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 



W e see a variety of objects in the world around us. However, we are

unable to see anything in a dark room. On lighting up the room,
things become visible. What makes things visible? During the day, the
sunlight helps us to see objects. An object reflects light that falls on it.
This reflected light, when received by our eyes, enables us to see things.
We are able to see through a transparent medium as light is transmitted
through it. There are a number of common wonderful phenomena
associated with light such as image formation by mirrors, the twinkling
of stars, the beautiful colours of a rainbow, bending of light by a medium
and so on. A study of the properties of light helps us to explore them.
By observing the common optical phenomena around us, we may
conclude that light seems to travel in straight lines. The fact that a small
source of light casts a sharp shadow of an opaque object points to this
straight-line path of light, usually indicated as a ray of light.


If an opaque object on the path of light becomes very small, light has a tendency to
bend around it and not walk in a straight line – an effect known as the diffraction of
light. Then the straight-line treatment of optics using rays fails. To explain phenomena
such as diffraction, light is thought of as a wave, the details of which you will study
in higher classes. Again, at the beginning of the 20th century, it became known that
the wave theory of light often becomes inadequate for treatment of the interaction of
light with matter, and light often behaves somewhat like a stream of particles. This
confusion about the true nature of light continued for some years till a modern
quantum theory of light emerged in which light is neither a ‘wave’ nor a ‘particle’ –
the new theory reconciles the particle properties of light with the wave nature.

In this Chapter, we shall study the phenomena of reflection and

refraction of light using the straight-line propagation of light. These basic
concepts will help us in the study of some of the optical phenomena in
nature. We shall try to understand in this Chapter the reflection of light
by spherical mirrors and refraction of light and their application in real
life situations.

   

A highly polished surface, such as a mirror, reflects most of the light
falling on it. You are already familiar with the laws of reflection of light.

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Let us recall these laws –

(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence
and the reflected ray, all lie in the same plane.
These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces
including spherical surfaces. You are familiar with the formation of image
by a plane mirror. What are the properties of the image? Image formed
by a plane mirror is always virtual and erect. The size of the image is
equal to that of the object. The image formed is as far behind the mirror
as the object is in front of it. Further, the image is laterally inverted.
How would the images be when the reflecting surfaces are curved? Let
us explore.

 
 Take a large shining spoon. Try to view your face in its curved
surface.
 Do you get the image? Is it smaller or larger?
 Move the spoon slowly away from your face. Observe the image.
How does it change?
 Reverse the spoon and repeat the Activity. How does the image
look like now?
 Compare the characteristics of the image on the two surfaces.

The curved surface of a shining spoon could be considered as a curved

mirror. The most commonly used type of curved mirror is the spherical
mirror. The reflecting surface of such mirrors can be considered to form
a part of the surface of a sphere. Such mirrors, whose reflecting surfaces
are spherical, are called spherical mirrors. We shall now study about
spherical mirrors in some detail.

   

The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror may be curved inwards or
outwards. A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards,
that is, faces towards the centre of the sphere, is called a concave mirror.
A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, is called
a convex mirror. The schematic representation of these mirrors is shown
in Fig. 10.1. You may note in these diagrams that the back
of the mirror is shaded.
You may now understand that the surface of the spoon
curved inwards can be approximated to a concave mirror
and the surface of the spoon bulged outwards can be
approximated to a convex mirror.
Before we move further on spherical mirrors, we need to
recognise and understand the meaning of a few terms. These
terms are commonly used in discussions about spherical (a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
mirrors. The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical Figure 10.1
mirror is a point called the pole. It lies on the surface of the Schematic representation of spherical
mirror. The pole is usually represented by the letter P. mirrors; the shaded side is non-reflecting.

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The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part of a sphere.

This sphere has a centre. This point is called the centre of curvature of
the spherical mirror. It is represented by the letter C. Please note that the
centre of curvature is not a part of the mirror. It lies outside its reflecting
surface. The centre of curvature of a concave mirror lies in front of it.
However, it lies behind the mirror in case of a convex mirror. You may
note this in Fig.10.2 (a) and (b). The radius of the sphere of which the
reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part, is called the radius
of curvature of the mirror. It is represented by the letter R. You may note
that the distance PC is equal to the radius of curvature. Imagine a straight
line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of a spherical
mirror. This line is called the principal axis. Remember that principal
axis is normal to the mirror at its pole. Let us understand an important
term related to mirrors, through an Activity.

 
CAUTION: Do not look at the Sun directly or even into a mirror
reflecting sunlight. It may damage your eyes.
 Hold a concave mirror in your hand and direct its reflecting surface
towards the Sun.
 Direct the light reflected by the mirror on to a sheet of paper held
close to the mirror.
 Move the sheet of paper back and forth gradually until you find
on the paper sheet a bright, sharp spot of light.
 Hold the mirror and the paper in the same position for a few
minutes. What do you observe? Why?

The paper at first begins to burn producing smoke. Eventually it

may even catch fire. Why does it burn? The light from the Sun is converged
at a point, as a sharp, bright spot by the mirror. In fact, this spot of light
is the image of the Sun on the sheet of paper. This point is
the focus of the concave mirror. The heat produced due to
the concentration of sunlight ignites the paper. The distance
of this image from the position of the mirror gives the
approximate value of focal length of the mirror.
Let us try to understand this observation with the help
(a)
of a ray diagram.
Observe Fig.10.2 (a) closely. A number of rays parallel
to the principal axis are falling on a concave mirror. Observe
the reflected rays. They are all meeting/intersecting at a
point on the principal axis of the mirror. This point is called
the principal focus of the concave mirror. Similarly, observe
Fig. 10.2 (b). How are the rays parallel to the principal axis,
reflected by a convex mirror? The reflected rays appear to
come from a point on the principal axis. This point is called
(b) the principal focus of the convex mirror. The principal focus
Figure 10.2
is represented by the letter F. The distance between the
(a) Concave mirror pole and the principal focus of a spherical mirror is called
(b) Convex mirror the focal length. It is represented by the letter f.

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The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is by-and-large spherical.

The surface, then, has a circular outline. The diameter of the reflecting
surface of spherical mirror is called its aperture. In Fig.10.2, distance
MN represents the aperture. We shall consider in our discussion only
such spherical mirrors whose aperture is much smaller than its radius
of curvature.
Is there a relationship between the radius of curvature R, and focal
length f, of a spherical mirror? For spherical mirrors of small apertures,
the radius of curvature is found to be equal to twice the focal length. We
put this as R = 2f . This implies that the principal focus of a spherical
mirror lies midway between the pole and centre of curvature.


You have studied about the image formation by plane mirrors. You also
know the nature, position and relative size of the images formed by them.
How about the images formed by spherical mirrors? How can we locate
the image formed by a concave mirror for different positions of the object?
Are the images real or virtual? Are they enlarged, diminished or have
the same size? We shall explore this with an Activity.

 
You have already learnt a way of determining the focal length of a
concave mirror. In Activity 10.2, you have seen that the sharp bright
spot of light you got on the paper is, in fact, the image of the Sun. It
was a tiny, real, inverted image. You got the approximate focal length
of the concave mirror by measuring the distance of the image from
the mirror.
 Take a concave mirror. Find out its approximate focal length in
the way described above. Note down the value of focal length. (You
can also find it out by obtaining image of a distant object on a
sheet of paper.)
 Mark a line on a Table with a chalk. Place the concave mirror on
a stand. Place the stand over the line such that its pole lies over
the line.
 Draw with a chalk two more lines parallel to the previous line
such that the distance between any two successive lines is equal
to the focal length of the mirror. These lines will now correspond
to the positions of the points P, F and C, respectively. Remember –
For a spherical mirror of small aperture, the principal focus F lies
mid-way between the pole P and the centre of curvature C.
 Keep a bright object, say a burning candle, at a position far beyond
C. Place a paper screen and move it in front of the mirror till you
obtain a sharp bright image of the candle flame on it.
 Observe the image carefully. Note down its nature, position and
relative size with respect to the object size.
 Repeat the activity by placing the candle – (a) just beyond C,
(b) at C, (c) between F and C, (d) at F, and (e) between P and F.
 In one of the cases, you may not get the image on the screen.
Identify the position of the object in such a case. Then, look for its
virtual image in the mirror itself.
 Note down and tabulate your observations.

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You will see in the above Activity that the nature, position and size of
the image formed by a concave mirror depends on the position of the
object in relation to points P, F and C. The image formed is real for some
positions of the object. It is found to be a virtual image for a certain other
position. The image is either magnified, reduced or has the same size,
depending on the position of the object. A summary of these observations
is given for your reference in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Image formation by a concave mirror for different positions of the object

Position of the Position of the Size of the Nature of the

object image image image

At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished, Real and inverted

point-sized
Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
At C At C Same size Real and inverted
Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted

Between P and F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

      


We can also study the formation of images by spherical mirrors by
drawing ray diagrams. Consider an extended object, of finite size, placed
in front of a spherical mirror. Each small portion of the extended object
acts like a point source. An infinite number of rays originate from each
of these points. To construct the ray diagrams, in order to locate the
image of an object, an arbitrarily large number of rays emanating from a
point could be considered. However, it is more convenient to consider
only two rays, for the sake of clarity of the ray diagram. These rays are
so chosen that it is easy to know their directions after reflection from the
mirror.
The intersection of at least two reflected rays give the position of image
of the point object. Any two of the following rays can be considered for
locating the image.

(i) A ray parallel to the

principal axis, after
reflection, will pass through
the principal focus in case of
a concave mirror or appear
to diverge from the principal
focus in case of a convex
mirror. This is illustrated in
(a) (b)
Figure 10.3 Fig.10.3 (a) and (b).

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(ii) A ray passing through the

principal focus of a concave
mirror or a ray which is
directed towards the
principal focus of a convex
mirror, after reflection, will
emerge parallel to the
principal axis. This is
illustrated in Fig.10.4 (a)
and (b). (a) (b)

Figure 10.4
(iii) A ray passing through the
centre of curvature of a
concave mirror or directed
in the direction of the centre
of curvature of a convex
mirror, after reflection, is
reflected back along the
same path. This is
illustrated in Fig.10.5 (a)
and (b). The light rays come (a) (b)
back along the same path
Figure 10.5
because the incident rays
fall on the mirror along the
normal to the reflecting
surface.

(iv) A ray incident obliquely to

the principal axis, towards
a point P (pole of the mirror),
on the concave mirror
[Fig. 10.6 (a)] or a convex
mirror [Fig. 10.6 (b)], is
reflected obliquely. The
incident and reflected rays
follow the laws of reflection
(a) (b)
at the point of incidence
(point P), making equal Figure 10.6
angles with the principal axis.

Remember that in all the above cases the laws of reflection are followed.
At the point of incidence, the incident ray is reflected in such a way that
the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
(a) Image formation by Concave Mirror
Figure 10.7 illustrates the ray diagrams for the formation of image
by a concave mirror for various positions of the object.

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Figure 10.7 Ray diagrams for the image formation by a concave mirror

 
 Draw neat ray diagrams for each position of the object shown in
Table 10.1.
 You may take any two of the rays mentioned in the previous section
for locating the image.
 Compare your diagram with those given in Fig. 10.7.
 Describe the nature, position and relative size of the image formed
in each case.
 Tabulate the results in a convenient format.

Uses of concave mirrors

Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search-lights and
vehicles headlights to get powerful parallel beams of light. They are
often used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face. The
dentists use concave mirrors to see large images of the teeth of patients.
Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce
heat in solar furnaces.
(b) Image formation by a Convex Mirror
We studied the image formation by a concave mirror. Now we shall
study the formation of image by a convex mirror.

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 
 Take a convex mirror. Hold it in one hand.
 Hold a pencil in the upright position in the other hand.
 Observe the image of the pencil in the mirror. Is the image erect or
inverted? Is it diminished or enlarged?
 Move the pencil away from the mirror slowly. Does the image
become smaller or larger?
 Repeat this Activity carefully. State whether the image will move
closer to or farther away from the focus as the object is moved
away from the mirror?

We consider two positions of the object for studying the image formed
by a convex mirror. First is when the object is at infinity and the second
position is when the object is at a finite distance from the mirror. The ray
diagrams for the formation of image by a convex mirror for these two
positions of the object are shown in Fig.10.8 (a) and (b), respectively.
The results are summarised in Table 10.2.

Figure 10.8 Formation of image by a convex mirror

Table 10.2 Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a convex mirror
Position of the Position of the Size of the Nature of the
object image image image

At infinity At the focus F, Highly diminished, Virtual and erect

behind the mirror point-sized

Between infinity Between P and F, Diminished Virtual and erect

and the pole P of behind the mirror
the mirror

You have so far studied the image formation by a plane mirror, a

concave mirror and a convex mirror. Which of these mirrors will give the
full image of a large object? Let us explore through an Activity.

 
 Observe the image of a distant object, say a distant tree, in a
plane mirror.
 Could you see a full-length image?

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 Try with plane mirrors of different sizes. Did you see the entire
object in the image?
 Repeat this Activity with a concave mirror. Did the mirror show
full length image of the object?
 Now try using a convex mirror. Did you succeed? Explain your
observations with reason.

You can see a full-length image of a tall building/tree in a small

convex mirror. One such mirror is fitted in a wall of Agra Fort facing Taj
Mahal. If you visit the Agra Fort, try to observe the full image of Taj
Mahal. To view distinctly, you should stand suitably at the terrace
adjoining the wall.
Uses of convex mirrors
Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in
vehicles. These mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, enabling the
driver to see traffic behind him/her to facilitate safe driving. Convex
mirrors are preferred because they always give an erect, though
diminished, image. Also, they have a wider field of view as they are curved
outwards. Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver to view much larger
area than would be possible with a plane mirror.

        


1. Define the principal focus of a concave mirror.
2. The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is 20 cm. What is its focal
length?
3. Name a mirror that can give an erect and enlarged image of an object.
4. Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view mirror in vehicles?


While dealing with the reflection of light by spherical mirrors, we shall
follow a set of sign conventions called the New Cartesian Sign
Convention. In this convention, the pole (P) of the mirror is taken as the
origin (Fig. 10.9). The principal axis of the mirror is taken as the x-axis
(X’X) of the coordinate system. The conventions are as follows –
(i) The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies
that the light from the object falls on the mirror from the left-hand
side.
(ii) All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the
pole of the mirror.
(iii) All the distances measured to the right of the origin (along
+ x-axis) are taken as positive while those measured to the left of
the origin (along – x-axis) are taken as negative.
(iv) Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis
(along + y-axis) are taken as positive.
(v) Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis
(along –y-axis) are taken as negative.

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The New Cartesian Sign Convention described above is illustrated in

Fig.10.9 for your reference. These sign conventions are applied to obtain
the mirror formula and solve related numerical problems.


In a spherical mirror, the distance of the
object from its pole is called the object
distance (u). The distance of the image from
the pole of the mirror is called the image
distance (v). You already know that the
distance of the principal focus from the pole
is called the focal length (f) . There is a
relationship between these three quantities
given by the mirror formula which is
expressed as
1 1 1
+ = (10.1)
v u f

This formula is valid in all situations for all

spherical mirrors for all positions of the
object. You must use the New Cartesian Sign Figure 10.9
The New Cartesian Sign Convention for spherical mirrors
Convention while substituting numerical
values for u, v, f, and R in the mirror formula
for solving problems.

Magnification
Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to
which the image of an object is magnified with respect to the object size.
It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the
object. It is usually represented by the letter m.
If h is the height of the object and h ′ is the height of the image, then
the magnification m produced by a spherical mirror is given by
Height of the image (h ′ )
m = Height of the object (h )

h′
m= (10.2)
h
The magnification m is also related to the object distance (u) and
image distance (v). It can be expressed as:
h′ v
Magnification (m) = = − (10.3)
h u
You may note that the height of the object is taken to be positive as
the object is usually placed above the principal axis. The height of the
image should be taken as positive for virtual images. However, it is to be
taken as negative for real images. A negative sign in the value of the
magnification indicates that the image is real. A positive sign in the value
of the magnification indicates that the image is virtual.

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Example 10.1
A convex mirror used for rear-view on an automobile has a radius of
curvature of 3.00 m. If a bus is located at 5.00 m from this mirror,
find the position, nature and size of the image.
Solution
Radius of curvature, R = + 3.00 m;
Object-distance, u = – 5.00 m;
Image-distance, v =?
Height of the image, h ′ = ?
3.00 m
Focal length, f = R/2 = + = + 1.50 m (as the principal focus of
2
a convex mirror is behind the mirror)
1 1 1
Since + =
v u f

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
or, = − =+ – = +
v f u 1.50 ( −5.00) 1.50 5.00

5.00 + 1.50
=
7.50
+7.50
v= = + 1.15 m
6.50
The image is 1.15 m at the back of the mirror.
h' v 1.15 m
Magnification, m = = − = –
h u −5.00 m
= + 0.23
The image is virtual, erect and smaller in size by a factor of 0.23.

Example 10.2
An object, 4.0 cm in size, is placed at 25.0 cm in front of a concave
mirror of focal length 15.0 cm. At what distance from the mirror
should a screen be placed in order to obtain a sharp image? Find
the nature and the size of the image.
Solution
Object-size, h = + 4.0 cm;
Object-distance, u = – 25.0 cm;
Focal length, f = –15.0 cm;
Image-distance, v = ?
Image-size, h ′ = ?
From Eq. (10.1):
1 1 1
+ =
v u f

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
or, = − = − = − +
v f u −15.0 −25.0 15.0 25.0

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1 −5.0 + 3.0 −2.0

or, = = or, v = – 37.5 cm
v 75.0 75.0
The screen should be placed at 37.5 cm in front of the mirror. The
image is real.
h' v
Also, magnification, m = = −
h u
vh ( −37.5 cm) ( +4.0 cm)
or, h ′ = – = −
u ( −25.0 cm)
Height of the image, h ′ = – 6.0 cm
The image is inverted and enlarged.

        


1. Find the focal length of a convex mirror whose radius of curvature is
32 cm.
2. A concave mirror produces three times magnified (enlarged) real image
of an object placed at 10 cm in front of it. Where is the image located?

   

Light seems to travel along straight-line paths in a transparent medium.
What happens when light enters from one transparent medium to
another? Does it still move along a straight-line path or change its
direction? We shall recall some of our day-to-day experiences.
You might have observed that the bottom of a tank or a pond
containing water appears to be raised. Similarly, when a thick glass slab
is placed over some printed matter, the letters appear raised when viewed
through the glass slab. Why does it happen? Have you seen a pencil
partly immersed in water in a glass tumbler? It appears to be displaced
at the interface of air and water. You might have observed that a lemon
kept in water in a glass tumbler appears to be bigger than its actual
size, when viewed from the sides. How can you account for such
experiences?
Let us consider the case of the apparent displacement of a pencil,
partly immersed in water. The light reaching you from the portion of the
pencil inside water seems to come from a different direction, compared
to the part above water. This makes the pencil appear to be displaced at
the interface. For similar reasons, the letters appear to be raised, when
seen through a glass slab placed over it.
Does a pencil appear to be displaced to the same extent, if instead of
water, we use liquids like kerosene or turpentine? Will the letters appear
to rise to the same height if we replace a glass slab with a transparent
plastic slab? You will find that the extent of the effect is different for
different pair of media. These observations indicate that light does not

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travel in the same direction in all media. It appears that when travelling
obliquely from one medium to another, the direction of propagation of
light in the second medium changes. This phenomenon is known as
refraction of light. Let us understand this phenomenon further by doing
a few activities.

 
 Place a coin at the bottom of a bucket filled with water.
 With your eye to a side above water, try to pick up the coin in one
go. Did you succeed in picking up the coin?
 Repeat the Activity. Why did you not succeed in doing it in one go?
 Ask your friends to do this. Compare your experience with theirs.

 

 Place a large shallow bowl on a Table and put a coin in it.

 Move away slowly from the bowl. Stop when the coin just
disappears from your sight.
 Ask a friend to pour water gently into the bowl without disturbing
the coin.
 Keep looking for the coin from your position. Does the coin becomes
visible again from your position? How could this happen?

The coin becomes visible again on pouring water into the bowl. The
coin appears slightly raised above its actual position due to refraction of
light.

 

 Draw a thick straight line in ink, over a sheet of white paper placed
on a Table.
 Place a glass slab over the line in such a way that one of its edges
makes an angle with the line.
 Look at the portion of the line under the slab from the sides. What
do you observe? Does the line under the glass slab appear to be
bent at the edges?
 Next, place the glass slab such that it is normal to the line. What
do you observe now? Does the part of the line under the glass slab
appear bent?
 Look at the line from the top of the glass slab. Does the part of the
line, beneath the slab, appear to be raised? Why does this happen?


To understand the phenomenon of refraction of light through a glass
slab, let us do an Activity.

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 
 Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using drawing pins.
 Place a rectangular glass slab over the sheet in the middle.
 Draw the outline of the slab with a pencil. Let us name the outline
as ABCD.
 Take four identical pins.
 Fix two pins, say E and F, vertically such that the line joining the
pins is inclined to the edge AB.
 Look for the images of the pins E and F through the opposite edge.
Fix two other pins, say G and H, such that these pins and the
images of E and F lie on a straight line.
 Remove the pins and the slab.
 Join the positions of tip of the pins E and F and produce the line
up to AB. Let EF meet AB at O. Similarly, join the positions of tip
of the pins G and H and produce it up to the edge CD. Let HG
meet CD at O′.
 Join O and O′. Also produce EF up to P, as shown by a dotted line
in Fig. 10.10.
In this Activity, you will note, the light ray has changed its direction
at points O and O′. Note that both the points O and O′ lie on surfaces
separating two transparent media. Draw a perpendicular NN’ to AB at O
and another perpendicular MM′ to CD at O′. The light ray at point O has
entered from a rarer medium to a denser medium, that is, from air to
glass. Note that the light ray has bent towards
the normal. At O′, the light ray has entered
from glass to air, that is, from a denser
medium to a rarer medium. The light here
has bent away from the normal. Compare the
angle of incidence with the angle of refraction
at both refracting surfaces AB and CD.
In Fig. 10.10, a ray EO is obliquely
incident on surface AB, called incident ray.
OO′ is the refracted ray and O′ H is the
emergent ray. You may observe that the
emergent ray is parallel to the direction of
the incident ray. Why does it happen so? The
extent of bending of the ray of light at the
opposite parallel faces AB (air-glass interface)
and CD (glass-air interface) of the rectangular
glass slab is equal and opposite. This is why
the ray emerges parallel to the incident ray.
However, the light ray is shifted sideward Figure 10.10
slightly. What happens when a light ray is Refraction of light through a rectangular glass slab
incident normally to the interface of two
media? Try and find out.
Now you are familiar with the refraction of light. Refraction is due to
change in the speed of light as it enters from one transparent medium to
another. Experiments show that refraction of light occurs according to
certain laws.

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The following are the laws of refraction of light.

(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface
of two transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction is a constant, for the light of a given colour and for
the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of
refraction. (This is true for angle 0 < i < 90o)
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then,
sin i
= constant (10.4)
sin r
This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium
with respect to the first. Let us study about refractive index in some detail.


You have already studied that a ray of light that travels obliquely from
one transparent medium into another will change its direction in the
second medium. The extent of the change in direction that takes place
in a given pair of media may be expressed in terms of the refractive index,
the “constant” appearing on the right-hand side of Eq.(10.4).
The refractive index can be linked to an important physical quantity,
the relative speed of propagation of light in different media. It turns
out that light propagates with different speeds in different media. Light
travels fastest in vacuum with speed of 3×108 m s–1. In air, the speed of
light is only marginally less, compared to that in vacuum. It reduces
considerably in glass or water. The value of the refractive index for a
given pair of media depends upon the speed of light in the two media, as
given below.
Consider a ray of light travelling from medium 1 into medium 2, as
shown in Fig.10.11. Let v1 be the speed of light in medium 1 and v2 be
the speed of light in medium 2. The refractive index of medium 2 with
respect to medium 1 is given by the ratio of the speed of light in medium
1 and the speed of light in medium 2. This is usually represented by the
symbol n 21. This can be expressed in an equation form as

Speed of light in medium 1 v1

n21= = (10.5)
Speed of light in medium 2 v 2
By the same argument, the refractive index of medium
1 with respect to medium 2 is represented as n12. It is given
by

Speed of light in medium 2 v 2

n12= = (10.6)
Figure 10.11 Speed of light in medium 1 v1
If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then the refractive index of medium 2
is considered with respect to vacuum. This is called the absolute refractive
index of the medium. It is simply represented as n 2. If c is the speed of

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light in air and v is the speed of light in the medium, then, the refractive
index of the medium nm is given by
Speed of light in air c
nm = = (10.7)
Speed of light in the medium v
The absolute refractive index of a medium is simply called its refractive
index. The refractive index of several media is given in Table 10.3. From
the Table you can know that the refractive index of water, n w = 1.33.
This means that the ratio of the speed of light in air and the speed of
light in water is equal to 1.33. Similarly, the refractive index of crown
glass, n g =1.52. Such data are helpful in many places. However, you
need not memorise the data.
Table 10.3 Absolute refractive index of some material media
Material Refractive Material Refractive
medium index medium index
Air 1.0003 Canada 1.53
Balsam
Ice 1.31
Water 1.33 Rock salt 1.54
Alcohol 1.36
Kerosene 1.44 Carbon 1.63
disulphide
Fused 1.46
quartz Dense 1.65
flint glass
Turpentine 1.47
oil Ruby 1.71
Benzene 1.50
Sapphire 1.77
Crown 1.52
glass Diamond 2.42

Note from Table 10.3 that an optically denser medium may not
possess greater mass density. For example, kerosene having higher
refractive index, is optically denser than water, although its mass density
is less than water.


The ability of a medium to refract light is also expressed in terms of its optical density.
Optical density has a definite connotation. It is not the same as mass density. We have
been using the terms ‘rarer medium’ and ‘denser medium’ in this Chapter. It actually
means ‘optically rarer medium’ and ‘optically denser medium’, respectively. When can
we say that a medium is optically denser than the other? In comparing two media, the
one with the larger refractive index is optically denser medium than the other. The other
medium of lower refractive index is optically rarer. The speed of light is higher in a rarer
medium than a denser medium. Thus, a ray of light travelling from a rarer medium to a
denser medium slows down and bends towards the normal. When it travels from a
denser medium to a rarer medium, it speeds up and bends away from the normal.

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        
1. A ray of light travelling in air enters obliquely into water. Does the light


ray bend towards the normal or away from the normal? Why?
2. Light enters from air to glass having refractive index 1.50. What is the
speed of light in the glass? The speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 108 m s–1.
3. Find out, from Table 10.3, the medium having highest optical density.
Also find the medium with lowest optical density.
4. You are given kerosene, turpentine and water. In which of these does
the light travel fastest? Use the information given in Table 10.3.
5. The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. What is the meaning of this
statement?


You might have seen watchmakers using a small magnifying glass to
see tiny parts. Have you ever touched the surface of a magnifying glass
with your hand? Is it plane surface or curved? Is it thicker in the middle
or at the edges? The glasses used in spectacles and that by a watchmaker
are examples of lenses. What is a lens? How does it bend light rays? We
shall discuss these in this section.
A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both
surfaces are spherical, forms a lens. This means
that a lens is bound by at least one spherical
surface. In such lenses, the other surface would
be plane. A lens may have two spherical
surfaces, bulging outwards. Such a lens is called
a double convex lens. It is simply called a convex
lens. It is thicker at the middle as compared to
the edges. Convex lens converges light rays as
shown in Fig. 10.12 (a). Hence convex lenses are
(a) also called converging lenses. Similarly, a double
concave lens is bounded by two spherical
surfaces, curved inwards. It is thicker at the
edges than at the middle. Such lenses diverge
light rays as shown in Fig. 10.12 (b). Such lenses
are also called diverging lenses. A double concave
lens is simply called a concave lens.
A lens, either a convex lens or a concave lens,
(b) has two spherical surfaces. Each of these surfaces
Figure 10.12
forms a part of a sphere. The centres of these
(a) Converging action of a convex lens, (b) diverging spheres are called centres of curvature of the lens.
action of a concave lens The centre of curvature of a lens is usually
represented by the letter C. Since there are two
centres of curvature, we may represent them as C1 and C2. An imaginary
straight line passing through the two centres of curvature of a lens is
called its principal axis. The central point of a lens is its optical centre. It is

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usually represented by the letter O. A ray of light through the optical

centre of a lens passes without suffering any deviation. The effective
diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is called its aperture.
We shall confine our discussion in this Chapter to such lenses whose
aperture is much less than its radius of curvature and the two centres of
curvatures are equidistant from the optical centre O. Such lenses are
called thin lenses with small apertures. What happens when parallel rays
of light are incident on a lens? Let us do an Activity to understand this.

 
CAUTION: Do not look at the Sun directly or through a lens while
doing this Activity or otherwise. You may damage your eyes if you
do so.
 Hold a convex lens in your hand. Direct it towards the Sun.
 Focus the light from the Sun on a sheet of paper. Obtain a sharp
bright image of the Sun.
 Hold the paper and the lens in the same position for a while. Keep
observing the paper. What happened? Why? Recall your experience
in Activity 10.2.

The paper begins to burn producing smoke. It may even catch fire
after a while. Why does this happen? The light from the Sun constitutes
parallel rays of light. These rays were converged by the lens at the sharp
bright spot formed on the paper. In fact, the bright spot you got on the
paper is a real image of the Sun. The concentration of the sunlight at a
point generated heat. This caused the paper to burn.
Now, we shall consider rays of light parallel to the principal axis of a
lens. What happens when you pass such rays of light through a lens?
This is illustrated for a convex lens in Fig.10.12 (a) and for a concave
lens in Fig.10.12 (b).
Observe Fig.10.12 (a) carefully. Several rays of light parallel to the
principal axis are falling on a convex lens. These rays, after refraction
from the lens, are converging to a point on the principal axis. This point
on the principal axis is called the principal focus of the lens. Let us see
now the action of a concave lens.
Observe Fig.10.12 (b) carefully. Several rays of light parallel to the
principal axis are falling on a concave lens. These rays, after refraction
from the lens, are appearing to diverge from a point on the principal
axis. This point on the principal axis is called the principal focus of the
concave lens.
If you pass parallel rays from the opposite surface of the lens, you
get another principal focus on the opposite side. Letter F is usually used
to represent principal focus. However, a lens has two principal foci. They
are represented by F1 and F2. The distance of the principal focus from
the optical centre of a lens is called its focal length. The letter f is used to
represent the focal length. How can you find the focal length of a convex
lens? Recall the Activity 10.11. In this Activity, the distance between the
position of the lens and the position of the image of the Sun gives the
approximate focal length of the lens.

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
Lenses form images by refracting light. How do lenses form images?
What is their nature? Let us study this for a convex lens first.

 
 Take a convex lens. Find its approximate focal length in a way
described in Activity 10.11.
 Draw five parallel straight lines, using chalk, on a long Table such
that the distance between the successive lines is equal to the
focal length of the lens.
 Place the lens on a lens stand. Place it on the central line such
that the optical centre of the lens lies just over the line.
 The two lines on either side of the lens correspond to F and 2F of
the lens respectively. Mark them with appropriate letters such as
2F1, F1, F2 and 2F2, respectively.
 Place a burning candle, far beyond 2F1 to the left. Obtain a clear
sharp image on a screen on the opposite side of the lens.
 Note down the nature, position and relative size of the image.
 Repeat this Activity by placing object just behind 2F1, between F1
and 2F1 at F1, between F1 and O. Note down and tabulate your
observations.

The nature, position and relative size of the image formed by convex
lens for various positions of the object is summarised in Table 10.4.

Table 10.4 Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a convex lens for various
positions of the object

Position of the Position of Relative size of Nature of

object the image the image the image

At infinity At focus F2 Highly diminished, Real and inverted

point-sized
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large or Real and inverted
highly enlarged
Between focus F1 On the same side Enlarged Virtual and erect
and of the lens as the
optical centre O object

Let us now do an Activity to study the nature, position and relative

size of the image formed by a concave lens.

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 
 Take a concave lens. Place it on a lens stand.
 Place a burning candle on one side of the lens.
 Look through the lens from the other side and observe the image.
Try to get the image on a screen, if possible. If not, observe the
image directly through the lens.
 Note down the nature, relative size and approximate position of
the image.
 Move the candle away from the lens. Note the change in the size
of the image. What happens to the size of the image when the
candle is placed too far away from the lens.

The summary of the above Activity is given in Table 10.5 below.

Table 10.5 Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a concave lens for various
positions of the object

Position of the Position of Relative size of Nature of

object the image the image the image

At infinity At focus F1 Highly diminished, Virtual and erect

point-sized
Between infinity and Between focus F1 Diminished Virtual and erect
optical centre O and optical centre O
of the lens

What conclusion can you draw from this Activity? A concave lens
will always give a virtual, erect and diminished image, irrespective of the
position of the object.


We can represent image formation by lenses using ray diagrams. Ray
diagrams will also help us to study the nature, position and relative size
of the image formed by lenses. For drawing ray diagrams in lenses, alike
of spherical mirrors, we consider any two of the following rays –
(i) A ray of light from the object, parallel to the principal axis, after
refraction from a convex lens, passes through the principal focus
on the other side of the lens, as shown in Fig. 10.13 (a). In case of
a concave lens,
the ray appears
to diverge from
the principal
focus located
on the same
side of the lens,
as shown in (a) (b)
Fig. 10.13 (b).
Figure 10.13

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(ii) A ray of light passing

through a principal
focus, after refraction
from a convex lens, will
emerge parallel to the
principal axis. This is
shown in Fig. 10.14 (a).
(a) (b) A ray of light appearing
to meet at the principal
Figure 10.14 focus of a concave lens,
after refraction, will
emerge parallel to the
principal axis. This is
shown in Fig.10.14 (b).
(iii) A ray of light passing
through the optical
centre of a lens will
emerge without any
deviation. This is
(a) (b) illustrated in Fig.10.15(a)
Figure 10.15 and Fig.10.15 (b).

The ray diagrams for the image formation in a convex lens for a few
positions of the object are shown in Fig. 10.16. The ray diagrams
representing the image formation in a concave lens for various positions
of the object are shown in Fig. 10.17.

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Figure 10.16 The position, size and the nature of the image formed by
a convex lens for various positions of the object

Figure 10.17 Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a concave lens


For lenses, we follow sign convention, similar to the one used for spherical
mirrors. We apply the rules for signs of distances, except that all
measurements are taken from the optical centre of the lens. According
to the convention, the focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of
a concave lens is negative. You must take care to apply appropriate
signs for the values of u, v, f, object height h and image height h′.


As we have a formula for spherical mirrors, we also have formula for
spherical lenses. This formula gives the relationship between object-
distance (u), image-distance (v) and the focal length (f ). The lens formula
is expressed as

1 1 1
− = (10.8)
v u f

The lens formula given above is general and is valid in all situations
for any spherical lens. Take proper care of the signs of different quantities,
while putting numerical values for solving problems relating to lenses.

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Magnification
The magnification produced by a lens, similar to that for spherical
mirrors, is defined as the ratio of the height of the image and the height
of the object. Magnification is represented by the letter m. If h is the
height of the object and h ′ is the height of the image given by a lens, then
the magnification produced by the lens is given by,
Height of the Image h ′
m= = (10.9)
Height of the object h

Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance

u, and the image-distance v. This relationship is given by
Magnification (m ) = h′/h = v/u (10.10)
Example 10.3
A concave lens has focal length of 15 cm. At what distance should
the object from the lens be placed so that it forms an image at 10 cm
from the lens? Also, find the magnification produced by the lens.
Solution
A concave lens always forms a virtual, erect image on the same side
of the object.
Image-distance v = –10 cm;
Focal length f = –15 cm;
Object-distance u = ?
1 1 1
Since − =
v u f

1 1 1
or, = –
u v f

1 1 1 1 1
= – =– +
u –10 ( –15) 10 15

1 −3 + 2 1
= =
u 30 −30
or, u = – 30 cm
Thus, the object-distance is 30 cm.
Magnification m = v/u
−10 cm 1
m= =  + 0.33
− 30 cm 3
The positive sign shows that the image is erect and virtual. The image
is one-third of the size of the object.

Example 10.4
A 2.0 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a
convex lens of focal length 10 cm. The distance of the object from the
lens is 15 cm. Find the nature, position and size of the image. Also
find its magnification.

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Solution
Height of the object h = + 2.0 cm;
Focal length f = + 10 cm;
object-distance u = –15 cm;
Image-distance v = ?
Height of the image h′ = ?
1 1 1
Since − =
v u f

1 1 1
or, = +
v u f

1 1 1 1 1
= + =− +
v ( −15) 10 15 10

1 −2 + 3 1
= =
v 30 30
or, v = + 30 cm
The positive sign of v shows that the image is formed at a distance of
30 cm on the other side of the optical centre. The image is real and
inverted.
h' v
Magnification m = =
h u
or, h′ = h (v/u)
Height of the image, h′ = (2.0) (+30/–15) = – 4.0 cm
Magnification m = v/u
+ 30 cm
or, m = =−2
− 15 cm
The negative signs of m and h′ show that the image is inverted and
real. It is formed below the principal axis. Thus, a real, inverted image,
4 cm tall, is formed at a distance of 30 cm on the other side of the
lens. The image is two times enlarged.


You have already learnt that the ability of a lens to converge or diverge
light rays depends on its focal length. For example, a convex lens of
short focal length bends the light rays through large angles, by focussing
them closer to the optical centre. Similarly, concave lens of very short
focal length causes higher divergence than the one with longer focal
length. The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays achieved
by a lens is expressed in terms of its power. The power of a lens is defined
as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by the letter P. The
power P of a lens of focal length f is given by
1
P= (10.11)
f

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The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’. It is denoted by the letter D.

If f is expressed in metres, then, power is expressed in dioptres. Thus,
1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre. 1D = 1m–1.
You may note that the power of a convex lens is positive and that of a
concave lens is negative.
Opticians prescribe corrective lenses indicating their powers. Let us
say the lens prescribed has power equal to + 2.0 D. This means the lens
prescribed is convex. The focal length of the lens is + 0.50 m. Similarly,
a lens of power – 2.5 D has a focal length of – 0.40 m. The lens is concave.

Many optical instruments consist of a number of lenses. They are combined to increase
the magnification and sharpness of the image. The net power (P ) of the lenses placed


in contact is given by the algebraic sum of the individual powers P1, P2, P3, … as
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
The use of powers, instead of focal lengths, for lenses is quite convenient for opticians.
During eye-testing, an optician puts several different combinations of corrective lenses
of known power, in contact, inside the testing spectacles’ frame. The optician calculates
the power of the lens required by simple algebraic addition. For example, a combination
of two lenses of power + 2.0 D and + 0.25 D is equivalent to a single lens of power + 2.25 D.
The simple additive property of the powers of lenses can be used to design lens systems
to minimise certain defects in images produced by a single lens. Such a lens system,
consisting of several lenses, in contact, is commonly used in the design of lenses of
camera, microscopes and telescopes.

        


1. Define 1 dioptre of power of a lens.
2. A convex lens forms a real and inverted image of a needle at a distance
of 50 cm from it. Where is the needle placed in front of the convex lens
if the image is equal to the size of the object? Also, find the power of the
lens.
3. Find the power of a concave lens of focal length 2 m.


 Light seems to travel in straight lines.
 Mirrors and lenses form images of objects. Images can be either real or virtual,
depending on the position of the object.
 The reflecting surfaces, of all types, obey the laws of reflection. The refracting
surfaces obey the laws of refraction.
 New Cartesian Sign Conventions are followed for spherical mirrors and lenses.

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1 1 1
 Mirror formula, + = , gives the relationship between the object-distance (u),
v u f
image-distance (v), and focal length (f) of a spherical mirror.
 The focal length of a spherical mirror is equal to half its radius of curvature.
 The magnification produced by a spherical mirror is the ratio of the height of the
image to the height of the object.
 A light ray travelling obliquely from a denser medium to a rarer medium bends
away from the normal. A light ray bends towards the normal when it travels obliquely
from a rarer to a denser medium.
 Light travels in vacuum with an enormous speed of 3×108 m s-1. The speed of light
is different in different media.
 The refractive index of a transparent medium is the ratio of the speed of light in
vacuum to that in the medium.
 In case of a rectangular glass slab, the refraction takes place at both air-glass
interface and glass-air interface. The emergent ray is parallel to the direction of
incident ray.
1 1 1
 Lens formula, – = , gives the relationship between the object-distance (u),
v u f
image-distance (v), and the focal length (f) of a spherical lens.
 Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. The SI unit of power of a lens is
dioptre.

        
1. Which one of the following materials cannot be used to make a lens?
(a) Water (b) Glass (c) Plastic (d) Clay
2. The image formed by a concave mirror is observed to be virtual, erect and larger
than the object. Where should be the position of the object?
(a) Between the principal focus and the centre of curvature
(b) At the centre of curvature
(c) Beyond the centre of curvature
(d) Between the pole of the mirror and its principal focus.
3. Where should an object be placed in front of a convex lens to get a real image of the
size of the object?
(a) At the principal focus of the lens
(b) At twice the focal length
(c) At infinity
(d) Between the optical centre of the lens and its principal focus.
4. A spherical mirror and a thin spherical lens have each a focal length of –15 cm. The
mirror and the lens are likely to be
(a) both concave.
(b) both convex.

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(c) the mirror is concave and the lens is convex.

(d) the mirror is convex, but the lens is concave.
5. No matter how far you stand from a mirror, your image appears erect. The mirror
is likely to be
(a) only plane.
(b) only concave.
(c) only convex.
(d) either plane or convex.
6. Which of the following lenses would you prefer to use while reading small letters
found in a dictionary?
(a) A convex lens of focal length 50 cm.
(b) A concave lens of focal length 50 cm.
(c) A convex lens of focal length 5 cm.
(d) A concave lens of focal length 5 cm.
7. We wish to obtain an erect image of an object, using a concave mirror of focal
length 15 cm. What should be the range of distance of the object from the mirror?
What is the nature of the image? Is the image larger or smaller than the object?
Draw a ray diagram to show the image formation in this case.
8. Name the type of mirror used in the following situations.
(a) Headlights of a car.
(b) Side/rear-view mirror of a vehicle.
(c) Solar furnace.
Support your answer with reason.
9. One-half of a convex lens is covered with a black paper. Will this lens produce a
complete image of the object? Verify your answer experimentally. Explain your
observations.
10. An object 5 cm in length is held 25 cm away from a converging lens of focal length
10 cm. Draw the ray diagram and find the position, size and the nature of the
image formed.
11. A concave lens of focal length 15 cm forms an image 10 cm from the lens. How far
is the object placed from the lens? Draw the ray diagram.
12. An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from a convex mirror of focal length
15 cm. Find the position and nature of the image.
13. The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1. What does this mean?
14. An object 5.0 cm in length is placed at a distance of 20 cm in front of a convex
mirror of radius of curvature 30 cm. Find the position of the image, its nature
and size.
15. An object of size 7.0 cm is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal
length 18 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed, so that
a sharp focussed image can be obtained? Find the size and the nature of the image.
16. Find the focal length of a lens of power – 2.0 D. What type of lens is this?
17. A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power +1.5 D. Find the focal length of
the lens. Is the prescribed lens diverging or converging?

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