ORIGINAL RESEARCH

published: 17 June 2021

doi: 10.3389/frma.2021.691247

Research and Technology

Organizations as Super
Intermediaries: A Conceptual
Framework for Policy and a Case
Edited by:
Giuseppe Calignano, Study From Tanzania
Inland Norway University of Applied
Sciences, Norway Gussai H. Sheikheldin *†
Reviewed by:
Rasigan Maharajh, Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Research Organization (STIPRO), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Tshwane University of Technology,
South Africa
Research and Technology Organizations (RTOs) have key roles in stories of national
Mafini Dosso,
European Commission, Joint industrial development in many countries, and in various contexts they have
Research Centre, Spain transformed according to changes in their surrounding economic and policy
*Correspondence: environments. This paper proposes a conceptual framework of ‘RTOs as super
Gussai H. Sheikheldin
[email protected]
intermediaries’ as they play multiple intermediary roles in the triple helix
†
ORCID:
(government, research and industry), the overlap of industrial policy and research
Gussai H. Sheikheldin policy, and research-industry frontiers. The framework helps in understanding and
orcid.org/0000-0001-8734-3134
advancing the role of RTOs in industrial development, particularly in developing
countries. For a case study, the paper showcases research in Tanzania that
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to explored possibilities of revamping RTOs and whether investing in them would
Research Policy help in spurring Tanzania’s industrial development. Through key informant
and Strategic Management, a
section of the journal interviews and systemic literature review, a case study on the challenges and
Frontiers in Research Metrics and opportunities of RTOs was designed to examine their role and potential in
Analytics
industrial development and technology innovation processes. The study findings
Received: 05 April 2021
were overall in-line with two main lenses of inquiry: 1) that for RTOs to play their
Accepted: 31 May 2021
Published: 17 June 2021 key roles in Tanzania, industrial policies shaped by the command economy era before
Citation: the 1990s need to be reviewed and modified; and 2) that more investment in
Sheikheldin GH (2021) Research and revamping RTOs will take place if policymaking processes acknowledge RTOs as
Technology Organizations as Super
Intermediaries: A Conceptual super intermediaries. To organize policy lessons drawn, a multi-level policy
Framework for Policy and a Case map—micro, meso and macro—was utilized as an analytical tool.
Study From Tanzania.
Front. Res. Metr. Anal. 6:691247. Keywords: research and technology organizations (RTOs), industrial development, research policy, triple helix (TH)
doi: 10.3389/frma.2021.691247 model, innovation systems, Tanzania

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

INTRODUCTION transfer of outputs.” (p. 1). Preissl (2006) showed that RTOs in
Europe were already changing their modes of operation as
Industrial, Research and Technology Organizations have various national economies shift towards service economies. Rincón
names and classifications across countries, but a consensus has Díaz and Albors Garrigós (2017) discuss that while RTOs in
been reached in referring to them as RTOs.1 Some RTOs around regions of Spain are going through institutional reforms due to
the world have been key contributors to national industrialization economic changes (such as austerity policies that limit resources),
and in shaping their industrial policies (Nath and Mrinalini 2000; "technological policy must consider the characteristics of each
United Nations’ Economic Commission for Africa, 2016). For region" to make the changes efficient and realistic (p. 180).
example, RTOs in newly industrialized economies (NIEs) of Asia Changes to RTOs are reportedly connected to how
combined technological innovation and enterprise incubation to policymakers perceive or understand their role in the bigger
conceive and diffuse key products and systems in their countries’ picture—when models of RTOs are persuading, they capture
industries and markets (Wolff 1999; Ash et al., 2006). Lall and more policymakers’ attention (Albors-Garrigos, Zabaleta and
Pietrobelli (2005) argue that, for many African countries RTOs Ganzarain 2010).
play a key role as contributors and indicators for either positive or This paper presents a study that aims to inform policy,
negative trajectories of national technology systems. Many RTOs planning and further research about the role of RTOs, in
are parastatals, meaning they are entities where the state is either support of industrialization and STI agenda, especially in
the owner or the main shareholder but the government does not developing countries. Through literature review and
directly manage their operations. RTOs focus on research and conceptual tools—tempered with fieldwork familiarity—a
development (R&D) with the purpose of playing a critical conceptual framework is proposed to understand the role of
intermediary role between applied research in science, RTOs in industrial development and STI advancement as well as
technology and innovation (STI), industries, markets and guide policy efforts to improve their capabilities and orientations.
related policies according to national development agenda. Using the framework as a lens of inquiry, the paper then presents
Typically, they run as research centres hosting researchers, a case study of RTOs in Tanzania, based on a research that aimed
technologists, and others, with a view to improve technological to identify policy challenges and opportunities of RTOs’ reform in
capabilities in chosen sectors through finding and materializing the country.
technological and systems solutions to industrial and In Tanzania, parastatals proliferated in the 1970s to build
development problems, adapting and modifying foreign financial, agricultural, infrastructure, manufacturing and service
technologies for local/national contexts or inventing new industries. Their broad and varied experiences have been amply
technological products or services to meet local demands, and studied (Loxley and Saul 1975; Coulson 1982; World Bank 1988;
providing technical and policy assistance to industries and Bongenaar and Szirmai 2000; Oyelaran-Oyeyinka and Sampath
governments (acting as consultancies and/or think tanks). The 2007; Temu and Due 2000). Decades later, most of them were
European Association of Research and Technology Organizations either decommissioned or privatized while a few remain as they
[European Association of Research and Technology Organization were. As R&D parastatals, RTOs in Tanzania are called ‘public
(EARTO), 2015] defines RTOs’ core mission as, “to harness technology intermediaries’ (URT 2015a; Diyamett and Risha
science and technology in the service of innovation, to 2015). According to the Tanzania industrial competitiveness
improve quality of life and build economic competitiveness” report 2015, most of its RTOs remain active to date but with
(2015, 3). The role that RTOs play is unique; Giannopoulou low productivity and many challenges. Before that, Tanzania has
et al. (2019) found that RTOs play different (but complimentary) gone through various stages and challenges to industrialization
roles in national innovation systems than academic institutions since political independence, from import substitution in the
(universities) and that investing in RTOs renders different early years of independence, to command economy policies from
outcomes as well. the late 1960s to the early 1980s, fostering a slow but steady
Worldwide, RTOs have gone through various industrial progress between 1975 and 1986, a period in which
transformations, with many due to the changes in their RTOs were quite active (also a period that witnessed many
national/regional contexts and enabling environments. Sharif setbacks due to exogenous political and economic
and Baark (2011) observed that RTOs in Europe and Asia circumstances, such as the Kagera war, severe droughts, and
were undergoing transitions due to key shifts in the global economic crises unfavourable to local industrialization), to
environment within which they operate; particularly the structural adjustment policies between 1986 and 1995 that failed
authors highlighted "the increasing pressure to commercialise to increase industrialization, to the current period of prioritizing
research outputs and the internationalisation of the research industrialization through national planning under mixed-
endeavor, providing new opportunities for both funding and economy policies (Wangwe et al., 2014; Morrissey and Leyaro
2015; Msame and Wangwe 2016). A summarized history of
Tanzania’s periods of industrial development and guiding
1
policies is in Table 1.
According to WAITRO (World Association of Industrial and Technological
Research Organizations), the most recognized global umbrella for such
For the last decade, Tanzania has been planning and working
organizations (and part of the United Nations apparatus), the acronym RTOs to usher industrialization as a means of economic development
covers a wide but well-defined spectrum. They have also been called ‘industrial (URT, Ministry of Industry and Trade, 2011; URT, Ministry of
support organizations’, ‘public technology intermediaries’, ‘R&D parastatals’, etc. Finance and Planning, 2016). It has maintained a high level of

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

TABLE 1 | Summary of history of industrial development since independence in Tanzaniaa.

Period Main industrial features Notes

1961 to Import substitution policy with little state participation —

1967
1967 to The arusha declaration established an era of command economy (in planning and National scientific research council (NSRC - UTAFITI) and small industries
1975 execution). Means of production were nationalized and wealth distribution development organization (SIDO) were established in this period
centralized. The state owned more industry and controlled foreign investment
flows
1975 to A basic industrial strategy (BIS) was put together to achieve economic growth Most research and technology organizations (RTOs) were established in
1986 through local resources. Slow but steady industrial progress took place over this this period: TIRDO, TEMDO, CAMARTEC and COSTECH.
period, and national R&D institutions—such as PTIs - were relatively productive. Several external circumstances hindered the BIS performance, such as
Practices of price controls, import licenses and exchange rate overvaluation were global economic crises of the 1970s, the kagera war, shifting terms of
not conducive to rapid industrialization trade, severe droughts and the collapse of the first east african community
1986 to The economic recovery program (ERP) tried to redress imbalances that came with When privatization and trade liberalization were prescribed to Tanzania,
1995 adopting a package of structural adjustment pushed by international main through the structural adjustment program, it was understood that a
multilateral donors, as ways of stimulating growth and increasing industrialization. necessary phase of stagnation might happen as a result. However that
A period of privatization and trade liberalization ensued, but generally did not lead phase stretched longer than prophesized
to increased industrialization; rather the opposite
1995 to Privatization of industries was followed by measures to create incentives for “The most dynamic [industrial] subsectors in terms of output growth,
2015 private investment and industries (foreign and local). Additionally, a sustainable export growth, production innovation, and product diversity are food
industry development policy was adopted in pursuit of sustainable industrial products, plastic and rubber, chemicals, basic metal work, and non-
development—i.e., increasing employment and economic growth, reach metallic mineral products” [Msame and Wangwe, (2016), 155]
equitable development, and mix import substitution with export promotion
2016 to The 2nd national development plan (FYDP-II) prioritizes industrialization and FYDP-II highlights some RTOs to be involved in flagship projects, but
2020 enhancing human capital capacity and emphasizes the use of STI for that without focus on RTOs themselves
purpose. Tanzania seeks to usher a new era with intensified use of STI in
development agenda and aiming to reach a semi-industrialized economy status
by 2025
a
Sources: Msame and Wangwe 2016; Morrissey and Leyaro 2015; Wangwe et al., 2014; URT, Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2016.

economic stability and reasonable growth over the past decade, contemporary national planning aims to graduate to a middle-
receiving recognition among the growing economies of Africa. income, semi-industrial economy by 2025. As a strategy for
Yet there are some qualifiers to consider, such as that the achieving that goal, its 5-years national development plan
country’s economic growth seems less significant when we 2016/17–2020/21 (FYDP-II) emphasizes industrialization and
adjust it by considering population growth, becoming not human development as a twin priority and highlights the
highly above the average growth rate for sub-Saharan Africa fostering and utilization of science, technology and innovation
(Page 2016). Additionally, decent-wage jobs that offer (STI) for that purpose.
employment security have not increased in concert with After this introductory section of the paper, a conceptual
overall growth, while the country has been seeking to framework for understanding the role of RTOs is proposed.
productive industries to address development and employment Following that is a section describing the case study design
challenges more effectively (World Bank 2014). The industrial (including methodology) of Tanzanian RTOs. Findings of the
sector—including manufacturing, agro-industry and skilled study are then organized using a multi-level policy map (part of
tradable services—has been largely absent from the Tanzania the study design) in addition to summarizing brief comparative
recent economic growth story, with significant long-term cases from outside Tanzania. Discussion of the findings follows,
consequences. The industrial sector is capable of absorbing and the final section provides conclusions and broad
large numbers of skilled labour, thereby increasing recommendations for policy reform.
employment and overall purchasing power in the economy.
Aspects of supportive infrastructure in the country make
conditions more challenging, such as energy and roads
(Newman et al., 2016; United Republic of Tanzania 2017).
RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY
Additionally, more than 70% of Tanzania’s private sector is in ORGANIZATIONS AS SUPER
the informal economy, painting a private sector that is dominated INTERMEDIARIES: TRIPLE HELIX, POLICY
by lower skills and limited access to finance and technology AND CONSULTANCY
transfer (URT 2015b). Tanzanian small-and-medium enterprises
(SMEs), and their clusters, do not yet have the requisite industrial This paper proposes a conceptual framework that sees RTOs as
capacity (Musonda 2007), and they must have it to industrialize super intermediaries—meaning that they play multi-faceted
the country’s economy. Overall, the big picture says that recent intermediary roles, in modern societies, in systems that
records of economic growth have not yet rendered proportional combine major actors such as government, industry and
genuine economic development. On the other hand, Tanzania’s research circles (the triple helix model) as well as key policy

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

fields such as industrial policy and research policy (Figure 1). In In the research policy literature, it has become an axiom that
other words, RTOs are no ordinary intermediaries, and their continuous research is needed to inform sound research
importance should be duly heightened. In the triple helix, RTOs policy—particularly STI policy. The importance of using
are situated at the interface of that model, as they interact research to influence public policy, including research policy
extensively with the three components of the helix and also itself, invoked fields such as ‘science of science policy’ and
perform functions that are typically within the “specialization” ‘building science systems’ (Fealing et al., 2011; Eboh 2014;
of each component—a feat rarely witnessed in other Diyamett, Makundi and Sheikheldin 2019; Hanlin et al., 2021).
organizations. In the policy arena, the overlap between In these fields RTOs have been studied to explore their critical
industrial policy and research policy is one of the most critical role, one that made Hanlin et al. (2018) and Chataway et al.
areas in a country’s national innovation/technology system, and (2019) call some RTOs ‘boundary organizations’—i.e., placed at
RTOs epitomize that overlap, not only in their role as key the boundaries where innovation, science and policy actors meet
implementers of such policies but also as contributors to their (i.e., intermediaries).
making, since RTOs also function as policy advisors and think In innovation systems’ studies, it is well-established that RTOs
tanks in both policy fields. Finally, at the interface of research and ‘have a pivotal role to play in creating national innovation
industry RTOs are there as consultancy and technical support systems’ (Nath and Mrinalini 2008, 37), or national
providers to industrial firms, university researchers, training technology systems (Lall and Pietrobelli 2005), especially in
programs, etc. In the big picture, RTOs are uniquely situated developing countries where they have been active at the
to play key roles in spurring industrial development and interface of research and production. The difference between
innovation. innovation and technology systems here is only contextual, with
Understanding their place as super intermediaries, we can see the latter concept arguably evolving from a critical assessment of
RTOs as deserving of serious attention—especially from two concepts: national innovation systems (Lundvall 1992) and
policymakers and policymaking processes—whenever a national industrial systems (Pietrobelli 2001). “Since the bulk of
country’s industrial and STI development plans are discussed, technological activity in (developing countries) concerns the
and whenever such issues are studied. In developing countries, absorption and improvement of existing technologies rather
particularly ones that are endeavoring to soon become than innovation at the Frontier, we prefer to use the term
industrialized or semi-industrialized, special attention must be ‘national technology system’ in developing countries rather
paid to RTOs under that orientation—their needs, their than ‘national innovation system” (Lall and Pietrobelli 2005,
capacities, and their assigned functions in national 313). Developing countries find themselves in need to hone
development plans. conventional industrial development practices such as
The proposed conceptual framework is supported by technology transfer, basic R&D (as opposed to Frontier R&D),
theoretical and empirical literature from three overlapping reverse engineering, etc. which are not necessarily ‘innovative’ per
fields of study: industrial development, research policy and the standard definition but can increase industrial and
innovation systems—all of which have something relevant to technological outputs and capabilities. Yet, it is also possible to
say about RTOs. Recent literature on industrial development understand that national innovation systems do not necessarily
suggests that policies can make or break successful stories of always speak about innovation at the Frontier, but rather what is
industrialization around the world. In a 2016 volume, ‘Frontier’ at a specific context; RTOs have been known to
comprised of various industrial development comparative sometimes ‘innovate’, in that sense, at national/regional levels
case studies, the editors relayed that, “comparative results in developing societies. Additionally, in both industrialized and
from (Africa and Asia) case studies suggest that policy developing countries, and due to their significant role in
choices are largely responsible for the differences in knowledge brokering and spurring innovation through
industrialization outcomes” (Newman et al., 2016, 20). multiple tasks in the national innovation systems, some RTOs
Furthermore, a 2016 report by the United Nations’ Economic are classified as ‘innovation intermediaries’ among other actors
Commission for Africa asserted that historical evidence points (Howells 2006; Kilelu et al., 2011).
towards ‘transformative industrial policy for Africa’ as a main All in all, the proposed conceptual framework of ‘RTOs as
engine for economic development. Oqubay (2016) also reads the super intermediaries’ stands on justified grounds.
history of NIEs to extract, in no vague terms, how industrial
policies were key to their industrialization. The above-
mentioned studies do not fail to mention the significant role REVITALIZING RESEARCH AND
of RTOs, as they provide technical support, training, and TECHNOLOGY ORGANIZATIONS IN
incubation to two important actors: state-owned enterprises
(SOEs) and SMEs, in addition to providing policymakers with
TANZANIA: STUDY DESIGN
sufficient industrial information and technical advice about key This study was designed for policy learning and of possibilities,
sectors and trends. Additionally, global comparative studies on using historical case study strategy. Through constructing a
RTOs confirm that their efficacy lies in being effective narrative from key informants’ feedback and systemic
intermediaries between R&D and industry, with actionable literature review, lessons for policy could then be relayed
accuracy being more important than classical quantitative through a format of lessons and recommendations. Key
indicators of performance (Nath and Mrinalini 2000; 2008). informants that were targeted for this study are senior

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

personnel in RTOs and relevant institutions, such as ministries, RTOs belong in one way or another including their networks of
universities and RTOs from other countries of relevance. As communication and collaboration, and how much they know
holders of intimate knowledge on the topic they would not only about each other and support each other (or compete with each
articulate the challenges and issues clearly, as insiders, but also other), a situation that calls for responses at a collective level
provide informed opinions about opportunities and what could between such actors but not necessarily in the form of macro/
be changed in terms of policies to make opportunities within government intervention—that is the meso level (or the
reach. The role of the researcher consisted of asking key transactional environment). Thirdly, there are challenges that
questions, collecting responses, comparing and balancing with are particular to the organizational (micro) level, at which each
existing relevant literature, and synthesizing findings, to follow by RTO is expected to resolve internally. Additionally, in
discussion and lessons. synthesizing policy ideas, the study aimed to make sure to
The research question for this study was: What are the policy align its content with national policy directives of the country
barriers and opportunities, surrounding RTOs in Tanzania, that where the study took place, in order to be relevant to context and
influence their role as super intermediaries? limitations.
The two guiding lenses of inquiry, or broad motivations for
this study, or the approach that guided the study, were: Methodology
Historical case study strategy was deemed a fitting
1) that the current challenges that RTOs face can be traced down methodological approach to the study (Verschuren 2003;
to two constraints: regulations and revenues, and that these Bennett 2004). According to Verschuren (2003), a case study
constraints are an institutional/policy legacy, from their early strategy is characterised by “looking at only a few strategically
years of establishment, during the command economy era in selected cases, observed in their natural context in an open-ended
Tanzania, when the state dominated economic sectors and way, explicitly avoiding tunnel vision, making use of analytical
intervened heavily in the market. When the shift towards a comparison of cases or sub-cases, and it aimed at description and
mixed-economy orientation happened in Tanzania, explanation of complex and entangled group attributes, patterns,
throughout the 1990s and into the new millennium, RTOs structures or processes” (p.138). In order to learn lessons for the
were not restructured to suit the new context; and sake of informing policy, given that policy deals with complex
2) that more investment in revamping RTOs will take place if factors entangled in real-world problems, a qualitative case study
policymaking processes acknowledge RTOs as key players on approach made more sense as a methodological/design choice for
multiple fronts (i.e., super intermediaries). this study, and most of the data/information gathered was
qualitative. RTOs are limited in numbers and are varied in
The first lens was based on critical learning and size, specialization and structure in each country, therefore
understanding, from the author’s previous and present could not be quantitatively compared to each other or to
research and work in Tanzania2 as well as from its history of similar organizations in other countries. Additionally, given
political economy and industrial development (Loxley and Saul that the research question and lens of inquiry are policy/
1975; Coulson 1982; Morrissey and Leyaro 2015). The second governance oriented, with insight to be sought about different
lens was based on the conceptual framework developed from the levels of policies in long term and without well-kept records of
literature review conducted for this study (and later improved performance indicators in the country, a quantitative approach
through field observations). would have been too shallow, if not unattainable.
The study used sets of cases and comparative cases to build
Multi-Level Policy Map intelligence through two main research tools: key informant
The design of the study also aimed to make policy aspects well interviews and systemic literature review. The case Tanzanian
organized. For that, a multi-level policy map was chosen as a RTOs were: COSTECH (Tanzania Commission for Science &
supporting analytical tool (for analysing findings): macro, meso, Technology), TIRDO (Tanzania Industrial Research and
and micro policy levels. These levels are also called levels of Development Organization (TIRDO), 2011), SIDO (Small
institution-based scenarios (Van Notten 2006). A multi-level Industries Development Organization (SIDO), 2014),
policy map designates levels that explored policies targeted in CAMARTEC (Centre for Agricultural Mechanization and
the big institutional/national picture (Figure 2). The rationale for Rural Technology) and TEMDO (Tanzania Engineering and
using this multi-level policy map is that, firstly, RTOs operate Manufacturing Design Organization (TEMDO), 2011). All
under a similar national environment (the enabling or contextual these organizations are RTOs with different yet overlapping
environment) which reflects into common challenges that require functions within the Tanzanian state apparatus that promote
attention at the macro level. Secondly, there are also challenges R&D, industrial support and technology transfer and innovation
(and opportunities) that are more-or-less common among the (URT 1973; 1979; 1980; 1981; 1986). While COSTECH is mainly
RTOs but are neither contingent on the enabling environment a science-granting council3 that supports and manages scientific
nor on the organization-level practices. Such challenges relate to
the nature of relations among actors in a sector to which all these
3
Science granting councils (SGCs) are public institutions that often fund science
and technology research, in addition to managing and coordinating such research
2
See Sheikheldin (2015); Sheikheldin and Devlin (2019) in references. (for more info, Hanlin et al., 2018).

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

TABLE 2 | Research Participant Organizations (RTO case studies)a.

Organization Brief description Established Size Notes

since. . .

— COSTECH—Commission for Mandate: Principal advisory organ 1986 (1972) Nationwide; HQ in dar es salaam Successor of the national
science and technology of the government on the use of plus one branch in zanzibar. 22 scientific research council (NSRC
science and technology for technical staff total (10 PhDs, 23 - UTAFITI) that was established in
national development. Promotes master’s) 1972
and coordinates research for STI
improvement as well as
popularizes STI in society.
Represents the state in bilateral
and multilateral national STI
programs. Reports to ministry of
education, science and
technology
— TIRDO—Tanzania industrial Mandate: To undertake applied 1979 Nationwide, with only one Viewed as technically the flagship
research and development research which leads to industrial premises (HQ) in dar es salaam. of R&D RTOs in Tanzania, since it
organization utilization of local materials, and Estate is large but not fully utilized. was the first with a clear mandate
support industry in technology 78 workers total, 39 technical for specific industrial R&D
transfer and technical services. staff (8 PhD, 14 master’s, 8
Goal is to become a leading advanced technical
industrial research hub and make specialization, and the rest with
tanzanian industries become basic technical training)
locally and internationally
competitive. Reports to ministry of
industry and trade
— SIDO—Small industries Mandate: To create, promote and 1973 Nationwide; 21 offices 21 There is little in-house R&D, but a
development organization sustain innovative entrepreneurial branches/regional offices which lot of collaboration with the other
base by providing SMEs with are located in each region around RTOs to disseminate their R&D
technical services, training, market the country. The largest size results to small businesses
intelligence, and business among the cases. 401 workers adoption
incubation. Reports to ministry of total (including 40 master’s, 80
industry advanced technical
specialisation, and others with
basic technical training)
— CAMARTEC—Centre for Mandate: To function as an 1981 Nationwide; two premises: HQ in The youngest and most specific
agricultural mechanization and innovation centre for testing and arusha and nzega branch in mandate among the RTOs
rural technology building agricultural machinery and tabora region. 72 technical staff
rural technology, disseminate (one PhD, 4 masters’, 10
improved technologies for advanced technical
agricultural and rural development, specialisation, and the rest with
and support small enterprises that basic technical training)
embark on innovating and
marketing agricultural or rural
technological products. Reports
to ministry of industry
— TEMDO—Tanzania engineering & Mandate: To research, develop 1980 Nationwide presence; one office In its early days, TEMDO led a
manufacturing design and transfer plants and equipment (HQs) in arusha. 31 technical staff few important national projects of
organization for commercial manufacturing and (7 master’s degree; 9 advanced technological ambition
deliver competitive engineering technical specialisation, and the
manufacturing knowhow and R&D rest with basic technical training)
services to the industrial sector.
Reports to ministry of industry
a
Table cumulated by the author using data from multiple sources, but Mainly Diyamett and Risha (2015) and the Industrial Competitiveness Report, 2015.

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

TABLE 3 | consensus statements from key informants (organized to analytical tool: multi-level policy map).

Micro Meso Macro

Constraints Constraints Constraints

Being almost exclusively state-funded, RTOs face tight RTOs are not successful at attracting and retaining Due to being commissioned as public-sector
government budget constraints and fluctuating enough highly skilled individuals who can lead and institutions RTOs are not able, by law, to commercialize
political support. As a result, they often receive less manage innovative R&D and industrial support projects their technological inventions/innovations (i.e. have in-
budget support than officially promised by the state house commercial mass-production and sale)
Observations Observations Observations
RTOs are already involved in some revenue-generating The scope and breadth of research collaborations that RTOs do not have strategies of dissemination of ready-
activities. Additionally, some RTOs join collaborative exist on paper—in forms of MOUs, networks and for-market innovations
projects with national agencies that take care of the bilateral/multilateral agreements—is not reflected in
project’s budget including the RTOs’ activities’ costs. reality. Officially there are many arrangements and
However, these activities contribute minimally and mechanisms in place for collaboration among RTOs, but
inconsistently to their budgets in reality they work in siloes
— RTOs seem to have a general misunderstanding that their Policy orientation under command economy had
performance is measured towards producing novel implications such as that RTOs dealt mostly with other
technologies, but as intermediary organizations for commercial parastatals. With the advent of mixed
industrial support they are mainly expected to do economy policies, however, RTOs had to interact with
‘adaptation work,’ i.e. adapting technologies from various broader industries according to market rules. Policies
sources to local use and practices of RTOs remained the same while
Tanzania changed economic models
Suggestions Suggestions Suggestions
Improve HR capacity by hiring more skilled staff, RTOs should work together and communicate much Acts of parliament governing RTOs (each and all)
upgrading skills of existing staff, and giving them more and should strengthen linkages with equivalent should be amended/updated
satisfying packages organizations in neighbouring countries
Improve the management systems of RTOs to Harmonize skills between RTOs and universities, so that All RTOs should be managed under one umbrella,
optimize use of human, capital and financial resources there can be a horizontal two-way movement of qualified instead of running under various ministries as they
in projects personnel are now
Regulations to increase practical programs such as RTOs’ clients should be empowered by measures such —
incubators as including industry members in BODs
Improvement of infrastructure: Finish unfinished — —
buildings in RTO premises, renew machine shops with
modern equipment, and make laboratories certified

research nationwide, it also has its own technology transfer and included relevant public information, guided tours, and
R&D activities.4 SIDO focuses more on supporting SMEs with published literature. For data analysis, a qualitative research
industrial orientation to acquire and develop technological software (Nvivo v.11) was used.
capabilities and resources to survive business bottlenecks, but
it also conducts its own R&D in the process and collaborates with
the other RTOs on R&D projects. TIRDO, CAMARTEC and FINDINGS
TEMDO are mainly applied research and R&D focused, easily
fulfilling the orthodox RTO definition. Table 2 provides
summaries of their profiles.
Tanzanian Research and Technology
A guideline was designed to lead semi-structured interviews Organizations Challenges and
with selected key informants. About 35 Interviews were Opportunities
conducted, between April and June of 2016, mostly in-person. In this section, grouped and similar statements (consensus
Guided tours around RTO facilities—to aid perspective on size, statements) from the key informant interviews are
activities and capabilities—were provided to the researcher, as summarized and grouped according to the analytical
well as some prepared presentations (by key informants).5 Other tool—‘micro, meso and macro’ policy map—in Table 3.
communications and meetings took place in Kenya and Malaysia, Another classification of statements follows the content of
in informal settings, with relevant personnel (such as senior statements: constraints, observations and suggestions. While
personnel with SIRIM and the Malaysian ministry of STI) and Table 3 provides the summary, some elaboration is
provided below.
Three major constraints were mentioned consistently by
personnel from Tanzanian RTOs. The first is revenue
4
According to COSTECH’s leading personnel we interviewed for this project.
5
Interviews were not recorded (audio or video). Responses were written down
constraints: being almost exclusively state-funded, RTOs face
during each interview. This way of recording answers was deemed suitable for this
research, through the research ethics approval process completed with REB of the
tight government budget constraints and fluctuating political
University of Guelph, and has the advantage of making interviewees more relaxed support. As a result, they often receive less budget support
and interactive in the interview. Consent forms were signed by all interviewees than officially promised by the state. In addition, RTOs have
and/or their organizations. little exposure and access to other reliable sources of funding, for

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

which they must compete against entities with larger research they registered no patents for any of their multiple technological
capacities such as universities. The second is regulatory innovations. Therefore, arguments about whether RTOs can
constraints: RTO personnel claimed that, since commissioned create spin-offs, incubate systemically and utilize patents
as public-sector institutions they are not able, by law, to remain largely theoretical to date.
commercialize their technological inventions/innovations The Tanzanian national development guiding documents,
(i.e., have in-house commercial mass-production and sale). such as FYDP-II, IIDS 2025 and the Tanzania Development
They said that once design prototypes are finalized, tested and Vision 2025, generally acknowledge RTOs as instruments for
proven ready for public use, RTOs are expected to wait until they devising and modifying technologies that then are to be parts of
can handover their technologies to other entities to bigger flagship projects and sectoral plans. RTOs are expected to
commercialize them (such as private enterprises, capable be chartered with tasks of actualizing a package of policies of
NGOs, commercial parastatals, etc., ), but such scenario rarely promoting industrialization. The FYDP-II states that it is
happens. The third constraint is human resource capacity: for intending to approach industrialization in a ‘business unusual’
various reasons, RTOs are not successful at attracting and manner, which implies that there will be ‘fundamental
retaining enough highly skilled individuals who can lead and restructuring and repositioning in government undertakings’
manage innovative R&D and industrial support projects. Apart (FYDP-II 2016; ii). RTOs had good reasons to be optimistic
from a small number of qualified personnel, RTOs are often about the FYDP-II, as expressed by study respondents. Yet, the
unable to compete with universities, international agencies and plan itself does not have a strategy of revamping RTOs, except for
big companies for the limited pool of relevant talents in Tanzania. assigning some partial tasks to some of them. Yet, lessons from
It is difficult to study the human capacities of RTOs in detail since the study tell that RTOs need to revamp in order to do their job.
the turnover of qualified personnel is relatively high. As for observations, key informant respondents provided
A majority of RTO respondents consistently mentioned these commentaries and statements that showed keen readings into
constraints with variation. If we look at one case, for example, aspects of the situation of RTOs. One observation is that,
TIRDO, we find that conditions that were generally described in currently, RTOs are already involved in some revenue-
the year 2000 about the performance of the RTO, in a detailed generating activities, in the form of technical consultancies,
study (Bongenaar and Szirmai 2000), have not changed much: training workshops, rental of some of their property space,
and paid fabrications (by request) to some clients.
“(The) study of TIRDO examined 12 of the 25 Additionally, for periods, some RTOs join collaborative
technology projects undertaken during 1979–1996. . .. projects with national agencies that take care of the project’s
The authors found that most projects were undertaken budget including the RTOs’ activities costs. However, these
at the initiative of TIRDO staff rather than at the request activities contribute minimally and inconsistently to their
of industry. Project evaluation did not look in depth at budgets.
its technical or economic desirability for the economy Another observation is the scope and breadth of research
or at its environmental aspects. The original technology collaborations that exist on paper—in forms of MOUs, networks
on which projects were based was imported and mostly and bilateral/multilateral agreements—but are not activated for
over five years old. Success was defined by the technical one reason or another. Although officially there are many
objectives of the staff rather than by application in arrangements and mechanisms in place for collaboration
industry or commercial success . . . Once developed, among RTOs, respondents acknowledged that their RTOs
marketing of the technologies to potential users was generally work in siloes. Another observation is that these
weak . . . Despite its potential role in supporting, RTOs do not have strategies of dissemination of ready-for-
stimulating and producing industrial technology, market innovations. There is a common (and old) assumption
(TIRDO) has not so far been able to link itself to that good prototypes will eventually reach local industries, for
industry, identify industrial needs or provide new commercialization, in one way or another. This assumption
technologies.” (Lall and Pietrobelli 2005, 332). results in the absence of diffusion strategies.6 Along the same
observation, interviews with key informants outside RTOs argued
Respondents from COSTECH challenged the claim of the that RTOs seem to have a general misunderstanding that their
second constraint (regulatory constraints about generating own performance is measured towards producing novel technologies,
revenues). They argued that the legal acts that govern RTOs do which are good things to produce but not their main function.
not necessarily prohibit them from engaging in revenue- They argue that, as intermediary organizations for industrial
generating activities. Rather, RTOs have some flexibility for support, RTOs are mainly expected to do ‘adaptation work,’
limited (and justified) mass production. Additionally, RTOs i.e., adapting technologies from various sources to local use
still can create spin-off enterprises (that can be fully fledged and facilitating their adoption in society and the economy.7
for-profit, the revenues of which can be partly paid to the RTOs as A critical observation, by some RTO respondents, was directly
host/parent organizations) and generate revenue through patents related to this study’s lens of inquiry. Interviews and the relevant
and limited shares of returns from graduated incubatees; they also
can enter into agreements with industries that take-up their
technologies to get some royalties from commercial sales. As 6
Interview: XD07
for patents, respondents from RTOs acknowledged that, to date, 7
Interview: XB03

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

literature revealed that indeed, historical changes can explain major priority upon which the rest of the changes depend.12 For
much of the current constraints, and that RTOs themselves are example, a respondent proposed that taxes on industrial imports
aware of that.8 In its 2011–2016 strategic plan, TIRDO says: can be used to fund RTOs, especially imports that have local
equivalent products.13
“From 1980s to date, Tanzania has undergone various On improving the network of RTOs (meso level),
political, social and economical reforms and strategic respondents suggested that RTOs should work together and
changes. This includes the transformation from the communicate much more than currently so, and should also
state-controlled economy to a quasi-mixed economy strengthen linkages with equivalent organizations in
and fundamental changes in national policies and neighbouring countries, plus regional and international
strategies, which included the liberalization of the collaboration; for example, between Tanzanian and Kenyan
economy and privatization of industries. For RTOs.14 Another suggestion was to harmonize skills between
instance, from the 1970s up to 1990s the majority of RTOs and universities, so that there can be a horizontal two-
the industries were state owned. Currently, about 97% way movement of qualified researchers between them. This
of industries in Tanzania are privately owned while only will provide a good supply of researchers and research ideas for
about 2% are publicly owned.” (p.3). RTOs while provide university researchers with applied
research projects of national interest to work on.15 A few
Policy orientation under command economy had implications respondents suggested that RTOs’ clients should be
such as that RTOs dealt mostly with other commercial empowered by measures such as including private sector
parastatals, and according to Morrissey and Leyaro (2015), the members in governing boards of RTOs.16
system worked in a productive manner overall (albeit without On enhancing organizational capacity (micro level),
dramatic results), especially that the state was consistent in respondents suggested to improve HR capacity by hiring
establishing and supporting RTOs for clear goals, more skilled staff and upgrading skills of existing staff (with
i.e., policymakers acknowledged the critical, multi-faceted role scholarships to pursue advanced studies with local research
of RTOs in the national technology system and industrial projects, etc., ) and giving them convincing packages to stay
development, and there was a political will standing behind and continue.17 In addition, respondents suggested improving
their support. The acts of government that established RTOs the management systems of RTOs to optimize use of human,
(URT 1973; 1979; 1980; 1981; 1986) reflect that capital and financial resources in projects.18 Another
acknowledgement. With the advent of mixed economy suggestion was to put forth direct regulations to increase
policies, however, RTOs faced budget cut-downs and had to practical programs such as incubators.19 Several
interact with broader industries (mostly private) according to respondents also suggested the improvement of
market rules, where industries need persuasion to uptake new infrastructure: finish unfinished buildings in RTO premises,
technologies and where direct government support is limited. renew machine shops with modern equipment, and make
Policies and practices of RTOs remained unchanged while laboratories certified.20 A few respondents also suggested
Tanzania changed economic models, rendering a case of exploring innovative ways to make technologies of RTOs
‘command economy RTOs’ under a mixed economy state. affordable to clients, such as rentals or group ownership
Key informant respondents were also invited to provide their and installment-payments for agricultural machineries for
perspectives on how RTOs could enhance their performance small farmers.21
(i.e., suggestions). They were asked to provide suggestions
based on micro, meso and macro levels (as in the analytical
tool/policy map): Brief Comparative Cases: Kenya and
On improving the national enabling environment (macro Malaysia
level), respondents suggested that the acts of parliament The study briefly explored the situation of relevant RTOs in both
governing RTOs (each and all) should be amended, because Kenya and Malaysia, for brief comparative purposes.22 The
the current ones are outdated and seem to hinder broader
possibilities.9 Participants also suggested that all RTOs should
12
be managed under one umbrella, instead of running under Interviews: DA35, AB04, AD09, XC05, EA45, EB44, BA15, BB13, BD17
13
Interview: XB03
various ministries as they are now. TEMDO, TIRDO and 14
Interviews: XE09, AA07, CA26
CAMARTEC could work together more closely, because they 15
Interviews: XE09, DD37
do the same thing essentially.10 Several respondents emphasized 16
Interviews: AA07, CB24
that national political commitment (political will) is a must.11 17
Interviews: DA35, BC19
Additionally, increase of funding and financial resources is a 18
Interview: EA45
19
Interview: AB04
20
Interviews: XE09, DA35, BA15, CD25
21
Interviews: DA35, DB34
8 22
Interviews: EA45, BD17, AA07 and others Additionally, the researcher did not have the proper research clearance or the
9
Interviews: DD33, AA07, XC05, CC20, BA15, BE12 and others funds to systemically gather data from Kenya or Malaysia, and so only scouted the
10
Interviews: ED49, XD07 countries, met relevant people and gathered relevant public information within the
11
Interviews: CB24, BB13, BD17, CD25 limits allowed, legally and ethically, in a brief exploring tour.

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

selection of these two countries was based on expressed interests over 69% of R&D is funded by the state, while in Tanzania the
of the Tanzanian government and Tanzanian RTOs in learning same proportion is about 42%.27
from the two countries: short-term for Kenya and long-term for In Malaysia, the Standards and Industrial Research Institute of
Malaysia. Tanzania and Kenya share considerable aspects of their Malaysia [Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia
political-economic history as well as their policies of industrial (SIRIM), 2016] stands out. It was established in 1975, and today
development, since colonial times and the post-colonial East its main campus contains about 25 buildings (including
African Community years (Coulson 1982), yet they also laboratories, assembly and testing facilities, as well as offices)
diverge on several policies and circumstances that made with 2000 workers, and has several branches around the country.
Kenya’s current industrialization level, overall, ahead of SIRIM was corporatized in 1996, but the Malaysian state
Tanzania’s (Pietrobelli 2001; Lall and Pietrobelli 2005). As for continues to be its main source of revenue as a client of large-
Malaysia, it was selected as a benchmark—i.e., the country against scale services such as establishing and monitoring industrial and
which Tanzania is benchmarking progress toward product standards, conducting testing of products and
industrialization—because the Tanzanian government itself procedures for quality control, providing certified quality
declared Malaysia as a reference story for transforming from a training to workers on various key sectors, and conducting
low-income to middle-income, semi-industrialized country national industrial improvement projects sanctioned by the
(FYDP-II 2016; [Commission for Science and Technology government [Standards and Industrial Research Institute of
(COSTECH), 2015].23 Malaysia (SIRIM), 2015]. SIRIM produces periodical reports to
The Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation and the
(KIRDI) has relatively more resources at its disposal as well as a Ministry of Finance, so it is still a parastatal. What is noticeable is
larger number of highly qualified personnel in-house and a more that SIRIM conducts activities that are equitable to the overall
conducive enabling environment. These advantages were activities of several Tanzanian RTOs (such as TIRDO, TEMDO
correlated with more output to show for—more patents and CAMARTEC) and more, such as establishing and
registered than any of the Tanzanian RTOs involved in this maintaining national standards of products and industrial
study, more research publications, and more graduated procedures, which are similar to activities conducted by other
incubatees.24 According to KIRDI personnel, their staff overall metrology institutions in Tanzania and Kenya.28 In other words,
publish an average of 50 publications annually, about 20 patents the large size of SIRIM, and the prolific profile it boasts, may be
were filed, with one issued, and with plans to have them licensed partly attributed to that it is both logistically and officially an
to Kenyan industries.25 Through its own revenue-generating equivalent of multiple RTOs in Tanzania. SIRIM is partly a result
activities—such as consultancies, training programs, successful of keen investment that the Malaysian state placed in RTOs as
grant submissions, incubations and industry fellowships, mass part of its industrial policy. Rasiah and Shari (2001) and Lall
production for industry clients, and future licensing of (1995) highlight that Malaysia followed a broad and consistent
patents—KIRDI claims to be en route to becoming self- industrial development policy between the 1970s and
sustained by 2025. Lall and Pietrobelli (2005) attributed 1990s—‘New Economic Policy’—and that state investment in
improvements to the operations of KIRDI—which was more industrial R&D and commercial parastatals was part of that
or less in similar situation to Tanzania’s TIRDO in the 1990s—to policy. A combination of state direct intervention, investment
changes that began in 1994: “In 1994, the findings of a and incentives, as well as private sector support, drove Malaysia
United Kingdom team examining R&D institutions in Kenya through a period of accelerated industrialization. SIRIM was
led the government to reorient them to industrial needs. KIRDI given serious attention (indicating an appreciation of its multi-
was placed under a new director, who redefined its work to move faceted role as an RTO) and that investment has produced fruit.
from R&D to industrial technology support and reorganised the For example, SIRIM’s Industrial Incubator Scheme (for SMEs),
institution . . . ” (p. 332). According to 2010 innovation which started in 1986, “successfully graduated more than thirty
indicators,26 gross domestic government expenditure on R&D incubatees (by 2000) in various technology areas (such as) design
(GOVERD) in Kenya was 0.40% of the country’s GDP, with a and metal fabrication, plastic moulding, chemical and industrial
total of 0.79% of GDP spent on R&D (GERD); while in Tanzania biotechnology and electronics (and) at least 60 percent of SIRIM
GOVERD was 0.07% of GDP and GERD was 0.53%. In Kenya, incubator graduates (were) still in business.” (Yunos 2002, 186).

23
Malaysia’s story of national development is expected to guide many policies and
implementations that Tanzania will consider seriously for its own on-going story.
For example, ‘FYDP I initiated the Big Results Now (BRN) as one of its tools for
(Monitoring and Evaluation), particularly for tracking and ensuring
implementation in designated key result areas (KRAs). BRN was inspired by
27
Malaysia’s Big Fast Results approach. It is noted, however, that most of Tanzania’s expenditure on R&D went to higher
24
Interview: FA88 education, significantly more than Kenya (Source: NEPAD, 2010 and National
25
Numbers were not verified through official records or independent sources. Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation, Kenya (NACOSTI), 2014).
26 28
Sources: NEPAD. 2010 and 2014 (April). African Innovation Outlook (I and II); Interview: in-person interview with senior manager, SIRIM Industrial Research,
and World Bank Data; most recent available data. Kuala Lumpur.

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

FIGURE 1 | Conceptual framework of RTOs as super intermediaries.

FIGURE 2 | Multi-level Policy Map. *source of diagram idea: Van Notten

(2006). Remade by author for new context.
DISCUSSION AND LESSONS
Lessons learned from the key informants’ feedback and sufficient resources for remaining relevant in the big picture.
systemic literature review in this study confirm that the Tanzania invested in them previously, and at this phase of
Tanzanian triple helix, industry-research policy areas and aspiration for industrialization they can bring good return on
research-industry frontiers could use more proactive investment but only with additional investment. Given the
facilitators, i.e., intermediaries, to strengthen linkages current barriers, the potential of RTOs in Tanzania could not
between research, industry and government, to eke out be unlocked if they continue with the status quo. In situations like
more value and more technological supply to local these, things tend to continue in slow motion unless some
demand: (i.e., technology localization). RTOs are currently interventions disrupt business as usual. Policy changes may
in a peculiar place: they possess valuable technical skills, trigger changes that snowball into bigger ones inclusive of
knowhow, infrastructure, institutional memory, and national systems.
connections to urban and rural productive sectors. These An argument that could be supported from historical
assets would make them well-positioned to serve national evidence (in Tanzania and in countries where RTOs played
technology systems and technological innovation processes key roles in industrialization, mentioned earlier) is that it is
as super intermediaries. Moreover, if ways can be found to not enough for national policymakers to see RTOs as
alleviate institutional barriers and transform RTOs in a low- instrumental in bigger projects, but to see them as super
income country, the implications of such findings can feed intermediaries—i.e., playing a critical role in the big picture of
into relevant and effective policy packages for that country as multiple fronts: the triple helix, industrial-research policy
well as reach beyond one country to others with overlaps, and research-industry frontiers. If seen as such, it
similar cases. would follow that they will be utilized as such (or given room
to function as such) and it will also follow that investing in
revamping RTOs draws from investing in the said fronts
If Policymakers Saw RTOs as Super altogether. This change in perspective changes policy
Intermediaries orientation and hence prioritization of investing in RTOs in
As mentioned in the findings, Tanzania’s national plans generally themselves and not only as secondary participants in bigger
acknowledge RTOs as instrumental in bigger flagship projects projects. Therefore, it can be argued that the proposed
and sectoral plans. For that reason, some of the case study conceptual framework is useful in this direction.
respondents had good reasons to be optimistic about the
FYDP-II, although the same national plans do not speak of Policy Reform Possibilities
revamping or improving the conditions of RTOs. Policy reform can be generally defined as ‘a process in which
When they were established, RTOs had a strong political will changes are made to the formal “rules of the game”—including
behind them, making sure they function as expected and within a laws, regulations and institutions—to address a problem or
larger scheme. Policymakers at that time expressed a achieve a goal such as economic growth, environmental
comprehensive appreciation of the key, multi-faceted role protection or poverty alleviation.’ [Organization for Economic
RTOs play in a country’s industrialization process. That Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2007]. Do Tanzanian
appreciation was reflected in the acts of government that RTOs need policy reform?
established these organizations. Currently RTOs seem to be COSTECH is the main science granting council, and
often busy with survival, where they seek to secure distributor of the state’s R&D allocated budget. They

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

generally seem to be satisfied with their policy of CONCLUSIONS AND BROAD

competitive research funding, where research teams in RECOMMENDATIONS
Tanzania—from universities, RTOs, NGOs and private sector
organizations—receive funding based on the quality of their Based on existing records, historical investigation and informed
proposals (or responses to calls) and their institutional and opinions, particular constraints and policy aspects were identified
HR competency for carrying out projects. With this that formed barriers to encouraging RTOs in Tanzania to fulfill
approach, COSTECH can report to the government that they their role as super intermediaries within the triple helix,
channeled public funding to the most deserving recipients. industrial-research policy overlaps, and research-industry
COSTECH senior personnel expressed that the introduction frontiers (Figure 1). Opportunities were explored in terms of
of competitive-based funding is one of the good things that policy reform. The findings were also generally in-line with the
happened recently. Other RTOs have quite a different two main lenses of inquiry: 1) that, in order for RTOs to play their
perspective. As expressed through a number of RTOs’ key roles in Tanzania, industrial policies shaped by the command
personnel involved in this study, they think competitive economy era before the 1990s need to be reviewed and modified;
funding from COSTECH is a disadvantage.29 For these RTOs and 2) that more investment in revamping RTOs will likely take
that have always depended mainly on state funding for place if policymaking processes acknowledged RTOs as key
research what COSTECH is doing now means that they will players on multiple fronts (i.e., super intermediaries).
receive even less funding because they cannot compete with As a normative synthesis to the study, some policy lessons are
big universities or big companies, which either have or can put forth in the form of broad recommendations, based on the
afford more veteran researchers as well as relatively better macro, meso, and micro levels (Figure 2). They are not meant to
laboratories. Under the current circumstances, RTOs feel be exhaustive or detailed, as they only try to harvest and capsulize
punished for not having what they cannot have, i.e., more the policy lessons learned, or highlighted, from this study.
researchers and better infrastructure, precisely because they do On the macro level (national enabling environment), national
not have the funding to change these conditions—a catch-22. policy should practice the established wisdom that, in order to
This same predicament has been confirmed and expressed by reap reliable returns, additional investment is required in some
multiple science granting councils across Africa through more strategic parts of the national technology system—i.e., to get more
recent studies, such as that by Hanlin, Tigabu and Sheikheldin from their existing infrastructure and potential there should be
(2021) and Chataway et al. (2019). This is a policy problem; more investment in empowering RTOs to do what they are meant
particularly policies that govern the distribution of resources to to do. For example, laws governing RTOs can be amended to be
RTOs and the mechanisms and criteria by which resources are in-line with the current macroeconomic reality (mixed economy)
received and used. and current national development plans. Particularly RTOs
should have clear mandate to establish and sustain revenue-
generating activities within a non-profit framework. There
Reconciling Reverse Engineering and IPRs should also be a commitment of specific annual public funds
Historical experience tells that many countries in the second to RTOs, for applied research or R&D activities without the need
half of the 20th century took successful leaps towards to enter competition for such funds with other research
industrialization through systemic reverse engineering institutions such as universities. RTOs could also be directed,
efforts [Science, Technology and Innovation Policy via policy and funding incentives, to focus their R&D efforts on
Research Organization (STIPRO), 2010; Lall 1992]. RTOs critical sectors, facilities and projects in-line with national
in Tanzania are no strangers to such activities, but they could flagship projects. Some RTOs can also establish a framework
be enhanced. 30 However, would there be contradiction that allows them to ‘act as one’ in various projects and programs
between supporting both cultures of protecting IPRs (including proposals, resources, standards, etc.,.).
(intellectual property rights)—through patenting—and On the meso level (among RTOs, Partners and Stakeholders),
reverse engineering? This question reflects a larger debate RTOs could be systematically and wholly orientated toward local
within the field, but the debate itself is more about relative industries. This will require big institutional shifts and a big
dosages of both choices rather than ‘either-or’ absolute sides. process of network building. For example, local industry leaders,
Reconciliation options should be explored, i.e., selective from the private sector, should have placements in RTOs’
dosages of cultures of technological adaptation and governing boards. The main common tasks should be
patenting. The two cultures should coexist in contexts of graduating SME incubatees, completing successful technical
developing countries, to deal with both adapting long- consultancies, and creating spin-offs that diffuse and
existing technologies and coping with new/emerging commercialize the technologies born out of RTO’s R&D
technologies. projects. And to increase the pool of human resources for
RTOs, a policy of two-way human resource mobility between
RTOs, universities and technical colleges could be implemented,
for skilled personnel, so that there can be a safe horizontal
movement for career researchers between these institutions.
29
Interviews: BD17, EA45, DD37 and others Furthermore, some good frameworks already exist but need to
30
Interviews: ED49, DB34, DA35 and others. be activated. Such frameworks could become the main

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Sheikheldin Research and Technology Organizations as Super Intermediaries

representative framework of the meso level among RTOs and Commission for Science and Technology, Tanzania. The
local partners. On the micro-Level (within each RTO), rigorous patients/participants provided their written informed consent
management systems could be introduced (such as Results Based to participate in this study.
Management, and Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning
systems). As entities supported by public funds, it is important
to subject RTOs to periodic comprehensive evaluations, with the AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
mandate to fulfill minimum requirements of standards and
outputs to justify continuous public funding. One author. The literature review and conceptual framework is
One of the main limitations of this study is that it proposes a the author’s own synthesis, and the case study was part of the
conceptual framework whose usefulness should be further tested, author’s field research in fulfillment of a PhD requirements.
by other researchers as well as the author, since proving relevant
for one case study is not enough. Further studies could either
examine more in-depth cases using the framework or explore FUNDING
whether RTOs comprehensively, in various countries and
regions, fulfill the super-intermediary role, or do so in only This study was carried with support from the International
limited contexts. Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada, through
a research award, 2016. The paper also benefited from discussions
undertaken during, and an amount of staff time funding from,
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Theme 3 activities of Phase I of the Science Granting Councils
Initiative being supported by IDRC (Grant number: 108,349-001),
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) and
the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be South Africa’s National Research Foundation (NRF).
directed to the corresponding author.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
ETHICS STATEMENT
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at:
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frma.2021.691247/
approved by the University of Guelph, Canada, and the Tanzania full#supplementary-material

Eboh, E. C. (2014). Using Research to Influence Public Policy: What Works and
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