of people on what they do to

keep themselves healthy and to prevent and treat

illnesses.

International Pharmaceutical Federation, on the other

hand, defines self-medication as the self-administration

of medication in the absence of a current prescription

or consultation with a healthcare professional. The

reason(s) for engaging in self-medication practice in

developing countries have been reported to include lack

of medical insurance, expensive hospital

visits/consultation fees, easy public access to the

prescribed medications, suggestions of friends, the

inexpensiveness of the practice and previous experience

(Shaghaghi, et. al., 2014).

Self-medication may benefit patients in a number of

ways, including quicker access to care, independence in

managing symptoms, lower costs for healthcare, and fewer

visits to the doctor. It may also benefit the community

in ways such as preserving medical resources, reducing

time away from work, relieving pressure on healthcare

providers, and allowing more time for severe conditions.

15
Despite its many benefits, self-medication, particularly

when unsupervised, carries a number of personal dangers,

including inaccurate diagnosis, severe adverse effects,

an increase in antibiotic resistance, unsafe food, and

drug interactions, and drug abuse and misuse.

Prevalence of self-medication has remained common in

both developing and developed countries and the trend is

increasing among youths and common among university

students. In the study of Helal and Abou-Elwafa (2017),

results revealed that students who have a mean age of 20,

52% belonged to the medical sector, and 77.5% of students

stored drugs in their home pharmacy are practicing self-

medication. Furthermore, similarly in Karachi, the mean

age of university students who participated in the study

was 21 ± 1.8 years.

Amongst them 51.6% were medical students while 48.4%

were nonmedical students. They obtained drugs mostly from

a pharmacy, stocks kept at home, or from friends. In

addition, the most frequent conditions in which the

student self-medicated according to the results were

cold, headache, sore throat, intestinal colic and cramps.

About 59% of students mentioned that the self-medicated

drugs solved the symptom. With the use of antimicrobial

16
drugs, the study of Zeb, et. al., (2022), shows that the

age group between 20-25 years old highly use antibiotics

without prescriptions than other age groups.

A significant aspect of patients' medical behavior

is self-medication. In fact, it is frequently the first

option for treating early disease signs and one of the

most crucial strategies employed when a person

experiences typical health issues that do not call for a

doctor visit. According to studies, women self-medicate

more frequently than males. Women are known to play the

most significant role in the family when it comes to

managing the health issues of family members, in

addition to taking care of themselves. They also use

health services more frequently than males do. Both the

majority of male students (90.9%) and the majority of

female students (94.1%) reported using self-medication

in the previous year.

In pharmacies, female students were more likely than

male students to purchase medications for self-

medication. They also used over-the-counter medicines,

herbal teas, herbs, vitamins, and minerals, as well as

antibiotics, benzodiazepines, antacids, acetylsalicylic

acid, topical corticosteroids, and nasal decongestants.

17
Even in young individuals like students who self-

medicate, gender appears to be a significant determinant

(Kersnik, et.al., 2012).

Both industrialized and developing nations have high

rates of self-medication, with prevalence rates ranging

from 12.1% to 92.8%, respectively. One of the demographic

parameters that influences people's use of self-

medication is their monthly income. In the study of Zeru,

et. al., (2020), respondents with greater monthly incomes

were less likely to self-medicate than those with lower

incomes. This finding is consistent with research done at

Arsi University in Ethiopia. One explanation for this

might be that students from lower-income families might

not be able to afford to go to medical facilities and

consult with qualified health professionals. They may be

persuaded to purchase cheaper medications from pharmacies

that don't require a prescription, which results in high

rates of self-medication.

This discovery, however, conflicts with research

done in Pakistan and Southern China. These researches

showed a direct link between income and self-medication

habits, which supported the idea that students from lower

socioeconomic backgrounds might attend the school health

18
center, which offers free services, or they might

disregard minor illnesses like the common cold.

Different levels of health knowledge may exist

among college students taking medical and other courses.

A study found that self-medication is very common among

medical students. A significant portion of the community

is made up of people at college. Self-medication has

frequently been evaluated among medical students as they

typically strive to put their knowledge into practice. A

meta-analysis of 27 research on self-medication among

physicians and medical students found that self-

medication was prevalent among university students in

76% of the studies, ranging from 38.5% in Ethiopia to

98% in Palestine (Alshogran, et.al., 2018).

Additionally, their survey reveals that 96.8% of

participants reported using self-medication, with no

difference between medical (97.2%) and non-medical

students (96.5%). Painkillers (77.6%), anti-flu

decongestants (54%), sore throat medications (25.9%),

cough suppressants (24%), and antibiotics (21%), were

the most often used medical classes by all students in

the previous six months. Regarding the usage of opioids

and anti-allergy medications, self-medication was

19
substantially more prevalent among medical students

than non-medical students. However, compared to medical

students (47.6%), non-medical students were more likely

to self-medicate with anti-flu medications (60.2%).

A study shows that the prevalence of self-medication

is high in educated youth, despite the majority being

aware of its harmful effects. However, according to the

study of Tesfamariam, et. al., (2019), with an increased

level of education, there is a reduction in the odds of

risky practice in self-medication.

Respondents who completed junior and secondary

school were four times at higher risk than those who have

higher education. More distantly, respondents with

elementary and below educational level were fifteen times

at higher risk compared to those in higher education.

Self-medication is the self-administration of

medication in the absence of a current prescription or

consultation with a healthcare professional. Studies show

that students aged 20-25 years old have a high tendency

to self-medicate. Female students are also more likely to

self-medicate than male students. Those who have greater

20
monthly incomes are less likely to practice self-

medication than those with lower incomes. Studies also

show that self-medication is very common among students

in medical courses compared to other courses. Lastly,

lower year levels are likely to practice self-medication

than higher year levels.

21
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The researchers used the descriptive quantitative

research design. According to Siedlecki (2020), the

purpose of descriptive studies is to describe

individuals, events, or conditions by studying them as

they are in nature. The researcher merely explains the

sample and/or variables without manipulating any of the

variables. Although a descriptive study can explore

multiple variables, it is only the design that can also

explore a single variable.

Descriptive studies look at the characteristics of a

population; identify problems that exist within a unit,

an organization, or a population; or look at variation in

characteristics, or practices between institutions or

even countries (Siedlecki, 2020). In line with this, the

researchers used the descriptive quantitative research

design as the study aims to determine the self-medication

practice among undergraduate students who experienced flu

in one state college in Negros Occidental.

22
Locale of the Study

The study was conducted at one of the state

colleges in Negros Occidental to cater the officially

enrolled undergraduate students in different colleges.

Map of Negros Island

Figure 3. Map of Negros Island

Note. Adapted from Google Maps. Copyright 2023 by BSN3.

Map of Sagay City

Figure 3. Map of Sagay City, Negros Occidental

Note. Adapted from Philnews. Copyright 2022 by BSN3.

23
Respondent of the Study

The respondents of this study were the officially

enrolled undergraduate students who experienced flu in

one state college in Negros Occidental, School Year

2022-2023.

Sampling Technique

Sample size determination formula was used to

calculate the required sample size. The formula used

was:

Wherein n is the population size and E is the

margin of error. The researchers then used stratified

random sampling. The population was divided into

strata. Thus, this sampling technique prevents bias in

the selection process of respondents. Hence, each

member of the population being studied will most likely

be chosen as a part of the sample.

24
Table 1. Respondents of the study.

COURSE NO. OF PERCENTAGE NO. OF

STUDENTS RESPONDENTS
BSIT 620 8.49% 31
BSIS 318 4.35% 16
BSLIS 168 2.30% 8
BSEMC 130 1.78% 7
BSF 289 3.96% 15
BAELS 426 5.83% 21
BSBio 197 2.7% 10
BPED 139 1.9% 7
BSED 318 4.35% 16
BTLED 337 4.61% 17
BSTM 302 4.13% 15
BSHM 445 6.09% 22
BSAIS 321 4.39% 16
BSBA 758 10.38% 38
BSCM 312 4.27% 16
BPA 339 4.64% 17
BSN 497 6.8% 25
BSA 386 5.28% 19
BSAB 215 2.94% 11
BSCrim 703 9.62% 35
Midwifery 86 1.17% 4
Total 7,306 100% 366

Research Instrument

The researchers used a self-medicating scale taken from

Delyth H. James and David P. French: The development of

the Self-Medicating Scale (SMS): a scale to measure

people’s beliefs about self-medication. Likert scoring

method will be used to assess the answers as follows:

(All the time = 5, often = 4, sometimes = 3, rarely= 2,

and not at all = 1. It was given through google forms to

determine the self-medication practices among

undergraduate students of Northern Negros State College

of Science and Technology. The instrument was divided

into two parts:

25
 Part I. This part focused on gathering the socio-

demographic profile of the respondents. They were asked

about their personal information.

Part II. This part focused on the James and

French’s Self-Medicating Scale: The development of the

Self- Medicating Scale (SMS), which is a scale to

measure people’s beliefs about self-medication.

Data-Gathering Procedure

In gathering data, the researchers asked permission

to the School President and College Deans of the chosen

state college in Negros Occidental, to conduct the study

in the said school by sending a request letter. After the

permission has been granted, the researchers introduced

themselves to the respondents via social media platforms,

explained the purpose of the study, and asked for their

participation by providing informed consent.

The researchers presented the contents and purpose

of the study concerning the self-medication practices of

the students. Researchers gave survey questionnaires

through google forms to the respondents as a tool in

gathering data. The respondent's privacy was protected

and the confidentiality of the data was treated with

high confidence.

26
Statistical Treatment

In order to analyze the socio-demographic profile of

the chosen state college in Negros, according to age,

sex, family income, course, and year level, frequency

distribution and percentage were used. Frequency

Distribution is an organized tabulation/graphical

representation of the number of individuals in each

category on the scale of measurement (Manikandan, 2012).

Percent simply means "per hundred" and the symbol used to

express percentage is %. One percent (or 1%) is one

hundredth of the total or whole and is therefore

calculated by dividing the total or whole number by 100

(Finding and Using Statistics, 2015).

In order to analyze the extent of perceived

susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits,

perceived barrier, and extent of self-medication practice

among students who experienced flu in one state college

in Negros, as a whole when grouped according to their

profile, mean and standard deviation were used. The mean

(also known as the arithmetic mean, different from the

geometric mean) of a dataset is the sum of all

27
values divided by the total number of values. It’s the

most commonly used measure of central tendency and is

often referred to as the “average” (Bhandari, 2020). On

the other hand, standard deviation is a measurement that

is designed to find the disparity between the calculated

mean (Ayeni, 2014).

In order to analyze the significant relationships

between extent of perceived susceptibility, perceived

severity, perceived benefits, perceived barrier, and the

extent of self-medication practice among undergraduate

students, Spearman Rho rank test was used. According to

Zar, J. H. (2014), Spearman rank correlation or

Spearman’s rho is a nonparametric (distribution-free)

approach to the correlation between two sets of

measurements made on the same individuals, each set may

be ranked in order of magnitude.

Ethical Considerations

Prior in conducting the survey, an informed consent

has been used and presented to the respondents for

autonomy and anonymity. It was made sure that the

respondents had voluntary participation towards the

research study. The respondents are allowed to terminate

their answers halfway when they feel like not answering.

To promote confidentiality, the data of the respondents

was kept and secured by the researchers for the need of

28
the study. The respondents were given a choice of

disclosing their names or not. All information is stored

in one place and will be used purely for the purpose of

this study. The name of the school was withheld to

observe the privacy of the institution.

29
 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presented the results and discussion

that were obtained from data gathering.

These are as follows:

Table 2.1

Socio-demographic profile of the Respondents when grouped

according to their Age.

Age Frequency Percentage (%)

17-19 years old 91 24.9
20-22 years old 185 50.5
23-25 years old 69 18.9
26 years old and up 21 5.7
Total 366 100.0

Table 2.1 shows that in 366 respondents, the age

group of 17-19 years old has 91 or 24.9% respondents, 20-

22 years old has 185 or 50.5 % respondents, 23-25 years

old has 69 or 18.9 % respondents, and 26 years old and

above has 21 or 5.7 % respondents. This result implies

that the majority of the students are 20-22 years old

with a value of 185 or 50.5%. This is supported by the

study of Helal and Abou-Elwafa (2017), results revealed

that students who have a mean age of 20, 52% belonged to

the medical sector, and 77.5% of students stored drugs

in their home pharmacy are practicing self-medication.

30
Table 2.2

Socio-demographic profile of the Respondents when grouped

according to their Sex.

Sex Frequency Percentage (%)

Male 138 37.7
Female 205 56.0
Prefer not to Say 23 6.3
Total 366 100.0

Table 2.2 shows that in 366 respondents, there are

138 or 37.7 % male respondents, 205 or 56.0% are female

respondents, and 23 or 6.3% prefer not to disclose their

sex. This indicates that the majority of the respondents

are female with a percentage of 56%. This is supported by

Kersnik et al. (2012) in their cross-sectional study of

sex differences in self-medication practices among

university students of Slovenia. They found out that

female students were more likely than male students to

self-medicate by purchasing over-the-counter drugs.

31
Table 2.3

Socio-demographic profile of the Respondents when grouped

according to their Family Income.

Family Income Frequency Percentage (%)

Below PHP 10,957.00 226 61.7
10,958.00-21,914.00 75 20.5
21,915.00-43,828.00 46 12.6
Above 43,828.00 19 5.2
Total 366 100.0

Table 2.3 shows that in 266 respondents, 226 or 61.7

% has a family income of below Php 10,957.00, 75 or 20.5

% has a family income of Php 10,958.00-21,914.00, 46 or

12.6 % has family income of 21,915.00-43,828.00, and 19

or 5.2 % has a family income of above 43,828.00. This

indicates that out of 366 respondents, the majority of

them, which accounts to 266 respondents, have a family

income below Php 10,957.00 with a percentage of 61.7%.

This is supported by Zeru et al. (2020) in their study of

self-medication practice and associated factors among

University of Gondar College of Medicine and Health

Sciences students. They found out that respondents with

greater monthly income were less likely to self-medicate

than those with lower incomes. Students from lower-income

families are not able to afford to go to medical

facilities and consult with qualified health

32
professionals and they also tend to purchase cheaper

medications from pharmacies that don’t require a

prescription, which results in high rates of self-

medication.

33
Table 2.4

Socio-demographic profile of the Respondents when grouped

according to their Educational Course.

Educational Course Frequency Percentage (%)

BSF 15 4.1
BSAB 11 3.0
BSA 19 5.2
BAELS 21 5.7
BSBIO 10 2.7
BSBA 38 10.4
BSHM 22 6.0
BSCM 16 4.4
BSAIS 16 4.4
BPA 17 4.6
BSTM 15 4.1
BSCrim 35 9.6
BPED 7 1.9
BSED 16 4.4
BTLED 17 4.6
BLIS 8 2.2
BSIS 16 4.4
BSEMC 7 1.9
BSIT 31 8.5
BSN 25 6.8
DM 4 1.1

Total 366 100.0

Table 2.4 shows that there are 15 or 4.1%

respondents from BSF, 11 or 3.0% are from BSAB-Escalante

34
Campus, 19 or 5.2% are from BSA, 21 or 5.7% from BAELS,

10 or 2.7% from BSBIO, 38 or 10.4% from BSBA, 22 or 6.0%

from BSHM, 16 or 4.4 from BSCM, 16 or 4.4% from BSAIS,

17 or 4.6% from BPA, 15 or 4.1% from BSTM, 35 or 9.6&

from BSCrim - ESCALANTE CAMPUS, 7 or 1.9% from BPED, 16

or 4.4 from BSED, 17 or 4.6 from BTLED, 8 or 2.2% from

BLIS, 16 or 4.4 from BSIS, 7 or 1.9% from BSEMC, 31 or

8.5% from BSIT, 25 or 6.8% from BSN, and 4 or 1.1% from

DM. It indicates that there is a difference in the

number of respondents in each course based on the

computed sample size using Sample size determination

formula. In terms of the significance of educational

course in self- medication, in the study of Alshogran,

et.al. in 2018, their survey reveals that 96.8% of

participants reported using self-medication, with no

difference between medical (97.2%) and non-medical

students (96.5%). However, compared to medical students

(47.6%), non-medical students were more likely to self-

medicate with anti-flu medications (60.2%).

35
Table 2.5

Socio-demographic profile of the Respondents when grouped

according to their Year Level.

Year Level Frequency Percentage (%)

First Year 116 31.7
Second Year 81 22.1
Third Year 91 24.9
Fourth Year 78 21.3
Total 366 100.0

Table 2.5 shows that 116 or 31.7% of the respondents

are first year students, 81 or 22.1% of the respondents

are second year students,91 or 24.9% of the respondents

are third year students, and 78 or 21.3% of the

respondents are fourth year students. This indicates that

out of 366 respondents, the majority of the respondents

are First year students with a value of 116 or 31.7%, who

willingly participated in the study. In terms of the

significance of the level of education in self-

medication, this is supported by the study of

Tesfamariam, et. al., (2019) that showed that the

prevalence of self-medication is high in educated youth,

despite the majority being aware of its harmful effects.

36
Table 3

Extent of Self-Medication Practice when common flu

symptoms emerge among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros.

Frequency Percent (%)

Not at all 9 2.5

Rarely 49 13.4
Sometimes 130 35.5
Often 121 33
All the time 57 15.6

Total 366 100

Table 3 presents the extent of self-medication

practice when common flu symptoms emerge among

undergraduate students who experienced flu in one state

college in Negros Occidental.

Result indicates that out of the 366 respondents,

35.5% sometimes practice self-medication when common flu

symptoms emerge. While 2.5% do not practice self-

medication at all. This is supported by the study in Al-

Qassim Province in Saudi Arabia, Saeed et al. reported

that 86.2% of university students were self-medicated.

Also, this is also parallel to previous studies finding,

and that is a study by Khan et al. in 2014 that the

commonest health problems for which students seek self-

medication are headache (40%), fever (19.5%), flu (5.2%).

37
The findings here also supported the study by Alsaad; et

al. in 2022, that the most self-treated health conditions

were headache, flu and cold symptoms, and fever.

Similarly, these symptoms were reported as common self-

treated conditions in previous local and worldwide

studies (Limaye et al., 2017, Ansari et al., 2020).

Table 4

Extent of Self-Medication for common flu among

undergraduate students who experienced flu in one state

college in Negros Occidental in the last three months.

Frequency Percent (%)

Once a week 283 77.3
Once a month 327 89.3
Three times a week 274 74.9
Daily in a week 235 64.2

Table 4 presents the extent of self-medication

practice for common flu among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros Occidental

in the last three months.

Result indicates that out of 366 respondents,

89.3% of respondents practice self-medication once a

month, followed by 77.3% of respondents practice once a

week, and 74.9% of respondents practice three times a

week. Only 64.2% of respondents practice self-medication

every day in a week. This contradicts the one conducted

by the study of Mannasaheb et al. in 2022, that self-

medication was practiced by 52.9% of their participants

38
 during the last 3 months, with a frequency of one to two

times.

Table 5

Extent of Perceived Severity of Self Medication Practice

as a whole and when grouped according to Age, Sex, Total

Family Income, Educational Course, Year Level.

Variables n M SD Interpretation
Age
17-19 years old 91 2.65 0.80 Moderate severity
20-22 185 2.76 0.89 Moderate severity
23-25 69 2.68 0.79 Moderate severity
26 and up 21 2.38 0.93 Low severity
Sex
Male 138 2.72 0.87 Moderate severity
Female 204 2.68 0.84 Moderate severity
Prefer not to say 24 2.69 0.91 Moderate severity
Total Family Income
Below Php 10,957.00 134 2.74 0.85 Moderate severity
10, 958.00- 93 2.62 0.881 Moderate severity
21,914.00
21, 915.00- 91 2.62 0.88 Moderate severity
43,828.00
Above 43, 828.00 10 2.57 0.88 Low severity
Educational Course
BSF 15 2.68 1.01 Moderate severity
BSAB 11 2.65 .64 Moderate severity
BSA 19 2.74 .81 Moderate severity
BAELS 21 3.10 .65 Moderate severity
BSBIO 10 2.34 .53 Low severity
BSBA 38 2.53 .82 Low severity
BSHM 22 2.40 .75 Low severity
BSCM 16 2.13 .70 Low severity
BSAIS 16 2.99 .66 Moderate severity
BPA 17 3.12 .51 Moderate severity
BSTM 15 2.57 .53 Low severity
BSCrim 35 2.88 .88 Moderate severity
BPED 7 3.00 .61 Moderate severity
BSED 16 2.91 .69 Moderate severity
BTLED 17 2.88 .75 Moderate severity
BLIS 8 2.53 .92 Moderate severity
BSIS 16 2.83 .85 Moderate severity
BSEMC 7 2.83 .57 Moderate severity

39
 BSIT 31 2.55 .89 Low severity
BSN 25 2.46 1.01 Low severity
DM 4 2.55 .19 Low severity
Year Level
1st year 116 2.62 .73 Moderate severity

2nd year 81 2.75 .78 Moderate severity

3rd year 91 2.80 .94 Moderate severity

4th year 78 2.63 .76 Moderate severity

As a whole 366 2.69 0.80 Moderate severity

Note: 4.21-5.00=Very High, 3.21-4.20=High, 2.61-3.20=Moderate, 1.81-2.60=Low, 1.00-1.80=Very

Low

Table 5 above presents the extent of perceived

severity of self-medication practice among

undergraduate students who experienced flu in one state

college in Negros Occidental. As a whole, it shows that

there is a “moderate severity” of respondents

practicing self-medication with a mean of 2.69. This is

backed up by the research study conducted by Alves et

al. suggesting that over half of the respondents

perceive their self-medication practice as moderate and

have favorable attitudes about it. This implies that a

huge number of undergraduate students from Northern

Negros State College of Science and Technology are

still at risk for irrational self- medication that

could give rise to a health emergency.

In terms of being grouped according to the

demographic profile (age), respondents from ages 20-22

(2.76) have the highest mean, categorizing their

perceived severity as "Moderate". It is supported by

40
 the study conducted by Alves et al. in Portugal,

suggesting that 20-22-year-old students perceive their

self- medication practice as moderately severe

especially during symptoms of common cold.

When grouped according to sex, males (2.72) have

the highest mean, classifying it under the "Moderate"

category. As for the sex, the notion that males perceive

the severity of their self-medication practice as medium

is supported by the study conducted by Ullah et al. in

the University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, wherein

males believe that the severity of their self-medication

is average, since they only do so when needed.

When grouped according to the total family income,

those that have below Php 10,957.00 (2.74) have the

highest mean, and are classified under the "Moderate"

category. The research study conducted by Chang et al.

supports the claim that low income families tend to self-

medicate moderately, since in their results, it is the

middle-class that self-medicates more.

When grouped according to educational courses, BAELS

has the highest mean of 3.10, and is still classified

under the "Moderate" category. In terms of year level,

third year undergraduate students of NONESCOST have the

highest mean (2.80), which is categorized under the

"Moderate" group. Whereas, the outcome of this research

41
study contradicts the one conducted by Kasulkar and

Gupta, which stated that senior students taking up

medical-related courses are the ones that self-medicates

the most.

The implication of this finding suggests that

undergraduate students in Northern Negros Stage College

of Science in Technology ages 20-22 years old, male,

those with a total family income of below 10,957.00, is

currently taking up BAELS, and the 3rd year students

believe that they have a moderate severity of self-

medication practice. Respondents who fall under this

category recognize that self-medication can be beneficial

in certain cases, such as managing common cold symptoms

or minor pain relief. However, they also acknowledge the

potential dangers associated with self-diagnosis and

self-treatment, especially when it comes to more serious

or chronic conditions.

Table 6

The most common complaints of self-medication in the last

three months among undergraduate students who experienced

flu in one state college in Negros Occidental.

Frequency Percent (%)

Headache 331 90.4
Fever 274 74.9
Cough 307 83.9
Stuffy/Runny nose 317 86.6
Body pain/Muscle pain 296 80.9

42
 Table 6 presents the common complaints of self-

medication in the last three months among undergraduate

students who experienced flu in one state college in

Negros Occidental.

Result shows that headache (90.4%), Stuffy/Runny

nose (86.6%), and cough (83.9%) are the three most common

complaints of respondents in the last three months. Fever

(74.9%) has the least common complaint manifested by the

respondents in the last three months. This is supported

by Araia et al. in 2019 in their cross-sectional study of

self-medication practice among students of Asmara College

of Health Sciences. They found out that headache is the

most common complaint related to self-medication

practice. However, this is contradicted by the findings

of Dos Santos et al. in 2018 in their study of self-

medication among participants of an open university. They

found out that the most commonly reported self-medication

symptoms were muscle pain and joint pain.

Table 7

Extent of undergraduate students who experienced flu in

one state college in Negros Occidental are reading the

label before self-medicating.

Frequency Percent (%)

Not at all 17 4.6
Rarely 38 10.4
Sometimes 67 18.3
Often 71 19.4
All the time 173 47.3
Total 43366 100
 Table 7 presents the extent of undergraduate

students who experienced flu in one state college in

Negros Occidental are reading the label before self-

medicating.

Result shows that out of 366 respondents, 47.3% of

them always read the drug’s label before self-medicating,

followed by 4.6% of them, are not reading the label at

all. This is supported by Kasulka & Gupta (2015) in their

study of self-medication practices among medical students

of a private institute. They found out that the majority

of their respondents (79.1%) read package inserts and

labels and followed the instructions written on them.

Table 8

Extent of Perceived Susceptibility of Self Medication

Practice as a whole and when grouped according to Age,

Sex, Total Family Income, Educational Course, Year Level.

Variables n M SD Interpretation

Age

17-19 years old 91 3.04 0.80 Moderate susceptibility

20-22 years old 185 3.12 0.89 Moderate susceptibility
23-25 years old 69 3.09 0.79 Moderate susceptibility
26 and up 21 3.21 0.93 High susceptibility

44
 Sex

Male 138 3.09 0.87 Moderate susceptibility

BSCrim 35 3.14 1.01 Moderate susceptibility
Female 204 3.09 0.84 Moderate susceptibility
BPED 7 3.95 0.41 High susceptibility
Prefer not to say 24 3.16 0.91 Moderate susceptibility
BSED 16 3.66 0.66 High susceptibility
Total Family Income
BTLED 17 3.47 0.74 High susceptibility
Below Php 134 3.14 0.85 Moderate susceptibility
BLIS
10,957.00 8 2.79 0.40 Moderate susceptibility

BSIS
10, 958.00- 16
93 2.66
3.18 1.16
0.881 Moderate
Moderate susceptibility
susceptibility
Note: 4.21- BSEMC
21,914.00 7 3.19 0.67 Moderate susceptibility
5.00=Very
BSIT915.00-
21, 31
91 2.66
2.87 0.84
0.88 Moderate susceptibility
High, 3.21- 43,828.00
BSN 25 3.11 0.83 Moderate susceptibility
4.20=High,
Above 43, 828.00 10 2.79 0.88 Moderate susceptibility
2.61- DM 4 2.88 0.85 Moderate susceptibility

Year Level
Educational Course
1 year
BSF
st 116
15 2.94
2.99 0.85
1.02 Moderate susceptibility
Moderate susceptibility

2 year
BSAB
nd 81
11 3.04
3.41 0.87
0.75 Moderate High
susceptibility

3 year
BSA
rd 91
19 3.26
3.11 0.85
0.57 High susceptibility
Moderate susceptibility
4 year
BAELS
th 78
21 3.22
3.17 0.85
0.57 High susceptibility
Moderate susceptibility
As a whole
BSBIO 366
10 3.10
2.95 0.85
0.75 Moderate susceptibility
Moderate susceptibility

BSBA 38 2.54 0.59 Low susceptibility

BSHM 22 2.70 0.87 Moderate susceptibility

BSCM 16 3.50 0.63 High susceptibility

BSAIS 16 3.80 0.61 High susceptibility

BPA 17 3.50 0.80 High susceptibility

BSTM 15 3.36 0.55 High susceptibility
3.20=Moderate, 1.81-2.60=Low, 1.00-1.80=Very Low

Table 8 presents the extent of the perceived susceptibility

of self-medication among undergraduate students who experienced

flu in one state college in Negros Occidental.

As a whole, it shows that there is a “moderate

susceptibility” of respondents practicing self-

45
medication with a mean of 3.10. It implies that only

some of them have the awareness of possible risk and

development of illness.

When grouped according to age, 26 years old and up

has the highest mean which is 3.21 categorizing their

perceived susceptibility as “High”. This is supported by

Chen et al. (2022) on their study of knowledge,

perceived beliefs, and perceived behaviors of older

adults. They found out that older people are especially

susceptible to infectious disease due to decreasing

immunity.

When grouped according to sex, those respondents

who prefer not to say their sex have the highest mean

which is 3.16 categorizing their perceived

susceptibility as “Moderate”. This is contraindicated by

Leone et al. (2016) on their study of development and

testing of a conceptual model regarding men’s access to

health care.

They found out men often experience excessive morbidity

and early mortality than women because of gender norms

and masculinity that results in their poor access to

health care.

When grouped according to family income, Php

10,958.00- 21, 914.00 has the highest mean which is 3.18

categorizing their perceived susceptibility as

46
 “Moderate”. This is supported by Camacho et al. (2020)

on their study of the effect of income and perception of

susceptibility and severity of COVID-19. They found out

that there is a socioeconomic gradient for morbidity

rates in people who have low income.

When grouped according to educational courses,

Bachelor of Science in Physical Education (BPED) has the

highest mean which is 3.48 categorizing their perceived

susceptibility as “High”.

When grouped according to year level, third year

level has the highest mean which is 3.26 categorizing

their perceived susceptibility as “High”. These are

contraindicated by VCU Center on Society and Health

(2015). According to them, students regardless of their

year level and educational course, share an equal chance

in having illness that might be caused by their poor

health.

Table 9

Most common medications used by undergraduate students in one

state college in Negros Occidental when symptoms of common flu

emerge.

Frequency Percent (%)

Analgesics 265 72.4

Antipyretics 348 95.1
Decongestants 47 318 86.9
Antitussives/expectorants 269 73.5
Vitamins 326 89.1
 Table 9 presents the most common medications used

by undergraduate students who experienced flu in one

state college in Negros Occidental.

Result shows that Antipyretics (95.1%), Vitamins

(89.1%), and Decongestants (86.9%) are the three most

common medications used by the respondents when common

flu symptoms emerge, followed by Analgesics (72.4%)

being the least common medications used by the

respondents. This is supported by Khan et al. in 2021 in

their study of self-medication among healthcare students

at Najran University. They found out that the most

commonly practiced medicine were vitamins and

supplements (20.2%), Antipyretic (12.7%), and cough

syrup which garnered 10.8% in their total number of

respondents. They also found out that decongestants are

one of the most common drugs used in self-medication.

Table 10

Extent of Perceived Benefits of Self Medication Practice

as a whole and when grouped according to Age, Sex, Total

Family Income, Educational Course, Year Level

Variables n M SD Interpretation

Age

17-19 years old 91 3.02 0.84 Moderate benefits

20-22 185 3.05 0.98 Moderate benefits

23-25 69 2.83 0.81 Moderate benefits

26 and up 21 2.74 1.04 Moderate benefits

48
 Sex

Male 138 2.88 0.85 Moderate benefits

Female 204 3.04 0.94 Moderate benefits

Prefer not to say 24 3.10 1.09 Moderate benefits

Total Family Income

Below Php 10, 134 2.96 0.90 Moderate benefits
957.00
21, 915.00-43, 91 3.03 1.01 Moderate benefits
10, 958.00-21, 93 3.07 0.91 Moderate benefits
828.00
914.00
Note: 4.21-
5.00=Very Above 43, 828.00 10 2.82 1.04 Moderate benefits
High, 3.21-
4.20=High, Educational Course
2.61-
BSF 15 3.03 0.97 Moderate benefits

BSAB 11 3.13 0.90 Moderate benefits

BSA 19 3.24 0.89 Moderate benefits

BAELS 21 2.98 0.83 Moderate benefits

BSBIO 10 3.35 1.08 Moderate benefits

BSBA 38 2.74 0.76 Moderate benefits

BSHM 22 2.5 0.93 Moderate benefits

BSCM 16 2.69 0.63 Moderate benefits

BSAIS 16 3.22 0.66 Moderate benefits

BPA 17 3.41 0.75 Moderate benefits

BSTM 15 2.83 0.77 Moderate benefits

BSCrim 35 2.91 0.97 Moderate benefits

BPED 7 2.79 0.57 Moderate benefits

BSED 16 3.25 0.80 Moderate benefits

BTLED 17 3.41 0.69 Moderate benefits

BLIS 8 2.81 0.75 Moderate benefits

BSIS 16 2.63 10.24 Moderate benefits

BSEMC 7 3.07 0.61 Moderate benefits

BSIT 31 2.42 0.93 Moderate benefits

BSN 25 3.64 0.97 Moderate benefits

DM 4 4.13 0.85 High benefits

Year Level

1 st year 116 2.93 0.93 Moderate benefits

2 nd year 81 2.99 0.79 Moderate benefits

3 rd year 91 49
3.18 0.96 Moderate benefits

4 th year 78 2.83 0.95 Moderate benefits

As a whole 366 2.98 0.92 Moderate benefits

 3.20=Moderate, 1.81-2.60=Low, 1.00-1.80=Very Low

Table 10 presents the extent of perceived benefits

of self-medication among undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental.

As a whole, the findings show that there is a

“moderate benefit” of respondents practicing self-

medication with a mean of 2.98. It implies that the

majority acknowledge both beneficial and harmful effects

of self-medication.

In terms of being grouped according to age, wherein

the age group 26 and up (3.05) have the highest mean,

categorizing their perceived benefits as “Moderate”. This

was supported by a study conducted by Awad, A., et. al.

(2007), wherein they showed that self-medication was

significantly more common among students 21 years of age

or older compared with those 20 years of age or younger.

When grouped according to their sex, females have

the highest mean of 3.04 which falls under the

“Moderate” category. This is supported by the study

conducted by Kersnik, et. al. (2012), women self-

medicate more frequently than males. Women are known to

play the most significant role in the family when it

comes to managing the health issues of family members,

in addition to taking care of themselves. They also use

50
health services more frequently than males do. In

pharmacies, female students were more likely than male

students to purchase medications for self-medication.

Even in young individuals like students who self-

medicate, gender appears to be a significant

determinant.

When grouped according to family 10,958.00-21,914.00

has the highest mean of 3.07 among other groups and is

classified under the “Moderate” category. This is

supported by a study conducted by Zeru, et. al. (2020)

showed that respondents with greater monthly incomes were

less likely to self-medicate than those with lower

incomes.

When grouped according to educational courses,

Diploma in Midwifery (DM) has the highest mean of 4.13

and categorized under “High”. This is supported by a

study conducted by Alshogran, et.al., (2018), which

states that self-medication was substantially more

prevalent among medical students than non-medical

students. However, compared to medical students (47.6%),

non-medical students were more likely to self-medicate

with anti-flu medications (60.2%).

When grouped according to year level, it was

identified that third year students have the highest

mean of 3.18 and categorized as “Moderate” This is

51
opposed to a study conducted by Tesfamariam, et. al.,

(2019), which states that with an increased level of

education, there is a reduction in the odds of risky

practice in self- medication.

52
Table 11

Common reasons why undergraduate students who

experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental practice self-medication.

Frequency Percent (%)

Long distance to the health facility 299 81.7
Mildness of the problem 342 93.4
High consultation fees 310 84.7
Fear of visiting hospitals/clinics 217 59.3
Emergency use/quick relief 335 91.5
Unavailability of health services 269 73.5

Table 11 above shows the common reasons why

undergraduate students who experienced flu in one state

college in Negros Occidental practice self-medication.

Mildness of the problem (93.4%), Emergency use/Quick

relief (91.5%), and High consultation fees (84.7%) are

the most common reasons why the respondents practice

self-medication, while the fear of visiting

hospitals/clinics is the least common reason in

practicing self-medication.

This is supported by the study entitled Knowledge,

Attitude and Practice of Self Medication among Pharmacy

Students of Rift Valley University, Abichu Campus, Addis

Ababa, Ethiopia conducted by Beyene et al. in 2017

wherein non-seriousness, quick relief, and emergency use

are the three main reasons for self-medication

accounting for 81.3%, 70.3%, and 45.8% respectively. It

also supports the study conducted by It also supports

the study conducted by Oktarlina et al., the researchers

53
found out that people do self-medication during the

Covid-19 pandemic due to the fear of visiting clinics

that could lead to possible contact or exposure with an

infected patient or contaminated objects. The findings

indicate that the nature of illness, time constraints,

and even fears affects the decision-making of the

undergraduate students from the chosen state college,

especially in their self-medication practice. Further

reinforcement regarding the dangers that the said

practice poses to one’s health must be provided.

Table 12

Extent of self-medication without professional advice in

undergraduate students who experienced flu in one state

college in Negros Occidental.

Frequency Percent (%)

Not at all 63 17
Rarely 70 19.1
Sometimes 138 38
Often 70 19.1
All the time 25 6.8
Total 366 100

Table 12 above shows the extent of self-medication

without professional advice in undergraduate students

who experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental. This indicates that most of the respondents,

accounting for 38% or 138 total frequency, practice

self-medication without professional advice “Sometimes”.

While 6.8% or 25 out of 366 respondents do so “All the

54
time”.

The results support the study of Bisht et al.

entitled Self Medication Practices among Youngsters: A

Global Health Concern, wherein 77% of study subjects

consume self-medications occasionally. It indicates that

the majority of the undergraduate students of the said

state college are at an increased risk for severe

medical complications due to misusing or overusing

medications.

Table 13

Primary sources of information of self-medication in

undergraduate students who experienced flu in one state

college in Negros Occidental.

Frequency Percent (%)

Internet/Social media 295 80.6
TV and radio commercials 298 81.4
Based on my: 343 93.7
peers/colleagues/families’ advice
My cultural/religious beliefs 242 66.1

Table 13 above shows the primary sources of

information of self-medication in undergraduate students

who experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental. Based on my peers/colleagues/families’

advice (93.7%) is the primary source of information as

to how respondents lead to practice self-medication. The

cultural/religious beliefs (66.1%) is the least primary

source of information.
55
 This contradicts the study conducted by Nusair et

al. which stated that the Pharmacists are the

respondents’ primary source of information when self-

medicating. This simply implies that the undergraduate

students of the chosen state college must be given

further health education regarding their unsafe

practice. Reinforcement regarding the importance of

seeing a licensed physician and expert on the specific

field of healthcare, must be provided.

Table 14

Variables n M SD Interpretation

Age

17-19 years old 91 3.15 0.84 Moderate barrier

20-22 185 3.14 0.98 Moderate barrier

23-25 69 3.30 0.81 High barrier

26 and up 21 3.16 1.04 Moderate barrier

Extent of Perceived Barrier of Self Medication Practice

as a whole and when grouped according to Age, Sex, Total

Family Income, Educational Course, Year Level.

Sex

Male 138 3.31 0.85 High barrier

Female 204 3.05 0.94 Moderate barrier

Prefer not to say 24 3.35 1.09 High barrier

Total Family Income

Below Php 10, 957.00 134 3.24 0.85 High barrier

56
 10, 958.00-21,914.00 93 3.17 0.71 Moderate barrier

21, 915.00-43,828.00 91 3.04 0.75 Moderate barrier

Above 43, 828.00 10 2.72 0.89 Moderate barrier

Educational Course

BSF 15 2.99 0.94 Moderate barrier

BSAB 11 3.12 0.50 Moderate barrier

BSA 19 3.09 0.72 Moderate barrier

BAELS 21 3.23 0.55 Moderate barrier

BSBIO 10 2.99 0.81 Moderate barrier

BSBA 38 2.92 0.65 Moderate barrier

BSHM 22 3.42 0.68 High barrier

BSCM 16 3.62 0.48 High barrier

BSAIS 16 3.88 0.61 High barrier

BPA 17 3.79 0.79 High barrier

BSTM 15 3.39 0.85 High barrier

BSCrim 35 3.03 0.98 Moderate barrier

BPED 7 3.71 0.52 High barrier

BSED 16 3.34 0.95 High barrier

BTLED 17 3.60 0.83 High barrier

BLIS 8 2.63 0.62 Moderate barrier

BSIS 16 3.09 0.96 Moderate barrier

BSEMC 7 3.37 0.34 High barrier

BSIT 31 2.85 0.84 Moderate barrier

BSN 25 2.51 0.64 Low barrier

DM 4 3.00 0.29 Moderate barrier

Year Level

1 st year 116 3.02 0.79 Moderate barrier

2 nd year 81 3.22 0.76 High barrier

3 rd year 91 3.17 0.91 Moderate barrier

4 th year 78 3.33 0.79 High barrier

As a whole 366 3.17 0.82 Moderate barrier

Note: 4.21-5.00=Very High, 3.21-4.20=High, 2.61-3.20=Moderate, 1.81-2.60=Low, 1.00-1.80=Very Low

Table 14 above presents the extent of perceived

57
barrier of self-medication among undergraduate students

who experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental.

As a whole, this finding shows that there is a

“moderate barrier” with a mean of 3.17. It implies that

more than half of the population of undergraduate

students perceive the barriers as medium level of extent.

In terms of being grouped according to age, wherein

the age group of 23-25 years old (3.30) have the highest

mean, categorizing their perceived barriers as

“Moderate”. This is supported by the study of Yasein, et

al. in 2018, that most medical students are youths

between the ages of 15 and 24

with an entitled sense of self-autonomy, leading to self-

help practices. A growing body of evidence in line with

this, suggests that medical students are disinclined to

seek professional help for their health issues and prefer

to self-medicate or seek prescriptions from their peers,

both of which are fraught with risk. This finding also

validates the findings of Sharif et al., which reported

that 72% of Sharjah university students self-medicated

for mild disease.

When grouped according to their sex, the

respondents who prefer not to say their gender have the

highest mean of 3.35 which falls under the “High”

58
category but between the two genders, men and women,

women have the higher mean. This is supported by the

study of Araia et al., sex, as one of the variables,

found to be the independent predictors for self-

medication practice. In this study, results of logistic

regression showed that females were

2.8 times more likely to self-medicate themselves than

males which is parallel to previous studies finding. But

in contrast to this, some studies reported that there

was no significant difference in self-medication

practice between males and females. This gender

difference in self-medication practice could be

explained by the special health conditions such as

menstruation that women face which could be an obvious

complaint with clear measures to take from their point

of view. This is because Flu can happen to any gender.

When grouped according to their total family income,

the group having Below Php 10, 957.00 have the highest

mean of 3.24 which falls under the category of “High”.

This is supported by the study of Muflih et al, high

family income found associated with a decrease in self-

medication practices. Expectedly, the high levels of

poverty and limited health literacy potentially increased

the likelihood of risks associated with non-prescription

medication use. Self-medication was found to be

significantly associated with age and income level. Young

59
and low-income people are inclined to practice due to the

unaffordable consultation fee of doctors and their

attribute to unawareness about the consequences of self -

medication.

When grouped according to their educational course,

it was identified that Bachelor of Public Administration

(BPA) have the highest mean of 3.71 categorized as

“High”. This is supported by the study of Alshogran et.

al. in 2018, that the courses compared to medical

students (47.6%), non-medical students were more likely

to self-medicate with anti-flu medications (60.2%).

When grouped according to their year level, it was

identified that Fourth year students have the highest

mean of 3.33 categorized as “High”. This is supported by

the study of a survey carried out among 1st-year medical

students on self-medication in Bahrain, the results

indicated that these students had insufficient knowledge

and frequent but inadequate practice, despite having a

positive attitude. This is supported by a study of

Gyawali in 2015 and Shankar in 2016, that students

belonging to higher academic year groups scored higher

knowledge levels than those of lower academic year

groups. Other studies do indeed find a correlation

between the year of study and the level of knowledge

about self-medication, which we interpret as indicating

that knowledge increases with the level of education

60
(Gyawali, 2015; Shankar et al., 2016). This emphasizes

the importance of improving the undergraduate curriculum

by providing adequate access to content that deals

specifically, in depth and scientifically with health

knowledge to college students, making it available to

them in a generalized manner, as accessible as possible.

Table 15.1

Relationship between the extent of perceived severity and

the extent of self-medication practice

Variable r df p

Extent of x Extent of Practice 0.642 364 0.000*

Perceived of Self-Medication
Severity

Note: the relationship is significant when p<0.05

The study utilized the Spearman Rho rank test to

evaluate the existence of a significant correlation

between the extent of perceived severity and the extent

of Self-Medication practice among the respondents. The

results showed a significant relationship between the

extent of perceived severity and the extent of self-

medication practice among the respondents, with a p-

value of 0.000*. Furthermore, the analysis revealed a

strong positive linear relationship between perceived

severity and the extent of self-medication practice

medicine among the respondents.

61
Table 15.2

Relationship between the extent of perceived

susceptibility and the extent of Self-Medication

practice.

Variable r df p

Extent of x Extent of 0.706 364 0.000*

Perceived Practice of
Susceptibility Self-Medication
Note: the relationship is significant when p<0.05

The study utilized the Spearman Rho rank test to

evaluate the existence of a significant correlation

between the extent of perceived susceptibility and the

extent of Self-Medication practice among the respondents.

The results showed a significant relationship between the

extent of perceived susceptibility and the extent of

self-medication practice medicine among the respondents,

with a p-value of 0.000*. Furthermore, the analysis

revealed a strong positive linear relationship between

perceived susceptibility and the extent of self-

medication practice medicine among the respondents.

62
Table 15.3

Relationship between the extent of perceived benefits and

extent of Self-medication practice.

Variable r df p
Extent of x Extent of 0.434 364 0.000*
Perceived Practice of
Benefit Self-
Medication
Note: the relationship is significant when p<0.05

The study utilized the Spearman Rho rank test to

evaluate the existence of a significant correlation

between the extent of perceived benefits and the extent

of practice of Self-Medication among the respondents. The

results showed a significant relationship between the

extent of perceived benefits and the extent of self-

medication practice among the respondents, with a p-value

of 0.000*. Furthermore, the analysis revealed a moderate

positive linear relationship between perceived benefits

and the extent of self-medication practice medicine among

the respondents.

63
 Table 15.4

Relationship between the extent perceived barrier and the extent

of Self-medication practice.

Variable r df p
Extent of x Extent of Practice 0.875 364 0.000*
Perceived of Self-Medication
Barrier

Note: the relationship is significant when p<0.05

The study utilized the Spearman Rho rank test to

evaluate the existence of a significant correlation

between the extent of perceived barriers and the extent

of practice of Self-Medication among the respondents. The

results imply that there is a significant relationship

between the extent of perceived barrier and the extent of

self-medication practice among the respondents, with a p-

value of 0.000*. Furthermore, the analysis revealed a

strong positive linear relationship between perceived

barriers and the extent of self-medication practice

medicine among the respondents.

64
 Table 16

Extent of Self Medication Practice as a whole and when

grouped according to Age, Sex, Total Family Income,

Educational Course, Year Level.

Variables n M SD Interpretation
Note: 4.21- Age
5.00=Very
High, 3.21- 17-19 years old 91 2.88 0.59 Moderate extent
4.20=High,
2.61- 20-22 185 2.93 0.65 Moderate extent
23-25 69 2.98 0.58 Moderate extent
26 and up 21 2.88 0.74 Moderate extent
Sex
Total Family Income
Male
Below Php 10, 957.00 138
134 2.99
2.95 0.63
0.66 Moderate
Moderate extent
extent
Female
10, 958.00-21, 914.00 204
93 2.87
2.94 0.61
0.53 Moderate extent
Moderate extent
Prefer not to say
21, 915.00-43, 828.00 24
91 3.03
2.88 0.72
0.55 Moderate
Moderate extent
extent
Above 43, 828.00 10 2.63 0.71 Moderate extent
Educational Course
BSF 15 2.74 0.72 Moderate extent
BSAB 11 2.96 0.51 Moderate extent
BSA 19 2.92 0.46 Moderate extent
BAELS 21 3.05 0.33 Moderate extent
BSBIO 10 2.69 0.55 Moderate extent
BSBA 38 2.68 0.54 Moderate extent
BSHM 22 2.90 0.46 Moderate extent
BSCM 16 3.15 0.38 Moderate extent
BSAIS 16 3.47 0.41 Moderate extent
BPA 17 3.35 0.61 High extent
BSTM 15 3.03 0.60 Moderate extent
BSCrim 35 2.87 0.83 Moderate extent
BPED 7 3.48 0.41 High extent
BSED 16 3.23 0.69 High extent
BTLED 17 3.20 0.58 Moderate extent
BLIS 8 2.56 0.54 Low extent
BSIS 16 2.75 0.78 Moderate extent
BSEMC 7 3.09 0.16 Moderate extent
BSIT 31 2.59 0.66 Low extent
BSN 25 2.68 0.56 Moderate extent
DM 4 2.90 0.29 Moderate extent
Year Level
1st year 116 2.78 0.63 Moderate extent

2nd year 81 2.94 0.55 Moderate extent

3rd year 91 65
3.02 0.67 Moderate extent

4th year 78 2.99 0.62 Moderate extent

As a whole 366 2.92 0.63 Moderate extent

 3.20=Moderate, 1.81-2.60=Low, 1.00-1.80=Very Low

Table 16 above shows the extent of the self-

medication practices among the undergraduate students of

the one state college in Negros Occidental.

As a whole, with a mean of 2.92, the self-medication

practices of the respondents, falls under the “Moderate”

category. This is supported by the review of literature

created by Almasdy and Shariff stating that self-

medication practice with non-prescription medication is

highly prevalent among university students, which is done

whenever they have fever, flu, cough, or cold. This

indicates that undergraduate students are somehow aware

of the possible complications that could arise with the

persistence of the practice.

When grouped according to age, 23-25 years old has

the highest mean which is 2.98, categorizing the extent

of their self-medication practice as “Moderate”. This is

contradicted by the study of Chen et al. (2022) implying

that older people are practicing self-medication more due

to their increased susceptibility to infectious disease

caused by a deteriorating immune system.

When grouped according to sex, it was identified

that the respondents who do not prefer to disclose their

sex, have the highest mean (3.03) and are categorized

under the “Moderate” group. This is contradicted by the

66
result of the research study conducted by Nair et al.

since it was found out that 85.59% or 101 male

students, out of 118 were involved in moderate self-

medication, especially when flu symptoms are experienced.

When grouped in terms of total family income, those

with below Php 10,957.00 have the highest mean of 2.95,

and fall under the “Moderate” category. The finding is

backed by the study of Camacho et al. (2020) wherein the

results of their study showed the presence of

socioeconomic gradient for morbidity rates in people who

have low income. The study entitled “Socioeconomic

differences in self- medication among middle-aged and

older people: data from the China health and retirement

longitudinal study” also supports the result, since it

was found out that the middle- class are the ones who

self-medicate more, when prescription and non-

prescription medications are combined.

When grouped according to the educational course,

Bachelor of Science in Physical Education has the highest

mean (3.48), and is classified in the “High” category. In

terms of year level, the third year has the highest mean

which is 3.02, and is classified under the “Moderate"

category. Whereas, the outcome of this research study

contradicts the one conducted by Kasulkar and Gupta,

which stated that senior students taking up medical-

67
related courses are the ones that self-medicates the

most.

The findings of this study implies that the

undergraduate students of one state college performs

self-medication at a moderate manner, but despite this,

there is still a need to educate them regarding the risks

that it poses to their general health and well-being, and

further reinforcement must be provided as to why visiting

registered physicians is still the best option when

someone is ill.

68
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to determine the

self-medication practice among undergraduate students

who experienced flu in one state college in Negros

Occidental.

Results showed that most respondents (35.5%) self-

medicate sometimes, approximately three times a week. The

three most common complaints of the respondents why they are

self-medicating are headache (90.4%), Stuffy/Runny nose

(86.6%), and cough (83.9%). Most commonly used drugs are

Antipyretics (95.1%), Vitamins (89.1%), and Decongestants

(86.9%). It also showed that out of 366 respondents, 173 of

them always read the label of the medication before

administering it to themselves and 17 of them don’t read drug

labels at all. 38% of the respondents sometimes ask for

professional help in treating illnesses and only 6.8% of them

always do professional consultation before taking drugs. The

reasons for their self-medication practice are mildness of the

problem (93.4%), emergency use/quick relief (91.5%), and high

consultation fees (84.7%). The self-medication practice of the

respondents is mostly influenced by the advice of their peers,

colleagues, and family (93.7%), Tv/radio commercials (81.4%),

and Internet/Social media (80.6%).

69
 The extent of perceived severity of their self-

medication practice as a whole, was identified as a

“moderate severity” with the result of 2.69. The extent

of perceived susceptibility of their self-medication

practice as a whole, was identified as a “moderate

susceptibility” with the result of 3.19. Moreover, the

extent of perceived benefits of their self-medication

practice as a whole appeared to have “moderate benefits”

with the result of 2.98. Furthermore, the results showed

that the extent of perceived barriers among undergraduate

students as a whole, was identified as a “moderate

severity” with a score of 3.17.

In the extent of self-medication practices among

undergraduate students of Northern Negros State College

of Science and Technology, it was identified as “moderate

extent” with a score of 2.02. Age is one of the important

determinants in the practice of self-medication. When

grouped according to age, 23-25 years old has the higher

levels of self-medication practice compared to 17-19

years old while the age group 26 and above appears to be

the lowest. Sex is also an important determinant in the

practice of self-medication, it was identified that the

respondents who prefer not to disclose their sex have

higher levels of self-medication practice compared to

females who are the lowest.

70
 Family income also plays an important role in the

self-medication practices of individuals. Students from

low-income families, below Php 10,957.00, appear to be

more likely to practice self-medication. In terms of

educational courses, Bachelor of Science in Physical

Education has a higher tendency to self-medicate. For the

level of education, it also plays an important role as an

influential factor of self-medication practices. When

grouped according to year level, third year students

appeared to have a higher extent of self-medication

practices compared to 1st years that appears to have the

lower risk to practice self-medication.

Conclusions

On the basis of the research findings, the majority

of the respondents have an age that ranges from 20-22

years old, female, have a low family income of below Php

10,957.00, from Bachelor of Science in Business

Administration, and are Third year students. The

respondents have a moderate level of perceived

susceptibility with a mean of 3.10, perceived severity

with a mean of 2.69, perceived benefits

with a mean of 2.98, perceived barrier as a whole with a

mean of 3.17.

Results showed that there are significant

relationships between the extent of perceived

susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits,

71
perceived barrier, and the extent of self-medication

practice among undergraduate students who experienced flu

in one state college in Negros Occidental with a p value

of 0.000*.

Results implied that the respondents self-medicate

sometimes, approximately three times a week. The three

most common complaints of the respondents why they are

self-medicating are headache, fever, and body pain and

commonly use vitamins, antipyretics, and decongestants to

make them feel better and to prevent the sickness from

coming back. It also showed that most respondents are

aware and have a knowledge of what kind of drugs they

will take and its purpose because they always read the

label of the medication before they administer it to

themselves. They sometimes ask for professional help in

treating illness but most of the time they self-medicate

because of the quick relief they will feel after taking

over-the-counter drugs, mildness of the problem that

makes it unnecessary for them to go to clinics or

hospitals for consultation, and high consultation fees.

Respondents are mostly influenced to self-medicate by the

advice of their peers, colleagues, and family. TV/radio

commercials and social media also played an important

role in their self-medication.

72
Recommendations

Based on the results of this study, the following

recommendations are set forth:

Chosen State College. The researchers recommend that the

academe must create an educational health program that

teaches students the potential risks/problems of

inappropriate self- medication.

School clinic. The researchers recommend that the

school clinic of the chosen state college should be

informed on the self-medication practices of the

students.

Students. The researchers recommend that the students

must seek proper consultation to the clinic when they

are ill.

Parents. The researchers recommend that the parents must

be vigilant to every medication that their children take.

Future Researchers. The researchers recommend that a

further quantitative study exploring and comparing the

significant difference of self-medication practices

between medical and non-medical sectors at a state

college in Negros. Implications of the awareness and

education between two sectors regarding the self-

medication practices can be useful in future.

73
 REFERENCES

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internet-pharmacy. Medical Journal of Dr D Y Patil

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83
 Appendix A

Letter for Validators

Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occidental
(034)722-4120/

Letter for Validators

February 8, 2023

JIREH-MAY GESULGON, RN, MN, LPT

Clinical Instructor
NONESCOST College of
Nursing

Dear Miss

Gesulgon, Warmest

greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled, "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental."

In line with this, we are humbly asking for your assistance by

validating our modified standard questionnaire using the attached
rating tool. We are hoping for your favorable response.

Thank you and God bless!

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin

Shybelle O. Langbid
Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos
Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD
Research Adviser

Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN

Research Coordinator

84
Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN

85
 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occidental (03

Letter for Validators

February 8, 2023

GUEVARRA CLAN S. BAUTISTA, RN, MN

Clinical Instructor
NONESCOST College of
Nursing

Dear Sir Clan,

Warmest greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled, "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental."

In line with this, we are humbly asking for your assistance by

validating our modified standard questionnaire using the attached
rating tool. We are hoping for your favorable response.

Thank you and God bless!

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin

Shybelle O.
Langbid
Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos
Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD
Research Adviser

Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN

Research
Approved Coordinator
by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, 85
 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occidental (034)7

Letter for Validators

February 8, 2023

JONA MARIE PAEZ, RN, RM, MN

Clinical Instructor

NONESCOST College of

Nursing

Dear Miss Paez,

Warmest greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled, "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental."

In line with this, we are humbly asking for your assistance by

validating our modified standard questionnaire using the attached
rating tool. We are hoping for your favorable response.

Thank you and God bless!

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin

Shybelle O.
Langbid
Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos
Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD
Research Adviser

Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN

86
Research Coordinator

Approved by:
87
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM,
 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occidental (03

Letter for Validators

February 8, 2023

MAGDALENA PATIGAS, RN, MN, LPT

Clinical Instructor
NONESCOST College of
Nursing

Dear Miss

Patigas, Warmest

greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled, "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students Experienc Flu in One State College in Negros
Occidental."

In line with this, we are humbly asking for your assistance by

validating our modified standard questionnaire using the attached
rating tool. We are hoping for your favorable response.

Thank you and God bless!

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin

Shybelle O.
Langbid
Frances Precila Rae Q.
Mateos Steffi Andrea D.
Panaligan Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD
Research Adviser

88
Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN
Research Coordinator

Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, 89
 Appendix B

Letter for reliability test

Republic of the Philippines

NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health
Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros
Occidental (034)722-4120/
www.nonescost.edu.ph
Letter to Conduct a Reliability Test
March 2, 2023

Maricel L. Desuyo, RN, MN

Registrar, North Negros
College

Dear Ma’am Desuyo,

Greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science and
Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences are required to
submit a research study for our Nursing Research II subject. Our study is
entitled "Self-Medication Practices Among Undergraduate Students who
Experienced Flu in One State College in Negros Occidental."

In line with this, we are humbly asking permission from your good office
to allow us to conduct a reliability test of our research instrument, to
30 undergraduate college students from your school, North Negros College.

Rest assured that any information collected will be treated with utmost
confidentiality.

Hoping for your favorable response. Thank you very much and God speed.

Respectfully Yours,
Ely Mae B. Abunin Shybelle O. Langbid

Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan

Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN
Research Adviser Research Coordinator

Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN
Dean, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences

Registrar, North Negros 88

College
Received and Approved by:
Maricel Desuyo

Registrar, North Negros 88

College
 Appendix C

Letter for ethical clearance

Republic of the Philippines
Northern Negros State College of Science and Technology College of Nursing and Allied Health Science
Brgy. Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occidental
(034) 722-4120/
ISO 9001:2015
Certified

February 28, 2023

Ms. Judith S. Rabacal

Research Director,
NONESCOST

Greetings!

We, the students of BSN III of Northern Negros State

College of Science and Technology, College of Nursing and
Allied Health Sciences will be conducting research entitled
“Self-Medication Practices Among Undergraduate Students who
Experienced Flu in One State College in Negros Occidental.”
In relation with this, we are writing to request ethical
clearance for our study entitled “Self-Medication Practices
Among Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State
College in Negros Occidental.” to proceed with our data
gathering.
Attached herewith are chapters 1-3 of our study. The study
will involve data gathering through survey questionnaires via
google forms sent to the undergraduate students of Northern
Negros State College of Science and Technology.
Rest assured, the study will adhere to ethical guidelines and
the privacy and confidentiality of the participants will be
strictly maintained.

Thank you for your time and consideration.

Respectfully yours,

ELY MAE B. ABUNIN FRANCES PRECILA RAE Q. MATEOS

SHYBELLE O. LANGBID
STEFFI ANDREA D. PANALIGAN
Researchers

Noted by:

KRISTINE A. CONDES RN, MAN, PhD. ROSELO A. OCAMPO JR.,RN, MAN

Research Adviser Research Coordinator

AILEEN G. SYPONGCO, RN, RM, MN

Dean, CONAHS

89
 Appendix D

Ethical Clearance Certificate

90
 Appendix E

Letter for the Dean of each colleges

Republic of the Philippines

NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occidental (034)722-4120/

Letter to Conduct a Study

March 27, 2023

AILEEN G. SYPONGOCO, RN, RM, MN

Dean, CONAHS

Dear Ma’am Sypongco,

Greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental ".

In this regard, we are humbly asking permission from your good office
to conduct our research study to our chosen participants, which are
the three hundred sixty-six (366) officially enrolled undergraduate
students from the eight colleges of Northern Negros State College of
Science and Technology School Year 2022-2023.

We are hoping for a positive response in this request and your

approval is highly appreciated.

Thank you very much and God speed.

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin Shybelle O. Langbid

Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD Roselo A. Ocampo, RN,
MAN
Research Adviser Research
Coordinator

Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN
Dean, CONAHS

91
Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occiden

Letter to Conduct a Study

March 27, 2023

QUIRESA MAE C. MONTAÑO, RFT, MFT

Dean, CFAS

Dear Ma’am Montaño,

Greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental ".
In this regard, we are humbly asking permission from your good office
to conduct our research study to our chosen participants, which are
the three hundred sixty-six (366) officially enrolled undergraduate
students from the eight colleges of Northern Negros State College of
Science and Technology School Year 2022-2023.
We are hoping for a positive response in this request and your
approval is highly appreciated.

Thank you very much and God speed.

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin Shybelle O. Langbid

Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN
Research Adviser Research Coordinator

Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN
Dean, CONAHS

Received and Approved by:

QUIRESA MAE C. MONTAÑO, RFT, MFT
Dean, CFAS

92
Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occidenta

Letter to Conduct a Study

March 27, 2023

RICHEL P. ALOB, Ph.D.

Dean, CBM

Dear Ma’am Alob,

Greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental”.
In this regard, we are humbly asking permission from your good office
to conduct our research study to our chosen participants, which are
the three hundred sixty-six (366) officially enrolled undergraduate
students from the eight colleges of Northern Negros State College of
Science and Technology School Year 2022-2023.
We are hoping for a positive response in this request and your
approval is highly appreciated.

Thank you very much and God speed.

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin Shybelle O. Langbid

Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN
Research Adviser Research Coordinator

Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN
Dean, CONAHS

Received and Approved by:

RICHEL P. ALOB, Ph.D.
Dean, CBM

93
Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occident

Letter to Conduct a Study

March 27, 2023

MAE ANN S. TONGOL, Ph.D.

Dean, CAAS

Dear Ma’am Tongol,

Greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental”.
In this regard, we are humbly asking permission from your good office
to conduct our research study to our chosen participants, which are
the three hundred sixty-six (366) officially enrolled undergraduate
students from the eight colleges of Northern Negros State College of
Science and Technology School Year 2022-2023.
We are hoping for a positive response in this request and your
approval is highly appreciated.

Thank you very much and God speed.

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin Shybelle O. Langbid

Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN
Research Adviser Research Coordinator

Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN
Dean, CONAHS

Received and Approved by:

MAE ANN S. TONGOL, Ph.D.
Dean, CAAS

94
Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occident

Letter to Conduct a Study

March 27, 2023

MARY GRACE M. OFQUERIA, Ph.D.

Dean, COED

Dear Ma’am Ofqueria,

Greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental”.
In this regard, we are humbly asking permission from your good office
to conduct our research study to our chosen participants, which are
the three hundred sixty-six (366) officially enrolled undergraduate
students from the eight colleges of Northern Negros State College of
Science and Technology School Year 2022-2023.
We are hoping for a positive response in this request and your
approval is highly appreciated.

Thank you very much and God speed.

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin Shybelle O. Langbid

Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN
Research Adviser Research Coordinator

Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN
Dean, CONAHS

Received and Approved by:

MARY GRACE M. OFQUERIA, Ph.D.
Dean, COED

95
Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occiden

Letter to Conduct a Study

March 27, 2023

ANGELO P. ALOB, Ph.D.

Dean, CCJE

Dear Sir Alob,

Greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental”.
In this regard, we are humbly asking permission from your good office
to conduct our research study to our chosen participants, which are
the three hundred sixty-six (366) officially enrolled undergraduate
students from the eight colleges of Northern Negros State College of
Science and Technology School Year 2022-2023.
We are hoping for a positive response in this request and your
approval is highly appreciated.

Thank you very much and God speed.

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin Shybelle O. Langbid

Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN
Research Adviser Research Coordinator

Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN
Dean, CONAHS

Received and Approved by:

ANGELO P. ALOB, Ph.D.
Dean, CCJE

96
Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occiden

Letter to Conduct a Study

March 27, 2023

REOPER CEGAYLE, Ph.D.

Dean, CAS

Dear Sir Cegayle,

Greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental”.
In this regard, we are humbly asking permission from your good office
to conduct our research study to our chosen participants, which are
the three hundred sixty-six (366) officially enrolled undergraduate
students from the eight colleges of Northern Negros State College of
Science and Technology School Year 2022-2023.
We are hoping for a positive response in this request and your
approval is highly appreciated.

Thank you very much and God speed.

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin Shybelle O. Langbid

Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN
Research Adviser Research Coordinator

Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN
Dean, CONAHS

Received and Approved by:

REOPER CEGAYLE, Ph.D.
Dean, CAS

97
Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occident

Letter to Conduct a Study

March 27, 2023

KRISTINE SOBERANO, Ph. D.

Dean, CICTE

Dear Ma’am Soberano,

Greetings!

We, the BSN-III students of Northern Negros State College of Science

and Technology, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences will be
conducting a research study entitled "Self-Medication Practices Among
Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College in
Negros Occidental”.
In this regard, we are humbly asking permission from your good office
to conduct our research study to our chosen participants, which are
the three hundred sixty-six (366) officially enrolled undergraduate
students from the eight colleges of Northern Negros State College of
Science and Technology School Year 2022-2023.
We are hoping for a positive response in this request and your
approval is highly appreciated.

Thank you very much and God speed.

Respectfully Yours,

Ely Mae B. Abunin Shybelle O. Langbid

Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan
Researchers

Noted by:
Kristine A. Condes, RN, MN, LPT, PhD Roselo A. Ocampo, RN, MAN
Research Adviser Research Coordinator

Approved by:
Aileen G. Sypongco, RN, RM, MN
Dean, CONAHS

Received and Approved by:

KRISTINE SOBERANO, Ph.D.
Dean, CICTE

98
 Appendix F

Letter to the Participants

Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occidental (034)722-

Self-Medication Practice among Undergraduates Students of Northern

Negros State College of Science and Technology

Informed Consent

Greetings!
We, the BSN-IIIA of Northern Negros State College of Science and
Technology will conduct a study entitled, “Self-Medication Practices
Among Undergraduate Students who Experienced Flu in One State College
in Negros Occidental”.
The purpose of this study is to determine the self-medication practice
among undergraduate students of Northern Negros State College of
Science and Technology. Your participation in this study is voluntary.
If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to sign
this consent form.
Your responses on this research will be anonymous. Rest assured, all
information gathered during the data collection will be kept for your
confidentiality.
I,_______________________________________, confirm that I have read
and understood the information provided by the researchers regarding
the research study to be conducted. I understand that my participation
is voluntary, and that I am free to withdraw from the project at any
time, without having to give a reason and without any consequence.
I understand that the data collected will only be used for the purpose
of this study and will be kept for my anonymity.

Name of the Participant:

Signature:

Date:

Name of Researcher:
Signature:

Date: 99
 Appendix G

Good and Scates Validation Form

SURVEY INSTRUMENT VALIDATION

RATING SCALE
(Good & Scates (1972)

Instruction: Please indicate your degree of agreement or disagreement on the

statements provided below by encircling the number which corresponds to
your best to your judgment.

1 – Strongly Disagree 2 – Disagree 3 – Undecided 4 – Agree 5–

Strongly Agree

Criteria
The items in the instrument are relevant to answer the objectives of the
1 2 3 4
study.
The items in the instrument can obtain depth to constructs being
1 2 3 4
measured.
The instrument has an appropriate sample of items for the construct
1 2 3 4
being measured.
The items and their alternatives are neither too narrow nor limited in its
1 2 3 4
content.
The items in the instrument are stated clearly. 1 2 3 4
The items on the instrument can elicit responses which are stable,
1 2 3 4
definite, consistent and not conflicting.
The terms adapted in the scale in the scale are culturally appropriate. 1 2 3 4
The layout or format of the instrument is technically sound. 1 2 3 4

The responses on the scale show a reasonable range of variation. 1 2 3 4

The instrument is not too short or long enough that the participants will
be able to answer it within a given time. 1 2 3 4
The instrument is interesting such that participants will be induced to
respond to it and accomplish it fully. 1 2 3 4
The instrument as a whole could answer the basic purpose for which it is
1 2 3 4
designed.
The instrument is culturally acceptable when administered in the local
1 2 3 4
setting.

Comments and Suggestions:

Signature over Printed Name

100
 Appendix H

Proposal Evaluation Form

Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Barangay Rizal, Sagay City, Negros Occidental (034)722-4120/

PROPOSAL EVALUATION CRITERIA

Direction: Please use the following guidelines in the evaluation of the attached proposal.
Where the answer is “NO” please specify the desired improvement on the space provided
after each section. Thank you.

Title of the study: YES NO

Title of the Study

Does the title of the study properly capsulize the main problem of the
research?
Comments:

Research Problem
1. Is the problem relevant to the needs of society and significant enough to add
existing knowledge?
2. Is the problem testable, that is, it is possible to collect data to answer the
questions asked?
3. Are the sub-problems completely researchable
units? Comments:

Hypothesis
1. Are the hypothesis testable (e.I. are they in forms that can be qualified or
measured)?
2. Are they deduced from the underlying theory/concept of the study?
3. Are they related to the main problem or the sub-problem given by the
researcher/s?
4. Are they clearly stated?
5. Is there a clear relationship between the hypotheses and the data to be
collected?
Comments:

Review of Related Literature

1. Has there been an adequate exploration of literature and studies related to
the problem investigated?
2. Is the review presented systematically and logically?
3. Does the review point out similarities and differences with the study being
done?
Comments:

101
Methodology
1. Is the research method identified, well organized and clearly identified?
2. Have all majormajor variables been identified in the design?
3. Will the proposed strategy of the investigation obtain the answer to the
research questions?
Comments:

Population Sampling and Instruments

1. Is the research population clearly defined?
2. Is the sample clearly representative of the population to which the results
are to be generalized?
3. Are there adequate safeguards to remove sampling bias?
4. Are the instruments for the gathering data properly identified?
5. Is the validation process
indicated? Comments:

Statistical Treatment
1. Is the data analysis procedure identified?
2. Is the statistical tool appropriate for the analysis of data?
3. Is the statistical design appropriate for the
hypotheses? Comments:

GENERAL REMARKS/SUGGESTIONS

OVERALL EVALUATION

Approved
Disapproved
Revise, Minor revision, No need to resubmit
Revise, Major revision, Need to resubmit

Date:
Evaluator:
Signature:

Proponents:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

102
 Appendix I

Self-Medication Practice Questionnaire

Self-Medication Questionnaire
Part I. General information section
Name: (Optional)
Age: 17-19 yrs. Old 20-22 yrs. Old 23-25 yrs. Old 26 and up
Sex: Female Male Prefer not to say it
Direction: Select only 1 choice by checking (✓) the appropriate box below.

1. Total family income in a month:

Below Php 10,957.00 21,915.00 – 43,828.00

10,958.00 – 21,914.00 Above 43,828.00

2. Course:

College of Agriculture, College of Arts and Sciences College of Business and Management
Fisheries and Allied Sciences (CAS) (CBM)
(CAFAS)
BSF BAELS BSBA BSHM
BSAB-Escalante BSBio BSCM BSAIS
BSA BPA BSHRM
BSTM

College of Criminal Justice College of Education (Coed) College of Information

Education (CCJE) Communication Technology and
Engineering (CICTE)

BSCrim BPED BSLIS BSIS

BSED BSIT
BTLED BSEMC

College of Nursing and Allied Sciences

BSN Diploma in Midwifery

3. Year level:

1st year 3rd year

2nd year 4th year

103
Part II. Self-medicating scale

Taken from Delyth H. James and David P. French: The development of the Self-Medicating
Scale (SMS): a scale to measure people’s beliefs about self-medication. This scale measures
people’s beliefs about self-medication regarding the common flu. It measures reluctance to self-
mediate, and ease of self-medication.

Direction: The following statements are about how often you take medication for the common flu.
Think about how true the statements are for you and answer as accurately as you can by clicking
one appropriate circle in each row.

*Flu, a common name of influenza, is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses (Cleveland
Clinic, 2023).

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Not at Rarely Sometimes Often All the

all
time

I. Perceived Severity

Category A: Frequency of self-medication

I practice self-medication when common flu

symptoms emerge

I practice self-medication for common flu (in

the last 3 months):

● Once a week

● Once a month

● Two-three times a week

● Daily (in a week)

104
II. Perceived Susceptibility

Category B: Common flu symptoms

The following complaints for self-medication

in the last 3 months:

● Headache

● Fever

● Cough

● Stuffy/runny nose

● Body pain/Muscle pain

Category C: Label of medication

I read the label (name of drug, frequency,

dosage, expiration date,) of the medication
before self-medicating

III. Perceived Benefits

Category D: Common medications used

The following medications I use for common

flu symptoms:

● Analgesics (reduce pain –ex. Advil,

Naproxen, Mefenamic etc.)
● Antipyretics (reduce fever – ex.
Biogesic, Paracetamol etc.)
● Decongestants (relieve stuffy nose – ex.
Neozep etc.)

105
 ● Antitussives/expectorants (suppress cough
– ex. Robitussin etc.)

● Vitamins (boost immune system – ex.

Poten-cee)

IV. Perceived Barrier

Category F: Reasons for self-diagnosis and self-medication

I practice self-medication because of:

● Long distance to the health facility

● Mildness of the problem

● High consultation fees

● Fear of visiting hospitals/clinics

● Emergency use/quick relief

● Unavailability of health services

Category G: Sources of knowledge about medication usage

Scori I practice self-medication without any

Scoring: professional advice or prior knowledge (If

rarely, sometimes, often, or all the time,
proceed to category F)

I practice self-medication based on what I

saw/heard on:

● Internet/social media

● TV and radio commercials

Based on:

● My peers/colleagues/families’ advices
● My cultural/religious beliefs
6
10
(1) = Not at all
(2) = Rarely
(3) = Sometimes
(4) = Often
(5) = All the time

10
 Appendix J

Curriculum Vitae

Personal
Data

Full Name: Ely Mae B. Abunin

Date of Birth: October 26, 2000

Address: Cadiz City

Father's Name: Jaime Abunin

Mother's Name: Ely B. Abunin

Scholastic Background

Elementary: SPED training center

Secondary: Dr. Vicente F. Gustilo Memorial National High

School

Tertiary: One state college in Negros Occidental

Course: Bachelor of Science in Nursing

108
 Curriculum Vitae

Personal Data

Full Name: Shybelle O. Langbid

Date of Birth: October 14,2001

Address: Poblacion, Toboso, Negros Occidental

Father's Name: Eulogio Langbid Jr.

Mother's Name: Marlene Langbid

Scholastic Background

Elementary: Toboso Central School

Secondary: Toboso National High School

Tertiary: One state college in Negros Occidental

Course: Bachelor of Science in Nursing

109
 Curriculum Vitae

Personal Data

Full Name: Frances Precila Rae Q. Mateos

Date of Birth: February 28,2000

Address: Bacolod City

Father's Name: Benjamin Mateos

Mother's Name: Jocilyn Mateos

Scholastic Background

Elementary: Bacolod Christian College of Negros

Secondary: Negros Occidental High School

Tertiary: One state college in Negros Occidental

Course: Bachelor of Science in Nursing

110
 Curriculum Vitae

Personal Data

Full Name: Steffi Andrea D. Panaligan

Date of Birth: November 15,2001

Address: Victorias City

Father's Name: Noe C. Panaligan

Mother's Name: Jocelyn Panaligan

Scholastic Background

Elementary: Victorias Milling Elementary School

Secondary: Negros Occidental National Science High

School Tertiary: One state college in Negros Occidental

Course: Bachelor of Science in Nursing

111