LI TC H I

P. K. RAY

RAJENDRA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

Pusa - 848125, Samastipur (Bihar)
Litchi: Production Technology and Post-harvest Handling for Export

Published on behalf of the University with ICAR book publishing grant by

Dr. K. R. Maurya, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, Rajendra Agricultural
University, Pusa.

© 2004 RAU, Pusa, Samastipur Bihar (India).

All rights reserved. No part of the booklet may be reproduced in any form
without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer
who may quote brief passages in a review.

Disclaimer: This publication is designed to provide competent and reliable

information regarding the subject matter covered. However, the author
and publisher specifically disclaim any liability that is incurred from the
use or application of the contents of this book.

Printed in India by Tapan Printing Press & Stationery Works, Machuatoli,

Patna - 800 004.

First Printing: March, 2004 (1000 copies)

2004
Part I. Production Technology
1. Introduction 1
2. Export Scenario 2
3. Climate 2
4. Soil 3
5. Varieties 3
6. Propagation 4
7. Orchard Establishment 6
8. Early Care 6 Training 7
9. Pruning 8
10. Nutrition 10
11. Irrigation 12
12. Cincturing 14
13. Weed Control 14
14. Flowering and Fruit Setting 15
15. Fruit Development 15
16. Fruit Cracking 15
17. Insect Pests 16
18. Diseases 20
19. Fruit Maturity 22
20. Harvesting 22

II. Postharvest Handling

21. Postharvest Problems 26

22. Packhouse Operations 28
23. Reception 29
24. Separation from bunch 29
25. Grading 29
26. Quality Criteria 29
27. Grading Classes 29
28. Chemical Treatment 30
29. Precooling 32
30. Packing 33
31. Labelling 34
32. Palletization 36
33. Storage 36
34. Transport 38
35. Cool Chain 38
36. Pesticide Residues 38
37. Pre-export Testing 40
38. Quality Control 40
39. Export Promotion 41
40. Processed Products 41
41. Economics 43
42. Appendices- I 44
43. Appendices- II 45
 FOREWORD
Litchi is indeed one of the finest fruits of the world. Its deliciously flavoured,
sweet, juicy and pearly white flesh (aril) is a rich source of vitamin C and
provides 65 kilocalories per 100g. Among fruit crops grown in India it
occupies unique position due to its limited area of cultivation and high
demand in national and international markets.
Bihar is fortunate to have a very salubrious climate for this crop. Presently,
the state has monopoly in litchi cultivation in the country contributing nearly
70% of the total production. The crop is highly profitable in north Bihar and
can significantly add to the income of small landholders. The area under litchi
is expanding gradually and it is expected that within 3-4 years it would be
over 30,000 ha.
This booklet is an attempt to present a detailed account of pre-and post-
harvest practices employed in production and marketing of litchis. Much
of what it contains is well known and basic to the subject, but where
appropriate the author has tried to introduce helpful points from recent
research and experimental work, as well as observations based on his own
experience.
Owing to extensive research on factors affecting growth and bearing of
fruit crops, rapid changes are taking place in cultural practices of a crop.
Thus, this publication intends to keep the litchi growers abreast of them and
gives more modern approach to the cultivation. Practices related to post-
harvest handling have been described in greater detail to achieve success in
exporting litchis to far distant places. It will definitely inspire even
experienced growers to adopt new and proven techniques to get better return
from their orchards.
Dr P. K. Ray has been working on litchi in this University for over 20 years.
He has presented an authoritative and up-to-date information on the subject
in way that everyone can easily understand. I congratulate him for his
sincere effort and meticulous attention to make the presentation attractive
and lucid.
I am confident that this will be quite useful for those involved in production
and marketing of litchis, particularly for those who are interested in export.
Also, it would be of great interest to students and extension workers.

(S. R. Singh, FNA)

Vice-Chancellor,
Rajendra Agril. University,
Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar
Part I
INTRODUCTION
The litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is one of the finest fruits of the world and
is always held in high esteem due to its attractive appearance and
deliciously flavoured sweet, juicy aril. It belongs to the family Sapindaceae,
and is closely related to fruits like longan and rambutan. It is native to
southern China where it has been grown for thousands of years. Litchi
reached India through Myanmar by the end of the seventeenth century and
then spread out to many tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Its
homeland China still remains the biggest producer of litchi in the world
with over 53 thousand ha area under litchi cultivation.
India is the second largest litchi producing country in the world. Other
countries where litchi is grown successfully are South Africa, Israel,
Thailand, Vietnam, Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mauritius,
USA, Australia, Madagascar, New Zealand, Bangladesh and Nepal. The
exact country-wise figures regarding area and production are not known,
but roughly world litchi production is expected to be around two million
tonnes per annum. India's contribution to world litchi production is about
20 per cent.
Table 1.: Area, production and productivity of litchi (2000-01)

States Area Production Productivity

(103ha) (103 t) (t/ha)
Assam 4.1 18.4 4.5
Bihar 25.3 303.3 12.0
Jharkhand 0.5 5.0 10.0
Orissa 3.5 8.2 2.3
Punjab 1.2 11.5 9.6
Tripura 1.6 8.9 5.6
Uttaranchal 8.9 8.8 1.0
West Bengal 4.2 42.0 10.0
Others 4.3 5.9 1.3
Total 53.6 412.0 7.7
Source: Indian Horticulture Database (2002), NHB, Gurgaon.

In India litchi is grown mainly in the eastern part of the country. Bihar
offers the most salubrious climate to grow this luscious fruit. In the year
2001 this state had 47 per cent of the total acreage under litchi in the
country but its contribution to the total litchi production in the country
was nearly 74 per cent. Muzaffarpur and its neighbouring districts (e.g.

1
Vaishali, East and West Champaran, Sitamarhi, Samastipur and
Darbhanga) are key production areas. Other eastern states which have
substantial acreage under litchi production are West Bengal, Assam and
Orissa. In northern part, Uttaranchal has maximum area under this crop
(Table - 1).

EXPORT SCENARIO
India produces nearly 0.5 million tonnes litchi in a good year. However,
most of the produce is sold fresh in domestic markets. Only a small fraction
(approximately 100 tonnes) is exported annually to foreign markets,
particularly UK, France, Belgium, Hungry, Middle-East and some other
countries. Thus the Indian litchi industry is relatively very small by
international standards, but has a strong export focus. Some litchi
exporting firms/groups have come up in the litchi growing areas of Bihar
and Uttaranchal and they have a strong commitment to grade standards,
postharvest treatment and quality assurance. It is expected that the litchi
export will rise manifold in near future. India has some advantage, since
litchi is harveted in May-June when there are few competitors in the export
trade. Harvesting time in Thailand, Taiwan, China and Israel coincides
with each other. Early harvesting in May is possible only in India and
Thailand. This needs to be exploited for getting better price of the Indian
produce.
CLIMATE
Litchi requires a subtropical location free from frost occurrence for best
fruiting. Mature trees are capable of withstanding light frosts. Although
mature trees may survive occasional light frosts or temperature below 0°C,
damage to foliage does occur and normal flowering is upset below 5°C. The
litchi appears to perform best where it experiences 3 to 4 months of dry,
cool autumn-winter weather before flowering in late winter i.e. March. The
weather at flowering should be mild and dry.
In general, a period of low temperature in winter is favourable for
cropping (good fruiting), since high temperature reduce or delay floral
initiation, promote leaf growth at the expense of floral buds, and reduce
the number of female flowers on the inflorescences. Extended period of
temperatures above 30°C during anthesis can also reduce fruit set.
Normally temperatures below 20°C (but above 15°C) induce flowers.
Flowering is irregular at higher temperatures. Also, Fruit set is reduced
when temperatures fall below 20°C for extended period during flowering.
High temperatures during fruit development have been implicated in skin
browning and skin cracking, especially when accompanied by low
humidity in air. Temperature below 10°C during winter restricts vegetative
2
growth. High temperature (> 38°C) in April-May often accelerates fruit
development at the expense of fruit weight. During fruit development,
warm conditions with a good, even spread of rainfall up to harvest in May-
June are desirable. Following harvest, temperature and rainfall should be
high to give strong active vegetative growth. Bearing litchi trees should
have maximum vegetative growth between July and September. Vegetative
flushing in winter months (an.-March) greatly reduces flowering potential
of the trees.
SOIL
Litchi trees perform best on well drained sandy loam or clay loam of
medium to high fertility with minimum of one metre of well drained top
soil. Heavy clay soils are not suitable as they often become waterlogged. In
Muzaffarpur region, litchi is grown on calcareous soil with a pH range of
7.5 to 8.5. The free calcium carbonate content of the soil varies from 20-40%.
The high calcium content has greatly affected the physical and chemical
properties of the soil. Nutrition has to be managed carefully on these soils
to avoid deficiencies of micronutrients like iron, boron or zinc (see
nutrition).

VARIETIES
There are as many as 30 varieties of litchi in the state but only few are
commercially successful. Many of them are synonyms bearing almost
similar fruits. For example, Shahi resembles with Rose-Scented or
Dehrarose and China with Calcuttia and Bombai. The characteristics of the
14 important cultivars are given in Table 2. Shahi, China, Purbi, Early
Bedana and Late Bedana are commercially important in Bihar. Shahi and
China bear large size, excellent quality fruits. Shahi scores over China as its
trees are regular in bearing compared to the latter showing alternate
bearing tendency. They bear heavy crop producing 100-150 kg per tree
compared with 40-60 kg per tree from other cultivars including Early and
Late Bedana. Bedana has the best quality but it is low yielding, due to sparse
fruiting (Plate-1). In Bhagalpur belt “Mandrazi" is a popular variety. Its fruit
size and yield potential are comparable with Shahi or China. For export
purpose Shahi is the best variety as its aril possesses delicate rosy flavour
and its keeping quality is better than China. Its aril remains tight (firm) for
longer duration as compared to China whose aril becomes loose during
storage or long-distance transport. A hybrid named "Madhu" has been
developed by crossing Purbi x Bedana at Bihar Agricultural College,
Sabour. It has higher number of fruits (24) per panicle and ripens 8 days
later than another late manuring strain "Kasba" in Bhagalpur region. It has
higher TSS and aril percentage than Purbi. Its fruit shape resembles with
Purbi.

3
PROPAGATION
Litchi is propagated commercially by air layering. Grafting is also possible
and now being used in countries like China and Vietnam. Success rate with
air layering is normally more than 90 percent while the grafting technique
has not yet been standardized for litchi in India. For air layering upright
branches (1.0 - 1.5 cm thick and 40-60 cm long) free from pests and diseases
are selected in July. The selected branches are girdled first. A strip of bark
3-4 cm in length is completely removed from around the stem. Scraping the
exposed surface to insure complete removal of phloem and cambium is
desirable to retard healing. Application of IBA @ 1000 ppm in lanolin on the
upper end of the girdle improves rooting and survival percentage. About
two handfuls of moistened sphagnum moss with excess moisture squeezed
out are placed around the stem to enclose the cut surfaces. A piece of
polythene film is wrapped carefully around the branch so that the
sphagnum moss is completely covered. The two ends are then tied to make
sure that no water can seep inside. The layers are removed from the parent
plant when thinner roots are observed through the transparent film.
Rooting occurs in two to three months. While planting in the nursery bed
or pots, some leaves are pruned to reduce the top of the layers. The layers
are reared or hardened in the nursery for 8 - 9 months and then they become
fit for transplanting in the field.

PLATE - 1: Litchi varieties - (1) Shahi, (2) China, (3) Rose Scented, (4) Kaselia,
(5) Kasba, (6) Early Bedana, (7) Late Bedana.
4
5 PLATE - 1
ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT
Soil Preparation: Good preparation of the planting site 1-2 months before
planting greatly helps in better establishment of the saplinys and ensures
good growth during early vegetative phase. Pits (90 cm x 9 x 90 cm size) are
dug and allowed to remain open for 15-20 days. A that the pit should be
filled with top soil mixed with 20 kg of well-rotten farmyard compost, 1 kg
cake, 220g urea, 185 g superphosphate and 150 g sulphate of Potash and 20g
thimet 10G. Before planting is taken up the pits should receive a couple of
good showers of rain. Otherwise, water should be aplied so that the soil
settles down properly. The best time of planting is July-August. Planting
should be done in the evening or on a humid cloudy day. To ensure right
position of the tree in the pit the planting baord is used. One year old
healthy layers are highly suitable for planting.
Layout (Spacing and planting geometry): The best planting distance is
allowed to obtain the most efficient and profitable use of land. The basic
idea is to confine the exploiting area of the tree with regard to light, water
and nutrients so that the highest yield can be achieved in smallest possible
area. In general, the recommended planting distance is 9 m x 9m /or 10 m x
10 m accommodating 123 or 100 trees/ha respectively. With ever increasing
land values, taxes, production cost and the need for early return on invested
capital, there exists a world-wide trend in fruit production towards high
density plantings. Even in regions where low-cost land is available growers
are interested in high density plantings for early returns. Double hedge-
row plantings at [6m x 5m] x 10m can be adopted for better yields than
traditional square planting. In this way 222 plants can be accommodated in
one hectare area. Two rows are set closely allowing 6m distance between
two rows and 5m distance between two plants in a row. Then a set of two
rows are spaced 10m apart. This spacing and planting geometry yields
better and may give 50 to 60% higher return than the traditional planting
in the 15th year. Since the trees are planted very close, initial training and
maintenance pruning must be followed rigidly. These orchards require
regular pruning to keep the trees small. The tree height can be restricted to
2m and radial spread to 5m i.e., equal to interplant spacing in a row. In case
of overcrowding some of the trees must be removed.
Early Care: The newly established orchard needs special care and attention
in the first 2-3 years. The orchard should be provided with adequate fencing
to protect the trees from stray cattle. A basin is prepared around the plant
and frequent watering is done to avoid any water stress. Fastest vegetative
growth is achieved by regular applications of water and Nutrients,
strategic pruning, weed, pest and disease control, Permanent wind breaks
of either shisoo or, eucalyptus trees should be established around the litchi

6
orchard before or at the planting the litchi trees. This is important to
protect the bearing trees from the impact of desiccating westerly wind (loo)
and to reduce the extent of fruit cracking. The protection given by a
windbreak is related to its height; the higher the break the longer the area
protected. A break of 50% wind permeability gives maximum protection at
a distance of 4 to 6 times the height of the break and adequate protection to
about 10 times the height. However, before applying manures and
fertilizers in June or July it is necessary to rip the soil about half way
between the windbreak trees and first row of litchis. This is necessary to
prevent root competition which could lead to reduce yield.
Intercropping: While the orchard is young and non-bearing, the trees will
not need all the ground. A litchi orchard planted at 10 m x 10 m spacing in
one hectare area provides as much as 0.8 ha open sunny space for
intercropping in the first two years of establishment. This space can be
utilized for growing vegetables, cereals or pulses as intercrops. The
intercrops can be grown up to 10th year. When the canopy development is
complete and the entire ground surface is shaded, this practice is generally
discontinued. Since the space beneath the canopy still gets some
attenuated light, shade loving crops such as ginger, turmeric, Colocasia, or
yams can be grown. During initial years short duration fruit crops like
papaya and cape-gooseberry can also be grown.
TRAINING
The young litchi trees are trained to develop a strong trunk and a good
frame of scaffold branches well distributed around the trees which are
sufficiently strong to support heavy load of fruits without limb breakage.
The newly set plants have tendency to produce new branches (or sprouts)
very close to the grounds. They should be removed as early as possible. One
advantage of training is that the trees have a single robust trunk up to a
height of 1.5 m or more at full maturity. This helps in doing cultural
operations conveniently beneath the tree.
Considering growth habit of litchi trees, open centre or vase-shaped trees
are preferred. The terminal point of the main shoot is cut by 8-10 cm to
allow lateral branching. This helps in thickening of existing lateral
branches and throwing of some new laterals on the stem. Three-four
equally developed primary laterals are allowed to form a balanced top with
secondary and tertiary branches by 4th year. In early years branching can
give rise to acute crotch angles which succumb to splitting in bearing
years. This ruins the tree. Limbs formed and lost in later years do not result
in such drastic losses. Hence, for the first 3 to 4 years, where such acute
crotch angles are evident, one of the limbs should be removed as early as
possible.

7
Bearing ability not only depends on tree size, but also on the number of
growing points from which flower panicles arise. So one aim in litchi
training is to develop sufficient fruiting terminals. Some cultivars tend to
produce few but excessively long branches. In these cases, tip pruning of
branches in early years can lead to a more balanced tree. Severe pruning
should be avoided as it reduces tree development and significantly
increases time to first harvest.
PRUNING
During initial years pruning is required to build a good framework, The
litchi flowers are borne mostly on new shoots. The old branches rarely
produce flowers. Snipping of old branches to promote fresh growth is,
therefore, desirable. The fruit is harvested in bunches along with 20. 40 cm
shoots and this serves the purpose of pruning. If the tree is making too
much vegetable growth, both shoot and root pruning are sometime
recommended. If crown becomes too dense, few thick branches from top
are removed for penetration of hight into interiors of the canopy.
In high density plantings annual pruning soon after harvest is practised
to promote flowering and control tree size. Sometimes root pruning is also
done to improve flowering and fruiting (Plate 2.4). The severity of annual
shoot pruning depends up on the tree vigour and space provided to
accommodate its spread.
In the first three years young trees are grown as vigorously as possible to
attain greatest tree size and bearing surface. To achieve this a continuous
supply of nutrients and water is demanded. Trees from 4 years onwards
require careful management to induce regular flowering and fruit set. The
litchi is very sensitive to environmental condition which control the
vegetative and flowering cycles of the plant. It is known that excessive
vegetativeness and particularly vegetative growth during the antumn-
winter period (October-February) reduce or inhibit flowering. This is
believed to be caused by the dissipation of carbohydrate reserves in
vegetative growth which is then not sufficiently mature physiologically to
flower. As the lychee is a terminal flowering species, it must make
sufficient growth each year, followed by time for this growth to mature
before flowering. Far this region, tree management is directed to gaining
maximum vegetative growth immediately after harvest i.e., in later part of
June or July. Onset of rainy season in the second fortnight of June and
fertilization after harvest greatly help achieving maximum vegetative
growth by end of July or middle of August. Don't fertilize the trees in
August or September. This may lead to late vegetative flushing in autumn
or winter.

PLATE 2: (1) A flowering tree of Shahi Litchi, (2) A girdled primary branch (3) A flower panicle
in full bloom, (4) Root pruning done to induce fruiting in over-vigorous trees, (5) Leaves
showing iron deficiency, (6) High density planting of litchi.
8
Recommendations made for grown-up trees regarding fertilization,
irrigation and pruning cannot be suitable for young trees. This is mainly
because physical differences between the plants of two age-groups. The
growth pattem, sensitivity to water stress and available nutrient reserves
for young trees are different from those of mature trees. Firstly, the small
trees do not have the extensive root system, they suffer water or nutrient
stress more frequently and intensely. Secondly, matured trees are manured
and irrigated to produce a balanced vegetative and reproductive growth for
optimum yield. It is known that excessive vegetative growth arising due to
heavy frequent irrigation and plenty of nutrients in the soil can
substantially reduce or inhibit fruit production. But in case of young trees
it is usually desired to maximise the rate of vegetative growth in initial
years as this determines the final tree size and future fruit bearing capacity.
Young trees are benefited if frequency of irrigation or fertilization is high
but mature trees fail to show such beneficial effect as the balance between
vegetative and reproductive growth is disturbed appreciably.
NUTRITION
If the pit dug for transplanting is properly filled with organic manures
including cake and inorganic fertilizers, the newly planted saplings are not
likely to need feeding in the very first year. The fertilization programme
then starts from the second year and continue till life time. During initial
years (from 2nd to 4th year) the recommended fertilizer dose should be
applied in 3 to 4 splits at 3- or 4-months interval. For example, urea is
applied at the rate of 100-110 g per tree at 3 monthly intervals in the second
year (see Table 3). Middle of July, October, January and April would be
appropriate time for applying the fertilizers so long the tree is juvenile
(non-bearing). Once the tree comes into bearing the fertilizer application
frequency is reduced.
In general, the choice of fertilizers and rate of application depend greatly
on the soil type, the rate of growth being achieved and the experience of the
grower. Higher rates than those
indicated above can be or tried if
growth rates are not satisfactory.
Sample Likewise, if growth is very luxuriant in
3rd or 4th year, fertilizer application
(particularly nitrogenous fertilizers)
should be stopped until leaf colour falls
and / or fruiting begins. If this
approach is not adopted trees may not
bear until year 6 and even then, control
of regular cropping may be difficult.
Fig. 1: Leaf sampling for ascertaining
nutrient application rate

10
* The fertilizer dose is increased every year till the tree becomes fully grown-up (or adult). ** For
12 years or older (> 12 years) trees @ Mixture of neem and caster cake at 1 : 1 ratio. Note : The
above rates will be effective under moderate set of conditions in north Bihar without causing
any injury to the tree. It 1s emphasized that nutrient management should be firstly supported
by leaf and soil analysis and secondly by a recording of yield and vegetative vigour of the tree.
It is always better to ascertain fertilizer dose on the basis of soil and leaf
analyses. In soils where potassium or phosphorus is known to be deficient,
higher levels of these nutrients should be applied in early establishment
years and also during bearing stage. Similarly, where minor elements are
lacking, they must be provided either by way of commercial mixtures or as
supplementary sprays. By and large, calcareous soil of north Bihar is
deficient in micro-elements like iron, boron or zinc. Since the range
between deficiency and toxicity is small, care should be taken when
applying micronutrients particularly boron fertilizers. Do not apply these
nutrients without ascertaining their existing levels in the soil. It is
suggested that soil and leaf analyses should be taken regularly at an interval
of two years, to explore the possibility of major deficiencies or excesses.
This is a good management guide for both well grown and poor trees. Leaf
and soil nutrient standards are given in Table 4 for reference.
In case of bearing trees fertilizer application is limited only to
postharvest and post-bloom stages. Starting at the end of year 4 in well
grown trees, when fruiting has begun, the following dose is suggested:
Compost 45 kg, Cake 2.6 kg, Super Phosphate 0.9 kg and Sulphate of Potash
0.75 kg. Three-fourth of this amount is applied in last week or June of first
week of July after harvest and the rest one forth immediately after fruit set.
Each fertilizer application should be followed by irrigation unless rain falls
within a day of application. The rate per year per tree increases gradually
till 12th year. Trees thereafter should be given similar dose as their
requirement is fixed. The fertilizers are normally applied in a trench
around the tree trunk. The dose indicated in Table 4 is for widely spaced
(10m x 10m) trees. In a hedgerow configuration with a spacing within rows
of 6 to 8m, trees should receive proportionately lower doses. Furthermore,
11
one should bear in mind that ultimate rate of different fertilizers depends
on cultivar, soil type, climatic conditions and crop load and, for this
reason, some local (site specific) management or adjustment of rates is
required.
Table 4: Nutrient standards for healthy, high yielding litchi trees and
orchard soil,

IRRIGATION
Young trees up to 3-4 years are irrigated frequently from October to June.
The period from July to September receives sufficient rain to fulfil the
water needs of the trees. If the rain during this period is scanty, the trees
are irrigated at 15 days interval during October-November, at one month
interval during December-February and at one week interval during
March-July. This schedule favours rapid vegetative growth and induces the
trees to bear in the 4th or 5th year of planting. When the trees come into
bearing, the irrigation schedule in changed. The bearing trees are seldom
irrigated from November to March i.e. till flowering and fruit setting are
over. Thereafter trees are irrigated at weekly intervals till harvesting of the
crop in last week of May or early June. Thus, localities which have a
consistently dry period from November to March are more congenial for
litchi cultivation.
The period from flowering to early fruit development is particularly
sensitive to water supply. If moisture is inadequate at this stage, poor fruit
setting and abnormally high fruit dropping result in. If moisture stress

12
continues further, fruit size is reduced appreciably. Normally in sandy
loam soil irrigation is applied when 50% of the available soil water in the
root zone (0-60 cm) has been depleted. If further depletion is allowed, the
trees may be subjected to a level of stress that might cause an appreciable
reduction in yield. However, heavy irrigation at the time of fruit setting
leads to shedding of fruits. So only light application is required when fruit
setting process is just completed. Once the fruits start growing and attain
1 cm size, water application should be increased to high rates to prevent any
stress. Litchi fruits approaching maturity are subject to splitting, if rainfall
occurs. This condition is greatly aggravated if early fruit development is
retarded by water stress (see fruit cracking). Retarded development also
results in a lower flesh to seed ratio, a feature particularly evident in the big
seeded cultivars like Shahi, China or Mandraji. Suggested water
application rates for trees of different age groups are shown in Table 5 and
6. It is obvious that irrigation in the 4-5 months before fruit set is managed
with light applications to prevent severe stress occurring while limiting
conditions for vegetative growth. Once the fruit setting is over and fruits
attain 1 cm size, watering is done at the rate of 1350 litres per tree per week
(Table 6).

13
CINCTURING (GIRDLING)
This is a technique used to induce flowering in litchi particularly in shy-
bearing cultivars. The process includes cutting of the bark to a depth just
below the soft tissue under the bark. The ring is cut 3 mm wide and 3 mm
deep around the main stems or major limbs with a saw (see plate 2.2). The
cut is covered with a saturated paste of copper oxychloride to prevent
disease infection or with a narrow plastic tape to prevent desiccation and
entry of pathogens. This is done on healthy vigorous trees, often only half
of the branches are cintured and the others are treated (saw cut) in alternate
years. Cincturing stops the interchange of sugars and other growth
promoting materials between the leaves and the roots. After cincturing,
sugars and growth inhibitors tend to build up in the leaves and assist flower
development. With time, the tissues of the cincture cut grows across and
rejoins the conducting vessels, so that the plants resumes normal
development. The length of time, that this healing process takes, is vital to
health, performance and survival of the trees. The best time of cincturing
is from last week of September to middle of October i.e., at least 5 months
prior to flowering. Trees cinctured late do not develop sufficient dormacy
prior to flowering and also do not get sufficient time to heal before fruit set.
If healing is incomplete, fruit formation is adversely affected. Weak or
unhealthy trees are not cinctured as the process has adverse effect on their
health (vigour) and fruiting.
WEED CONTROL
Weeds in litchi orchards reduce crop yield by competing for moisture,
nutrients, light and space. They also harbour insect pests and diseases.
When they become large, they interfere with orchard operations.
Integrated weed control measures involving growing of a intercrop, tillage
of the soil and use of herbicide are best to fallow. Regular tillage by a tractor
provides a weed-free environment in the orchard but it damages the
shallow roots. Further, branches hanging low, spreading in the inter-row
spaces hinder movement of the tractor and the land around the trunk is not

14
covered. This portion needs to be tilled separately by a spade. Usually soil
tilling is done in middle of October after expiry of rainy season and again
in Feb. -March to keep the orchard floor clean. Among weedicides Round-
up or Glyphosate @ 2.0 kg a.i./ha is very effective in controlling weeds in the
litchi orchards. While spraying the weedicide, nozzles are directed towards
the weeds and not to the tree trunk or foliage.
FLOWERING AND FRUIT SETTING
Under north Bihar conditions flowering takes place from start of March to
middle of April. The length of flowering period varies according to varieties
from 27 to 38 days. Fruit set however takes place in the latter part of
flowering and is completed within the last 10 to 15 days. Cultivars like Shahi
and Rose-scented are first to set while in "China" setting takes place about
8-12 days later . "Kasailiya" is about 15-20 days later than Shahi. Only 3.2%
of total flowers and about 10% of pistillate flowers usually set fruits in cv.
Shahi. At the time of setting the number of fruits per panicle may be as high
as 90 or more but this is reduced to 18 or 20 at maturity. So only 20% of the
initial set reach to maturity. Remaining 80% fruits drop during the course
of development. In general, most cultivars set fruits far in excess of what
an individual tree can carry through to maturity and will shed the excess at
various times during fruit development.
FRUIT DEVELOPMENT
Litchi fruits of cv. "Shahi" takes 8 weeks to mature from setting date i.e.
usually a day in the last week of March. The growth is very slow up to the
first 2 weeks after anthesis. During this period pericarp and seed grow
coherently. The seed grows rapidly up to 6th week and ceases to grow
further after 7th week. Aril (flesh) growth begins towards the end of 5th
week and continues till maturity up to 8th week.
Fruit drop: It is a serious problem during initial stages of fruit growth. It
has been observed that most of the fruits drop within 2-3 weeks after fruit
set. During this period 50-55% of initially set fruits drop. About 910% of the
initial setting drop after 5-6 week of setting. This drop can cause immense
economic loss as the fruits attain appreciable size (2.6 cm diameter) by this
time. If this drop is managed, the yield will be increased by about 40-45%.
Proper nutrient and soil water management reduces the drop to a great
extent. Spray of auxin (NAA) @ 10 ppm at fruit setting stage (when fruit
weight is 1-2 g) effectively controls the drop. Girdling of thinner secondary
branches soon after fruit setting also helps in reducing the fruit drop.
Fruit Cracking: Fruit cracking takes a heavy tall at later stages of fruit
growth. Varieties differ considerably in their susceptibility to crack. Crop
losses of crack-susceptible variety may reach up to 50% in adverse weather/

15
environmental conditions. The cracking of skin provides open wounds
exposing the underlying aril (flesh) to microbial infection and fast rotting
Further, the cracked fruits bear ugly look and are not worth marketing (see
plate 4.1 and 4.2). The growers are thus put to a great financial loss, when
the cracking is high.
Various reasons have been ascribed to this disorder. A major factor
responsible for cracking of fruits is a sudden marked increase in soy}
moisture content during their development, especially if growth has been
checked earlier by lack of soil moisture. It is observed that fruits crack most
severely after heavy rainfall (or irrigation) at the end of prolonged dry
period. High temperature (> 38°C) and dry westerly wind in May often lead
to sun burning of the fruit skin which induces cracking towards harvest.
The burnt areas of the skin cannot expand with the rest of the fruit creating
a weakness in the skin that splits. A strong correlation exists between soil
moisture and fruit cracking. Sprinkler irrigation to replace 75% of ET
requirement of the tree minimises cracking to a minimum of 3% level.
Maintaining a high soil moisture regime throughout fruit development
period greatly helps minimising cracking of fruits. This means available
soil moisture should not be allowed to deplete below 25 to 30%. Irrigation
at 4-5 days intervals helps in maintaining this moisture level in summer
months (April-May).
Exogenous application of growth regulators and some micronutrients
have been found to reduce the cracking of fruits. Pre-harvest spray of
boron, zinc, calcium, copper and manganese helps in reducing cracking of
litchi fruits (see Table 7). Spray of 40 ppm GA, or 25 ppm NAA also helps in
minimising cracking of litchi fruits.

INSECT PESTS
Erinose mite [Aceria litchi (Riffer)] is a major pest of the foliage. Severe
infections may damage developing flowers and fruit, and kill the growing
points. The cause of the development of erineum as a result of feeding

16
by A. litchi has been questioned by some researchers, who proposed that
the erineum does not arise from stimulated leaf cells, but is in fact formed
by the thalli of the alga, Cephaleuros viriscens Kunze, with the alga and
mite sharing a symbiotic relationship. On this ground a change for the
name of A. litchi to “litchi algal mite" has been proposed, but this is yet to
be accepted by peers in the field. The mites attack new leaves causing a felt-
like erineum to be produced on the under surface. This forms as small
blisters but may eventually covers the entire leaf, causing it to curl (see
plate 3.2). In severe cases whole terminal may be deformed. The young
erineum is silver-white, changing to light brown and dark reddish-brown,
and eventually black. Maximum populations are present in light brown
colour verges on dark brown.
Numerous species of predatory mites have been recorded with A. litchi in
all important litchi growing countries but not all have been proven to be
effective for use as a biological control agent. A. eharai and A gistemus
exsertus have been used to control the mite in China. Although some
predatory species e.g., Amblyseius coccineac Gupta, Amblyseius
finlandicus Oudemans, Amblyseius purni Gupta, and Amlyseius
paraaerialis Muma have been observed in litchi growing areas of north
Bihar, they are not intentionally used to control the mite. Trees should be
monitored specially for erinose mite incidence on a monthly schedule.
Additionally, constant vigilance during the conduct of routine orchard
operations will assist in the early detection of mite infestation. All infested
branches should be cut off and burnt during the non-fruiting period,
particularly during post-harvest pruning. The mites can be controlled by
applying miticides when they move from the older leaves to a new flush.
Three sprays of dicofol (@ 3ml/l) every two to three week during leaf
emergence and expension generally provide adequate control. Other
insecticides like dimethoate, chlorpyrifos, and omethoate also provide
acceptable results.
Fruit borer (Conopomorpha cramerella Snellen) is a serious pest damaging
litchi fruits to the extent of 70% or more in some years. It lays eggs in the
pedicilar region when the fruits are very close to maturity. The newly
emerged larvae bore into mature fruits and feed on its pulp (see plate 3.6).
It has been observed that the extent of damage is positively correlated with
atmospheric humidity and rainfall. The infestation increases considerably
with rains and is much lower if the atmosphere is sufficiently dry. There is
black excretory (faecal) deposits beneath the bark at the top of the fruit near
pedicelar end. This greatly reduces the market value of the fruits. The
infestation is not detectable as the eggs laid by the insect on the fruit
surface are invisible to naked eyes. Spray of cypermethrin or deltamethrin
during early stages of fruit development is recommended to prevent later

17
in season. At least 2 sprays starting from fing week of April to first week of
May may be given to ensure complete protection from this pest. However,
harvesting must be done only after 15 days of the last spray. Earlier picking
would be responsible for residual toxicity.
There are some other borers infesting litchi fruits viz. Cryptophlebia,
ombrodelta Lower; Cryptophlebia carpophaga Walsingham). They lay eggs
on the surface of the fruits. If the fruits are immature, the young larva will
bore directly into the seed (plate 3.5), which is completely eaten, One larva
may damage two or even three fruits, if the attacked fruit, are very small.
However, there is a preference for more mature fruit, with larger seeds,
especially as the fruits begin to colour. At this Stage newly emerged larvae
generally tunnel in the skin before attempting to get to the seed. If the route
taken to the seed commences adjacent to the peduncle, then the larva
usually survives, but if it attempts to bore though the mature flesh, it
usually drowns in the juice, which seeps into the wound caused by its
feeding. In either case the fruit will not be marketable. In addition, the juice
that oozes from borer wounds may stain neighbouring fruit on a panicle
and cause further losses. This is particularly found in Cultivars like Purbi
or Shahi which produces large panicles bearing many fruits in a tight
cluster. Monitoring for infestations should concentrate on maturing fruits,
with samples taken from any part of the tree. About 70-80 fruits are
required to be examined to make a decision with respect to chemical
control. Spraying of Carbaryl (0.1%) or Malathion (0.05%) at an interval of
15 days effectively controls the pest.
Leaf-Miner (Conopomorpha litchiella Bradley) is similar to the fruit borer
in appearance but it does not infect fruits whereas the friut borer (C.
cramerella Snellen), in absence of fruits, behaves like leaf-miner. The new
hatched larva of C. lichiella Bradley is creamy white, and bores into shoots
and leaf blades, usually into the mid-rib and veins. The moths are attracted
to leaf flushes that emerge during the rainy season from July to October.
Affected shoots often wilt.
Bearing trees should be inspected for the presence of leaf minor during
major flushes. Eggs laid on the shoots can be detected by using a X hand
lens. Damaged leaves should also be randomly checked. Sprays must be
applied to the very young leaves during June-October to manage the pest.
Leafroller (Pletypeplus aprobola Meyer) rolls leaves and feeds on them
during vegetative flushing. It attacks flowers during flowering period.

Plate 3: (1) Leaves infested with leafrollers, (2) Leaves and fruits affected with
Erinosé mite, (3) Pouring insecticide into the shoot hole made by shoot borer, (4)
Larva of shoot trunk borer, (5) Larva of fruit borer ( Cryptophlebia ombrodetta), (6)
Larvae of fruit borer (Conopomorpha cramerella).

18
19
The incidence is found from August to March when new leaves are
available. Litchi trees whose foliage are badly attacked produce reduced
yield When 50 % of the new leaves are infested, sprays of carbaryl,
phosphamidon, fenitrothion or endosulfan should be applied. Dimethoate
(0.03%) also gives effective control.
Bark eating caterpillar (Indarbela tetraonis Moore) bores into trunk,
primary (scaffold) branches and thick secondary branches of litchi trees.
The female lays 250-300 eggs in cuts and cervices of the bark in early June.
Eggs hatch in 8-10 days and newly emerged caterpillars start nibbling at the
bark, covering the damaged portion with fine silken webs comprising their
excreta and chewed wood particles. After 2-3 days, larvae bore into the
trunk or main branches usually at the forking place and make tunne|
downwards. There is only one larva in each hole, and there may be 2. 20 or
more holes in each tree, depending upon the intensity of infestation and
age of the tree. The caterpillar remains within the bored holes during day
and come out at night to feed upon the bark (see plate 3.4). The attacked tree
shows the presence of windings and sunken galleries full of frass and faecal
matter. As a result of feeding inside the trunk or main branches, the
translocation of sap is disrupted and growth of the tree is arrested.
Fruiting potential is adversely reduced. Spraying endosulfan (0.05° or
DDVP or monocrotophos (0.05%) at initial stage i.e. when caterpillar. start
nibbling gives effective control. At tunnelling stage pouring, 2-3 drops of
DDVP/Nuvan (0.1%) or Vapona (0.1%) into the hole and plugging its mouth
with wet soil or a small cotton ball provides good control (see plate 3.3).
Before treating with chemical, the covering of fresh frass and webbing,
must be cleared by brooming the affected surface.
DISEASES
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz.) is a major disease
attacking leaves and branches, along with flowers and flower stalks.
Infected fruits are not worth marketing. Lesions on the leaves may appx ir
as small round light grey areas, or irregular brown marks at the tips. in
contrast, infections are much more obvious on the flowers and fruit.
Outbreaks are common after warm wet weather. The fungus may not cause
immediate diseases which sometimes only becomes apparent after harvest.
All the affected parts are pruned first and then fungicides (Bordeux
mixture - 3: 3: 50; 0.2% Captan 50% WP) are used during initial outbreak, in
February, April and September - October.
Leaf spots caused by a fungus Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. usually
start from the tip or margin of the lamina. The colour of the spots is deep

Plate 4: (1) Fruit cracking in "Shahi" litchi, (2) Fruit cracking in "Rose-scented"
litchi, (3) irrigation through over-head sprinkler to minimise fruit cracking, (4)
Colour break in litchi (partially ripen bunch), (5) Fruits turning red, (6) Fully ripen
bunch.
20
chocolate. The limiting margins of the spots with irregular outline are
brown. The control measures suggested for anthracnose are also effective
for the leaf spots.
A slow decline and a sudden death have been reported from many | areas of
north Bihar, especially in poorly drained soils. It can affect the | whole tree
or just one or two branches. The symptoms include a sudden branch wilt
that is followed by the decline of new growth on the affected branch over a
period. In other situation, the tips die without wilting. The | tree or branch
may recover temporarily, but subsequently dies. Parts of the tree flush and
grow, while other sections die. A number of organisms including
Phytophthora, Pythium and Fusarium have been isolated from the roots of
the trees, but it is not known whether they cause the disease. Growers are
advised not to plant litchi trees on waterlogged soils or in a low-lying field
often receiving flood-water.
FRUIT MATURITY
As litchi fruits tend towards maturity, the concentration of sugars
principally those of sucrose, glucose and fructose increase, while the
concentrations of organic acids, predominantly malic acid decrease. The
most reliable guide to maturity is titrable acidity (TA) or the ratio of total
soluble solids (TSS) to titrable acidity. Recommendations vary but a TSS:
TA of 40 or greater is recommended for commercial fruit. In practice, most
orchards in a particular region are harvested on the basis of taste and
general appearance. The fattening of the fruit segments (protuberances) on
the skin also serves as a maturity index. Don't harvest the fruit only on the
basis of its red skin colour as red fruits may be immature and acidic in taste.
Over-ripe fruits are sweet, but bland (dull in appearance). Under North-
Bihar conditions, "Shahi" matures between 21st and 24th May while
"China" in the first week of June.
HARVEST MANIPULATION
Harvesting date of a particular variety can be manipulated with spray of
chemicals particularly plant growth regulators. For example, harvesting of
“China” can be delayed by 9-10 days if the fruit panicles are sprayed 3 weeks
before estimated harvest with daminozide (2 g/litre) or Urea (20 g/litre).
Similarly spraying Ethrel at 400 ppm 3 weeks before expected harvest can
advance maturity of "Shahi" by a week. Preharvest spray of fungicide may
help in extending post-harvest sife of litchi fruits, but while doing so care
must be taken for residual toxicity of the chemical applied.
HARVESTING
Since litchi is a non-climacteric fruit, it must be harvested at peak (full)
maturity. Fruits do not ripen off the tree or improve in taste / flavour after
harvest. Unripe fruit may sweeten a little due to moisture loss, but do not
develop full flavour.
22
Majority of the fruits, except for some lower fruits and shaded ones, will
reach a stage of acceptable maturity where they can be harvested at one
time. This reduces the cost of harvesting. Those wishing to spread, the
harvest will get about 7-10 days’ time, from a given tree. Within a, variety
in a planting some trees tend to be a week out of phase with, other trees but
this also spreads the harvest. So, plantations having only 4 one variety may
supply fruits for 15 days, if desired. The harvest period, beyond this, can
only be spread by using a range of varieties with different maturity dates.
Harvesting is done at cool early morning hours or even at night and
harvested fruits should be treated carefully and kept in the shade. At
harvesting the panicles with little stem attached to them are cut from the
tree using clippers, secateurs or knives. The fruits are not harvested
immediately after rains when the trees are wet, as the spoilage of the fruits
in storage would be high. Picking platforms and ladders or supports are
used to reach higher fruits (fig. 3).
When picking tools (like a
long bamboo pole) is used to
cut the far- off panicles, a bag
should be attached to the
pole so that the fruits do not
fall to the ground. A sharp
blade or knife should be tied
to top of the pole to cut the
main stem of the panicle. To
avoid breaking the fruit skin,
the fruit should not be pulled
from the bunch or, the
branch having the panicle
should never be given a
violent jerk.
Once picked, the fruit
should be placed either in a
small picking container
carried by the picker or
directly into a field container, Fig.3: Mobile orchard lift for pruning
thereby avoiding placing the and harvesting litchi trees
fruits on the ground. The use
of the picking container reduces the number of times the picker has to go
back and forth between the trees and the field containers. All containers
being used must be clean. It is possible to make an initial selection for
quality in the field to reduce the number or volume of rejects taken into the
packhouse. Pickers are trained to reject, if they detect any damaged /
blemished / cracked fruits at this stage.

23
Field containers having harvested fruits are assembled in the shade to
reduce heating of the crop, until they can be transferred carefully to the
packhouse. They are taken to the packhouse by a transporting van or truck.
For transportation from field to the packhouse, plastic field crates are
preferred to sacks, bags, or baskets. Field crates should be shallow, light
coloured, ventilated, and clean. Damage to fruits frequently occurs due to
excess pressure on the top of the fruits, and
rubbing of the fruits against one another or
against the container. Considerable
mechanical damage can also be caused while
carrying fruits between the fields and the
packhouse if poorly packed produce is
transported in trucks driven at inappropriate
speeds on rough or poorly maintained roads.
The produce requires packing correctly into
suitable containers so that the containers
take any applied forces rather than the
produce inside. Such damage can be avoided
by educating the workforce engaged in
handling of the fruits. Only covered trucks
are used for transporting the fruits.
Fig. 4: Traditional containers

Fig, 4a : Wooden and plastic Containers used to store and carry fruits

24
 Part II

25
POSTHARVEST HANDLING
Postharvest handling consists of all operations that are necessary to hold
litchis fresh and healthy for a maximum period of time. Many of the
cultural practices described in previous sections can influence a crop's
disposition to postharvest deterioration. Harvesting at right maturity,
prevention of mechanical damage, shorting, treatment with chemicals,
precooling, packaging, temperature maintenance during storage and
transport are critical factors that, when optimized, can allow for storage
and shelf-life of as long as six weeks. Litchi, otherwise have a very short
shelf-life of 2 days.
POTENTIAL POSTHARVEST PROBLEMS
Browning: Pericarp (skin) browning is the main problem which occurs due
to rapid desiccation of the pericarp and secondary fungal infection. It is
widely accepted that pericarp browning is caused by rapid degradation of
phenols (or colouring anthocyanin pigments) by the activity of oxidative
enzymes like polyphenoloxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD). The handling
and storage of litchis post-harvest is dominated by the need to control
pericarp browning. Two principal strategies are employed - reducing water
loss by various methods (e.g. precooling, cold storage) and the suppression
of browning by chemical (sulphur fumigation) or physical treatments
(trimming, packing). All these measures have been discussed elaborately in
the following pages.
Diseases: The postharvest diseases of lychees are predominantly secondary
infections that develop as a result of mechanical damage. through the cut
stem of the fruits. These may include Aspergillus: Pestalotiopsis rot,
Peronophythora rot, sour rot, Botryodipie , Colletotrichum, and Rhizopus.
Disease control begins in the orchard, with measures against piercing
insects. Careful handling, prevention of mechanical damage and rapid
cooling minimize secondary infections.

Plate 5: (1) A 2 kg packing carton, (2) Interiors of a 2 kg carton, (3) Graded litchi fruits
(Class ~ 1), (4) Hand grading of litchi fruits, (5) A plastic punet, (6) Small punets
packed ia 5 kg cartons arranged in layers, (7) Traditional packaging in 15 kg wooden
crates.
26
 Plate 5
27
PACKHOUSE OPERATIONS
Harvested fruits brought to the packhouse are separated first fron. the
bunch, graded and then packed into the form acceptable to the imports.
The degree of sophistication or, mechanization of the packhouse will
depend on the volume of the operation and the treatments being received
by the produce and the length of harvesting season or availability of fruits.
The handling sequence for a packhouse operation is shown in Fig.5. Each
operation in the handling chain presents potential hazards to quality and
thus should be performed with utmost precision and care.

Fig.5: Flow diagram of important operations in a packhouse

28
Reception: Field containers /boxes are unloaded and kept in perfect shade
in a hall which has comparatively cool atmosphare or fitted with exhaust
fans, coolers or air conditioners.
Separation from Bunch: The litchi fruits are packed either individually or
in bunches. If individual fruits are packed, the pedicel must be cut at the
first knot and the maximum length of the stalk must not extend more than
2 mm beyond the top of the fruit. When presented in bunches, each bunch
must include more than 3 attached and well-formed fruits. However, the
bunch must not exceed 15 cm in length. Keeping these points in mind fruit
are separated from the bunches received from the field using sharp knives
or scissors.
Grading: Even where pickers are well trained and experienced, not all the
fruits reaching the packhouse will be of export quality. It is therefore
essential to sort out the poor-quality fruit (by appearance, maturity, degree
of blemish, damage, bruising, disease and size) and either discard it or
divert it for alterative uses (local markets for immediate sale, catering of
processing units), depending on the type of defect. Sorting is done
manually by visual assesment either sitting on ground (see plate 5.4) or
placing the fruit containers or boxes on tables or, in the larger mechanised
packhouses on conveyors.
Quality Criteria: Import markets require litchies to be fresh in appearance,
whole, clean free from blemishes, pests and mechanical damage to the
skin, with uniform red colour. Generally, minimum size should be a
diameter of 2.5 cm - 3.5 cm, length 3.0 cm - 4.0 cm, and weight of 20 g and
above. The aril (pulp) should be easily removable from the seed coat and
make up at least 75 percent of the weight. Cultivars that have little aril or
aril that remains stuck on the seed are not normally acceptable. The aril
should be translucent and sweet with a Brix level of around 17°. A
distinction is made between the varieties (or kinds of litchi fruits) that leak
juice when the skin is broken and that retain juice within the flesh. The
latter is called "dry and clean" and is highly priced. Also, different
importing countries have specific requirements of chemicals / pesticide
residue limits (see page 36 for more information). Importers require fruit
to be graded according to following classes.
GRADING CLASSES
Extra Class: This is the super grade in which fruits are uniform in shape,
colour and possess typical characters of the described variety. In this grade,
fruits must be free from the defects and disorders and must Contain the
described dimension and biochemical parameters.
Class 1: Fruits of this class must be of good quality with described external
characteristics of the variety. However, slight defects are admissible
provided they do not affect the general appearance, quality,

29
shelf life of the produce and its arrangement and presentation in the
package Such defects may be slight misshaping, colour defect in few frurts,
slight skin defects provided these do not exceed a total area of 0.25 cm2.
Class II: This class includes litchi fruits which do not qualify for the higher
classes, but satisfy the minimum requirements. Few defects are
admissible, provided the fruits retain their original characteristic,
particularly the quality and shelf life. Defects in shape, colour and skin
blemishes up to 0.5 cm2 of their total surface area is admissible.

Uniformity in presentation: For any export the basic requirement ts the

uniformity of size and weight of the fruits. The contents of each package
must be uniform and contain the fruits of the same origin, variety, quality,
size and colour in the case of extra class. The visible part of the contents of
the package must be representative of the entire contents. The litchi must
be presented either individually or in bunches. In the former case, the
pedicel must be cut at the first knot and the maximum length of the stalk
must not extend more than 2 mm beyond the top of the fruit. When
presented in bunches, each bunch must include more than 3 attached and
well-formed fruits. The bunch must not exceed 15 cm im length.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
The objective of the pretreatment is to control postharvest diseases. The
simplest method is to dip in a hot fungicide solution [0.5 g benlate per litre
of hot(52°C) water] for two minutes. If such a 'wet' treatment

Plate 6: (1) A man placing measured quantity of sulphur powder in shallow iron
pans, (2) inside view of a sulphuring chamber, (3) Determining fruit (flesh)
temperature, (4) A stack of 2 kg cartons ready for packing, (5) Bleached sulphured
litchi fruits, (6) Packed boxes ready for pre-cooling

30
 Plate -6
31
has been applied, it is important for the fruit to dry properly before being
packed as excess water can provide ideal conditions for pathogens to
develop and may also weaken the packaging. However, importing
countries legislation should always be checked before fungicide is used in
post. harvest treatments. Some countries allow a fumigation treatment
that will increase storage life and improve skin colour by preventing an on
browning. For this process, fruits are placed in a closed chamber where 50-
100 g sulphur / cubic meter of air is burnt for 20-30 minutes. To fumigate
one tonne of litchi fruits for 30 minutes 600 g of sulphur is burnt. The
tolerance limit of sulphur residue in the pulp at the time of marketing has
been fixed at 10 ppm and in the skin at 250 ppm. If SO2 concentrate exceeds
500 ppm, it gives disagreeable flavour.
The sulphur dioxide fumes bleach the litchis' skin to a yellow colour
with a slight red tinge (see plate 6.5). The skin turns red gradually when it
is exposed to air and light. Fumigation also makes the skin less rigid and
less prone to mechanical damage. Packing the fruits in plastic bags
immediately after fumigation can reduce drastically the level of disease
development during long-term storage and shipping. Not all markets allow
this treatment. However, Shelf life studies show that treatment of SO2
fumigation followed by acid dip was effective in retaining the red colour of
the pericarp. Dipping the fruits in 4% dilute hydrochloric acid (pH 0.5)
allows to regain their initial red colour permanently. Acidification acts at
different levels and modifies the structure of the pigments (anthocyanins),
thereby inhibiting the enzymatic degradation indirectly.
PRECOOLING
Once the sulphur fumigation is over, the fruits are transferred to a place
(room) which is sufficiently cool to remove heat from the produce. The
temperature of the room ranges between 8-10°C. Hydrocooling can be used
to precool the fruits, although normally it is preferable to use forced-air
precooling that will remove the field heat within two to three hours (when
fruits are unpacked). Hydrocooling has the disadvantage of adding one
more step i.e. drying the fruits carefully before packing.

Fig. Harvesting fruits using an elevated platform and fruit sorting and grading machine

32
Fruit drying is done very slowly at low temperature as it carries the risk of
water loss from the fruits. Here in this room the fruits are packed in
suitable cartons after 2-4 hours of precooling.

PACKING
Proper packaging is essential to maintain freshness and quality of fruits
and also to prevent damage during transit. However, packaging can
influence temperature management, since it can restrict the access of the
cooling air to the produce. For the temperature to be properly managed,
produce must be packed in cartons with adequate ventilation. For any
package there is a trade-off between carton strength and the degree of
ventilation. Approximately, 5% side-area ventilation is adequate
depending on arrangement of holes, without weakening the package too
much (see plate 5.2). The vents in the side walls (or top and bottom) should
be correctly aligned to allow proper air flow through all cartons in a stack.
The cartons (or pallets of cartons) within a container or hold should be
arranged to allow sufficient air circulation depending on the air-delivery
system in use.
Generally, packaging is done in one-or two-piece telescopic cartons that
are self-locking and have a minimum breaking force of 175 pounds per
square inch. Ventilation is required in all four walls (see plate 5.1 and 5.2).
Narrow vertical ventilation is preferred because round vent holes become
blocked by the fruits. If one-piece cartons are used, there should be a
maximum of 2 centimeters between the lid and the fruit. Carton
dimensions vary depending on the net weight and the market. The most
common package size is 2 kilograms with external dimensions that are
compatible with ISO pallets:

33
if clamshells are used, then compatible flats are required; these are usually
standard sizes and fit with the ISO pallets. The weight and number of fruits
per clamshell depend on the market : one-quart, half-pint, or one-pint
calmshells may be used. If punnets are used their size vary from 250 g to
500 g (see plate 5.5 and 5.6). Carton net weights are 2 to 4 kg depending upon
the importing country and buyer requirements. Some markets prefer
litchies packed in punnets or clamshells, or in trays overwrapped with
plastic film. Packing to these small units aid with presentation, reduces
mechanical damage, and, in most cases, extends the shelf life.
For external trade, litchis are placed one at a time into cartons, ensuring
maximum use of space; forcing them into tight spaces will damage the
skin. A second layer of fruits is placed on top of the first, which should
remain flush with or slightly lower than the top of the carton so that the
fruits are not forced down when the lid is closed. This method of packing
prevents excessive movement and setting of the fruits during handling and
transportation. For internal (domestic) trade 10-15 kg wooden crates or
bamboo baskets are used for packing (see plate 5.7 and fig.7). In a nutshell,
litchis are packed in containers according to market and trade demands.
Research indicates that colour retention and shelf-life can be increased
with modified-atmosphere packaging using plastic bags or wax
treatments. However, such packaging methods have not been adopted by
commercial operations in India.

LABELLING
Packaging should meet labelling requirements of the importing country
and must include following informations:
▪ Country of origin
▪ Product, variety, grade
▪ Net weight
▪ Exporter and importer names
▪ Phytosanitary checking note
Phytosanitary regulations are strictly enforced in many importing
countries, with consignments or produce required to have the correct
documentation for entry. This often means a phytosanitary certificate
stating that the material has been inspected by an approved body and is free
from quarantine pests or diseases and from other organisms.

Plate 7: (1) Sulphuring of litchi fruits, (2) Refrigerated van standing under shade
while loading pallets, (3) Packed litchi boxes being pre-cooled, (4) Pallets ready for
shipment, (S) Refrigerated van for long distance road transport.

34
35
PALLETIZATION
Where large numbers of cartons have to be moved, the use of polletization
speeds the operation and reduces the handling of individual cartons. The
pallet of cartons can be stabilized by the use of rigid corner pieces,
horizontal and vertical strapping or plastic mesh wraps to hold the cartons
together. Incorrect stacking of cartons on a pallet, or pallets in a container
or hold, can nevertheless cause problems of insufficient air-flow around
and through the cartons and thus reduce the efficiency of both temperature
control and ventilation. If vertical column palletization is used and carton
ventilation is appropriate, forced-air precooling will remove the field heat
within 2 to 3 hours. If normal cold room cooling in used, the cartons should
be stacked to enable air movement around each carton. Cooling in this
manner can take between 8 and 12 hours. Pallets of dimensions 800 mm x
1200 mm or 1000 mm x 1200 mm are used for exports to foreign markets.
Pallets should be strong enough to ensure transit up to the final destination
point (plate 7.4). The usual height of a pallet is 180 cm accommodating 320-
400 cartons of 2 kg weight. If 250 g plastic punnets are used for packing,
they ar first arranged in a 5 kg box accommodating 20 punnets. Then small
pallets of 50 kg size are made using 10 such boxes for each pallet. Finally,
keeping 20 small, 50 kg pallets together, a large pallet of 1 tonne (1000 kg)
size is prepared for dispatch to the importing country.
STORAGE
Litchies immediately after packing are cooled to 3°C and then held at low
temperature (5°C) to be less susceptible to moisture loss, browning or
fungal infections. It is a misconception that litchi temperature rapidly
decreases once fruits are packed and placed in a cold-room. The rate of
cooling of packed fruit is relatively slow, and it may take up to two days for
litchies to reach 5°C. Forced-air cooling requires a high-capacity coldroom
and takes at least 12 hours. Unless the coldroom operates at 95% RH, forced-
air cooling may lead to fruit desiccation. Precooling of litchies is most
effective if done before the fruits are packed into plastic bags / punnets or
cartons, since cooling time is considerably shorter and the liklihood of
condensation (collection of moisture) inside the plastic bag is reduced.
Litchies are commonly stored at 5°C with 95% R.H. If a cold chain can be
maintained, the faster the fruits are cooled, the longer they will retain the
quality they had when harvested. Unlike other tropical and subtropical
fruits, litchies are not chilling sensitive and can be stored at lower
temperatures of O°C to 1°C, with 90 to 95% relative humidity. Fungal
growth at this temperature is minimized, and the fruits retain their color,
texture, and flavor. The probability of browning increases when fruits are
stored in low humidity. The use of controlled and modified atmosphere is

36
becoming increasingly popular now-a-days for storage of fruits. Although
very limited information is available on this aspect with respect to litchi, a
controlled atmosphere of 3 to 5% O, and 3 to 5% CO, has been found to slow
water loss. Litchi fruits stored under such an atmosphere for 30 days at 1°C
lost only a quarter of the water lost by the control treatment.

TRANSPORT
Litchies are generally exported by air, although they may be shipped by sea
if the cold chain is maintained. Transportation from the packing facility to
the airport should be in cool trucks (see plate 7.2 and 7.5) if the fruits have
already been cooled. In all cases, trucks should be covered to prevent
contact with wind, rain, and sun.
Air shipments are made in aircraft containers or aircraft pallets. Heat
build-up in containers is possible, especially when left exposed to the sun
in the airport while waiting for arrival and loading. Because heat is
detrimental to the fruits, aircraft containers and pallets should be kept in
the shade or in cool conditions until loading.

MAINTAINING A COOL-CHAIN
For a crop like litchi which has very short postharvest life, it is essential to
remove the field heat from fruits rapidly, bringing them to their optimum
storage temperature as quickly as possible to obtain the maximum period
of storage

Fig.8: Cool-chain from packing to consumption to maintain fruit quality

37
Once the produce has been cooled to the final holding temperature it
should be maintained at this temperature throughout the subsequent
chain to the final destination, or even up to consumption stage. For
temperature management to be effective it is necessary to consider the
whole post-harvest system from the field to the consumer (fig. 8). Itis no
use having good temperature management only at intervals in the chain.
Periods spent in the sun in the field after harvest or at an airport waiting to
be loaded on to a plane reduce the value of any earlier or later temperature
control. Likewise, efforts made in careful handling of litchis are wasted if
the fruits are exposed to temperatures below the lowest safe temperature
on receipt in the importing country. Intermittent heating of the produce
reduces the storage life and causes problems with the development of
condensation which can weaken packing and creates a favourable
environment for fungal growth. The maintenance of coolchain is essential
to recover the investment in the cooling equipment through increased
customer confidence in quality and realization of higher returns.
HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS
Pesticide Residues: Current heightened awareness of the health
implications of pesticide residues have resulted in the establishment of
maximum residue limit (MRL) guidelines for the use of certain pesticides
and the banning of others deemed to be harmful. Not all countries have the
same requirements and they should be checked individually. The Codex
Alimentarius Commission of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations has drawn up a listing of MRLs (although these do not
always correspond with national values). The purchasers of litchi want to
be sure that the litchies are safe and wholesome and the vendor must be
able to show that all due diligence was exercised when storing and applying
the chemicals to ensure that there is no possibility of excessive residues.
Importers may request to see records of pesticide or fungicide usage in
both the field and the packhouse to satisfy themselves that the correct
amounts have been applied in the correct strength and that the
concentrated chemicals are safely stored where there can be no possible
contamination of the produce.
Insect Disinfestation: Quarantine treatment such as insect disinfestation
is often practised to eliminate chances of having larvae of fruit borers. The
use of heat through hot water dips, vapour heat or forced hot-air
treatments is effective at disinfestation but also may cause physiological
damage, if not done cautiously. In South Africa treatment with steam
(95°C) for 2 seconds followed by immersion in a zero pH solution of HCI

Plate 8: (1) Fesh litchis packed in 2 kg cardboard carton, wooden box, bamboo basket
and poly-bag, (2) Fresh litchis, (3) Ready to serve (RTS) bevarage of litchi, (4) Dried
litchi nuts, (5) Litchi flesh packed in 100 litre carboys, (6) Canned whole litchis
38
39 Plate 8
and then dipping in Vaporgard ® solution has been found effective in
maintaining fruit quality for 4 weeks at 1°C. Currently heat treatments
(vapour heat or forced air) are being used for elimination of both fungal
pathogens and insect pests. In addition, cold treatments may be used for
disinfestation. In case of vapour heat treatment fruits are exposed to 45-
47°C and 95% R.H. for 35-40 minutes to kill all stages of fruit fly. Litchies
exported from Israel to United states are subject to low temperature
treatment for fruit fly. The treatment entails low-temperature storage as
follows: Storage at 0°C for first 10 days; on 11th day at 0.55°C; on 12th day at
1.11°C on 14th day at 1.65°C and on 16th day at 2.22°C.
Pre-export Testing: Litchi consignments are tested individually or by
means of surveys to establish their acceptability to destination markets,
Complex issues can arise if MRLs of exporting country is different from
those of importing country. So the exporter must have knowledge of MRL
standards of the importing country. Some countries have not set MRLs for
litchi as the crop is uncommon. Until MRLs in large markets such as the EU
and the US are harmonized and set on a logical basis of crop grouping,
exporting countries must ensure access to these countries by careful
consideration of pest control programme following MRLs set by FAO or
MRLs set by their own experts or agencies. Responsibility for this lies
primarily with the exporter, but Govt. agencies or the Universities may be
involved as the crop like litchi is of high national economic importance.
MRLs set in India for fruit crops are given in Appendix II. This applies for
litchis too.
QUALITY CONTROL
Ensuring a consistent supply of good quality is made difficult by the
natural variation found in litchis at the orchard level. Controlling quality is
often regarded simply as a job for quality control, which in many instances
is an inspection-oriented procedure whereby materials and produce are
inspected entering and leaving the packhouse. This kind of quality control
is very narrow and only picks up errors and poor quality; it does little to
rectify inconsistencies or to prevent them. Quality assurance is a
management system for controlling quality through establishing
operational procedures involving the integration of the processes, services
and people concerned with the product. The critical control points for
quality are identified throughout the postharvest chain and procedures put
in place to monitor and eliminate hazards. This may be seen in the context
of a total quality management philosophy whereby the company is geared
towards quality at all stages of the process. The end-result is that quality is
built into the system, resulting in the final check of produce prior to
distribution or storage being simply one part of the system rather than the
catch-all at the end of a poorly controlled chain.

40
 In order to maintain peel colour fruits are treated with SO2 before storing
them in cold storage at low temperature. Similarly SO2 treatment is also
applied while dehydrating fruit pulp for preparation of litchi nuts or
raisins. When treated with sulphur dioxide prior to drying, fruits maintain
their colour and flavour, as well as extend their shelf life. However, it is
dangerous to consume fruits treated with SO2 even though some countries
do not consider sulphur dioxide to be harmful for healthy people if
consumed in smaller amounts within the acceptable daily intake limit of
15mg of sulphite per day. Sulphur dioxide exposure can be very harmful,
even deadly to asthma sufferers and those with sulphite allergies or
sensitivities, and is a toxic and dangerous chemical to both our bodies and
the environment. Untreated fruits become dark in colour during prolonged
storage. Now-a-days untreated dark colour organic fruits are preferred by
health-conscious people over the shining SO2 treated fruits.
EXPORT PROMOTION
In India several agencies extend helping hand to exporters or Agri Business
Groups engaged in exporting litchi or any other horticultural commodity.
Some important ones are: Agricultural and Processed Food Products
Export Development Authority (APEDA); National Agricutlural Federation
for Export Development (NAFED); National Horticultural Research
Development Foundation (NHRDF); National Horticulture Board (NHB);
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD); Export-
Import Bank (Exmim Bank); other Govt. agencies like Bihar State Export
Corporation, Ministry of Food Processing Industries etc. These agencies
offer a diverse range of information, advisory and support survices, which
enable exporters to evaluate international risks, exploit export
opportunities and improve competitiveness. Financing agencies not only
provide loans but also undertakes customized research on behalf of
interested companies, in areas such as establishing market potential,
defining marketing arrangements and specifying distribution channels.
They also assist companies in developing export; market entry plan,
obtaining quality certifications and display of their products in their
overseas offices.
PROCESSED PRODUCTS
Processed litchi exports are estimated to be around 10,000 tonnes per year.
The main exporting countries are Thailand, China and Taiwan. Processed
litchi form an important part of Chinese cuisine, which is popular almost
all over the world. Some important processed products are : canned fruits,
frozen fruits, dried litchi nuts, squash, preserves, wine and juice
concentrate. Whole conned litchi is very. popular in many parts of the
world. Peeled and de-stoned litchies are canned in sugar syrup. Browning
or pink discoloration of the flesh is prevented by addition of 4% tartaric
acid solution, or by using 30° Brix syrup containing 0.1 to 0.15% citric acid
to achieve a pH of about 4.5, processing for maximum of 10 minutes in
boiling water, and chilling immediately.
41
 Litchi juice can also be preserved by first pasteurising it at 80-85°C for 15-
20 minutes and then adding 0.2% citric acid and 0.12% potassium meta-
bisulphate. Destoned litchi pulp is preserved in well sterilized carboys (100
/ cap.) with 0.10 - 0.12% potassium metabisulphite and 0.1 ~ 0.2% citric acid
(or ascorbic acid) at -18°C for over 6 to 8 months (plate 8.5). Freezing of
whole fruits is also done to preserve litchi with its natural flavour and
quality for a long time. The fruits can be forzen in syrup with or without
stone after peeling. Litchi fruits remain excellent for 12 months when
rapidly cooled and kept at - 25°C. Other popular form is of dried litchi,
called ‘litchi nut’. It is very popular is China and USA.

Fresh Fruits Dried Aril / Pulp Dehydrated Whole Fruits

Dried litchi Nuts : White aril becomes dark in colour after drying

Freeze dried litchi chunks: Spread on a sheet and packed in a poly bag
42
The flesh of dried litchi is eaten like raisins (see plate 8.4). Chinese also use
the dried flesh in their tea as a sweetener in place of sugar. To a small extent,
litchis are also spiced or pickled, or made into sauce or jelly. Shelf life of
processed litchi products is much higher than fresh litchis. They can be
stored for longer period and the problem of maintaining red pericarp
colour does not arise. Thus, those who are unable to export fresh red colour
litchis, can think of exporting processed litchi products (see plate 8.3 to
8.6).
ECONOMICS
Yield varies according to cultivar, level of orchard management and the
environment of season. The yields harvested in Muzaffarpur region from
trees of different age groups are listed in Table 9. The average price in the
Muzaffarpur market is Rs. 25-30 per 100 fruits. The fruits are sold in this
region by count. But in Patna and other cities it is sold by weight. Roughly
40-45 fruits weigh 1 kg. So, the weight of 100 fruits varies between 2.25 to
2.5 kg.

Fruits are often sold in bunches without treaming and some wood is
weighed along with fruits. Usually, the cost required to maintain one
hectare bearing plantation of litchi is Rs. 40,000. If the orchard yields on an
average 100 kg fruits / tree and the total number of trees in one hectare is
100, the total output would be 10 tonnes. If the average selling price is Rs.
12 per kg (or Rs. 24 per 100) then the gross return comes to Rs. 1.2 lakh.
This gives a net return of Rs. 80000 and a benefit: cost ratio of 2.0. It has
been observed that little more expenditures towards improving quality or
way of presentation in the market makes a lot of difference. For example, if
someone is investing Rs. 5000 more on production or postharvest handling
and then succeeds in selling his produce at Rs.15 per kg, he would be getting
a benefit: Cost ratio of 2.33. This is indicative of over 30% increase in
profitability with only 12.5% extra expenditure on production. This
suggests that there are more gains to be had in improving the quality of
fruit than in reducing the production cost.
Export advantage: Litchi export is more advantageous than domestic
trading. Price of litchies exported to European market varies from US $ 5 to
10 per kg depending upon the fruit quality and supply. In Singapore it
ranges between US $ 4 to 6 depending upon the overall supply from
different sources. However, the benefit: cost ratio of export trade is
somewhere between 2.75 and 3.0.
43
Appendix -1

Summery Specifications for Litchi Export

1.Varieties: Shahi, Rose-Seented, Dehra-rose; selected cultivars should

meet market quality criteria, have a long postharvest life and show
resistance to water loss.
2. Harvesting: Harvest when TSS : Acid ratio is 40 or more and fruits are
uniformly red.
3. Quality criteria: Fresh in appearance, with no sign of insect, disease,
mechanical damage, softening (fermentation) or surface dirt; Uniform red
colour, with little or no green, brown or black spots on the skin; Aril easily
removable from seed, transparent and sweet, has a brix level of 17-18°, no
off flavour.
4. Size: Minimum weight 20 grams; Minimum diameter 2.5 cm; minimum
length 3.0 cm.
5. Grading: Grade the fruits according to size into 3 classes. viz. Extra class,
class | and class Il.
6. Counts: Counts will vary according to fruit size. This will also depend on
carton or pack size.
7. Treatment: Sulphur fumigation by burning 600 g crude sulphur per 1000
kg fruits in a sealed room having air circulation device.
8. Precooling: Precool at 8-10°C for 2-4 hours.
9. Packing: Fruits typically packed by variety, colour and size although
some importers may require packs of varying sizes provided the minimum
size specifications are met. Carton weights vary between 2 kg and 4 kg.
Some importers may require prepacked litchies (in punnets, clamshells or,
plastic containers with hinged door or trays overwrapped with plastic
film.)
10. Palletization: Pallets of 100 cm x 120 cm x 180 cm are made for ease in
handling. Such a pallet accommodates 400 cartons of 2kg size. The net
weight of a pallet is 800 kg.
11. Storage: Store packed fruits at 4 - 5°C with 95% RH.
12, Transport: By air-cargo or shipped by sea, if cool chain is maintained.

44
45
Automatic sorting and grading machine in a modern packhouse

Fruits store well if they are kept at low temperature in a cold room soon
after harvest

Packed fruits stacked in a cold store ready for long distance transportation
Owing to extensive research on factors affecting growth and
bearing of fruit crops, rapid changes are taking place in cultural
practices of litchi. This booklet is an attempt to present a detailed
account of pre-and post-harvest practices employed in
production and marketing of litchis in India and abroad. This is
in order to keep the litchi growers abreast of modern approach
to the cultivation. Practices related to post-harvest handling
have been described in greater detail to achieve success in
exporting litchis to far distant places.
The author has vast experience of working on litchi. He has
presented an authoritative and up-to-date information on the
subject in way that everyone can easily understand. All
important aspects of the subject have been covered introducing
helpful points from recent research and experimental work, as
well as observations based on his own experience. It will
definitely inspire all associated with the litchi industry in India
to adopt new and proven techniques to get better return from the
existing litchi orchards.