Solutions Manual for Biology Life on Earth 11th Edition by

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CHAPTER 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND LIFE

LECTURE OUTLINE
Case Study: Unstable Atoms Unleashed

2.1 What Are Atoms?

A. Atoms Are the Basic Structural Units of Elements (Table 2-1)
1. An element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances
2. An atom is the smallest unit of an element (Table 2-1)
B. Atoms Are Composed of Still Smaller Particles (Table 2-2 and Figure 2-1)
1. Atoms are composed of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons
2. The mass number is equal to the mass of the protons and neutrons
3. Protons and neutrons cluster in the atomic nucleus
4. Negatively charged electrons orbit the atomic nucleus (Figure 2-1)
C. Elements Are Defined by Their Atomic Numbers
1. Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom
2. The periodic table organizes the elements according to their atomic numbers and
general chemical properties
D. Isotopes Are Atoms of the Same Element with Different Numbers of Neutrons
1. Some isotopes are radioactive
2. Radioactive isotopes are important in scientific research and medicine
a. Some radioactive isotopes damage cells
How Do We Know That? Radioactive Revelations (Figures E2-1 and E2-2)
E. Electrons Are Responsible for the Interactions Among Atoms
1. Electrons occupy shells of increasing energy
a. Electrons occupy shells that that have a specific energy associated with them (Figure 2-2)
2. Electrons can capture and release energy (Figure 2-3)
 3. As atomic number increases, electrons fill shells increasingly distant from the nucleus

2.2 How Do Atoms Interact to Form Molecules?

A. A Molecule Consists of Two or More Atoms of the Same or Different Elements Held
Together by Interactions Between Their Outer-Shell Electrons
B. Atoms Form Molecules to Fill Vacancies in Their Outer Electron Shells
1. Atoms with full outer electron shells do not react with other atoms and are inert
2. Atoms that do not have full outer shells are considered reactive
3. Free radicals are unstable molecules with an unfilled outermost electron
shell a. They can tear other molecules apart
Health Watch: Free Radicals—Friends or Foes? (Figures E2-3 and E2-4)
C. Chemical Bonds Hold Atoms Together in Molecules (Table 2-3)
1. Chemical bonding involves the gain, loss, or sharing of electrons
a. Ionic bonds
b. Covalent bonds
c. Hydrogen bonds
D. Ionic Bonds Form Among Ions (Figure 2-4)
1. The outermost electron shell is almost empty or almost full
2. Ions are atoms that become stable by gaining or losing electrons
3. Ionic bonds are electrical attractions between positive and negative ions

10
 Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Life 11

E. Covalent Bonds Form by Sharing Electrons (Figure 2-5 and Table 2-4)
1. If the outermost electron shell is partially full, an atom may form a covalent bond
2. Covalent bonds form when atoms become stable by sharing electrons
3. Most biological molecules utilize covalent bonding
F. Covalent Bonds May Produce Nonpolar or Polar Molecules (Figures 2-5 and 2-6)
1. Nonpolar covalent bonds involve the equal sharing of electrons
2. Polar covalent bonds involve the unequal sharing of electrons (H2O) G.
Hydrogen Bonds Are Attractive Forces Between Certain Polar Molecules
1. Hydrogen bonds are bonds between parts of polar molecules (Figure 2-7)
2. Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the unique properties of water
Lecture Activity 2.1: Exercise in Chemical Bonding
Lecture Activity 2.2: Atomic Love Connection
Lecture Activity 2.3: Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds

2.3 Why Is Water So Important to Life?

A. Water Molecules Attract One Another (Figure 2-8)
1. Cohesion occurs when water molecules stick together (Figure 2-8a)
2. Surface tension results when the surface of water is resistant to being broken (Figure 2-8b)
➢ Have You Ever Wondered: Why It Hurts So Much to Do a Belly Flop?
3. Adhesion is the ability of water to cling to different surfaces
4. Capillary action is a combination of cohesion and adhesion that allows water to move through
very small spaces (Figure 2-8c)
B. Water Interacts with Many Other Molecules
1. Water, a type of solvent, is capable of dissolving a wide range of substances (Figure 2-9)
a. A solvent with one or more dissolved substances is called a solution
2. Hydrophilic molecules exhibit attraction to water (as well as ions and polar molecules)
3. Hydrophobic molecules exhibit no attraction to water (do not dissolve) (Figure 2-10)
C. Water Moderates the Effects of Temperature Changes
1. It takes a lot of energy to heat water
a. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to heat 1 g by 1°C
b. Water has a high specific heat
c. It takes more energy to heat water than most substances
2. It takes a lot of energy to evaporate water
a. Heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to vaporize a substance
b. Water has a high heat of vaporization

D. Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice (Figures 2-11 and 2-12)

1. Most liquids become denser when they are solid
2. A unique property of ice is that it is less dense than liquid water, which makes it float
E. Water-Based Solutions Can Be Acidic, Basic, or Neutral
1. Pure water contains equal amounts of hydrogen and hydroxide ions (Figure 2-13)
2. Acidic solutions contain more hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxide ions (OH–)
3. Basic solutions contain more hydroxide ions (OH–) than hydrogen ions (H+)
4. The pH scale expresses the degree of acidity of a solution and ranges from 1 to 14 (Figure 2-14)
a. Acids have a pH below 7 (more H+ than OH–)
b. Bases have a pH above 7 (more OH– than H +)
c. Water has a pH of 7 (equal amounts of H + and OH– )
5. A buffer is a molecule that tends to maintain a solution at a relatively constant pH by
accepting or releasing hydrogen ions

Case Study Revisited: Unstable Atoms Unleashed

12 Instructor Guide Biology: Life on Earth

KEY TERMS
acid covalent bond molecule
acidic dissolve neutron
adhesion electron nonpolar covalent bond
antioxidant electron shell periodic table
atom element pH scale
atomic nucleus free radical polar covalent bond
atomic number heat of vaporization proton
base hydrogen bond radioactive
basic hydrophilic solution
buffer hydrophobic solvent
capillary action ion specific heat
chemical bond ionic bond surface tension
chemical reaction isotope
cohesion mass number
 Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Life 13

LECTURE ACTIVITIES

Lecture Activity 2.1: Exercise in Chemical Bonding

Estimated Time to Complete: 10–25 minutes

Section Reference
2.2 How Do Atoms Interact to Form Molecules?

Introduction
This activity is a basic introduction to the concept of chemical bonding. This is a short, in-class exercise that can follow
an introductory discussion of atomic structure and bonding. Students will take the number of their birth month as
their atomic number. Given this information, they will be able to determine the configuration of electrons. They will
then be able to determine how this atom will interact with other atoms, if at all. Students will form groups with other
students to form ions or molecules and will present their bond formation to the class.

Chapter Concepts Addressed

1. Students learn about atomic structure and electron configurations
2. Students apply their knowledge of electron configuration to atomic bonding
3. Students interact with classmates to form ionic or covalent bonds

Materials Needed
No specific materials are needed.

Procedures
1. Instruct the students to identify their birth month on a piece of paper. They will consider the
number of their birth month to be their atomic number.
2. Next, instruct them to draw their appearance as an atom. Specifically, they must determine their
electron configuration and how many electrons are in their outermost shell.
3. Using this information, they should determine what type of bond they might like to form to become stable
and fill the outermost shell.
4. Students must then form a bond with another classmate so that both “atoms” become stable.
5. These student groups of bonded atoms can then present their bond to the class and explain why they are
both now stable. Alternatively, to save class time, they could write this information on a sheet of paper to be
handed in.

Assessment Suggestions
Evaluate the student bonds that are formed and assign a grade for class participation.

Lecture Activity 2.2: Atomic Love Connection

Estimated Time to Complete: 25–30 minutes

Section Reference
2.2 How Do Atoms Interact to Form Molecules?

Introduction
This activity reinforces students’ understanding of atomic structure, as well as ionic and covalent bonds. These
topics should be covered in class prior to beginning this activity. In this activity, the students will either choose
or be assigned a particular element and will write a “personal ad” for that atom. This ad should describe the
properties of the atom and also describe what type of bond the atom would “like” to form. Following completion
of the handout, students should share their ads with each other to find a good bonding match between atoms.
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Breakfast.—Oatmeal 150 grams, cream 42 grams, sugar 31 grams, bread
31 grams, coffee 210 grams.
Lunch.—Bread 36 grams, sweet potato 222 grams, butter 17 grams,
quince preserve 81.5 grams, apple turnover 154.5 grains.
Dinner.—Potato 175 grams, bread 62 grams, butter 15 grams, peas 100
grams, apple pie 177 grams, coffee 210 grams, sugar 21 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 150.0 × 0.43 = 0.645 grams.
Cream 42.0 × 0.50 = 0.210
Sugar 31 + 21 = 52.0 × 0.00 = 0.000
Bread 31 + 36 + 62 = 129.0 × 1.64 = 2.115
Coffee 210.0 × 0.11 = 0.231
Sweet potato 222.0 × 0.37 = 0.821
Butter 17 + 15 = 32.0 × 0.088 = 0.028
Quince preserve 81.5 × 0.047 = 0.038
Apple turnover 154.5 × 0.96 = 1.483
Potato 175.0 × 0.37 = 0.647
Peas 100.0 × 0.96 = 0.960
Apple pie 177.0 × 0.43 = 0.761
Coffee 210.0 × 0.11 = 0.231
Total nitrogen in food 8.170 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.870

Fuel value of the food 2606 calories.

Sunday, February 14, 1904.

Breakfast.—Quaker oats 150 grams, bread 42.5 grams, coffee 210
grams, sugar 31 grams, banana 88.2 grams, cream 87.6 grams.
Lunch.—Bread 87.3 grams, butter 28.7 grams, potato 210 grams, apple
sauce 116.5 grams.
Dinner.—Bread 51.5 grams, butter 12.2 grams, sugar 21 grams, potato
150 grams, succotash 100 grams, chocolate cake 122.5 grams,
vanilla ice 110.7 grams.

Per cent
Food. Grams. Total Nitrogen.
Nitrogen.
Quaker oats 150.0 × 0.46 = 0.690 grams.
Bread 42.5 + 87.3 + 51.5 = 181.3 × 1.75 = 3.172
Coffee 210.0 × 0.11 = 0.231
Sugar 31 + 21 = 52.0 × 0.00 = 0.000
Banana 88.2 × 0.20 = 0.176
Cream 87.6 × 0.50 = 0.438
Butter 28.7 + 12.2 = 40.9 × 0.088 = 0.035
Potato 210.0 × 0.41 = 0.861
Apple sauce 116.5 × 0.029 = 0.033
Potato 150.0 × 0.37 = 0.555
Succotash 100.0 × 0.57 = 0.570
Chocolate cake 122.5 × 0.75 = 0.918
Vanilla ice 110.7 × 0.58 = 0.642
Total nitrogen in food 8.321 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.330

Fuel value of the food 2635 calories.

NITROGEN BALANCE.—Dean.

Nitrogen Output.
Taken in. Nitrogen in Urine. Weight of Fæces (dry).
Feb. 9 7.883 grams. 8.64 grams.
10 8.087 8.29
11 10.102 8.55 18 grams.
12 10.436 9.93 18
13 8.170 8.87 80
14 8.321 8.33 58
174 grams contain
4.90% N.
52.999 52.61 + 8.52 grams nitrogen.
52.999 grams nitrogen. 61.13 grams nitrogen.

Nitrogen balance for six days = -8.131 grams.

Nitrogen balance per day = -1.355 grams.

Average Intake.

Calories per day 2529.

Nitrogen per day 8.83 grams.
 Mr. George M. Beers, Clerk in the Treasurer’s office of the Sheffield
Scientific School, became a subject of study in January, 1903. Mr. Beers
was thirty-eight years of age, and had always enjoyed fairly good health,
although of somewhat frail physique. His occupation has always been
indoor work as accountant, etc. His body-weight was 61 kilos.
Mr. Beers came to the writer for advice as to possible ways of
improving his general health, and when it was learned that he was in the
habit of eating large amounts of meat, the suggestion was made to him
that it might be wise to ascertain the effect of a diminished quantity of
proteid food, and as a result of this advice Mr. Beers began to cut down
the amount of meat consumed daily. The effect of this abstention from
meat was so noticeable that voluntarily all meat was withdrawn from his
diet. With this change in dietary habits there came about a loss of body-
weight, which, however, was soon regained.
Commencing with May 14, 1903, the amount of nitrogen excreted
from the kidneys was determined from time to time, but not each day,
since it was very soon found that Mr. Beers showed great regularity in
his dietary habits, and a corresponding regularity in the composition of
the output. This regularity was due in large measure to the fact that the
subject became, for the time at least, practically a vegetarian. The
beneficial effects noted in his own experience with abstention from meat
led to his voluntarily excluding it from his daily diet, so that from
January, 1903, to June, 1904, the subject practically tasted meat, fish, or
eggs on only four occasions, namely, the 26th day of November, 1903,
May 19, 20, and 21, 1904. With this limitation to a vegetable diet and
with regular methods of living, the nitrogenous waste material was found
to be constant within very narrow limits. Emphasis, however, should be
laid upon the fact that there was no prescription of diet, but perfect
freedom of choice, although this choice was limited wholly to vegetable
and cereal foods.
The accompanying tables give the output of nitrogen, uric acid, etc.,
through the kidneys for various dates between May 14, 1903, and June
15, 1904. Scrutiny of these tables shows that the average daily output of
nitrogen, so far as the data show, amounted to 8.58 grams. This indicates
an average daily metabolism of 53.62 grams of proteid material.
Likewise noticeable is the perfectly steady body-weight throughout
this whole period of time, while the low level of 8.5 grams of
metabolized nitrogen testifies to an economy in the use of proteid food,
which indicates that in this subject at least the needs of the body for
proteid food could easily be met by an amount equal to about one-half
that called for by the Voit and similar standard dietaries.

BEERS.

Urine.
Body-
Date. Volume. 24
weight. Sp. Gr. Nitrogen. Uric Acid. P₂O₅.
hours.
1904 kilos c.c. grams gram grams
May 14 61.1 940 1020 8.23 0.330 1.82
Oct. 8 920 1014 6.40 0.374 1.47
13 61.1 740 1026 8.74 0.375 1.61
14 780 1024 8.37
15 970 1018 8.90 0.374 1.04
16 1365 1014 9.09
17 1295 1013 8.86
18 1400 1013 7.56 0.347 1.57
20 61.1 1304 1014 8.14 0.328 1.44
21 1510 1012 7.97
22 1450 1012 8.26 0.338 1.95
23 1130 1013 7.86
24 1060 1019 8.46
25 1275 1015 8.25 0.375 1.74
26 1390 1014 7.34
27 61.4 1000 1020 7.50 0.344 1.38
Nov. 21 61.4 670 1025 8.72
22 925 1017 8.21 0.335 1.28
23 585 1027 8.36
24 885 1023 8.02 0.354
25 800 1026 7.92
26 1095 1020 10.77* 0.364 1.53
Jan. 5 61.4 1110 1018 8.99 0.324
7 650 1024 8.15 0.278 1.29
8 710 1020 7.88
9 910 1023 8.73
10 890 1020 8.01 0.327 1.21
11 875 1017 7.51
12 480 1029 6.77
13 580 1023 8.00 0.398
 14 765 1022 8.35
15 1360 1017 9.22
16 61.4 990 1020 8.79
17 835 1024 8.47 0.354
18 780 1020 8.05
19 790 1022 8.10 0.382
Feb. 9 860 1023 8.46 0.355
10 61.4 850 1024 8.57 0.226
11 61.4 750 1022 8.55 0.352
12 61.4 595 1026 8.46 0.368
13 61.4 640 1027 8.75 0.425
14 60.8 730 1025 8.28 0.353
Apr. 18 61.5 610 1025 7.69 ⎫
19 61.5 870 1020 9.87 ⎪
20 61.5 985 1019 8.87 ⎪ 0.365
21 61.5 795 1024 8.25 ⎬ daily
22 61.5 1090 1019 9.02 ⎪ average
23 61.5 970 1022 8.44 ⎪
24 61.5 810 1021 7.30 ⎭
25 61.5 850 1018 6.94 ⎫
26 61.5 620 1024 7.11 ⎪
28 450 1027 8.58 ⎬
0.691
29 650 1025 9.52 ⎪
30 1260 1018 10.20 ⎪
May 1 1060 1017 8.71 ⎭
2 610 1025 8.16
3 650 1022 8.70
4 61.5 870 1019 8.51
5 61.3 610 1025 8.31
6 61.3 655 1026 8.72 ⎫
7 680 1025 8.53 ⎪
8 60.8 490 1026 7.00 ⎪
9 61.3 550 1026 7.59 ⎬ 0.356
10 705 1025 7.78 ⎪
11 730 1025 8.28 ⎪
12 800 1025 9.36 ⎭
16 715 1022 7.29
17 990 1018 6.95
18 715 1026 7.81
 19 845 1926 10.45†
20 61.5 1170 1020 11.02†
21 61.2 795 1025 10.02†
22 835 1020 8.42
23 695 1025 9.42
24 660 1025 9.82
25 700 1025 9.91 ⎫
26 620 1026 8.59 ⎪
27 665 1026 9.53 ⎬ 0.434
28 61.2 960 1021 10.31 ⎪
29 790 1023 9.24 ⎭
31 930 1025 10.44
June 1 855 1018 8.76
2 850 1023 8.01
3 860 1020 9.24
4 61.4 1145 1021 10.17
5 590 1024 7.47
6 510 1029 7.53
7 620 1027 8.26
8 985 1020 8.45
9 1220 1020 8.49
10 1220 1017 8.28
11 1710 1013 8.82
12 925 1017 7.11
13 920 1020 8.01
14 1090 1015 8.64
15 61.5 915 1022 8.68
Daily
880 1021 8.58 0.365 1.49
average
 * Turkey eaten on this day.
† On these three days, meat, fish, and eggs were eaten.

On February 9, a nitrogen balance was attempted covering a period of six

days, in which there was an exact comparison of the nitrogen income and
output. In this balance period it will be observed that the total amount of
nitrogen taken in for the six days was 53.108 grams, while the output of
nitrogen through the kidneys amounted to 51.07 grams. The nitrogen
excreted through the fæces, however, brought the total nitrogen output up to
58.83 grams, thus making a minus balance for the six days of 5.722 grams
of nitrogen. During this period the average fuel value of the food per day
was 2168 calories. The average daily output of metabolized nitrogen during
the period was 8.5 grams, practically identical with the average daily
excretion of nitrogen through the kidneys for the entire year, so far as
determined. We have here a distinct minus balance, due either to an
insufficient amount of proteid food, or an insufficient fuel value.
Tuesday, February 9, 1904.
Breakfast.—Oatmeal 237.5 grams, butter 10 grams, sugar 35 grams, milk
60 grams, coffee 210 grams.
Lunch.—Macaroni 142 grams, cheese 10.5 grams, bread 71.5 grams, sweet
potato 119.5 grams, milk 250 grams.
Dinner.—Bread 80.7 grams, butter 20 grams, mashed potato 176 grams,
string beans 77.5 grams, apple pie 82 grams, milk 250 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 237.5 × 0.64 = 1.520 grams.
Butter 10 + 20 = 30.0 × 0.088 = 0.026
Sugar 35.0 × 0.00 = 0.000
Milk 60 + 250 + 250 = 560.0 × 0.52 = 2.912
Coffee 210.0 × 0.10 = 0.210
Macaroni 142.0 × 0.87 = 1.235
Cheese 10.5 × 4.45 = 0.467
Bread 71.5 + 80.7 = 152.2 × 1.36 = 2.069
Sweet potato 119.5 × 0.28 = 0.334
Mashed potato 176.0 × 0.36 = 0.633
String beans 77.5 × 0.26 = 0.201
Apple pie 82.0 × 0.49 = 0.401
Total nitrogen in food 10.008 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.460
 Fuel value of the food 2094 calories.

Wednesday, February 10, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 299 grams, butter 19 grams, cream 71 grams, sugar 41
grams, coffee 210 grams.
Lunch.—Bread 79 grams, butter 11 grams, boiled potato 155.2 grams, milk
250 grams.
Dinner.—Bread 56 grams, butter 12 grams, baked beans 100 grams,
cranberry sauce 150 grams, sugar 21 grams, coffee 210 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 99.0 × 0.60 = 1.794 grams.
Butter 19 + 11 + 12 = 42.0 × 0.088 = 0.036
Cream 71.0 × 0.47 = 0.333
Sugar 41 + 21 = 62.0 × 0.00 = 0.000
Coffee (breakfast) 210.0 × 0.12 = 0.252
Bread 79 + 56 = 135.0 × 1.65 = 2.227
Boiled potato 155.2 × 0.39 = 0.605
Milk 250.0 × 0.55 = 1.375
Baked beans 100.0 × 1.40 = 1.400
Cranberry sauce 150.0 × 0.04 = 0.060
Coffee (dinner) 210.0 × 0.11 = 0.231
Total nitrogen in food 8.313 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.570

Fuel value of the food 1723 calories.

Thursday, February 11, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 300 grams, cream 71 grams, butter 10 grams, sugar 41
grams, coffee 210 grams.
Lunch.—Butter 14 grams, bread 126 grams, boiled sweet potato 205 grams,
milk 250 grams.
Dinner.—Bread 22 grams, butter 7.5 grams, mashed potato 100 grams,
sugar 14 grams, milk 250 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 300.0 × 0.40 = 1.200 grams.
Cream 71.0 × 0.49 = 0.347
Butter 10 + 14 + 7.5 = 31.5 × 0.088 = 0.027
Sugar 41 + 14 = 55.0 × 0.00 = 0.000
 Coffee 210.0 × 0.096 = 0.201
Bread 126 + 22 = 148.0 × 1.75 = 2.590
Sweet potato 205.0 × 0.31 = 0.635
Milk 250 + 250 = 500.0 × 0.51 = 2.550
Mashed potato 100.0 × 0.36 = 0.360
Total nitrogen in food 7.910 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.550

Fuel value of the food 1979 calories.

Friday, February 12, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 300 grams, butter 10 grams, cream 74 grams, sugar 41
grams, coffee 210 grams.
Lunch.—Bread 86 grams, butter 9 grams, potato 200 grams, sugar 14
grams, milk 250 grams.
Dinner.—Bread 63 grams, butter 14 grams, mashed potato 150 grams, apple
dumpling 136 grams, milk 250 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 300 × 0.52 = 1.560 grams.
Butter 10 + 9 + 14 = 33 × 0.088 = 0.029
Cream 74 × 0.50 = 0.370
Sugar 41 + 14 = 55 × 0.00 = 0.000
Coffee 210 × 0.11 = 0.231
Bread 86 + 63 = 149 × 1.71 = 2.547
Potato 200 × 0.41 = 0.820
Milk 250 + 250 = 500 × 0.48 = 2.400
Mashed potato 150 × 0.37 = 0.555
Apple dumpling 136 × 0.72 = 0.979
Total nitrogen in food 9.491 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.460

Fuel value of the food 2209 calories.

Saturday, February 13, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 300 grams, butter 12 grams, cream 70 grams, sugar 41
grams, coffee 210 grams.
Lunch.—Bread 80 grams, butter 11 grams, sweet potato 132 grams, sugar
20 grams, milk 250 grams.
Dinner.—Bread 59.5 grams, mashed potato 175 grams, butter 11 grams,
sugar 20 grams, apple pie 141 grams, milk 250 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 300.0 × 0.43 = 1.290 grams.
Butter 12 + 11 + 11 = 34.0 × 0.088 = 0.029
Cream 70.0 × 0.50 = 0.350
Sugar 41 + 20 + 20 = 81.0 × 0.00 = 0.000
Coffee 210.0 × 0.11 = 0.231
Bread 80 + 59.5 = 139.5 × 1.64 = 2.287
Sweet potato 132.0 × 0.37 = 0.488
Milk 250 + 250 = 500.0 × 0.54 = 2.700
Mashed potato 175.0 × 0.37 = 0.647
Apple pie 141.0 × 0.43 = 0.606
Total nitrogen in food 8.628 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.750

Fuel value of the food 2395 calories.

Sunday, February 14, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 300 grams, butter 16 grams, cream 70 grams, sugar 41
grams, coffee 210 grams.
Lunch.—Baked potato 171 grams, bread 72 grams, butter 15 grams, sugar
21 grams, apple sauce 38 grams, milk 250 grams.
Dinner.—Bread 35.5 grams, butter 13.5 grams, mashed potato 180 grams,
sugar 20 grams, chocolate cake 111 grams, ice cream 115 grams, milk
250 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 300.0 × 0.46 = 1.380 grams.
Butter 16 + 15 + 13.5 = 44.5 × 0.088 = 0.039
Cream 70.0 × 0.50 = 0.350
Sugar 41 + 21 + 20 = 82.0 × 0.00 = 0.000
Coffee 210.0 × 0.11 = 0.231
Baked potato 171.0 × 0.41 = 0.701
Bread 72 + 35.5 = 107.5 × 1.75 = 1.881
Apple sauce 38.0 × 0.029 = 0.011
Milk 250 + 250 = 500.0 × 0.40 = 2.000
Mashed potato 180.0 × 0.37 = 0.666
Chocolate cake 111.0 × 0.75 = 0.832
Ice cream 115.0 × 0.58 = 0.667
 Total nitrogen in food 8.758 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.280

Fuel value of the food 2610 calories.

NITROGEN BALANCE.—Beers.

Nitrogen Output.
Taken in. Nitrogen in Urine. Weight of Fæces (dry).
Feb. 9 10.008 grams. 8.46 grams.
10 8.313 8.57 44.7 grams.
11 7.910 8.55 19.0
12 9.491 8.46 30.0
13 8.628 8.75 28.0
14 8.758 8.28 5.0
126.7 grams contain
6.13% N.
53.108 51.07 + 7.76 grams nitrogen.
53.108 grams nitrogen. 58.83 grams nitrogen.

Nitrogen balance for six days = -5.722 grams.

Nitrogen balance per day = -0.953 gram.

Average Intake.

Calories per day 2168.

Nitrogen per day 8.85 grams.

On May 6, a second nitrogen balance was attempted covering a period of

seven days, in which, as before, there was an exact comparison of the
income and output of nitrogen. In this period of seven days, as shown in the
accompanying tables, the fuel value of the food was essentially the same as
in the preceding period, but the amount of proteid food was increased to an
average intake of 10.10 grams per day. Under these conditions there was a
distinct plus balance for the seven days amounting to 2.425 grams, thus
showing that with this quantity of nitrogenous food the body was laying on
nitrogen to the extent of 0.346 gram per day. The average daily amount of
nitrogen metabolized during this period was only 8.18 grams, being quite
noticeably below the average daily amount for the year. In other words, the
results of this balance period show that with a consumption of food
sufficient to yield about 2200 calories per day, the body of this subject
needed to metabolize only 8.25 grams of nitrogen per day to more than
maintain nitrogen equilibrium. Following are the tables of results:
Friday, May 6, 1904.
Breakfast.—Oatmeal 345 grams, butter 7 grams, sugar 30 grams, milk 100
grams, coffee 180 grams.
Dinner.—Bread 67 grams, potato 71 grams, corn 179 grams, pie 133 grams,
milk 200 grams.
Supper.—Biscuit 75 grams, butter 11 grams, potato 106 grams, cake 52
grams, apricots 75 grams, milk 230 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 345 × 0.40 = 1.380 grams.
Butter 7 + 11 = 18 × 0.11 = 0.020
Sugar 30 × 0.00 = 0.000
Milk 100 + 200 + 230 = 530 × 0.54 = 2.862
Coffee 180 × 0.14 = 0.252
Bread 67 × 1.39 = 0.931
Potato (dinner) 71 × 0.52 = 0.369
Corn 179 × 0.44 = 0.788
Pie 133 × 0.54 = 0.718
Biscuit 75 × 1.21 = 0.908
Potato (supper) 106 × 0.36 = 0.382
Cake 52 × 0.90 = 0.468
Apricots 75 × 0.21 = 0.158
Total nitrogen in food 9.236 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.720

Fuel value of the food 2080 calories.

Saturday, May 7, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 382 grams, milk 100 grams, coffee 185 grams, butter
10 grams, sugar 30 grams.
Dinner.—Bread 93 grams, potato 67 grams, rice pudding 141 grams, milk
200 grams.
Supper.—Bread 67 grams, butter 13 grams, potato salad 122 grams, milk
240 grams, coffee 120 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 382 × 0.41 = 1.566 grams.
 Milk 100 + 200 + 240 = 540 × 0.54 = 2.916
Coffee (breakfast) 185 × 0.13 = 0.241
Butter 10 + 13 = 23 × 0.11 = 0.025
Sugar 30 × 0.00 = 0.000
Bread 93 + 67 = 160 × 1.33 = 2.128
Potato 67 × 0.56 = 0.375
Rice pudding 141 × 0.76 = 1.072
Potato salad 122 × 0.35 = 0.427
Coffee (supper) 120 × 0.15 = 0.180
Total nitrogen in food 8.930 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.530

Fuel value of the food 1714 calories.

Sunday, May 8, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 386 grams, butter 10 grams, sugar 35 grams, milk 100
grams, coffee 185 grams.
Dinner.—Rice and chicken gravy 178 grams, boiled onions 136 grams,
chocolate pudding 141 grams, milk 150 grams.
Supper.—Potato salad 73 grams, bread 28 grams, chocolate cake 104
grams, milk 220 grams.

Per cent
Food. Grams. Total Nitrogen.
Nitrogen.
Oatmeal 386 × 0.35 = 1.351 grams.
Butter 10 × 0.11 = 0.011
Sugar 35 × 0.00 = 0.000
Milk 100 + 150 + 220 = 470 × 0.55 = 2.585
Coffee 185 × 0.11 = 0.204
Rice and chicken gravy 178 × 0.47 = 0.837
Onions 136 × 0.25 = 0.340
Chocolate pudding 141 × 1.03 = 1.452
Potato salad 73 × 0.35 = 0.256
Bread 28 × 1.33 = 0.372
Chocolate cake 104 × 0.95 = 0.988
Total nitrogen in food 8.396 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 7.000

Fuel value of the food 1995 calories.

Monday, May 9, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 330 grams, butter 10 grams, sugar 35 grams, milk 100
grams, coffee 185 grams.
Dinner.—Bread 73 grams, fried potato 125 grams, boiled onions 118 grams,
macaroni and cheese 128 grams, apple pie 110 grams, milk 200 grams.
Supper.—Bread 82 grams, boiled potato 130 grams, butter 12 grams,
chocolate cake 114 grams, milk 245 grams.

Per cent
Food. Grams. Total Nitrogen.
Nitrogen.
Oatmeal 330 × 0.44 = 1.452 grams.
Butter 12 + 10 = 22 × 0.11 = 0.024
Sugar 35 × 0.00 = 0.000
Milk 100 + 200 + 245 = 545 × 0.58 = 3.161
Coffee 185 × 0.099 = 0.183
Bread 73 + 82 = 155 × 1.33 = 2.062
Fried potato 125 × 0.48 = 0.600
Onions 118 × 0.25 = 0.295
Macaroni and cheese 128 × 1.53 = 1.958
Apple pie 110 × 0.55 = 0.605
Boiled potato 130 × 0.30 = 0.390
Chocolate cake 114 × 0.95 = 1.083
Total nitrogen in food 11.813 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 7.590

Fuel value of the food 2620 calories.

Tuesday, May 10, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 357 grams, butter 11 grams, sugar 35 grams, milk 100
grams, coffee 185 grams.
Dinner.—Soda biscuit 68 grams, boiled potato 160 grams, butter 20 grams,
stewed tomato 103 grams, custard pie 103 grams, milk 200 grams.
Supper.—Soda biscuit 81 grams, butter 14 grams, stewed potato 97 grams,
chocolate cake 66 grams, milk 200 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 357 × 0.42 = 1.499 grams.
Butter 11 + 20 + 14 = 45 × 0.11 = 0.050
Sugar 35 × 0.00 = 0.000
Milk 100 + 200 + 200 = 500 × 0.54 = 2.700
Coffee 185 × 0.13 = 0.241
 Soda biscuit 68 + 81 = 149 × 1.27 = 1.892
Boiled potato 160 × 0.30 = 0.480
Stewed tomato 103 × 0.21 = 0.216
Custard pie 103 × 0.91 = 0.937
Stewed potato 97 × 0.45 = 0.437
Chocolate cake 66 × 0.95 = 0.627
Total nitrogen in food 9.079 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 7.780

Fuel value of the food 2190 calories.

Wednesday, May 11, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 394 grams, butter 10 grams, sugar 35 grams, milk 100
grams, coffee 185 grams.
Dinner.—Soup 141 grams, bread 78 grams, butter 14 grams, boiled potato
101 grams, corn 128 grams, rice pudding 116 grams, milk 200 grams.
Supper.—Biscuit 103 grams, butter 11 grams, corn 113 grams, cake 60
grams, milk 205 grams.

Food. Grams. Per cent Nitrogen. Total Nitrogen.

Oatmeal 394 × 0.46 = 1.812 grams.
Butter 10 + 14 + 11 = 35 × 0.11 = 0.039
Sugar 35 × 0.00 = 0.000
Milk 100 + 200 + 205 = 505 × 0.54 = 2.727
Coffee 185 × 0.13 = 0.241
Soup 141 × 0.48 = 0.677
Bread 78 × 1.25 = 0.975
Boiled potato 101 × 0.31 = 0.313
Corn 113 + 128 = 241 × 0.46 = 1.109
Rice pudding 116 × 0.63 = 0.731
Biscuit 103 × 1.42 = 1.463
Cake 60 × 0.78 = 0.468
Total nitrogen in food 10.555 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 8.280

Fuel value of the food 2183 calories.

Thursday, May 12, 1904.

Breakfast.—Oatmeal 349 grams, butter 10 grams, sugar 35 grams, milk 100
grams, coffee 185 grams.
Dinner.—Soup 137 grams, fried potato 43 grams, bread 100 grams,
macaroni and cheese 122 grams, bread pudding 80 grams, milk 200
grams.
Supper.—Stewed potato 126 grams, bread 122 grams, cake 73 grams,
apricots 81 grams, milk 220 grams.

Per cent
Food. Grams. Total Nitrogen.
Nitrogen.
Oatmeal 349 × 0.41 = 1.431 grams.
Butter 10 × 0.11 = 0.011
Sugar 35 × 0.00 = 0.000
Milk 100 + 200 + 220 = 520 × 0.57 = 2.964
Coffee 185 × 0.13 = 0.241
Soup 137 × 0.48 = 0.658
Fried potato 43 × 0.76 = 0.327
Bread 100 + 122 = 222 × 1.25 = 2.775
Macaroni and cheese 122 × 1.94 = 2.370
Bread pudding 80 × 0.82 = 0.656
Stewed potato 126 × 0.43 = 0.542
Cake 73 × 0.78 = 0.569
Apricots 81 × 0.23 = 0.186
Total nitrogen in food 12.730 grams.
Total nitrogen in urine 9.360

Fuel value of the food 2283 calories.

NITROGEN BALANCE.—Beers.

Nitrogen Output.
Taken in. Nitrogen in Urine. Weight of Fæces (dry).
May 6 9.236 grams. 8.72 grams. 17.5 grams.
7 8.930 8.53 30.5
8 8.396 7.00 26.2
9 11.813 7.59 27.1
10 9.079 7.78 22.1
11 10.555 8.28 26.0
12 12.730 9.36 24.5
12.5
186.4 grams contain
5.93% N.
70.739 57.26 + 11.054 grams nitrogen.
70.739 grams nitrogen. 68.314 grams nitrogen.
 Nitrogen balance for seven days = +2.425 grams.
Nitrogen balance per day = +0.346 gram.

Average Intake.

Calories per day 2152.

Nitrogen per day 10.10 grams.

Here we have, as in the preceding cases, marked physiological economy

of non-nitrogenous as well as of nitrogenous food material. Further, taking
the body-weight of the subject as 61.5 kilos, and with an average daily
excretion of 8.58 grams of metabolized nitrogen, it is evident that under the
existing conditions of life and activity there was need for the metabolism of
only 0.139 gram of nitrogen per kilo of body-weight. Doubtless, however,
still greater economy was possible.
Finally, while it hardly savors of scientific accuracy to quote simple
sensations, yet it may be stated that the subject asserts a betterment of his
condition, with continuance of mental and physical vigor in such a degree
that he has persisted now for more than a year and a half in the maintenance
of these dietetic habits which are characterized by this lowered rate of
proteid metabolism. The quantity of nitrogen metabolized daily means the
breaking down of approximately 50 grams of proteid, and it is very evident
that this amount of proteid food, one-half the amount called for by the
ordinary diet, is quite sufficient to meet all of the subject’s bodily needs,
even with a total fuel value considerably below 2500 calories.

Certain general conclusions seem to be justified by the results reported. A

healthy man, whose occupation is such as not to involve excessive muscular
work, but whose activity is mainly mental rather than physical, though by
no means excluding the latter, can live on a much smaller amount of proteid
or albuminous food than is usually considered essential for life, without loss
of mental or physical strength and vigor, and with maintenance of body and
nitrogen equilibrium. This means that the ordinary professional man who
leads an active and even strenuous life, with its burden of care and
responsibility, need not clog his system and inhibit his power for work by
the ingestion of any such quantities of proteid food as the ordinary dietetic
standards call for. There is no real physiological need—that is apparent—
for the adoption of such dietetic habits as ordinarily prevail, or as are called
for by the dietary standards set by most authorities in this branch of
physiology. There is no justifiable ground for the dictum, or the assumption,
that the adult man of average body-weight needs daily 118 grams of proteid
food for the maintenance of health, strength and vigor, or that there is need
for the metabolism of at least 16 grams of nitrogen daily. If such were the
case, how could these five subjects, whose experiences have been detailed
in the foregoing pages, have maintained their body-weight, established
nitrogen equilibrium, pursued their ordinary vocations without loss of
strength and vigor, and kept in a perpetual condition of good health, with an
average daily metabolism of from 5.4 grams of nitrogen to 8.99 grams of
nitrogen for periods ranging from six to eighteen months? Surely, if 16 to
18 grams of nitrogen are a daily requisite for the healthy adult, there should
have been some sign of nitrogen starvation during these long periods of low
proteid diet, but the sharpest scrutiny failed to find it. On the contrary, there
were not wanting signs of improved conditions of the body which could not
well be associated with anything but the changes in diet.
Let us briefly consider the main facts. The writer, of 57 kilos body-
weight, showed for nearly nine consecutive months an average daily
metabolism of 5.7 grams of nitrogen. During the last two months the daily
metabolism averaged 5.4 grams of nitrogen. As body-weight and nitrogen
equilibrium were both maintained under these conditions, it is certainly fair
to assume that the physiological needs of the body were fully met. These
figures imply a metabolism, in the first instance, of 0.1 gram of nitrogen per
kilo of body-weight, while the lower figure shows a metabolism of 0.094
gram of nitrogen per kilo of body-weight. We may call this latter amount
the minimal nitrogen requirement for this particular individual, under which
health, strength, and vigor can be fully maintained. This lower nitrogen
figure shows that the needs of this particular individual for proteid material
are met by the metabolism of 33.75 grams of proteid per day. Hence, one-
third the usually accepted standard of proteid is quite sufficient for the
wants of this particular person, and this too with a quantity of non-
nitrogenous food far below the daily amount called for by ordinary
physiological rules. A fuel value of 2000 calories per day was fully
adequate to meet the ordinary wants of the body.
Dr. Mendel, with a body-weight of 70 kilos, showed for seven
consecutive months an average daily metabolism of 6.53 grams of nitrogen,
likewise with maintenance of health, strength, body equilibrium, and
nitrogenous equilibrium. This figure implies a nitrogen metabolism of 0.093
gram per kilo of body-weight and shows that the wants of the body—in his
case—can be fully met by a metabolism of 40.8 grams of proteid matter
daily, and this likewise without increasing the amount of non-nitrogenous
food ingested. Indeed, a total fuel value of 2500 calories per day was quite
sufficient for all the needs of his body under the existing conditions.
Dr. Underhill, with a body-weight of 65 kilos, showed for six consecutive
months a proteid metabolism equal to 7.81 grams of nitrogen per day, while
for the last two months the daily average excretion of nitrogen was only
6.68 grams. These figures mean respectively a nitrogen metabolism of
0.120 and 0.102 gram of nitrogen per kilo of body-weight. Here, too, as in
the preceding cases, this lowered rate of proteid metabolism was maintained
without increasing the total fuel value of the food and with a continuance of
health and strength.
Messrs. Dean and Beers, with body-weights of 64 and 61.5 kilos
respectively, likewise kept up their health and strength for a long period of
time with a nitrogen metabolism averaging 8.99 and 8.58 grams of nitrogen
per day, i. e., with a metabolism of 0.140 and 0.139 gram of nitrogen per
kilo of body-weight respectively, and this with a total fuel value in their
daily food averaging not more than 2500 calories.
With this general concurrence of results, we are certainly warranted in the
assertion that the professional man can safely practise a physiological
economy in the use of proteid food equal to a saving of one-half to two-
thirds the amount called for by existing dietary standards, and this without
increasing the amount of non-nitrogenous food consumed. Indeed, the latter
class of foods can likewise be diminished in amount without detriment to
health or strength, where there is no call for great physical exertion. Lastly,
the so-called minimal proteid requirement of the healthy man—which for
this group of individuals we may place at the low level of 0.093 to 0.130
gram of nitrogen per kilo of body-weight—represents the real physiological
needs of the system for nitrogen, and in so far as our present data show,
anything beyond this quantity may be considered as an excess over and
above what is required for the actual physiological necessities of the body.
Naturally, however, there may be nothing detrimental in a slight excess of
proteid beyond the daily needs. That is a subject, however, to be discussed
later in connection with other results.
In view of the close agreement in the amount of nitrogen metabolized by
these different individuals per kilo of body-weight, emphasis should be laid
upon the fact that the results recorded were all obtained with perfect
freedom of choice in the matter of diet, without prescription of any kind, so
that the close concurrence in the final figures tends to strengthen the value
of the data as pointing to a certain minimal requirement easily attainable,
and fully adequate for meeting the needs of the body.
 II. EXPERIMENTS WITH VOLUNTEERS FROM
THE HOSPITAL CORPS OF THE UNITED STATES
ARMY.
The original Detachment from the Hospital Corps of the United States Army
detailed to serve in this series of experiments arrived in New Haven September 28,
1903, under the command of Dr. Wallace DeWitt, 1st Lieutenant and assistant
Surgeon of the United States Army. The detail was composed of twenty men, of
whom fourteen were privates, volunteers for the experiment, the remainder being
made up of non-commissioned officers, cook, cook’s helper, etc. The detachment
was located in a convenient house on Vanderbilt Square belonging to the Sheffield
Scientific School, and there they lived during their six months’ stay in New Haven
under military discipline, and subject to the constant surveillance of the commanding
officer and the non-commissioned officers.
In selecting the men for the experiment particular attention was paid to securing as
great a variety of types as possible, representing different nationalities,
temperaments, etc. Naturally, among such a group of enlisted men brought together
for the purpose in view many were found unsuited for various reasons, and were
quickly exchanged for others better adapted for the successful carrying out of the
experiment. Several quickly deserted, apparently not relishing the restrictions under
which they were compelled to live. The restriction which constituted the greatest
hardship in the eyes of several of the men was the regularity of life insisted upon,
and the consequent restraint placed upon their movements in the city when relieved
from duty. The following Statement from Dr. DeWitt will explain the causes of
removal of the men who dropped out of the experiment during the natural sifting
process of the first few weeks and later.

H C D U. S. A ,
332 T S ., N H ,C .,
M 17, 1904.
Professor R H. C ,
Director Sheffield Scientific School,
N H ,C .
S ,—In compliance with your verbal request concerning men of this
detachment lost by transfer and desertion and the reasons therefor, I have the
honor to inform you that the following men were lost by transfer, at my
request, for the reasons set after their respective names:
Private E M (October 17, 1903). Mentally and morally
unsuited.
Private P F (October 18, 1903). Physically unsuited.
 Private D A (October 24, 1903). Physically unsuited by reason of
Acute Pulmonary Tuberculosis Bilateral.
Private W C. W (November 17, 1903). Physically unsuited by
reason of Cardiac Irritability.
Private P S. M (December 11, 1903). Physically unsuited by reason
of very high grade of Myopia both eyes.
Private first class C P. D (January 14, 1904). Physically unsuited
by reason of Acute Melancholia.
Private B B (February 12, 1904). Morally and mentally unsuited
by reason of Drunkenness.
In all these men, except Private D , the condition for which they were
transferred was present when they reported for duty with the detachment.
In the case of Private D , his condition of acute melancholia in my
opinion was incident to the experiment,—due to the necessary restrictions of
liberty and food, assisted by a natural gloomy disposition.
The following men were lost by desertion:
Private first class S R. C (November 3, 1903).
Private first class W S (November 5, 1903).
Private S P (January 23, 1904).
Private E A. R (February 3, 1904).
Of these men Private first class Smith and Private Prins were on duty in
the kitchen and were at no time subject to restriction of diet and liberty.
Private first class Curtis deserted before the experiment was well under way
and can not be attributed to any cause arising out of the investigation.
Private Rinard’s desertion was in my opinion due to the restrictions of diet
and liberty incident to the experiment. I would say, however, that this man
was a worthless character and was discharged “without honor” from the
army during a previous enlistment.
Very respectfully,
(Signed) W D ,
1st Lieut. and Asst. Surgeon U. S. Army,
Commdg. Detachment.

As supplementing Dr. DeWitt’s statement it may be mentioned that Rinard

reported for the experiment at New Haven on December 11, 1903, and remained
here until February 2, 1904. On December 11 he weighed 59.8 kilos, while on
February 2, the last day he was here, his body-weight was 60 kilos. Evidently, any
restriction of diet he may have suffered had not made any great impression upon his
bodily condition.
 There were thirteen men of the detachment who really took part in the experiment,
and of these all but four were in the original detail. Of these four, two joined in
October and two early in November. Of these thirteen, all but two continued to the
close of the experiment, April 4, 1904.
The following statement gives the name, age, birthplace, occupation, length of
service (U. S. Army), etc. of the thirteen men.
It will be noted that the men range in age from twenty-one years six months to
forty-three years, and that representatives of many countries are on the list.
Regarding the duties of the men, i. e., their daily work, the following statement
from Dr. DeWitt will give all needed information on this point. The character of the
Gymnasium work will be referred to later.

Length
of
Age on
Service
Oct. 1, Occupation
on
1903 before
Name. Oct. 1, Birthplace. Remarks.
(Years Original
1903.
and Enlistment.
(Years
Months).
and
Months).
Private first class.
Broyles, Jonah 24-6 3-3 Campbell Co., Tenn. Scholar Joined
Nov.
13,
1903.
Coffman, William E. 22-1 0-2 Edinsburg, W. Va. Clerk Joined
Sept.
28,
1903.
Fritz, Charles J. 27-8 3-0 Switzerland. Gasfitter Joined
Oct.
30,
1903.
Henderson, James D. 25-1 2-0 Marshall, N. C. Student Joined
Sept.
28,
1903.
Loewenthal, Maurice D. 22-8 0-2 New York, N. Y. Clerk Joined
Sept.
28,
1903.
Morris, William 21-6 3-8 San Juan, P. R. Scholar Joined
Sept.
28,
1903.
Oakman, William H. 43-0 1-7 Blackville, S. C. Bookkeeper Joined
 Sept.
28,
1903.
Sliney, William F. 26-7 5-0 Roxbury, Mass. Painter Joined
Oct.
21,
1903.
Steltz, John J. B. 23-1 0-3 Schuylkill, Pa. Painter Joined
Sept.
28,
1903.
Zooman, Ben 25-3 1-11 London, Eng. Hosp. Joined
Orderly Sept.
28,
1903.
Private.
Cohn, Isaac 21-8 0-1 Jerusalem, Pal. Porter in Joined
Drug store Nov.
13,
1903.
T .
Private first class.
Davis, Charles P. 27-0 0-2 Darlington Co. S. C. Machinist Joined
Sept.
28,
1903;
left
Jan.
14,
1904.
Private.
Bates, Barnard 26-8 1-10 San Francisco, Cal. Painter Joined
Sept.
28,
1903;
left
Feb.
12,
1904.

H C D U. S. A ,
332 T S ,N H ,C .,
March 17, 1904.
Professor R. H. C ,
Director Sheffield Scientific School,
N H ,C .
 S ,—In compliance with your verbal request I have the honor to inform
you that the duties of this detachment during the tour of duty at this station
have been as follows:—
At 6.45 . . the men arise and their body-weights are taken immediately,
after which they dress and assemble for reveille roll-call.
7.15. Breakfast. After this meal they are all engaged in various duties
about the quarters, such as inside and outside police, kitchen police,
assisting in measurement of urine and fæces and transportation of the same
to the laboratory; cleansing of fæces cans and urine bottles, etc. They are
occupied with these various duties until about 9 . .
9 . . Detachment proceeds to Gymnasium under charge of a non-
commissioned officer, and by him reported to the gymnastic instructor.
11 . . Detachment returns from Gymnasium.
12 . Dinner.
1 . . Drill, weather permitting, otherwise a walk in charge of a non-
commissioned officer, or indoor instruction relative to the duties of a soldier.
2 . . Relief from drill; walk, or instruction.
2.30 . . Instruction by a non-commissioned officer in their duties as
nurses, etc.
3.30 . . Relief from instruction.
5 . . Supper.
5.30 . . Retreat roll-call.
10 . . All men in bed.
This routine is the same for every day in the week except Saturday and
Sunday. On Saturday drill and instruction in the afternoon are omitted, and
on Sundays the men are also free from gymnasium work.
In addition to the duties mentioned above, a special detail of two men is
made every morning to assist in the weighing and serving of the food, and
from time to time details are sent to the laboratory and reported to Dr.
Mendel for such work connected with the investigation as he might assign
them.
Very respectfully,
(Signed) W D W ,
1st Lieut. and Asst. Surgeon U. S. Army,
Commdg. Det. H. C.

Here we have a group of men, thirteen in number, quite different in type from the
preceding group; men accustomed to living a vigorous life under varying conditions,
and who naturally had great liking for the pleasures of eating. Further, they were
men who had no personal interest whatever in the experiment or in the principles
involved. To be sure, they had volunteered for the work, and the objects of the
experiment had been fully explained to them. Like good soldiers they no doubt
desired to obey orders, and they doubtless preferred to see the experiment a success
rather than a failure, but they had not that interest that would lead them to undergo
any great personal discomfort. This point should be kept in mind, since it has a
distinct bearing upon the possibility of establishing physiological economy of diet in
persons who would not willingly incommode themselves or suffer personal
inconvenience.
The experiment commenced on October 4, 1903, and for a period of six months
every detail bearing upon the nutrition and condition of the men under the gradually
changed conditions was carefully observed. Every precaution to preserve the health
and good spirits of the men was taken. Pure distilled water was sent to the quarters
each morning, magazines and other periodicals were supplied through the courtesy
of friends, occasional visits to the theatre were indulged in; in fact all that could be
done to counterbalance any possible depressing influence from the partial restraints
of the experiment was arranged for.

Showing a group of the soldiers at work in the gymnasium.

Regarding the details of the work; the twenty-four hours’ urine was collected by
each man, also the fæces for each day, and these were subjected to chemical analysis
with a view to following out the various changes in the amount and character of the
proteid metabolism going on in the body as measured by the output of total nitrogen,
uric acid, and phosphoric acid in the urine, and by the amount of nitrogen in the
fæces with reference to the degree of digestion and utilization of the proteid foods
ingested.
During the first two weeks the ordinary army rations were given to the men; later
a gradual change was made, accompanied by a reduction in the amount of proteid
food, with some reduction likewise in the total fuel value of the food. All the food
placed before each man was carefully weighed, and at the close of every meal any
uneaten food was weighed and the amount subtracted from the initial weights.
During the balance periods, when the income and output of nitrogen were carefully
compared, the food materials were weighed with greater care and large samples of
each article were taken for analysis, to determine the exact content of nitrogen.
Every figure for nitrogen shown in the tables was verified by at least a duplicate
chemical analysis so as to avoid any possibility of error.
It is not necessary to give here any detailed description of the changes made in the
character of the diet, since on pages 288 to 326 may be found the daily dietary from
October 2, 1903, to April 4, 1904,—each meal of the day,—showing the amount and
character of the food given the men during the six months period. It should be stated,
however, that at no time were the men placed on a cereal diet or on a truly vegetable
diet. The object in view was simply to study the possibilities of a general
physiological economy in diet, with special reference to the minimal proteid
requirement of the healthy man. To be sure, in doing this meats, owing to their high
content of proteid, were very much reduced in amount and on many days no meat at
all was given, but as the dietary is looked through it will be seen that the main
change was from a heavy meat diet (rich in proteid) to a lighter diet, comparatively
poor in proteid, with an increasing predominance of vegetable and cereal foods.
Condiments are also noticeable in the diet, together with the ordinary accessories,
coffee and tea. Variety was also considered as a necessary factor, not to be
overlooked, as contributing largely to the maintenance of a proper physiological
condition.
From a study of the tables which follow, showing the chemical composition of the
daily urine, it will be seen that during the first sixteen days, viz., from October 4
until October 20 or 21, when the men were on the ordinary army ration with
opportunity to eat an abundance of meat, the daily urine frequently contained 16 to
17 grams of nitrogen, showing a metabolism of over 100 grams of proteid on such
days. Sliney, indeed, averaged for four days an output of 18.19 grams of nitrogen,
while Coffman, Henderson, and Zooman showed an average daily excretion of about
15 grams of nitrogen each for the sixteen days from October 4.

OAKMAN.

Urine.
Body-
Date. Volume. 24
weight. Sp. Gr. Nitrogen. Uric Acid. P₂O₅.
hours.
1903 kilos c.c. grams gram grams
Oct. 4 66.7 1160 1019 16.37 0.549 2.76
5 66.7 1030 1025 12.36
6 66.0 740 1029 11.85 0.703 1.15
7 66.0 480 1031 10.31
8 65.4 660 1030 14.30 0.574 1.32
9 65.4 830 1029 15.94
10 65.4 1440 1018 17.02
11 66.1 2220 1012 16.12 0.591 2.64
12 66.7 1300 1020 13.33
13 66.8 2140 1013 15.67 0.610 2.56
14 66.4 1290 1017 12.38
15 66.7 1730 1017 14.95 0.653 1.93
16 66.7 1520 1017 13.68
17 66.2 1490 1018 15.20
18 66.2 2030 1014 16.44 0.646 2.66
19 65.8 1580 1017 16.78
20 65.3 1900 1014 16.19 0.626 1.95
21 65.4 1100 1024 12.07
22 66.0 1200 1018 11.30 0.502 1.11
23 66.4 2060 1015 11.37
24 67.2 1970 1015 11.88
25 67.1 1480 1014 8.64 0.411 2.07
26 67.2 1510 1018 11.78
27 67.2 1890 1015 12.13 0.406 1.99
28 67.4 1620 1014 9.82
29 67.6 980 1018 6.82 0.493 1.62
30 67.5 820 1022 10.91
31 67.0 930
Nov. 1 67.4 1480 1015 10.20 0.460 1.49
2 67.6 1160 1018 10.37
3 67.4 1160 1020 10.44 0.489 1.53
4 67.1 720 1024 6.61
5 66.6 640 1029 8.02 0.495 1.17
6 66.5 1200 1016 9.57
7 66.0 840 1023 8.57
8 66.0 1100 1017 8.32 0.452 1.67
9 66.0 720 1030 8.53
10 66.4 880 1022 10.19 0.515 1.30
11 66.6 1080 1018 9.72
12 66.9 920 1023 8.38 0.616 1.54
13 67.2 800 1025 6.43
14 66.5 600 1026 7.38
15 66.3 1360 1014 8.98 0.403 1.44
16 66.4 1160 1025 9.88
17 66.4 900 1020 6.69 0.343 0.94
18 66.0 1820 1010 7.92 ⎫ 0.436 1.09

⎬
 19 65.4 1160 1017 5.57 ⎬ daily av. daily av.
20 66.0 1120 1020 8.73 ⎪
21 66.4 1020 1020 7.89 ⎭
22 66.1 1360 1016 8.16 0.413 1.83
23 67.0 2600 1008 8.11
24 65.9 1140 1015 6.43 0.380 1.90
25 65.9 1800 1011 7.56
26 65.6 1200 1020 7.63 0.377 1.71
27 66.2 1300 1015 7.41
28 65.9 1200 1012 6.70
29 65.9 1480 1019 8.79 0.531 1.73
30 65.4 1540 1011 8.41
Dec. 1 65.0 1080 1015 7.13 0.484 1.45
2 65.6 1440 1012 8.38
3 64.5 940 1021 8.58 0.438 1.66
4 65.0 780 1022 7.22
5 65.4 1280 1016 8.06
6 65.4 1880 1012 7.67 0.320 1.86
7 65.0 1600 1013 6.24
8 64.9 1680 1011 7.86 0.304 1.77
9 65.0 1180 1013 7.74
10 64.7 1120 1016 7.59 0.308 1.37
11 64.7 860 1021 7.58
12 64.8 700 1026 6.34
13 64.6 880 1022 7.87 0.404 1.47
14 64.7 1540 1017 9.33
15 64.2 1140 1015 6.98 0.436 1.71
16 64.3 1040 1018 6.74
17 64.4 980 1018 6.94 0.368 1.05
18 64.7 1605 1015 8.57
19 64.2 1250 1013 8.77
20 63.4 1000 1016 7.56 0.462 1.25
21 63.6 1190 1016 8.35
22 63.0 1470 1011 8.47 0.245 1.26
23 63.6 672 1028 5.88
24 63.8 980 1017 6.55 0.294 0.89
25 63.5 2310 1008 6.37
26 63.9 1860 1016 6.92
27 63.5 1590 1015 7.54 0.380 1.11
28 63.0 1840 1018 8.39
29 62.9 1145 1018 6.11 0.546 0.72
30 63.2 1300 1020 6.78
31 63.5 1080 1020 5.96 0.421 1.18
1904
Jan. 1 64.0 2360 1013 8.64 ⎫ 0.329 1.43
2 63.6 1270 1018 5.33 ⎪

⎬
 3 64.0 2475 1012 7.42 ⎬
4 63.6 1820 1012 5.63 ⎪
5 63.0 1520 1013 6.66 ⎪
6 63.5 1270 1016 6.71 ⎭
7 63.0 1135 1016 6.74 0.344 1.06
8 63.5 870 1022 6.06
9 63.6 1640 1010 6.89
10 63.6 1240 1015 5.95 0.409 1.42
11 63.5 1740 1012 7.31
12 63.0 840 1020 6.00 0.439
13 62.9 885 1021 7.33 0.490
14 63.0 1425 1015 8.29 0.441
15 62.8 1000 1023 7.14 0.390
16 62.9 1525 1015 8.23 0.372
17 62.7 1740 1017 8.14 0.400
18 62.3 1200 1020 8.42 ⎫
19 62.7 990 1023 7.60 ⎪
20 62.7 985 1020 7.51 ⎪
21 62.7 1080 1021 8.23 ⎬ 0.423 1.32
22 62.7 1670 1010 7.01 ⎪
23 62.2 970 1017 6.58 ⎪
24 62.2 1800 1013 7.99 ⎭
25 62.2 1630 1013 7.43 ⎫
26 62.0 880 1026 6.86 ⎪
27 62.5 1250 1017 9.07 ⎪
28 62.4 1560 1016 8.61 ⎬ 0.412 1.45
29 62.7 1325 1018 6.28 ⎪
30 62.9 2015 1013 7.25 ⎪
31 62.4 1730 1018 6.64 ⎭
Feb. 1 62.8 910 1027 5.51 ⎫
2 63.0 1610 1016 7.15 ⎪
3 62.5 1330 1020 7.18 ⎪
4 62.7 1480 1023 7.46 ⎬ 0.395 1.42
5 63.0 1600 1020 6.62 ⎪
6 63.2 1980 1012 6.53 ⎪
7 63.0 1775 1015 6.39 ⎭
8 62.3 1860 1013 8.26 ⎫
9 62.9 2010 1013 7.36 ⎪
10 62.0 1195 1025 7.60 ⎪
11 62.9 1580 1016 8.82 ⎬ 0.233
12 62.5 1900 1013 8.09 ⎪
13 62.4 1560 1016 7.30 ⎪
14 62.5 1480 1017 7.90 ⎭
15 62.5 1610 1023 8.93 ⎫ 0.430
16 63.0 1570 1019 7.86 ⎪
⎪
⎬
 17 62.8 2375 1014 9.69 ⎪
18 62.2 1060 1022 7.80 ⎬
19 62.0 910 1029 8.13 ⎪
20 62.3 1710 1012 8.10 ⎪
21 62.6 1940 1010 7.33 ⎭
22 62.4 1250 1021 7.73 ⎫
23 62.7 1700 1012 6.53 ⎪
24 62.4 1525 1017 8.65 ⎪
25 62.2 1980 1013 8.55 ⎬ 0.489
26 62.0 1145 1017 6.77 ⎪
27 61.8 1150 1019 6.87 ⎪
28 62.0 1445 1020 7.46 ⎭
29 62.2 1015 1024 6.88
Mar. 1 62.6 1225 1019 7.42
2 62.5 1620 1017 7.58
3 62.3 1585 1016 6.85
4 62.3 1815 1015 7.95
5 62.0 1565 1014 6.10
6 62.0 1700 1020 7.96
7 62.0 1240 1016 7.44 ⎫
8 62.5 1710 1015 8.72 ⎪
9 62.0 1670 1016 7.71 ⎪
10 62.5 1590 1016 7.63 ⎬ 0.411
11 62.0 1410 1021 8.71 ⎪
12 62.1 1530 1018 7.44 ⎪
13 62.1 1780 1016 8.65 ⎭
14 62.0 1300 1019 8.11 ⎫
15 62.0 1820 1012 7.29 ⎪
16 62.2 1670 1017 9.12 ⎪
17 62.4 1380 1020 8.20 ⎬ 0.468
18 62.7 1785 1015 7.82 ⎪
19 62.5 1910 1017 7.68 ⎪
20 62.7 1965 1013 6.72 ⎭
21 62.1 930 1026 5.72 ⎫
22 62.4 1770 1012 7.86 ⎪
23 62.0 1560 1017 7.21 ⎪
24 62.0 1860 1015 8.15 ⎬ 0.429
25 61.6 1130 1023 7.19 ⎪
26 62.0 2000 1013 8.88 ⎪
27 61.9 1320 1019 7.13 ⎭
28 62.0 1025 1025 6.64 ⎫
29 62.4 1830 1018 8.34 ⎪
30 62.3 1500 1020 6.30 ⎬ 0.379
31 62.0 1600 1021 7.10 ⎪
Apr. 1 62.0 2070 1014 6.83 ⎭