2022-24 syllabus By: Sultan ALShehri

Atoms, molecules, and stoichiometry

Relative masses of atoms and molecules
 Atomic Mass Unit
 The mass of a single atom is so small that it is impossible to weigh it
directly
 Atomic masses are therefore defined in terms of a standard atom which
is called the unified atomic mass unit
 This unified atomic mass is defined as one-twelfth of the mass of a
carbon-12 atom
 The symbol for the unified atomic mass is u (often Da, Dalton, is used as
well)
-27
 1 u = 1.66 x 10 kg

 Relative atomic mass, isotopic mass, molecular mass, and formula

mass
 Relative atomic mass, Ar
 The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the average mass of an
atom(s) relative to 1/12 the mass of an atom of 12C, i.e. the ratio of the
average mass of the atoms of an element to the unified atomic mass
unit
 The relative atomic mass is determined by using the average mass of
the isotopes of a particular element
 The Ar has no units as it is a ratio and the units cancel each other out

 Relative isotopic mass

 The relative isotopic mass is the mass of an isotope relative (compared)
to 1/12 the mass of a C-12 atom.
 Atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons are
called isotopes
20
 Isotopes are represented by writing the mass number as Ne, or neon-
20 or Ne-20
o To calculate the average atomic mass of an element the percentage abundance is
taken into account
o Multiply the atomic mass by the percentage abundance for each isotope and add them
all together
o Divide by 100 to get average relative atomic mass
o This is known as the weighted average of the masses of the isotopes

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 Relative molecular mass, Mr

 The relative molecular mass (Mr) is the weighted average mass of a
molecule of an element or compound relative to 1/12 the mass of a
carbon –12 atom, i.e. ratio of weighted average mass of a molecule of a
molecular compound to the unified atomic mass unit
 The Mr has no units

 The Mr can be found by adding up the relative atomic masses of all

atoms present in one molecule
 When calculating the Mr the simplest formula for the compound is used,
also known as the formula unit
o Eg. silicon dioxide has a giant covalent structure, however the simplest formula
(the formula unit) is SiO2

 Relative formula mass, Mr

 The relative formula mass (Mr) is the weighted average mass of the sum
of all the atoms in the empirical formula relative to 1/12 the mass of a
carbon –12 atom
 The relative formula mass (Mr) is used for compounds containing ions
 It has the same units and is calculated in the same way as
the relative molecular mass
 In the table above, the Mr for potassium carbonate, calcium hydroxide
and ammonium sulfates are relative formula masses

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 The mole and the Avogadro constant

 Mole & Avogadro Constant
 The Avogadro constant (NA or L) is the number of particles equivalent to
the relative atomic mass or molecular mass of a substance in grams
o The Avogadro constant applies to atoms, molecules, ions and electrons
 The value of Avogadro constant (NA/L) is 6.02 x 1023 mol-1
 The mass of a substance with this number of particles is called
a mole (mol)
23
 A mole is the amount/mass of substance which contains 6.02 x 10
specified particles. Particles can be atoms, molecules, ions, etc.
o The mass of a substance containing the same number of fundamental units as there
are atoms in exactly 12.00 g of 12C
 One mole of any element is equal to the relative atomic mass of that
element in grams
o One mole of carbon, that is if you had 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon in your hand, would
have a mass of 12 g
o One mole of water would have a mass of (2 x 1 + 16) = 18 g
 Worked Example: Moles

 Answer 1
o The relative atomic mass of Na is 22.99
o Therefore, 1 mol of Na has a mass of 22.99 g
o 1 mol of Na will contain 6.02 x 1023 atoms of Na (Avogadro’s constant)
 Answer 2
o The relative atomic mass of H is 1.005
o Since there are 2 H atoms in H2, the mass of 1 mol of H2 is (2 x 1.005) 2.01 g
o 1 mol of H2 will contain 6.02 x 1023 molecules of H2
o Since there are 2 H atoms in H2, 1 mol of H2 will contain 1.204 x 1024 H atoms
 Answer 3
o The relative atomic mass of Na and Cl is 22.99 and 35.45 respectively
o Therefore, 1 mol of NaCl has a mass of (22.99 + 35.45) 58.44 g
o 1 mol of NaCl will contain 6.02 x 1023 molecules of NaCl
o Since there are Na and Cl atoms in NaCl, 1 mol of NaCl will contain 1.204 x 1024 atoms
in total

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 The number of moles of a substance can be found by using the following

equation:

 It is important to be clear about the type of particle you are referring to

when dealing with moles
o Eg. 1 mole of CaF2 contains one mole of CaF2 formula units, but one mole of Ca2+ and
two moles of F– ions
o Molar mass may be the Ar or Mr
 We can use the Avogadro constant(number) to convert the number of
moles into the number of particles in the following equation:
N = Ln
o N = number of particles, L = Avogadro constant = 6.02 x 1023, n = number of moles
 Worked example: How many atoms are there in 19.7g of gold?
First, convert 19.7g of gold to an amount in moles.
Number of moles = mass/Ar; 19.7/197 = 0.1 mol
Second, calculate the number of atoms in 0.1 mol of gold.
Number of atoms = Avogadro constant x no. of moles;
(6.02 x 1023) x 0.1 = 6.02 x 1022

 Formulae
 Formulae of Ionic Compounds
 Ionic compounds are formed from a metal and a non-metal bonded
together
 Ionic compounds are electrically neutral; the positive charges equal the
negative charges
a) Predicting ionic charges
 Charges on positive ions
 All metals form positive ions
o There are some non-metal positive ions such as ammonium, NH4+, and hydrogen, H+
 The metals in Group 1, Group 2 and Group 13 have a charge of 1+ and 2+
and 3+ respectively
 The charge on the ions of the transition elements can vary which is
why Roman numerals are often used to indicate their charge
 Roman numerals are used in some compounds formed from transition
elements to show the charge (or oxidation state) of metal ions

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o Eg. in copper (II) oxide, the copper ion has a charge of 2+ whereas in copper (III)
nitrate, the copper has a charge of 3+

 Non-metal ions
 The non-metals in group 15 to 17 have a negative charge and have the
suffix ‘ide’
o Eg. nitride, chloride, bromide, iodide
 Elements in group 17 gain 1 electron so have a 1- charge, eg. Br–
 Elements in group 16 gain 2 electrons so have a 2- charge, eg. O2-
 Elements in group 15 gain 3 electrons so have a 3- charge, eg. N3-
 There are also more complex negative ions, which are negative ions
made up of more than one type of atom

The charges of simple ions depend on their position in the Periodic Table
Formulae of ionic compounds table
b) Names and formulae of common ions

These are compound (complex) ions. They contain more than one atom. The table also
includes zinc and silver ions

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 Worked Example: Formulae

Answer
 Answer 1: Magnesium chloride
o Magnesium is in Group 2 so has a charge of 2+
o Chlorine is in group 17 so has a charge of 1-
o Magnesium needs two chlorine atoms for each magnesium atom to be balanced so the
formula is MgCl2 ; you can also swap the charges to get the formula.
 Answer 2: Iron (III) oxide
o The Roman numeral states that iron has a charge of 3+
o Oxygen is in group 16 so has a charge of 2-
o The charges need to be equal so 2 iron to 3 oxygen atoms will balance electrically, so
the formula is Fe2O3
 Answer 3: Aluminium nitrate
o Aluminium is in group 13 so has a charge of 3+
o Nitrate is a compound ion and has a charge of 1-
o The complex ion needs to be placed in a bracket if more than 1 is needed
o The formula of aluminium nitrate is Al(NO3)3

Remember: compound ions are ions that contain more than one type of
element, such as OH–

 Constructing Equations
 A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction
using chemical symbols to show the number and type of each atom in
the reactants and products
 A word equation is a longer way of describing a chemical reaction using
only words to show the reactants and products
 From the equation of a reaction you can tell:
o How many moles of each substance take part
o How many grams of each substance take part
o The total mass does not change, during a chemical reaction

 Balancing equations
 During chemical reactions, atoms cannot be created or destroyed
 The number of each atom on each side of the reaction must therefore be
the same
o I.E. the reaction needs to be balanced
 When balancing equations remember:
o Not to change any of the formulae
o To put the numbers used to balance the equation in front of the formulae
o To balance firstly the carbon, then the hydrogen and finally the oxygen in combustion
reactions of organic compounds

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 When balancing equations follow the following the steps:

o Write the formulae of the reactants and products
o Count the numbers of atoms in both sides of equation; reactant and product
o Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
o Use appropriate state symbols in the equation
 The physical state of reactants and products in a chemical reaction is
specified by using state symbols
o (s) solid
o (l) liquid
o (g) gas
o (aq) aqueous (which means dissolved in water)

 Ionic equations
 In aqueous solutions, ionic compounds dissociate into their ions
 Many chemical reactions in aqueous solutions involve ionic compounds,
however only some of the ions in solution take part in the reactions
 The ions that do not take part in the reaction are called spectator ions
 An ionic equation shows only the ions or other particles taking part in a
reaction, without showing the spectator ions

Answer:
 Step 1: Write out the symbol equation showing reactants and products
Mg + O2 → MgO
 Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product

 Step 3: Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
This is now showing that 2 moles of magnesium react with 1 mole of oxygen molecule to
form 2 moles of magnesium oxide
 Step 4: Use appropriate state symbols in the fully balanced equation
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

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Answer 1:
 Step 1: To balance the equation, write out the symbol equation showing
reactants and products
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
 Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product. The
equation is already balanced

That means equation is balanced already

 Step 3: Use appropriate state symbols in the equation
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Answer 2:
 Step 1: The full chemical equation for the reaction is
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
 Step 2: Break down reactants into their respective ions
Zn (s) + Cu2+ SO42- (aq) → Zn2+SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)
 Step 3: Cancel the spectator ions on both sides to give the ionic
equation
Zn (s) + Cu2+SO42- (aq) → Zn2+SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)
Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

 Empirical & Molecular Formulae

 The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and
type of each atom in a molecule
o Eg. the molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H4O2
 The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the
elements present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
o Eg. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O
 Organic molecules often have different empirical and molecular
formulae

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 Simple inorganic molecules however have often similar empirical and

molecular formulae
 Ionic compounds always have similar empirical and molecular formulae

 Water of Crystallisation
 Water of crystallisation is when some compounds can
form crystals which have water as part of their structure
 A compound that contains water of crystallisation is called a hydrated
compound
 The water of crystallisation is separated from the main formula by
a dot when writing the chemical formula of hydrated compounds
o Eg. hydrated copper(II) sulfate is CuSO4∙5H2O
 A compound which doesn’t contain water of crystallisation is called
an anhydrous compound
o Eg. anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is CuSO4
 A compound can be hydrated to different degrees
o Eg. cobalt(II) chloride can be hydrated by six or two water molecules
o CoCl2 ∙6H2O or CoCl2 ∙2H2O
 The conversion of anhydrous compounds to hydrated compounds
is reversible by heating the hydrated salt
Anhydrous to hydrated salt:
CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4∙5H2O
Hydrated to anhydrous salt (by heating):
CuSO4∙5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O

 Note: To calculate the Mr of hydrated salts, the Mr of the salt and water
should be calculated separately and then added together.

 Calculating empirical and molecular formulae

 Empirical formula calculation
 Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the elements
present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
 It is calculated from knowledge of the ratio of masses of each element in
the compound
 The empirical formula can be found by determining the mass of each
element present in a sample of the compound
 It can also be deduced from data that give the percentage compositions
by mass of the elements in a compound
 Worked Example: Empirical formula from mass

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Mass

Number of
moles

Mole ratio

 Worked Example 2: Empirical formula from %

Mass (%)

Number of
moles

Mole ratio

 Molecular formula calculation

 The molecular formula shows the actual number of each of the
different atoms present in a molecule
 The molecular formula can be found by dividing the relative formula
mass of the compound by the relative formula mass of the empirical
formula
 Multiply the number of each element present in the empirical formula
by this number to find the molecular formula
 M.F = E.F x n ; M.F = Molecular formula, E.F = Empirical formula,
n = number
 n can be found by: n = Mr of compound / Mr of empirical formula
 Worked example: Calculating molecular formula

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Answer
 Step 1: Calculate relative formula mass of empirical formula
Relative formula mass = (C x 4) + (H x 10) + (S x 1)
Relative formula mass = (12 x 4) + (1 x 10) + (32 x 1)
Relative formula mass = 90
 Step 2: Divide relative formula mass of compound X by relative formula
mass of empirical formula
Ratio between Mr of X and the Mr of the empirical formula = 180/90
Ratio between Mr of X and the Mr of the empirical formula = 2
 Step 3: Multiply each number of elements by 2
(C4 x 2) + (H10 x 2) + (S1 x 2) = (C8) + (H20) + (S2)
Molecular Formula of X is C8H20S2

 Reacting masses and volumes (of solutions and gases)

 Calculations including use of the mole concept
a) Reacting masses
 The masses of reactants are useful to determine how much of the
reactants exactly react with each other to prevent waste
 To calculate the reacting masses, the chemical equation is required
 This equation shows the ratio of moles of all the reactants and products,
also called the stoichiometry of the equation
 To find the mass of products formed in a reaction the following pieces of
information is needed:
o The balanced equation
o The mass of the reactants
o The molar mass of the reactants
 Percentage yield
 In a lot of reactions, not all reactants react to form products which can
be due to several factors:
o Other reactions take place simultaneously
o The reaction does not go to completion
o Reactants or products are lost to the atmosphere
 The percentage yield shows how much of a particular product you get
from the reactants compared to the maximum theoretical amount that
you can get:

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 Where actual yield is the number of moles or mass of product

obtained experimentally
 The predicted yield is the number of moles or mass obtained by
calculation
 Worked example: Mass calculation using moles

Answer
 Step 1: The symbol equation is:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
 Step 2: The relative formula masses are:
Magnesium : 24 Oxygen : 32 Magnesium Oxide : 40
 Step 3: Calculate the moles of magnesium used in reaction

 Step 4: Find the ratio of magnesium to magnesium oxide using the

balanced chemical equation

Therefore, 0.25 mol of MgO is formed

 Step 5: Find the mass of magnesium oxide
mass = mol x Mr
mass = 0.25 mol x 40 g mol-1
mass = 10 g
Therefore, mass of magnesium oxide produced is 10 g

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 Worked Example: Calculate % yield using moles

 Answer
 Step 1: The symbol equation is:
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
 Step 2: Calculate the amount of zinc reacted in moles

 Step 3: Calculate the maximum amount of copper that could be formed from the
molar ratio:
Since the ratio of Zn(s) to Cu(s) is 1:1 a maximum of 0.10 moles can be produced
 Step 4: Calculate the maximum mass of copper that could be formed
(theoretical yield)
mass = mol x Mr
mass = 0.10 mol x 64 g mol-1
mass = 6.4 g
 Step 5: Calculate the percentage yield of copper

b) Volumes of gases
 Avogadro suggested that ‘equal volumes of gases contain the same
number of molecules’ (also called Avogadro’s hypothesis)
 At (RTP) room temperature (20 degrees Celsius) and pressure (1
atm) one mole of any gas has a volume of 24.0 dm3 (or 24000 cm3)
3
 This molar (gas) volume of 24.0 dm can be used to find:
o The volume of a given mass or number of moles of gas:
volume of gas (dm3) = amount of gas (mol) x 24
 The mass or number of moles of a given volume of gas:

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 Worked example: Calculating volume of gas using excess & limiting

reagents

Answer

c) Volumes & concentrations of solutions

 The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved in
a solvent to make 1 dm3 of solution
o The solute is the substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a solution
o The solvent is a substance where a solute dissolves in (often water)

 A concentrated solution is a solution that has a high concentration of

solute
 A dilute solution is a solution with a low concentration of solute
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 When carrying out calculations involving concentrations in mol dm-3 the

following points need to be considered:
o Change mass in grams to moles
o Change cm3 to dm3
 To calculate the mass of a substance present in solution of
known concentration and volume:
o Rearrange the concentration equation
number of moles (mol) = concentration (mol dm-3) x volume (dm3)
o Multiply the moles of solute by its molar mass
mass of solute (g) = number of moles (mol) x molar mass (g mol -1)
 Worked example: Calculating volume from concentration

Answer
 Step 1: Write the balanced symbol equation
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
 Step 2: Calculate the amount, in moles, of calcium carbonate that reacts

 Step 3: Calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid required using the

reaction’s stoichiometry
1 mol of CaCO3 requires 2 mol of HCl
Ratio is 1 : 2
So 0.025 mol of CaCO3 requires 0.05 mol of HCl
 Step 4: Calculate the volume of HCl required

Volume of hydrochloric acid = 0.05 dm3

 Worked example: Neutralisation calculation

Answer
 Step 1: Write the balanced symbol equation
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
 Step 2: Calculate the amount, in moles, of sodium carbonate reacted by
rearranging the equation for amount of substance (mol) and dividing the
volume by 1000 to convert cm3 to dm3
amount (Na2CO3) = 0.025 dm3 x 0.050 mol dm-3 = 0.00125 mol

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 Step 3: Calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid required using the

reaction’s stoichiometry
1 mol of Na2CO3 reacts with 2 mol of HCl, so the molar ratio is 1 : 2
Therefore 0.00125 moles of Na2CO3 react with 0.00250 moles of HCl
 Step 4: Calculate the concentration, in mol dm-3 of hydrochloric acid

concentration (HCl) (mol dm-3) = 0.125 mol dm-3

 Calculating solution concentration by titration

 A titration is often used to find the exact concentration of a solution.
 Titration is a method used to determine the amount of substance
present in a solution of an unknown concentration
 If we want to determine the concentration of a solution of sodium
hydroxide of unknown concentration, we use the following procedure.
 Use a volumetric pipette to place a given volume (usually 10 cm3 or 25
cm3) of sodium hydroxide of unknown concentration into a flask.

Get some of the acid of known concentration, e.g. hydrochloric acid of
concentration 1.00 mol dm−3
 Fill a clean burette with the acid (after having washed the burette with a
little of the acid).
 Record the initial burette reading.
 Add a few drops of an indicator solution to the alkali in the flask, e.g.
methyl orange.
 Slowly add the acid from the burette to the flask, swirling the flask all the
time until the indicator changes colour (the end-point).
 Record the final burette reading. The final reading minus the initial
reading is called the titre. This first titre is normally known as a ‘rough’
value.
 Repeat this process, adding the acid drop by drop near the end-point.
 Repeat again, until you have two titres that are no more than 0.10 cm3
apart.
 Take the average of these two titre values.
 Your results should be recorded in a table, looking like this:

 You should note:

o all burette readings are given to an accuracy of 0.05 cm3
o the units are shown like this: / cm3

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o the two titres that are no more than 0.10 cm3 apart are 1 and 3, so they would be
averaged
o the average titre is 34.70 cm3.
 In every titration there are five important things you need to know or
work out:
1) the balanced equation for the reaction
2) the volume of the solution from the burette (in this example this is
hydrochloric acid)
3) the concentration of the solution in the burette
4) the volume of the solution in the titration flask (in this example this is sodium
hydroxide)
5) the concentration of the solution in the titration flask.
 If we know four of these five things, we can calculate the fifth. So, in
order to calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide in the flask, we
need to know the first four of these points

d) Excess & limiting reagents

 Sometimes, there is an excess of one or more of the reactants (excess
reagent), it is not completely used up in a chemical reaction.
 The limiting reagent is the substance that’s completely used up in a
chemical reaction, and is not in excess
 To determine which reactant is limiting:
o The number of moles of the reactants should be calculated
o The ratio of the reactants shown in the equation should be taken into account eg:
C + 2H2 → CH4
There are 10 mol of Carbon reacting with 3 mol of Hydrogen
 Hydrogen is the limiting reagent and since the ratio of C : H2 is 1:2 only
1.5 mol of C will react with 3 mol of H2
 Worked example: Excess & limiting reagent

Answer
 Step 1: Calculate the moles of each reactant

 Step 2: Write the balanced equation and determine the molar ratio
2Na + S → Na2S
The molar ratio of Na: Na2S is 2:1
 Step 3: Compare the moles and determine the limiting reagent
So to react completely 0.40 moles of Na require 0.20 moles of S and since there are
0.25 moles of S, then S is in excess. Na is therefore the limiting reactant.

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 Significant figures
 When we perform chemical calculations it is important that we give the
answer to a number of significant figures that fits with the data provided.
The examples here show the number 526.84 rounded up to varying
numbers of significant figures.
o rounded to 4 significant figures = 526.8
o rounded to 3 significant figures = 527
o rounded to 2 significant figures = 530
 When you are writing an answer to a calculation, the answer should be
to the same number of significant figures as the least number of
significant figures in the data.
 Do not round numbers to the correct number of significant figures until
the end of a calculation or you risk introducing errors.
 Rules of Significant figures
o Zeros before a number are not significant figures. For example 0004 is only to 1
significant figure.
o After the decimal point, zeros after a number are Significant figures. 0.0040 has 2
significant figures and 0.00400 has 3 significant figures.

e) Stoichiometric relationships (mole ratio)

 The stoichiometry of a reaction can be found if the exact amounts of
reactants and products formed are known. In other words, the mole
ratio is the stoichiometric ratio of reactants and products and is the ratio
of the coefficients for reactants and products found in the balanced
chemical equation
 The amounts can be found by using the following equation:

 For example, if we react 4.0 g of hydrogen with 32.0 g of oxygen we get

36.0 g of water. (Ar values: H =1.0, O = 16.0)
 This ratio is the ratio of stoichiometric numbers in the equation. So the
equation is:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

 We can still deduce the stoichiometry of this reaction even if we do not

know the mass of oxygen that reacted. The ratio of hydrogen to water is
1 : 1. But there is only one atom of oxygen in a molecule of water: half
the amount in an oxygen molecule. So the mole ratio of oxygen to water
in the equation must be 1 : 2.

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 The gas volumes can be used to deduce the stoichiometry of a reaction

o Eg. in the combustion of 50 cm3 of propane reacting with 250 cm3 of oxygen, 150
cm3 of carbon dioxide is formed suggesting that the ratio of propane : oxygen : carbon
dioxide is 1:5:3
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

 In the reaction: 2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)

 The ratio of magnesium to oxygen to magnesium oxide is 2 : 1 : 2

 Additional equations
 Percentage composition by mass

 Percentage purity

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