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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

Editor-in-Chief: Dr. Gabriele Strohschen, DePaul University, USA

Assco. Editors-in-Chief: Dr. John Ketterer, Jacksonville State University, USA

Dr. Wu Guoliang, Yuexiu University of Fore. Lang., China

Managing Editor: Dr. Linda Sun, Southern Polytechnic State University, USA

Editorial Advisory Board

Prof. Holger Daun, Institute of International Education, Stockholm University, Sweden
Prof. J. B. G. Tilak, National University of Educational Planning and Administration, India
Prof. S. Kumar, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, India
Prof. Henry Kaluba, Commonwealth Secretariat, London, United Kingdom
Prof. Carolyn Riehl, Columbia Teachers College, Columbia University, USA
Prof. Merylann J. Schuttloffel, Catholic University of America, Washington, USA
Prof. K. Dorasami, National Council of Educational Research and Training, India
Prof. Montree Yamkasikorn, Burapah University, Bangsean, Thailand
Dr. Kenneth Browne Elazier, II, Institute for Performance Enhancement, USA
Dr. Avani Maniar, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, India
Prof. Johan Hoornaert, Catholic University of Leuven (K.U.Leuven), Belgium

Board of Reviewers
Dr. Richard Bennett, Southern Polytechnic State University, USA
Dr. John T. Denny, Department of Open Schools Program, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Dr. Sue Espinoza, Texas A&M University-Commerce, USA
Dr. Jianhua Feng, Mercer University, USA
Dr. Beth Furlong, Creighton University, USA
Dr. Barrie Jo Price, University of Alabama, USA
Dr. Herb. J Smith, Southern Polytechnic State University, USA
Dr. Ka Sai Un, Texas A&M University-Commerce, USA
Dr. Jianping Wang, Northeast University, China
Dr. Victor Wang, California State University, USA
Dr. Yuan Jianhua, Beijing Foreign Studies University, China
Dr. Jin Zhang, American Sentinel University, USA

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

Notes from the Editor

We bring you an issue of IFOTS, which spans the globe in more than a geographical dimension.
There is a spectrum of perspectives in this issue that intersects at a common junction: critical
analysis. Research studies and analyses are based on theoretical frameworks such as Critical
Race Theory; and rich critiques are shared that are grounded in critically examined experiences
by members of oppressed or marginalized groups, in the USA and abroad.
You will read of learning preferences from the cultural vantage points of First Nation
individuals in the USA. The perspective of USA-based urban educators within Latino and
African-American students is presented within the context of health education and disease
prevention. We travel to Sub-Saharan Africa to learn about the effectiveness of participatory
education in HIV/AIDS prevention education. And from Jordan and the USA, China and
Taiwan we learn about the crucial role of student-centered language learning and cultural
awareness in intercultural communication.
Critical thinking is brought home in our lead article, and this theme weaves throughout the
others you will read. Several articles unapologetically call for deep reflection on “indigenous”
values, and with that I mean those assumptions and beliefs any particular individual or group
may hold to be true. Local may be our views and perspectives and values; global is the need to
thoroughly examine those and to respect viewpoints and values that differ from our own. It is
when we, each and all, engage in such critical reflection that we may arrive at interdependent,
sustainable solutions for a sound adult education practice that benefits us all in making ours a
better life for all.
With that in mind, I invite your critical reflection on the content of these heartfelt, earnest, and
authentic voices you will hear in this issue of IFOTS.

Dr. Gabriele Strohschen

Chicago, USA

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

TABLE OF CONTENTS

How Can Teachers Enable Students to Pose and Solve Problems Using Contexts Within and 5
Outside Mathematics?
Judit Kerekes, Maryann Diglio, and Kathleen P. King

The Multicultural Competence of University Faculty: A Study of Student versus Faculty 11

Perceptions
John J. Ketterer, Tommy M. Phillips, Nina King, and Celia Hilber

Fusing Critical Race Theory with Practice to Improve Mentorship 18

Nozella L. Brown

Elements Needed to Support Social, Ecological, and Economical Sustainability on a 22

Global Basis
Enid Conley and Valerie C. Bryan

On the Development of College Students’ Intercultural Competency 27

Xiong Jiaquan

An Examination of EFL Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Students at the University of 32

Technology of Taiwan
Cheng-Chang Tsai and I-Cheng Chang

Re-evaluating the Effectiveness of the Audio-lingual Method in Teaching English to 39

Speakers of Other Languages
Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim

Adult Education and Prevention of HIV/AIDS in Ghana 46

Alex Kumi-Yeboah

Analogical reasoning: A Process for Fostering Learning Transfer from the Classroom to 52
Clinical Practice
Tim Speicher and Marijke Kehrhahn

Asthma Education and the Adult Learner 59

Shawna Strickland

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

How Can Teachers Enable Students to Pose and Solve Problems Using
Contexts Within and Outside Mathematics?
Judit Kerekes
Education Department of the College of Staten Island, City University of New York, USA
Maryann Diglio
Elementary School Teacher
Kathleen P. King
Fordham University, New York, USA

“Learning begins with action and perception, proceeds hence to words and concepts, and
should end in good mental habits.” – Pólya quoting Kant (1965, p. 103)

[Abstract] This article provides practical direction and example for classroom teachers seeking to teach
mathematical problem solving in engaging and meaningful ways. The article is based on a case study
experience and demonstrates the power of problem posing for student learning, authentic assessment, teacher
transformation, school change. The classroom teacher facilitated the development of a collaborative and active
learning community engaged in problems solving real life examples. The significance of this article about
teaching young children include a model for facilitating real-life problem based learning in collaborative
groups, posing questions and problem solving strategies using manipulatives and dialogue, two complete
lessons for classroom use, and greater empowerment, engagement, and ownership of math learning and
understanding.

[Keywords] Mathematics; problem posing; critical thinking; learning community

Introduction
On the top of a hill on Staten Island in New York City, there is a school made up of seven buildings surrounded
by trees and grass-lined pathways, all walking distance from each other. It is a private school in an affluent,
pleasant neighborhood. There are separate buildings for art, music, and physical education, and a
well-equipped fitness center. The principal is an energetic and ardent believer in the concept of the
collaborative classroom. His pedagogical philosophy stems from the conviction that successful learning comes
from interaction between learner, material, teacher, and content in an open educational environment where
interdisciplinary activities are welcome.
This school is Maryann’s classroom. She is a teacher candidate who while struggling with how to
integrate mathematics into her social studies class found a solution worth sharing with all mathematics
education teachers and teacher candidates. The lessons of that experience, replicated in many other experiences
of student candidates I have taught over the years, inspired this article. The issue at stake centers on the posing
and solving of problems through teaching problem solving skills that enable students to properly pose and thus
effectively solve mathematics problems. It is an experience that anyone who has ever struggled with
• understanding or explaining, what a perimeter, area, or volume is, and how to calculate them, or
• had trouble with what a square inch or cubic foot represents, and wondered how many one-inch
cubes fit in a cubic feet, or
• how 1D, 2D, 3D relate to each other, can relate to each other, and learn from them.
• Avoiding extensive theoretical convolutions, this article provides practical and useful insights for
practicing teachers.

Theoretical Background
According to Fosnot and Dolk (2001) the final determinant of teaching is whether learning has happened (p. 1).
Yet, George Pólya (1969) recognized the vast array of differences among effective teaching styles in his

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

insistence that “teaching is not a science, it is an art” (p.3). The literature confirms what we know from our
experiences as pre-service, in-service teachers, and now as teacher educators: teachers can comprehend content,
methodology, and didactics. They can also observe other teachers, develop their own strategies and styles, and
share their thoughts with their professors/supervisors/mentors or colleagues. However, their classroom is an
evolving product of their own creation.
Thus George Pólya’s (1969, p. 3) admonishes, “You must teach yourself.” The role of reflective practice
(Schon, 1987) is essential in this model of continuous improvement and ongoing formal and informal
professional development. Teachers cannot be dependent on formal instruction to solve all their classroom
decisions and problems. Instead, they must develop a comfort level with posing questions about their
classroom, teaching and student learning, and the ability to develop a plan, implement and improve based on
the results. Their continuing ability to ask questions and reflect on situations, needs and results is the foundation
of reflective practice (Izzo, 2006; Schon). Scaffolding upon this base to pose new strategies and build new
practice affords dynamic action research professionalism (Hinchey, 2008).
Within the mathematical education context specifically, as teachers teach themselves, they could be
served by Freudenthal’s (1973) argument that mathematical learning is a human activity that involves a process
and cannot be simply regarded as a set of rules to be transferred to human beings. Teachers’ experience in their
own discovery of teaching practice (reflective practice and action research) and math learning (problem posing
and problem solving (Fosnot & Dolk, 2001; Lowrie, 2002) increases their facility with both the constructivist
process and Mathematics content. Moreover, Pólya reveals that chances for success are greater when teachers
understand that “the idea should be born in the student’s mind and the teacher should just act as a midwife”
(Pólya, 1969, p. 3).
As teachers provide real-life, relevant opportunities for problem based learning, they can facilitate
students’ thinking development and thereby content comprehension and internalization. Our teacher in these
case studies, Maryann, understood these pedagogical issues. Therefore, in her classroom she created a safe and
inviting environment for learners. Moreover, she guided students through learning experiences that were based
on real-life contexts and made sense to them. We will see that these relevant contexts provide problems which
students can relate and enjoy engaging.
Moreover, using this approach students’ work processes and results align with the practice of authentic
assessment to their demonstrate knowledge, skills, application, and transfer of learning. Authentic assessment
has become a major focus of NCTM (2000) math education recommendations; however, we scaffold this
experience to apply it to interdisciplinary settings also. As quoted by Lowrie (2002, p. 354)., “From a teaching
perspective, problem-posing activities reveal much about the understandings, skills and attitudes the problem
poser brings to a given situation and thus become a powerful assessment tool.”

The Hallway Carpet Experience

Initial Instructional Unit Plan
Maryann divided her class into groups and instructed each group to measure the hallway outside their
classroom. Table 1, Results of Group Linear Measurement, reveals the results of the students work in gathering
and determining measurements. While Figure 1 shows students from Maryann’s classroom practicing how to
measure the hallway with yardsticks.

Table 1. Results of Group Linear Measurement

Group 1 (doubling minus Group 2 (doubling plus Group 3 (multiplication) Group 4 (repeated addition)
strategy ) strategy)
1 yard = 3 ft 1 yard = 3 ft Three rulers are three feet each Seven times three is the same
as
2 yards = 6 ft 2 yards = 6 ft Three feet is one yard, 3+3+3+3+3+3+3
4 yards = 12 ft 3 yards = 9 ft Then seven yards is seven time Which is twenty-one feet
three feet
8 yards = 24 ft 6 yards =18 ft Which is twenty-one feet.
7 yards =24-3 = 21 ft. 7 yards=18 + 3 ft = 21 ft

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

The exercise engaged the students in determining how long the school hallway was for the practical and real
world purpose of buying a new carpet for the area. The class discussion, discoveries and contemplations
flowed as follows:
Problem Posed: We have the opportunity to order a new floor covering for our classroom hallway!
• The school has some money leftover.
• If we do the planning work, we can afford the new floor.
Activity: Three groups of students measured the hallway and made estimations as to the length of the hallway.
• The first group determined the following measurement: 26 yards.
• The second group estimated 28 yards
• The third group estimated 30 ½ yards.
Problem Solving Needed: Which data should be used to order the new floor?
• If 26 yards is used, it might be too short; 30 ½ yards may be too long.
• An exact length is necessary.
The students return to the classroom for a problem solving discussion session.

Figure 1. Linear Measurement

Having returned to the classroom with their teacher to resolve the disparities in their measurements, the
students surrounded their teacher as they spread out on the floor, engaged in measurement activity. The
knowledgeable teacher, Maryann, was a good listener and a facilitator of the concept of learning communities
where all students’ opinions are valued, where students pose questions, new problems emerge from previous
ones, and trial and error participation and discussion are welcome.
The literature supports this learner-centered problem solving in the math content area. This is stated for
example by Fosnot and Dolk (2001), “When the definition of mathematics shifts toward “the activity of
mathematizing one’s lived world,” the constructive nature of the discipline and its connection to problem
solving become clear.” (p.13) Maryann, knowing that, enters her classroom with content rich mathematical
tasks in mind on how to tackle measurement related problems. She considers projected horizons of learning
engagements as Fosnot and Dolk (2001) would recommend, and moves her students to new horizons as they
conquer each one. This strategy guides the children toward the various horizons on their individual/group
pathways of learning.
In the classroom, the groups learn to measure precisely. Placing special care to laying the yardsticks down
along the length of the classroom, the groups measured it. Specifically, the students determined through their
practice that making sure the ends of the yardsticks met exactly was important. As they progressed, they
counted how many times they laid down the yardsticks in their measurement activity. The groups enjoyed the
hands-on activity and found the length of the classroom to be seven yards. Then the question arose, “If the
classroom is 7 yards (7 yardsticks) long, then how many feet is it?”

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

The following student discussion ensued:

• How many feet are there in a yard?
• How can we determine that by looking at our rulers?
• How helpful would that comparison be?
• Let’s try it out. The ruler can be placed three times on a yardstick.
• What does that mean? The ruler is a foot long. Three rulers make a yardstick.
• Can I therefore safely say that three feet is a yard? If yes, then how many feet is 7 yards?

At the end of the investigation, the class came together in a circle, and listened readily to each other’s
explanation. Having learned to measure properly and now understanding the relationship between their rulers
and yardsticks, and having practiced the proper way to lay their yardsticks to get correct measurements, the
students went out into the hallway again the next day. They again addressed the project task in their small
groups with two yardsticks to measure the actual length of the hallway. They found that the hallway was 28
yards long. They all agreed on that length and then successfully converted 28 yards into 84 feet. Now that they
all knew how to measure properly, it did not matter who did the measuring. The result would always be the
same. Now they could proceed with their assignment. Moreover, they could begin to consider more complex
issues related to their problem.

Making Progress within the Initial Unit Plan

Based on the students’ progress, the following discussion now became possible:
More Information Needed. Before we can tell how much floor we need to cover, we need to determine
how wide the hallway is. Yes, if we know how wide the hallway is, then we will know the length and the width
of carpet we need. The groups returned to the task of measuring the hallway and determined the width to be 4
yards, which is 12 feet.
Determining Area. How big was the hallway after all? They concluded at once that the hallway was 28
yards long and 4 yards wide, which was the equivalent of 84 feet long and 12 feet wide. They could now move
on to the area of the hallway, and the area of the rug they would need. The class was now prepared with the
knowledge and experience of what they needed to make their accurate purchase. They could now tackle the
question of the price of the carpet and how much they would have to pay for the carpet size they needed.
Learning had happened for them in a tangible way, which allowed them to internalize the methods and
strategies of problem solving, number sense, and math operations (Lyublinskaya & Kerekes, 2009)

The Pilgrim Experience

For another real-life learning experience, Maryann decorated the classroom wall with pictures of Pilgrims. The
whole class imagined they were Pilgrims, arriving in America from England aboard the Mayflower (circa
1620). In the spirit of the previous measurement exercise, they were now faced with the real problem of settling
on a new continent, building homes, and living. Through class discussion the students decided what they need
to do and in what order. They agreed at some times and disagreed at others. Nevertheless, they worked their
way through to a solution. In the end, they agreed on clearing some of the forest so they could have land. They
measured their new house plots and began designing basic plans for their new houses.
As the “21st Century young Pilgrim families” worked and planned, they evolved into designers, architects,
and workers cast as “family teams” in this simulated experience. In addition, this engaging learning activity
transformed them into active mathematicians as they were making sense of distance, area, and perimeter in
real-life, concrete settings. Using this setting, the students could identify problem-solving, number, math
operations patterns and more. Figures 2 and 3 reveal samples of the student work on the Pilgrim house project.
Readers may notice the variety of strategies, illustrations and notations used by the students in creating their
work and explaining their method.

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

Examples of Student Work, Pilgrim House Project: Figure 2 (left) and Figure 3 (right)

The teacher also witnessed student initiative and creativity in these projects. For example one group wanted to
include a fireplace and chimney in their Pilgrim house design. They were hesitant to ask, but when they did,
Maryann was pleased to grant their request for this insightful and relevant addition to their design. Figure 4:
Students Create Three Dimensional Models of Pilgrim House Project, shows this student team in the process of
creating their Pilgrim House model. This incident demonstrates the free learning environment Maryann had
successfully created in her classroom via listening, respecting and appreciating the students’ opinions and
suggestions. Furthermore, this mirrors the findings of Lowrie in similar problem posing projects were students
gained greater confidence and skills: “the children were able to pose open-ended problems” (2002, p. 357).

Figure 4. Students Create Three Dimensional Models of Pilgrim House Project

Discussion
The pedagogy that made Maryann’s classroom fun for the students and engaged them in their learning was one
that placed them at the center of the teaching/learning experience. Moreover, she understood that, as a teacher,
she could contribute best when she was a facilitator and mentor rather than authoritative figure disseminating
content to be memorized and reproduced. This integrated teaching model scaffolded Fostnot and Dolk’s (2001)
perspective of real-life problem solving, Pólya’s (1962) problem solving stages and Schon’s (1987) reflective
practice.
In Maryann’s classroom, the students made errors and new discoveries. The resultant discovery, learning
moment, made mathematics meaningful and personal for the students. Rather than rote memorization and
repetitive worksheets, they engaged in constructing their new knowledge by doing (Jonassen et al, 2003). They
were able to use strategies and models developed through the process as tools for solving new, emerging
problems. This skillful teacher facilitated student experiences of discovering the power of Pólya’s steps of
problem solving (1969): understanding problems, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back or
reflecting on problems. Moreover, they did so in what they ascertained to be play, both effortlessly and

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

effectively. Both of these lesson case studies reveal how concrete situations enabled students to move into
ever-refined degrees of abstraction and generalization. Having experienced such concrete sensibilities,
decision-making and discoveries, they more fully internalized the math processes and problem solving
strategies. As evidenced by Lowrie (2002), these foundational experiences empower students to address
increasingly abstract situations and make generalizations to facilitate and continue problem solving skills. Such
learning is recognized as higher order of understanding and thinking skills incorporating all the stages of
Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom & Krathwohl, 1956). Moreover, it serves not only the current content area, but
also may be used in other content areas and settings as well.

Conclusion
All too often, students and teachers approach mathematics education with fear and regret based on their prior
learning experiences. Traditional math education strategies have focused repetition, drills and problem solving
far removed from everyday life. This article describes how integrating reflective practicing, problem based
learning and problem posing and solving can be used to create dynamic, engaging, real-life contexts for
students to enjoy learning math concepts, application and problem solving. Not only do teachers and students
learn the math content better (internalize), but they also enjoy the experience, and can see connections to other
applications. The ability to create engaging math learning experiences can have immediate and long-term
positive affects on learners. Instead of bemoaning math classes, students eagerly anticipate the active
collaboration, learning spaces. Our teacher, Maryann, succeeded with play where so many before her failed
with hard work.

References
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bloom,B. S. & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of
Educational Goals, by a committee of college and university examiners. Handbook I: Cognitive
Domain. New York, Longmans, Green.
Fosnot, C., & Dolk, M. (2001). Young mathematicians at work (Vol. 1). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Freudenthal, H. (1973). Mathematics as an educational task. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel Publishing Company.
Hinchey, P. H. (2008). Action research primer. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Izzo, A. (2006). Research and reflection. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
Jonassen, D. H., Howland, J., Moore, J., & Marra, R. M. (2003). Learning to solve problems with technology
(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Lowrie, T. (2002, Nov.). Designing a framework for problem posing: Young children generating open-ended
tasks. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood 3(3), 354-358.
Lyublinskaya, I., & Kerekes, J. (2009). Integrating mathematics, science and technology in the elementary
classroom (2nd ed.). Oceanside, NY: Whittier Publications, Inc.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (NCTM). (2000). Principals and standards of school
mathematics. Reston: NCTM.
Pólya, G. (1965). Mathematical discovery. (Vol. II). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Pólya, G. (1969). The goals of mathematics education. Retrieved June 1, 2009, from
http://mathematicallysane.com/analysis/polya.asp#credits [Transcription of video tape circa 1969].
Schon, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Weiss, I., & Pasley, J. (2004, Feb.). What is high-quality instruction? Educational Leadership 61(1). Retrieved
online June 1, 2009, from
http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational_leadership/feb04/vol61/num05/toc/Creating_a_Differe
ntiated_Mathematics_Classroom.aspx

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

Multicultural Competency as a Component of NCATE Standard

IV Accountability
John J. Ketterer
Department of Educational Resources, Jacksonville State University, AL USA
Tommy M. Phillips
Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Jacksonville State University
Nina King
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Jacksonville State University,AL USA
Celia Hilber
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Jacksonville State University, AL USA

[Abstract] Education faculty (N = 47) and pre-service teachers (N = 88) at a medium-sized public
university completed a measure assessing perceptions of faculty members' level of multicultural
competence. Faculty and student responses were compared, and although results demonstrated a high
degree of overall congruence between faculty and student perceptions, analysis of discrete survey items
did indicate some areas of faculty-student dissonance. Implications for Education faculty and
administrators at institutions of higher learning are discussed.
[Keywords] Multicultural competence; diversity; culture; ethnicity

Statement of Objectives
In the highly competitive marketplace of university teacher preparation, the National Council for
Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) has taken a leadership role in establishing standards
which Colleges of Education have incorporated into their accountability models as indicators of quality.
As traditional hierarchies of privilege become artifacts of an abandoned past, it behooves higher
education and particularly the teacher preparation programs of Colleges of Education to gather hard data
to demonstrate that faculty have the skills—affective and conceptual—to deal with the increasingly
diverse population in these programs. The present research focuses on NCATE Standard IV, and the
injunction to ensure that all students encounter highly trained, well-prepared faculty with the ability to
effectively model tolerance and teach learners from a multiplicity of cultural backgrounds and
dispositions. With respect to its “target” for faculty, NCATE clearly sets a standard: “Faculty with
whom candidates work throughout their preparation program are knowledgeable about and sensitive to
preparing candidates to work with diverse students, including students with exceptionalities” (NCATE,
2006).
The authors developed a survey instrument based on previous research (Wayson, 1993; Gorham,
2001) on self-assessment of multicultural competency. Inspired by this previous research, the authors at
the Alabama Jacksonville State University’s College of Education and Professional Studies (CEPS)
modified Wayson’s Multicultural Teaching Scale to a) assess College of Education professors’
self-perception of their multicultural competency; and b) assess the perception of Pre-Service Teacher
Candidates of the multicultural competency of their professors. The Multicultural Competency Scale
(MCS) consists of 37 items directed at establishing competency, a series of demographic items, and 11
items descriptive of the degree of cultural diversity in the background of the respondent.
This study is intended to: (a) explore CEPS faculty members' perceptions of their strengths and
deficiencies with regard to working with and meeting the needs of students from diverse cultural
backgrounds; (b) explore students' perceptions of how well CEPS faculty members work with and meet
the needs of students from diverse cultural backgrounds; (c) compare the perceptions of CEPS faculty
and students; and (d) assess the relationships between reported perceptions and demographic and

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

background factors for both faculty and students.

The following questions were addressed in this study:
1. Do faculty in the College of Education and Professional Studies perceive themselves as being
multi-culturally competent?
2. Do students in the College of Education and Professional Studies perceive their professors as
being multi-culturally competent?
3. Are student and faculty perceptions congruent with regard to the multi-cultural competence of
College of Education and Professional Studies faculty, or do discrepancies exist?
4. What demographic and background variables predict, or are related to, faculty—and
student—perceptions of multi-cultural competence?
5. In which areas (from the diversity survey) do faculty—and students—perceive the faculty as
most/least competent?
6. Are there significant inter- or intra-group differences in perceptions of multi-cultural
competence based on factors such as gender, ethnicity, and multi-cultural background

Results of the Pilot Study

The Wayson instrument was originally designed to assess the multicultural dispositions and
competencies of K-12 teachers. The range and scope of multicultural components of competency were
validated for that instrument; however, significant modification was required to ensure that the survey
addressed these components adequately for the purposes of higher education. In addition, an entirely
new, related survey was developed: the Pre-Service Teacher Survey (PSTS). Thus, using the Wayson
instrument as a guidepost, two instruments were developed: the College of Education Faculty Survey
(CEFS) and the aforementioned PSTS. Taken together, we refer to these surveys as the JSU
Multicultural Competence Battery (MCB), which will be made available upon request to other
educational institutions for non-profit purposes with proper citation.
These surveys were reviewed and validated by a multi-departmental committee of the JSU College
of Education and Professional Studies assigned for that purpose. The pilot study was approved by the
Human Subjects Review Board (IRB) in April, 2007 and the instruments were applied to their respective
target populations with the purpose of determining reliability. The Pre-service Teacher Survey achieved
a Cronbach alpha of .970; the CEFS yielded an alpha of .942. The opinion of the researchers is that the
surveys function effectively as a single scale assessing multicultural competence.

Literature Review
The multicultural competence of professors of higher education has long been considered a significant
factor in student success (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Considering the explicative and imitative nature of
learner behavior in preparing for a career in education, it is transcendently important that teacher
candidates receive training from professors who understand and model desired behaviors. Social justice,
it has been pointed out, “is an important end of schooling, and a responsibility of teacher educators”
(Beyer, 2001). Teacher education is a social bridge between a theoretical understanding of democracy
and the practice of democratic action: “When an institution and a faculty’s mission articulate a
commitment to a set of principles, whether to multicultural education or otherwise, the clientele is more
confidently poised to internalize them as practices that carry personal meaning that can lead to the social
impact that emancipatory multicultural education intends” (Hidalgo, Chavez-Chavez, & Ramage, 1996,
p. 761).
Ladson-Billings (1995) calls for more research, empirical and qualitative, by professors who are
themselves “experts” in multicultural issues as a potentially significant factor in the transformation of
teacher preparation programs. Bennett (1999, p. xii) has observed, “Teachers and administrators who
are uninformed about cultural diversity, whose knowledge of history and current events is monocultural
in scope, and who are unaware of their own prejudices are likely to hinder the academic success and
personal development of many students.”

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

Finally, a global perspective with respect to the goals of higher education compels the university to
adopt a pedagogy of equity and transformation (Ameny-Dixon, 2004).

Alignment of NCATE and INTASC Standards with the Conceptual Framework of the JSU College of
Education & Professional Studies
The objectives of the work accomplished thus far by the NCATE Standard IV subcommittee of
researchers reflects the larger efforts of the college to align instructional delivery and accountability
models with NCATE standards and developing Interstate New Teacher Assessment And Support
Consortium (INTASC) standards. NCATE Standard IV reads in its entirety:
The unit designs, implements, and evaluates curriculum and provides experiences for
candidates to acquire and demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and professional
dispositions necessary to help all students learn. Assessments indicate that candidates
can demonstrate and apply proficiencies related to diversity. Experiences provided for
candidates include working with diverse populations, including higher education and
P-12 school faculty, candidates, and students in P-12 schools.
(http://www.ncate.org/documents/standards/UnitStandardsMay07.pdf)

The standard is then analyzed in its several components and assigned a level of compliance. The
Conceptual Framework of the JSU College of Education and Professional Studies identifies the
development of Creative Decision Makers as the guiding organizational principle embodying the
mission, vision, performance, and accountability models for faculty and students. The Conceptual
Framework identifies seven learning outcomes tied to INTASC principles. Learning Outcome #3 states:
III. Diverse Learners. Teacher candidates and candidates for other professional school personnel roles
exhibit knowledge, competence, and sensitivity working with diverse populations in diverse settings to
maximize student development (INTASC principles 2 & 3)(http://www.jsu.edu/depart/edprof/).

INTASC Principles 2 and 3 state:

Principle #2: The teacher understands how children learn and develop, and can
provide learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social and personal
development.
Principle #3: The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to
learning and creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners.
(http://www.ccsso.org/content/pdfs/corestrd.pdf)

Methodology and Implementation

The study was formally implemented during the Fall, 2007 semester. All faculty members who teach
undergraduate education classes in all departments of the JSU College of Education and Professional
studies were included in the survey, which was delivered to their university email and completed
anonymously, online. CEFS survey response was 100%, with 47 faculty members responding. The
PSTS was distributed to pre-service teachers in their last semester of university study (graduating in
December, 2007) and managed through the Coordinator of Clinical Experiences overseeing pre-service
student teaching experiences. One hundred fourteen students began the class in September; 85
successfully completed the clinical experience semester. Eighty-eight students responded to the survey,
a 77% response rate of the original group. These students also completed the survey anonymously,
online.
For the purposes of confirmation of the pilot study, a Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was run
on these results with similarly positive levels (CEFS: 949; PSTS: 972). An enormous amount of data
resulted from the different perspectives of gender, background, and other demographics available to the
researchers. A number of statistical approaches were implemented to analyze these data.
Descriptive Statistics. Descriptive statistics (e.g., means, standard deviations, percentages) were

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

calculated for individual items, as well as for scores on the subscales. An overall multicultural
competence score was calculated as well by simply summing responses to items dealing with
multicultural competence. Descriptive statistics for the items assessing multicultural competence are
especially important in that responses to those particular questions could reveal the areas in which
faculty members feel the most and least competent, as well as the areas in which students perceive the
faculty to be the most and least competent.
Cross-Tabulation and Chi-Square Analysis. To examine whether student participants and faculty
participants differ in terms of ethnicity, gender, and other demographic/background variables, a series of
cross-tabulations were conducted. Significance was tested using chi-square.
T-Tests. Independent samples t-tests were used to test for faculty-student differences in perceptions
of faculty members' multicultural competence. T-tests were run to test for differences in overall
multicultural competence score, as well as scores on discrete items. T-tests were also used to test for
faculty and student gender differences in perceptions of faculty members' multicultural competence.
Analysis of Variance. Ethnic differences in perceptions of faculty members' multicultural
competence were examined using analysis of variance. At the same time, analysis of variance was used
to test for differences by department or area of specialization. It is assumed that this study, modified and
improved as the results are more fully analyzed, will be replicated periodically as part of the
accountability model of the College.

Results
The data are relatively fresh and admit of many different angles of analysis. Therefore, at this time, the
authors will limit themselves to a general description of the populations under study and then proceed to
generally identify areas of concordance and note significant differences that may yield avenues for
in-service or program modification. An item analysis showed that nothing was to be gained from
deleting any items from the multicultural competence scale. There are strong indications in the data that
the measure of a single construct, multicultural competence, is uniformly the product of the instruments
used.

Description of Populations
Thirty-eight members of the faculty population (80.8%) self-identified as European White ( N.B.,
Students (and faculty) were given a drop-down box of alternatives to choose from. The question was worded as
follows: “For the purposes of this survey, what is the racial/ethnic background usually attributed to you by
society?” (Select from these categories only: Asian, African-American, Hispanic, Native American, European
White, Other). Twenty-nine of these respondents were female (61.7%). Within the student population, 68
students (77.3%) self-identified as European White. Of this group, 69 (78.4%) were female. The
students were distributed among the following majors: Educational Resources (33%); Curriculum and
Instruction (30.7%); Secondary Education (25%); and Health, Physical Education and Recreation
(11.4%).

Faculty and Student Perceptions—Areas of Concordance

The data indicate a high degree of concordance between faculty self-perception and student perception
of faculty multicultural competence. A T-test for the comparison of group means (CI=.95) indicates no
significant difference in the perceptions of the two groups, as indicated in Table 1.

Table 1. Over-all Comparison of Faculty-Student MCB Scores

Status N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Faculty 47 146.7872 17.36305 2.53266
Student 88 144.3864 19.97667 2.12952

A T-test also indicated that non-white students and white faculty do not differ significantly in terms of
overall perceptions of faculty multicultural competence. No significant gender differences were

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discovered either. It is interesting to note two possibly related findings which will be discussed in the
concluding section. Table 2 indicates that Faculty who has attended multicultural workshops perceive
themselves to be more competent. Correlational analysis indicates that there is a robust relationship
between current/recent experiences with cultural diversity and faculty self-perceptions of multicultural
competence (r = .67). Recent experiences appear to significantly increase levels of awareness.
Generally speaking, all background variables are positively and significantly related to faculty
perceptions of their own competence (as noted in Table 2). The high degree of collinearity between
Diversity in Adolescent Friendships and Cultural Diversity in Early Education (r = .88) is attributable to
the fact that the two subscales shared three questions in common, an artifact of the Wayson and Gorham
studies. That being the case, it seems likely that what was really measured was "Diversity in
Friendships" rather than diversity in friendships at one stage of life or another. In hindsight, it might
have been more productive to modify that part of the instrument.

Table 2. Bivariate Correlations between Faculty Self-Perceptions of Multicultural Competence and

Background Variables (N.B., **p < .01, * p < .05

Background Variables2, 3, 4, 5 1 2 3 4 5
1 Competence
2 Diversity of Adolescent Friendships .35*
3 Recent Experiences of Diversity .67** .29*
4 Background Experience with Diversity .30* .68** .38*
5 Cultural Diversity in Early Education .30* .88** .16 .67**
1
Full description of aggregated background variables, following Gorham (2001)
2
Cultural diversity of adolescent friendship network (Items 47, 49, 50, 51)
3
Current experiences of cultural diversity (Items 52, 53, 54, 55)
4
Early cultural diversity background (Items 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 51)
5
Early education/friendship cultural diversity (Items 45, 46, 47, 49, 50)

Significant Differences
Faculty – Student Differences
Although there were no significant differences between aggregate faculty and student scores on the
measures employed, an analysis of discrete survey items revealed 5 questions where faculty-student
perceptions were significantly discordant: 1, 7, 8, 12, and 37. These questions are listed below.
Q1. My professors possess a basic knowledge of the contributions made by minority groups in
our society [t(133) = 2.32, p< .05].
Q7. My professors present cultural groups in our society in a manner that will build mutual
respect [t(133) = 2.10, p< .05].
Q8. My professors understand and consider how language affects performance on certain test
items [t(133) = 2.16, p< .05].
Q12. My professors possess a basic knowledge of child rearing practices among cultures [t(133)
= -2.15, p< .05].
Q37. My professors deal effectively with prejudice engendered by the cultural background of
students [t(133) = 2.08, p< .05].

White Faculty – Non-white Student Differences

An analysis of white and non-white student responses yielded 5 items of significant difference in
perception between these groups: 8, 10, 24, 29, and 37. These items are listed as follows.
Q8. My professors understand and consider how language affects performance on certain test
items [t(62) = 2.33, p< .05].
Q10. My professors effectively utilize ethnic resources in the community [t(62)= -2.23, p< .05].
Q24. My professors are able to deal with prejudice shown by students' parents or the community
[t(62) = 2.32, p< .05].

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Q29. My professors identify student behaviors that are indicative of negative racial attitudes
[t(62) = 2.07, p< .05]. (Interestingly, students rated Faculty members higher than they rated
themselves on this item.)
Q37. My professors deal effectively with prejudice engendered by the cultural background of
students [t(62) = 2.61, p< .05].
With regard to background factors, results indicate that the students surveyed have more self-reported
experiences with diversity and stronger multicultural backgrounds than faculty. These data may well be
attributable to age-related factors—the transformation of schooling and the media come to mind—that
have simply created greater opportunities for encounter and exposure for the young.

Conclusions
The correlations identified in Table 2 are noteworthy in that they show that experiences with diversity
and multiculturalism are related to heightened faculty perceptions of multicultural competence, and we
may be relatively certain that the faculty perceptions are accurate since their self-perceptions were
matched by overall student perceptions. Experiences increase multicultural competence.
The data suggest that cultural competence may be taught. Certainly the present study supports the
conclusion that exposure—in the form or workshops and recent experiences of inter-cultural
contact—have a salutary impact on student-faculty perceptions and presumably, on the quality of
resulting student-faculty interaction. It is clearly recommendable to create opportunities for in-service
and encounter for faculty as well as for students. While not within the scope of this study, it might be
noted that exposure and encounter activities should be structured and positive. Research in this area
clearly indicates that mere exposure is not sufficient to achieve the goals of tolerance and
comprehension.
The generally high degree of faculty-student concordance in terms of overall multicultural
competence scores has several possible explanations: (a) our Faculty are indeed multi-culturally
competent; (b) ethnic/cultural similarities between Faculty and Students surveyed (in other words,
homogeneity), played a role in the results; and (c) the JSU Faculty—similar to other education faculties
in most universities—is a hyper-select group of highly educated individuals working in a setting that
places great emphasis on the positive aspects of diversity, sensitivity, and multiculturalism.
The areas of discordance between student and faculty perceptions lend themselves to the
generalization that nearly all have to do with knowledge or sensitivity to situations that exist outside the
hallowed walls of the academy. This is also true of the areas of discordance between white faculty and
non-white students. The discrete items of discord have to do with child-rearing practices, language use,
ethnic contributions, community/parental prejudice, solutions, and prejudice engendered by cultural
backgrounds. These differences may be attributable to lack of shared cultural background between
faculty and minority students.
We have already indicated that workshops and other types of real-world encounter are absolutely
necessary to the improvement of the perceptions of students in assessing faculty competence. We
conclude from this that it is imperative that the training and multicultural competence of university
faculty depends—in much the same way as the competence of pre-service teachers—on field
experiences outside the university in a variety of schools and social-ethnic contexts.
The considerations above may serve as a planning document for the Jacksonville State University’s
College of Education and Professional Studies in-service and community outreach agenda. Although
gratified by the absence of data that might be interpreted as a rebuke of faculty, this study has yielded a
work agenda that should be the focus of continuing in-service and assessment.

References
Ameny-Dixon, G. M. (2004). Why multicultural education is more important in higher
education now than ever: A global perspective. International Journal of Scholarly
Academic Intellectual Diversity, 8(1). Retrieved May, 2009, from
http://www.nationalforum.com/dixon.htm

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

Beyer, L. E. (2001). The value of critical perspectives in teacher education. Journal of Teacher
Education, 52(2), 151-163.
Bennett, C. I. (2003). Comprehensive multicultural education: Theory and practice (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Gorham, E. (2001, Fall). Multicultural teaching competence as perceived by elementary
school teachers. Unpublished doctorial thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg, VA.
Hidalgo, F., Chavez-Chavez, R., & Ramage, J. C. (1996). Multicultural education: Landscape
for reform in the twenty-first century. In Sikula, J. (Ed.) Handbook of research on teacher
education. New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan.
INTASC. (2007). Core Standards. Retrieved January 3, 2009, from
http://www.ccsso.org/projects/Interstate_New_Teacher_Assessment_and_Support_Consortiu
m/Projects/Standards_Development/.
JSU College of Education and Professional Studies. (2008). Conceptual framework brochure.
Retrieved January 3, 2009 from http://www.jsu.edu/depart/edprof/.
Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Multicultural teacher education: Research, practice and policy. In
J.A. Banks and C.A. McGee Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education,
(pp. 747-759). New York: Macmillan Publishing.
NCATE. (2006). NCATE Unit Standards. Retrieved May 31, 2009, from
http://www.ncate.org/public/unitStandardsRubrics.asp?ch=4#stnd4.
Wayson, W. W. (1993). Multicultural teaching scale, Synergetic Development Inc. Ohio: Plain City.

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

Fusing Critical Race Theory with Practice to Improve Mentorship

Nozella L. Brown
Kansas State University, KS. USA

[Abstract] This article describes how a community educator in an adult education doctoral program
fused theory with practice by developing an internship for students preparing to educate diverse
audiences. Using the four tenets of Critical Race Theory, the mentor designed a summer project to
increase the cultural competence of public-health students as they delivered nutrition programs to
African American and Latino populations. Strategies used included written and oral narratives, weekly
discussions and reflective journals. As a result, the interns emerged with a record of personal and
professional growth in cultural competence and an unexpected desire to continue working with diverse
clientele.
[Keywords] Critical race theory; critical theory; cultural competence; diversity; mentorship

To provide nutrition education for people who qualify for food assistance, the United States Department
of Agriculture (USDA) funds the Family Nutrition Program (FNP), administered through the local
Extension office in our state. As the Extension agent responsible for coordinating that program in our
diverse urban county, the demand for culturally relevant nutrition education programs exceeds the
capacity of our staff. Traditionally, Extension relies on volunteers to help extend its outreach. However,
rarely do I find volunteers available to provide on-going programs in our ethnically, socially and
financially depressed pockets of the city, such as health clinics, subsidized housing complexes and
neighborhood community centers.
Therefore, whenever I can secure interns to expand our programming, I jump at the opportunity.
For me, interns in dietetics and related public health programs are a good return on my investment. I
agree to mentor the student for six-to-eight weeks, providing them with a teaching experience that
merges their knowledge with practice. In return, the students agree to deliver a series of classes to an
underserved population. During my six years as a mentor for student interns, the qualifications they
bring to the jobsite are impressive. Not only are they equipped with basic job skills--oral, written, and
analytical skills--most also are creative, tenacious, tech savvy, organized, confident and personable,
possessing most of the core competencies expected of every Extension educator (K-State Research and
Extension).
Because interns for our program will be working with low-income African American and Latino
populations, as I review their applications, listen during the interviews and discuss their project
expectations, I look for evidence of one other key competency—cultural competence. I search for
attitudes, behaviors and practices that indicate the interns’ ability to work in cross-cultural situations.
Cultural competence, especially in Cooperative Extension, is the key to access into underserved
communities, allowing the professional to develop trust and establish relationships that result in
sustaining effective educational programs. Because of Extension’s commitment to promoting culturally
responsive education, I ask interns about their experience working with diverse populations. Here is a
sample of the responses I have received:
“The only black person I really know is our housekeeper. She’s nice.”
“The only blacks I know about in our town were the athletes attending the Community College on
scholarship.”
“Sure there were lots of Hispanics on our campus. They’re just normal like me.”

During this discussion, I also informally use statements from Jeff Hitchcock’s (2002) “Racial
Interaction Inventory” to assess the intern’s cultural experience. Below is a sampling of those
statements:
I attended a school where no single race was more than 75% of the student body.

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I work with people of a different race.

I have had a boss who is/was of another race.
As a child/adult I have been in a classroom/training setting where, numerically I was a racial
minority.
My closest friend was of a different race,” (Hitchcock, 2002, p.7).

Their responses reveal a disturbing deficit in cultural competence. Despite the fact that these students
come from universities committed to producing globally competent professionals, the interns coming to
my Extension program rarely demonstrate evidence of experience working with people different from
themselves. In years past, reluctant to upset their cultural comfort zone, I allowed the interns’ cultural
competence to remain underdeveloped. I rarely challenged how their white, middle-class values,
attitudes and beliefs might be reducing their effectiveness in the African American and Latino
populations of our city. Intuitively, however, I knew this approach was wrong, even if I didn’t
understand why.
It was during my Advanced Teaching Methods course that I began to understand the “why”.
According to Laurent Daloz (2004), the purpose of mentorship is “to promote the development of the
learner” (p.452). In contrast, I had viewed my primary role as promoting my program—a
program-centered, rather than a student-centered approach. As this spring graduate class ended and I
prepared to welcome two new summer interns, I would have an opportunity to apply what I learned. This
time, I wanted to help these incoming interns develop as community educators confident in their ability
to work in culturally diverse environments, something I neglected to do with previous students. Using
Daloz’s (2004) advice, I wanted to be proactive in “introducing students to the new environments,
interpreting it for them and helping them to learn what they need to know to flourish in it” (p.453).
As I pondered how I would do this, I found myself drawn to adult education critical theory. This
surprised me because I hate studying theory, viewing it as a necessary evil in my pursuit of a doctorate.
However, a simple definition of theory I first learned from bell hooks (hooks, 1994) and later discovered
in Stephen Brookfield’s (2005) writings, resonated with me: “A theory is nothing more (or less) than a
set of explanatory understandings that help us make sense of some aspect of the world” (p.3). The world
these interns would enter in our community would be strange; and, I needed some framework to help
them navigate through the complexities and ambiguities of social, racial and ethnic differences as they
relate to effective nutrition education.
Pulling from another lesson learned in my adult education training, I recalled that “critical theory
should be considered seriously as a perspective that can help them (students) make sense of the
dilemmas, contradictions and frustrations they experience in their world” (Brookfield, 2005, p. vii).
Perhaps, I thought, viewing my dilemma through the lens of critical theory, specifically Critical Race
Theory (CRT), could provide the balance between support and challenge necessary for a successful
mentoring relationship within my organization. Therefore, I decided to approach my role as a mentor for
this summer’s interns by sifting my thoughts and practices through the tenets of CRT. “Critical race
theory scholars believe that racial analysis can be used to deepen understanding of the educational
barriers for people of color, as well as exploring how these barriers are resisted and overcome” (Taylor,
Gillborn, Ladson-Billings, 2009, p.9).
Unlike the past, when I ignored or dodged the barriers that separated my white interns from my
diverse clientele, I wanted to provide opportunities for the students to identify and remove at least some
of these barriers. This could be risky, though. What if they experienced culture shock? I was tempted to
place the interns’ comfort above their development and sacrifice the needs of the communities the
interns would impact. Instead, to gauge the students’ learning pulse, and avoid undue stress, I asked each
intern to join me in keeping a reflective journal. Each day we would record the most fulfilling and
distressing moments; the most meaningful event, and our greatest challenge. Then, using the basic tenets
of CRT, I forged a strategy to develop the interns’ cultural awareness and professional competence as a
public health educator.

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

First, I needed to establish that racism is normal and endemic—the first tenet of CRT (Taylor et al.,
2009). This could be a disconcerting thought unless the definition of racism could be removed from the
individual arena. As Hitchcock (2002) explains, “Racism is not hatred and bigotry, but rather defending
a system of white racial privilege and advantage (p.157). It was important that the interns recognized the
separation between their person and their privilege, and how racism could impact their attempts to gain
access into diverse communities. At the beginning of the summer, one intern recorded that her most
distressing moment of the day was learning how to build rapport among a small group of African
American mothers. This opened a dialog about race within a safe, trusting environment. I also provided
resources, including articles that would enrich understanding, often sparking discussion. The purpose
was not to create guilt or shame, but to equip them to become advocates of social justice within their
field of expertise. In trying to raise awareness of systemic social injustice, I found the second tenet of
CRT useful.
Understanding “interest convergence”—CRT’s second major tenet--helped me approach topics of
social injustice through the personal benefit lens of the interns (Taylor et al., 2009). As mentioned earlier,
before this internship, they had little need to be cognizant of the racial, ethnic and social disparities of
impoverished communities. When the internship ended, each would likely return to a homogenous
middle-class environment. Therefore, at the beginning of the summer, I explained how developing
greater awareness of the attitudes, values and beliefs of others would enhance their professional career,
build their resume and make them more marketable. As the summer progressed, their journal reflections
revealed a growing internal motivation and passion for their work. They experienced benefits beyond
what I expected. As one intern wrote, “I always like working with the women in the garden. They teach
me about their culture, and they slowly open up more about their lives.”
As they garnered enthusiasm to learn more about the people they would work with, I relied on the
third tenet of CRT, understanding the historical context of marginalized populations. Having grown up
in the community in which I work, I took the interns on a driving tour through the city, acquainting them
with the underserved neighborhoods and the history that contributed to their depressed conditions.
Understanding this history helped the students adapt their educational programs to the needs of the
population. For example, the dietetic intern teaching in the Latino community had planned for her class
to walk to their neighborhood grocery store, incorporating physical fitness with nutrition education.
During this tour she realized that there were no grocery stores in walking distance. This was a food
desert created when the complexion of the neighborhood changed from white to brown. This experience
was much more effective than if I had just told her the idea would not work.
To avoid sterile lectures about racial disparities, I relied on the final tenet of CRT--narratives--to
interpret and explain the realities of the underserved populations (Taylor et al., 2009). “One purpose of
narrative is to redirect the dominant gaze, to make it see from a new point of view what has been there all
along” (Taylor et al., 2009, p.8). For example, one intern had been taught that the Latino diet was
horrible and the high rate of diabetes was caused by the lack of sufficient fruits and vegetables in their
meals. However, by listening to the Latina ladies in her class, she discovered that these women cooked
with mostly fruits and vegetables when they were in Mexico. It was only after coming to the United
States that they had trouble finding affordable produce. Hence, their problem was access, not ignorance.
As a result, she revamped her lesson plans to reflect the true needs of the participants.
Not only did I share my personal narratives, the students met community leaders who also
contributed rich stories, all of which provided a non-threatening way of challenging assumptions that
often led to change. As one intern wrote in her final report:
. . . my definition of healthy families and environments has changed. Before working with the
families . . . , I thought healthy was a general term that every person could aspire to achieve. After
working with the families, I realize that cultural, financial, environmental and socioeconomic
barriers can inhibit someone’s ability to be their healthiest. Over the past eight weeks, I gained
compassion for my students and their incessant struggle to feed and nourish their families.

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Because the narratives were often impromptu--emerging during a teachable moment-- scheduling times
for oral reflection provided another avenue for growth. During these weekly discussions, I wanted to
cultivate cultural competence by creating a safe environment; giving voice to each intern; creating trust
by refusing to judge comments; listening to their concerns, and adapting our projects and programs to
reflect our new knowledge. Reviewing the written reflections in the journals provided me with instant
feedback. More than once an intern’s journal entry prompted me to investigate useful resources to
supplement their projects.
While I initially used their journals to help me maintain a balance between support and challenge, it
also became a record of the student’s personal growth, as one intern wrote in her final entry: I have
learned a lot about cultural differences within the United States—even within the same block—and how
important it is to meet people where they are, to respect them, to listen to them, and to tailor messages
toward them.
They were not the only ones that learned a lot. By fusing theory and practice I learned effective
strategies for helping interns develop basic cultural competence with their professional skills. I also
experienced a transformation in my perspective on mentorship and my techniques for training.
According to Daloz (2004), a final role of the mentor is to provide vision, helping them to see where
they have been and where they are going. For the first time, I mentored interns who did not want to
terminate their internship, nor their professional and personal growth as culturally competent health care
educators. Both interns planned ways to remain involved with the communities they served. It was the
best return I have ever experienced on my investment.

References
Brookfield, S. D. (2005). The power of critical theory: Liberating adult learning and teaching. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Daloz, L. (2004). Mentorship. In M.W. Galbraith. (Ed). Adult learning methods (3rd ed.) (pp.451-471).
Malabar, FL: Krieger.
Hitchcock, J. (2002). Lifting the white veil: An exploration of white American culture in a multiracial
context. Roselle, NJ: Crandall, Dostie & Douglass Books, Inc.
hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom. New York: Routledge.
K-State Research and Extension. Core Competencies. Retrieved August 3, 2009, from
http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/Employee_Resources/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabid=164
Taylor, E., Gillborn, D., & Ladson-Billings, G. (Eds.). (2009). Foundations of critical race theory in
education. New York: Routledge.

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

Elements Needed to Support Social, Ecological, and Economic Sustainability

on a Global Basis by Educational Practitioners for
Native American Indigenous People
Enid Conley
Johnson & Wales University, North Miami Campus, Florida. USA

Valerie C. Bryan
Florida Atlantic University, Florida, USA

[Abstract] This article addresses current elements needed by educational practitioners that can support
social, ecological, and economic sustainability on a global basis for Native American Indigenous People.
A critical review of good educational practices in our world community, critiques, and bold
constructions of an ideal Adult Educational program is presented and molded into a set of best
educational practices for what should be integrated in adult learning situations.
[Keywords] Aadult education best practice; Eurowestern culture; spirituality; Native American;
Hispanic; cultural knowledge; colonization

The thematic content of this paper reflects on current elements needed by educational practitioners to
support social, ecological, and economical sustainability for Native American Indigenous People on a
global basis. Perspectives on good educational practices in our world community, critiques, and bold
constructions of ideal adult educational programs are discussed and molded into a set of best educational
practices for what should be integrated in adult learning situations for diverse populations that require
embracing different paradigms and often uncomfortable truths.
For the purposes of this article, Native American Indigenous People (Natives) will be defined as
those people who were the original inhabitants (known as “Indians”) of the western hemisphere
inclusive of all Natives from North, Central, and South America, Canada, and the Caribbean Islands.
Adult education boasts and pontificates about embracing “diversity” but in reality, many adult educators
have limited or no knowledge of the original inhabitants of the western hemisphere and the often
negative impact that the Eurowestern culture has had on Natives. In fact, what many educators call
“diversity” often distort views of the varied cultures as reported by the Native themselves.
This work reflects the views of some Natives regarding good educational practices in our world
community, critiques, and suggested, bold constructions of ideal Adult Educational programs. The
views are a composite of findings from a recent doctoral study conducted by Conley (2008), who is a
Native American Indian researcher. She utilizes a qualitative, exploratory storytelling research design
with a population of 23 Native American Indians from various Native Nations. The investigation into
the barriers, enhancers, and coping strategies to education was told through the voices of the Natives and
to a Native American Indian researcher familiar with the uniqueness of the population under
investigation.
The findings from this larger study have been molded into a set of best educational practices in our
world community, critiques, and bold constructions of ideal Adult Educational programs for what
should be expected in adult learning situations for Natives. The barriers, enhancers, and coping
strategies noted in the larger study have been reframed into a positive set of recommendations from the
voices of the Natives of this study.
Current elements needed by educational practitioners should be viewed through the perspectives of
learners in order to optimize good educational practices in our community world. Native culture is
distinctly different from the Eurowestern culture, and some educators may marginalize, stereotype, and
view the behavior based on culture as a lack of motivation (Kape’ ahiokalani Padeken Ah Nee-Benham
& Cooper, 2000; American Indian Foundation, n.d.; Reyhner, 1992; Swisher, 1994). In Conley’s study

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(2008), some of the educational enhancers included supportive family and friends; supportive and
involved teachers, instructor, and professors; the ability and opportunity to teach others; the impact of
environmental factors; the role of female mentors; the lens of Native identity awareness;
learning-in-general (about others, how to communicate and about meaningful topics); and the role of
spirituality and cultural knowledge.

Supportive Family and Friends

To many people, supportive family and friends are the basic foundations to help a learner through their
educational endeavors. For Natives it is virtually an extension of themselves. 19Duane, a 60 year-old
Kiowa-Apache man, expressed the significance of family support; a father who taught him work ethics,
his grandparents who taught him Native crafts, and his oldest brother taught him to hunt in order to eat
(Conley, 2008, p. 75). 03Rose, 21 year-old Arawak-Apache female, shared the importance that her
family’s experience had played in her educational development and that by listening to stories of her
parents and grandparents suffering had helped her gain insight into her education (Conley, 2008, p. 75).

Supportive and Involved Teachers, Instructors, and Professors

Supportive and involved teachers, instructors, and professors seemed to make a huge impact on any
learner. In the Conley (2008) study, educators who were sensitive to the cultural differences were
imperative. 08SB, 39 year-old Lakota female, who was forced into a boarding school, articulated how
teachers outside of the boarding school arena helped her enhance her education and bloom as a person
(Conley, 2008, p.87).

Ability to Teach Others

Many of the Native’s in the Conley (2008) study expressed pleasure in teaching others as a way of
participating in their education and staying connected to the community. 08SB explained how her ability
to teach others Native cultural activities had enhanced her education (Conley, 2008, p. 84). 19Duane
saw participation and teaching on anything that had to do with legitimate Native cultural heritage and
traditions as a way of giving back to the community (Conley, 2008, p.88).

Environmental Factors
Participants in the Conley (2008) study related that environmental factors, such as learning or
participating in natural learning environments had a positive impact. Some of the participants expressed
preference for natural environments instead of artificial environments in order to learn. 03Rose
expressed that learning outdoors was an educational enhancer (Conley, 2008, p. 97).

Female Mentors
Most of the Native’s in the Conley (2008) study did say that a female mentor served as an educational
enhancer in their lives. 11Helen, a 72 year-old Lumbee female, described two women as mentors who
had enhanced her education and life (Conley, 2008, p. 80). 19Duane stated that his grandmother had
been the most influential person in his life and had given him his greatest learning experiences (Conley,
2008, p. 80).

Native American Identity Awareness

In the Conley (2008) study, Native American Indian identity awareness was expressed through
participation in cultural activities by learning about their culture, creating cultural crafts, and
participating in the Native community. 03Rose described how enriching and enhancing cultural
participation in powwows and Native festivals was to her education and identity as a Native (Conley,
2008, p. 84). 08SB explained how her Native identity had enhanced her education and family ties as a
Northern traditional dancer who participated in powwows and other cultural activities (Conley, 2008, p.
83).

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Learning in General
03Rose, enjoyed to learn in general (e.g., about others, communication, and about meaningful topics)
and topics that she could pass on to the Native communities such as learning about and participating in
law enforcement (Conley, 2008, p. 113). While 08JS, A 38 year-old Haiwa Saponi male, described that
his learning journey connected him to the Creator and enhanced his respect for others (Conley, 2008, p.
86).

Spirituality and Cultural Knowledge

19Duane explained how he used his spirituality and cultural knowledge to improve his learning in an
environment that was not culturally open to Native ways (Conley, 2008, p. 110). 19Duane expressed his
concern about how the written history of Natives have been twisted and taught incorrectly to others
(Conley, 2008, p. 110). 21Terri, a Meskwaki Fox female in her 40’s, expressed the importance of
spiritual and cultural enhancement as Native identity because White society places importance on
material things while Native societies place importance on family, identity, people, and spirituality
(Conley, 2008, p.86).

Critique of Educational Practices

Historically, Natives have suffered genocide in its pure sense; however, when critiquing educational
practices by non-Natives, education for and about the Natives has been seen a silent genocide. Extensive
authors have noted that Natives are integrated and reinvented by non-Indians (Berkhofer, 1978; Deloria,
2003; Pewewardy, 1998) through the fraudulent use and recreation of indigenous ceremonies, religions,
and identities. Other writers have noted that Natives have been dehumanized when used as mascots and
logos (Berkhofer, 1978; Deloria, 1998; Mihesuah, 1996; Pewewardy, 1998). Educationally, imitation of
Native culture by non-Natives can also be defined as cultural appropriation or cultural theft which
serves no purpose other than to create a distorted view of Native American Indians as well as a distortion
of accurate education in our world community.
If we consider the educational practices in our world community, the problem escalates because
little to no attention given to the non-English speaking North, Central, and South American, or the
Caribbean Native American Indians and education. The literature is filled with stories of persistent
racism, colonialization and marginalization. Stringent and inflexible immigration laws, the reinvention
of the Native identity, and an outright refusal by some to acknowledge the presence of Natives
throughout the entire western hemisphere have clearly been documented. Current education tends to
also distort the existence of Native People since the lowest estimate of non-U.S. Natives is over 40
million people (Indian Country, 2003).
For many Natives, the terms “Hispanic” and “Latin are considered derogatory. The word
“Hispanic” comes from the term used by Columbus in 1492 when he named the island he had landed on
“Hispañola” which was a shortened version of “Islas de los Españoles” or in English, “island ‘property’
of Spain.” The Latin language in 1492 was the language of the “educated” and used by the Catholic
Church. Christopher Columbus (Cristóbal Colon) saw the Natives as his property, the property of Spain,
and/or the property of the church based on statements made in the translated documents of his log-book,
letters, and communications as translated from Spanish to English by Cohen (1969). “Hispanic” or
“Latin” made (and make) an inference that the Natives were the property of Spain (Whites) or the
church. Moreover, in a recent study (aired by The Discovery Channel on August 1, 2004), titled
Columbus: Secrets from the Grave, handwriting analysis, document analysis, geographical analysis, as
well as DNA analysis debunked the myth that Columbus was Italian and/or Jewish in his faith and
pointed out the fact that Columbus was a Catholic Spanish slave trader and pirate.

Bold Construction of Ideal Adult Educational Programs

A bold construction of ideal adult educational programs would include that Native learners should be
given the opportunity to express preferences for their learning as they become more self-directed
meaning that the opportunity to learn should be granted to the learner. According to Merriam and

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Caffarella (1999), the readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks of their
social role. The participants in the Conley (2008) study wanted less distance from what their cultural
truths were, and what was being taught in the classrooms; they wanted to learn using methodology
significant to their background and their life experiences (i.e., using storytelling; using cultural activities;
using naturalistic and holistic techniques; dealing with material that had “more than just an on the
surface meaning”; using learning from Elders; and spirituality). Native’s “ways of knowing” and
learning existed long before Eurowestern educators came to this country. The methodology used for
centuries is still applicable to enhance the learning needs of Natives today.
Adult educators (as well as all educators) should review, revise, and update the literature on Natives
and other groups. Diversity courses and textbooks should be revised to show an accurate representation
of biological (race and sex) and socially constructed groups (ethnicity) in order to provide a more
precise and truthful representation of humanity. Countless negative challenges result from the many
myths, stereotypes, and outright deceptions that are being taught as diversity. These best practices
should be extended to other marginalized and disenfranchised peoples.
Curriculum should be designed to address most learning styles. One of the issues that kept
emerging in the Conley (2008) study was the desire to be involved with nature and the natural order of
things in the learning environment. These are elements of the naturalistic intelligence developed in
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1983, 1993, 2000): naturalist intelligence provides learners
with the ability to value our evolution as hunters, gathers, and farmers; ability to discriminate among
living things; sensitivity to feature of the natural world; ability to make distinctions in the natural world
and the environment; identify and classify things in nature; see things as natural or unnatural; and
respect one’s environment and sensitivity to animals.
The greatest and most powerful recommendation these writers could give would be for
underrepresented groups to go out and conduct their own ethical and truthful research and not depend on
the paradigms of others who may not totally understand the culture or the people (Ashley and
Jarratt-Ziemski, 1999; Forbes, 2000; Pewewardy, 1998, 2002). In order to support social, ecological,
and economical sustainability on a global basis of Native People, research about Natives should be done
and supported by Native researchers to voice their thoughts, feelings, and concerns regarding their
educational opportunities and challenges.

References
American Indian Education Foundation. (n.d.). History of Indian education in the U.S. Abstract
retrieved March 16, 2004, from www.aiefprograms.org.
Ashley, J.S., & Jarratt-Ziemski, K. (1999, Summer- Autumn). Superficiality and bias: The (mis)
treatment of Native Americans in U.S. government textbooks. Native American Indian
Quarterly, 23(¾), 49-62. Retrieved July 9, 2005, from JSTOR database.
Berkhofer, R. F. (1978). The White man’s Indian. New York: Random House.
Cohen, J. M. (Ed.). (1969). Christopher Columbus: The four voyages. London: Penguin Group.
Conley, E. (2008). Exploring barriers to education for Native American Indians: A Native perspective.
(Doctoral dissertation, Florida Atlantic University, 2008).
Deloria, P. J. (1998). Playing Indian. Chelsea, MI: Yale University Press.
Discovery Channel. (Producer). (2004). Columbus: Secrets from the grave. [Documentary]. Available
from NetFlix.com.
Forbes, J. D. (2000). The new assimilation movement: Standards, tests, and Anglo-American
supremacy. Journal of American Indian Education, 39(2). Retrieved July 9, 2005, from JSTOR
database.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic.
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic.
Gardner, H. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century.
New York: Basic.

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Indian Country. (2003, February 4). Indigenous Latino and the consciousness of the Native Americans.
Message posted to www.indiancountry.com.
Kape 'ahiokalani Padeken Ah Nee-Benham, M., & Cooper, J. E. (Eds.). (2000). Indigenous educational
models for contemporary practice: In our mother's voice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (2nd ed.). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mihesuah, D. A. (1996). American Indians: Stereotypes and realities. Atlanta, GA: Clarity Press.
Pewewardy, C. (1998). Fluff and feathers: Treatment of Native American Indians in the
literature and the classroom. Equity and Excellence in Education, April 1998.
Retrieved August 11, 2005, from http://www.hanksville.org/ storytellers/pewe/
writing/Fluff.html.
Pewewardy, C. (2002). Learning styles of Native American Indian Alaska native
students: A review of the literature and implications for practice. Journal of American Indian
Education, 41(3). Retrieved July 9, 2005, from JSTOR database.
Reyhner, J. (Ed.). (1992). Teaching Native American Indian students. Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press.
Swisher, K. C., & Tippeconnic, J. C., III. (1999). Next steps: Research and practice to advance Indian
education. Huntington, WV: Chapman Printing.

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

On the Development of College Students’ Intercultural Competency

Xiong Jiaquan
North China University of Technology, Beijing, China

[Abstract] This article describes a study on the problems and causes in the development of college
students’ intercultural competency in China. It summarizes the successful experiences of the related
colleges and puts forward several suggestions on how to develop college students’ intercultural
competency.
[Keywords] Intercultural competency; Chinese college students; general education; intercultural
communication
Introduction
In today’s world, with the fast development of technology and economy, globalization has become an
irreversible trend, allowing people with different cultural backgrounds to collaborate together. After
joining WTO, and relying on the implementation of various dimensional open door strategies, the
Chinese economy has been developing rapidly. The international exchanges and cooperation in the
fields of economy, culture, education and politics have closely aligned themselves. In this mass
information age, the internet has changed the way people receive and convey information. These are
unprecedented times of convenient and fast transmission of information and ideas.
Whether we agree or not, communicating with people of diverse cultural backgrounds is
unavoidable. Intercultural competency is becoming a daily reality and a global necessity. In fact, for
college students, regardless of their majors, or the type of occupation they pursue, a vision and
awareness transcending the cultural limitation, and mastering knowledge and skills of intercultural
competency are fundamental inner qualities for success. Learning to communicate with people of
different cultural backgrounds are skills contemporary college graduates should have.
By studying documents, with many research methods of questionnaire survey and case analysis, I
have conducted more thorough research on the problems and their causes in the development of college
students’ intercultural competency in China. Meanwhile, I have also summarized the success
experiences of related colleges and put forward several suggestions on how to develop college students’
intercultural competency.

About Cultural Definition and Intercultural Competency

Culture is the core element of intercultural communication. However, people have different opinions
about the definition of culture. For Chinese scholars, culture is commonly defined in broad sense and
narrow sense as well: Culture in the broad sense refers to the sum of all the materials and spirits that
people create, while culture in the narrow sense specially refers to the spirits including language,
literature, art and all of the ideologies (Guan, 1995).
Within a large cultural group, there exists smaller cultural groups divided by different regions,
various social and/or natural elements. These group cultures or regional cultures maintain their own
characteristics within the same big culture, and are referred to as subcultures. They exhibit basic features
of the whole culture group through language character, and behavior mode, etc, or its own individual
uniqueness (Hu, 1994). In fact, not only does a single nation have differing cultures, but those nations
with long histories, huge populations, and large land areas culture clusters will form due to diversity of
social structures, historical and geographical elements. Therefore, a main culture and other subcultures
co-exist.
The term intercultural communication is generally used to refer to the communication activities
between people of differing religions, societies, races and technology backgrounds. Typical intercultural
communication happens among people from different countries, such as communication among foreign
student studying in Chinese universities. Certainly, intercultural communication can also occur among

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people of the same nationality but with different cultural backgrounds, such as individuals from China’s
mainland and those from Hong Kong. Generally speaking, in a broad sense, the communication between
subcultures is also intercultural communication. Therefore, in an open-minded, emerging economic
environment, intercultural communication is ubiquitous, differing in its methods, content, and level.
Intercultural competency refers to an individual’s ability to communicate with people of other
cultural backgrounds, including the following three aspects of meanings: (1) Formation of intercultural
awareness, including the full understanding of one’s own culture in global view and the correct attitude
to different cultures; (2) Grasp of intercultural knowledge; (3) Grasp of intercultural communication
skills. Cultivation of the ability of intercultural communication is the ability to cultivate mastering and
effective communication (Xiao & Wang 2005). For college students, the intercultural competency
should be developed from the above three aspects.

Developing Intercultural Awareness

The development of intercultural communication competency is not only to help students grasp pure
intercultural knowledge, but also to train them with intercultural communication skills. The objective of
developing students’ intercultural competency is to help students obtain sensitivity to, and fully accept
the fact of cultural differences, and enhance their flexibility, so as to avoid communication barriers
caused by cultural differences. Intercultural awareness refers to the mastering of one’s own culture and
other cultures that have effects on people’s thoughts and behaviors. Intercultural awareness is the
foundation for intercultural communication. With intercultural awareness, the consciousness of
communication can be transformed into communication competency (Zhou, 2005).
The basic method for the development of intercultural awareness is to assist students in their
awareness of cultural equality, understanding and respect of other cultures, and cultural integration.
Having the awareness of intercultural equality does not only mean recognizing and accepting foreign
cultures, though they are the premise and foundation for the development of intercultural awareness.
Respecting cultural diversity is the most significant premise for communication over the economy and
culture providing a background for globalization. To improve the intercultural competency we must
start with the development of intercultural awareness (Mang & Dong 2005).

Developing Intercultural Competency as a part of General Education

With the enlargement and deepening of outside communication economically and culturally within our
country, the requirements and quality demands for international-oriented talents graduates are soaring.
Foreign language education researchers and teachers in Chinese colleges have gradually come to realize
the significance that foreign language teaching must be closely incorporated with cultural teaching, and
the development of intercultural competency should be considered the objective of foreign language
teaching. They have begun to implement this educational idea fully into the practice for foreign
language teaching. However, from the perspective of college talent cultivation goal and college
comprehensive quality cultivation, our colleges have not attached enough emphasis on the development
of college students’ intercultural competency, or they simply value it in thought, without implementing
it in practice. In the aspect of the development of college students’ intercultural competency, there are
still many misunderstandings. To meet higher demands of talent cultivation in this economic
globalization era, our colleges should put emphasis on intercultural competency as one of the highest
priorities of general education for all-around development.

Cultural Education and Intercultural Competency Education are Ignored in China

After investigating numerous course requirements for the presence of such classes as cross-culture and
intercultural communication, and examining teaching methodologies and assessments for the course of
College English in some universities and colleges in Beijing, It was found the subjects of cultural
Education were often ignored. In addition, the related documents revealed that the English teaching
assessment had a negative effect on the development of college students’ intercultural competency.

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Wrong Ideas about the Cultural Education

Nowadays, there is no doubt that developing students’ intercultural competency is the main objective of
foreign language teaching and studying. However, there are still many wrong ideas about the
development of intercultural competency. Taking English as an example, because it is widely studied
and used, it has gradually become a world language. When people with different languages
communicate with each other, English is often used as the media, so the culture of the countries using
English is overemphasized in language teaching. Learners will only get the communication competency
of some specific cultural English communities. If a certain foreign language user only knows the
specific nations’ culture, then at most it can help to improve the communication between learners and
the partners in these specific cultural communities (Samovar, Porster & McDaniel, 2006).
However, many learners often use this foreign language to communicate with other non-native
language users. For example, when a Chinese and a German communicate each other in English, it is not
necessary for them to completely follow the customs of English speaking countries. In order to increase
the effectiveness of the communication between Chinese and German individuals, it may also be helpful
if they understand each other’s culture, though they communicate in English. For native language users,
their native language is often used as the main language medium for intercultural communication.
However, it does not mean they have intercultural competency. Developing intercultural competency is
not the only thing the second language or foreign language learners and people in other weaker cultural
communities should strive to accomplish, therefore it is not adequate to limit the learning and using of
languages to a specific culture range.

Ignore the Variety in Cultural Education

During the process of our education, we often over emphasize the learning of the culture in the very
country which language we are learning and ignore the learning of the native language culture. Under
the wrong education orientation, maybe our students are good at western culture, especially American
history and culture, while they are ignorant of their native culture, let alone the history and culture of
other countries (Liu, 2005). Some second language learners embrace the living style and world view of
the foreign culture blindly, abandoning the same within their own culture changing their cultural
identification. For example, for a Japanese language teacher with many years of experience teaching and
studying the Japanese language, his behavior appears like Japanese allowing him to communicate with
ease with the Japanese.
However, when he communicates with Chinese colleagues of the same department in that way, it
may cause tension or uncomfortable feelings. Intercultural competency includes the adaptation
competency in acknowledgment, emotion and behavior. The communicators with adaptation
competency are able to set aside or change their own original cultural habits according to the actual
situation in intercultural communication, learn and adjust to other different culture habits and creatively
deal with the cultural differences between both parties (Mang & Dong, 2005). Therefore, intercultural
competency is not the only way to acquire foreign culture knowledge and communication skills and
further the understanding of the language culture, it is more important to realize the interaction between
two languages and cultural value system, to mutually promote the appreciation between destination
language culture and native language culture and to exhibit fully their own potential.

Overemphasizing the Examination of Foreign Language

Although many college foreign language teachers in our country have been aware that the objective of
teaching foreign language is not only to help the students grasp specific knowledge of the foreign
language, but also more importantly to develop their foreign language communication competency.
However, many colleges, especially the teaching-oriented colleges overemphasize the importance of the
grade of level examination in college teaching evaluation. In some colleges, passing CET-4 (College
English Test-Band 4) is the requirement for undergraduate students to obtain their Bachelor degree.
Even some colleges have strict reward and punishment measurements for college English teachers. For
example, each year some colleges will calculate the CET-4 pass rate of each class, according to the

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average pass rate in the area. Those whose pass rate (or average score) is higher than the average rate (or
average score) will be rewarded monetarily, while for those whose pass rate is lower than the average
rate, the teachers will be punished monetarily. This foreign language teaching assessment method has
serious erroneous implications for college foreign language teaching, thus causing foreign language
teaching practices to deviate from the objective of foreign language communication teaching.

Suggestions on the Development of College Students’ Intercultural Competency

To develop intercultural awareness and competency is important. These should be built into the
curriculum and at the same build the concepts and ideas into students’ activities. We need to start build
the concept in foreign language teaching. The objective of foreign language teaching is to cultivate
talents with communicating competency. To realize this objective, foreign language teachers should
make the teaching of culture throughout language teaching, so as to improve students’ foreign language
applied competency. Language is one kind of carrier of culture, and culture is an attribute of language.[9]
Improvement of cultural native quality can help students to widen their view, enlarge their knowledge
range, deepen their understanding of the world, borrow and absorb the essence of foreign culture and
improve the acknowledgement against culture to adequately perceive the differences in cultures. With
correct evaluation of foreign culture, students can build up the concept of scientific intercultural
communication and properly navigate within both foreign and Chinese cultures, proving helpful in the
development of students’ intercultural competency.
Except for foreign language courses, other courses should also take the responsibility of
developing students’ intercultural competency. For a long time, Chinese educators have maintained the
wrong concept that the teaching of intercultural knowledge and development of intercultural
competency was only the task of foreign language courses. They were not aware that it should also be
done through many specialized or optional courses. During the period of teaching such courses as
international trade, enterprise management and public relationship, teachers should consciously
introduce student to related intercultural knowledge and develop their intercultural awareness. In
addition, not only the foreign language, international business and other related majors should have this
exposure, but all college students should take some basic courses about world cultures and intercultural
communications. Now in this globalization era, regardless of their majors, graduates who will work in
an economically and culturally internationalizing environment should master adequate intercultural
knowledge, have intercultural awareness and grasp certain intercultural communication skills.
Values of creating intercultural communication activity environment. To learn cultural knowledge
and cultivate intercultural awareness, it is not enough to only rely on classroom instruction. Colleges
should provide as many opportunities as possible to make students realize intercultural communication.
Firstly, colleges should develop international student education by recruit more international students.
This would create campuses with varieties of cultures and provide students with more opportunities to
take part in activities together with international students. This interaction would develop their
intercultural competency through daily international exchanges. Secondly, college should carry on
various kinds of international programs with foreign partners, such as summer camps, short-term
cultural exchange programs, designing projects and network partnerships for mutual communication to
be participated in by both Chinese and foreign students.
Through these international communication activities, students can make friends with counterparts
of different backgrounds, thus not only improving their friendship but also benefiting from the
formation of intercultural awareness. Thirdly, various kinds of joint educational programs between
Chinese and foreign universities should be carried out. For example, by developing the student
exchange program with foreign partners or “2+2” dual degree programs, students can have great
opportunities to go abroad to learn and develop intercultural competency in an exotic cultural
environment. Additionally, Chinese colleges can host foreign teachers to give lectures by implementing
faculty exchange programs. By taking the classes provided by foreign teachers, Chinese students can
develop intercultural competence unconsciously.

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Strengthen the cultivation of self intercultural awareness of faculties. Colleges and universities
should require foreign language teachers to gradually strengthen the study of the relationship between
foreign language teaching and intercultural communication. They should be encouraged to change the
deviating phenomenon of language knowledge and culture knowledge of the past, thus improving
students’ communication competency and helping foreign language teachers to transform from
language knowledge teaching to intercultural competency cultivation. Meanwhile, universities and
colleges or the administration should also encourage non-foreign language teachers to consciously
strengthen the learning of intercultural knowledge and cultivate their own intercultural communication
competency.
Colleges and universities should carry on many forms of college communication activities and
select more teachers to go abroad to learn and communicate, enabling them to keep in touch with foreign
culture and perceive it to strengthen the extent at which teachers use different cultures to evaluate
intercultural communication perception. In recent years, many colleges and universities have regarded
selecting teachers to study abroad as visiting scholars for training as important measures or strategies for
“developing the educational institution by improving their faculties’ qualities”, thus not only promoting
two language teacher construction, but also improving the level of research and instruction. Thus
enhancing the intercultural competency of teachers greatly and promoting the level of cultivation of
intercultural competency by colleges.

Conclusion
From the above analysis, it is clearly found that in the era of globalization, it is necessary for graduates
to obtain intercultural competency. However, many higher institutions in China haven’t really taken the
training students’ intercultural competency as a part of general education, and also have a lot of wrong
ideas about the development of college students’ intercultural competency, such as wrong ideas about
the cultural education, ignoring the variety in cultural education, or overemphasizing level examinations
in foreign language teaching. Finally, some suggestions have been put forward on the development of
college students’ intercultural competency including: improving foreign language teaching
methodologies, creating multi-cultural environment on campus, and strengthening the faculties’
training.

References
Guan, S. J. (1995). Intercultural communication. Beijing University Press (Chinese).
Hu, W. Z. (1994). Culture and communication. Shanghai: Foreign Language Teaching and Studying
Press.
Liu, F. X. (2005). Culture teaching and quality training. Science Economy Society. No.1, 65 (Chinese).
Mang, X., Dong, X. (2005). The coming of the globalization times and cross- cultural communication.
Journal of Anhui University of Science and Technology (Social Science), no. 4, 52 (Chinese).
Samovar, L. A., Porster, R. E., & McDaniel E. R. (2006). Communication between Cultures. (6th edition)
Wadsworth Publishing.
Xiao, W. G., & Wang, J. H. (2005). Globalization and the development of college students’ intercultural
awareness. Education Review. 1(1).23 (Chinese).
Xia, Y. (2004). Analysis on the cultivation of intercultural communication competency. Capital Normal
University Journals (Social Science Version). 2004 (Additional Edition): 128
Wang, F. X., & Wu, H.Y. (1994).Culture and language. Shanghai: Foreign Language Teaching and
Studying Press.
Zhou, G. J. (2005). Intercultural communication competency and its cultivation in the view of
globalization. Theory Guide. 11(30) (Chinese).

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An Examination of EFL Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Students at the

University of Technology of Taiwan
Cheng-Chang Tsai
Department of Applied Foreign Languages, Nan Kai University of Technology, Taiwan
I-Cheng Chang
Department of Environmental Engineering, National Ilan University, Taiwan

[Abstract] Since EFL vocabulary is by far the most unmanageable part of language instruction, the
present study seeks to shed some light on EFL vocabulary teaching and learning strategies. The main
goal of this study is to investigate the Nan Kai University of Technology students’ English vocabulary
learning strategies and to compare these across gender, majors, and English proficiency levels. A total of
675 students participated in this study. An EFL vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire was adopted
for data collection. The results of data analysis revealed that dictionary use strategies were used most
frequently and vocabulary perceptions strategies were used with the least frequency. Second, both
English and non-English majors revealed that the higher level students used more vocabulary strategies
than intermediate level students, and intermediate level students used more vocabulary strategies than
lower level students. Third, there were no significant differences between male and female students
regarding uses of English vocabulary learning strategies. Understanding students’ strategy use may
enable EFL teachers to incorporate vocabulary learning strategy training in English lessons at university
levels and improve students’ English vocabulary learning strategies. Finally, findings of the study may
help researchers gain insight into the effects of gender, majors, and language proficiency levels on EFL
vocabulary learning strategies.
[Keywords] EFL vocabulary learning strategies; vocabulary proficiency levels; EFL instruction;
Taiwanese University of Technology programs

Introduction
The purpose of this study was to identify English as a Foreign Language vocabulary learning strategies
of English and non-English major technical university freshmen students in Taiwan from both genders,
as well as the effect of language proficiencies (higher-achieving, intermediate-achieving, and
lower-achieving) on strategies used for English vocabulary learning. Specific research questions to be
addressed are as follows:
1. What are the most frequently used English vocabulary learning strategies by technical
university freshmen?
2. What are the least frequently used English vocabulary learning strategies by technical university
freshmen?
3. What are the differences in use of English vocabulary learning strategies across factors, genders,
majors, and English proficiency levels?
Few studies have been done on technical college and university students’ English vocabulary learning
strategies in Taiwan. It is therefore imperative that research be conducted with this group of students to
better assist teachers and students develop effective vocabulary teaching and learning strategies. Some
studies (Nemati, 2008; Fan, 2003; Lawson & Hogben, 1996) have indicated that differences exist in
skilled and less-skilled language learners’ uses of vocabulary learning strategies. However, how
different majors and female and male technical college and university students in Taiwan differ in their
selection of English vocabulary learning strategies is not often investigated nowadays. It is hoped that
the findings of this study may help English teachers overcome the challenges and difficulties of teaching
heterogeneous groups in an EFL University of Technology classroom in Taiwan.

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Related Studies of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Regarding the relationship between variables such as level of proficiency, gender, and major which is
the main concern of this study, a number of recent studies have been conducted (Nemati, 2008; Liao,
2004; Wu, 2005; Yang, 2008). Nemati (2008) explored the effects of the two variables of proficiency
and gender in terms of the use of vocabulary learning strategies by a sample group of Indian
pre-university learners (N=60). The results of this study showed that higher proficiency learners used
more vocabulary strategies than lower proficiency learners did, and there is no significant difference
between gender and strategy use. Liao (2004) investigated university freshmen students’ vocabulary
learning strategies in Taiwan to see if differences existed between English-major and non-English-major
university freshmen’s use of vocabulary learning strategies. The results showed that female freshmen
used more vocabulary learning strategies than males. Also, English-majoring students used vocabulary
learning strategies more frequently than non-English-majoring ones. Wu (2005) identified the
vocabulary learning strategies used by 303 Taiwanese EFL students, and analyzed the patterns of
strategy use change for students of various age groups.
The subjects of the study consisted of 101 eighth-graders, 90 eleventh-graders, and 112 sophomore
students in Taiwan. The study showed that the use of electronic dictionaries, bilingual dictionaries, and
guessing from context were the most popular strategies adopted by the overall group, and different age
groups did not have significant differences in strategy uses. Yang (2008) investigated the journalistic
vocabulary learning strategies among traditional (day-time) and non-traditional (night-time) EFL
college students in Taiwan. The participants (N=102) were students in the Department of Applied
Foreign Languages at an Institute of Technology in Taiwan. The results showed that participants had an
affinity with the use of the dictionaries, such as electronic, bilingual and web dictionaries. Repetition
and rote memorization were also found as frequently used strategies among the participants. In addition,
traditional students appeared to use an overall strategy more often than non-traditional students did.

Method
Subjects
The researcher distributed an English vocabulary learning questionnaire to 23 freshmen classes. Seven
hundred and twenty-eight questionnaires were collected; 675 were valid copies (English-majors: 89,
non-English-majors: 586; Males: 440, Females: 235; Higher-achieving students: 161,
Intermediate-achieving students: 328, Lower-achieving students: 186).
Instruments for Data Collection
The English reading mid-term exam developed by the English teachers of a University of Technology
was adopted to evaluate the students’ English proficiency level in the present study. Basically, the
General English Reading mid-term exam is a curriculum-specific achievement test, rather than a general
proficiency test. In order to estimate how reliable the use of the English reading mid-term test was, the
internal consistency reliability was computed based on 675 cases and Cronbach alpha was. 85. The
reliability of the test was acceptable according to Bobko’s (2001) criteria of 0.70 as a minimally
acceptable alpha value. Thus the test is a reliable instrument to estimate students’ English proficiency.
Two professors in the department of applied foreign languages were invited to check the content validity
and, they checked whether all of the test items matched the contents of the English reading textbook.
The data for this study were collected through an English vocabulary learning strategies
questionnaire adapted from Gu and Johnson (1996) and Fan (2003). It contained 27 items regarding
students’ strategies to vocabulary learning, which were divided into eight categories: “dictionary use”
refers to using dictionary strategies (4 items; questions 1-4), “rehearsal” refers to remembering new
vocabulary strategy (1 item; question 5), “management” refers to involving a conscious overview of the
vocabulary learning process and making decisions about planning, monitoring, or evaluating the best
ways to learn (5 items; questions 6-10), “sources” refers to using various learning sources to learn
vocabulary effectively (4 items; questions 11-14), “guessing” refers to making guesses to vocabulary
meanings (2 items; questions 15-16), “encoding” refers to using existing knowledge to learn vocabulary

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(5 items; questions17-21), “activation” refers to applying the newly-learned words to learning

vocabulary (2 items; questions 22-23), and “vocabulary perceptions” refers to paying attention to the
pronunciation, grammatical patterns, and usage of words to learn vocabulary (4 items; questions 24-27)
(See Appendix A). The respondents were asked to rate each strategy statement on a five-point interval
Likert scale in terms of their frequency of use in ascending order ranging from 1 (“almost never true of
me ”) to 5 (“almost always true of me”). This instrument, as measured by Cronbach’s alpha, showed an
overall internal consistency of .87.
The data on the English vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire were collected after the
mid-term week. A brief explanation of the purpose of the study was given. Before filling out the
questionnaire, students were told that their answers had nothing to do with their grades and their
responses would remain confidential; they were also asked to give their opinions as honestly as possible,
which was significant to the success of this survey. The instrument required about 30 minutes to
complete and was administered in the students’ regular English class.

Data Analysis Procedures

The data gathered from the English proficiency test was analyzed. Each subject’s responses to the test
sentences were given scores. A correct response was given 2 points and an incorrect response was given
no points. The total score was 100. On the basis of the teaching objectives of the General English
Reading course, the students were divided into three levels of English reading achievement. Those
students who scored higher than 80 had adequate vocabulary size and syntactic knowledge to fully
understand the reading paragraphs and were classified as the higher-achieving group. Those who scored
from 60 to 80 had average vocabulary and syntactic knowledge to understand the reading paragraphs
and were classified as the intermediate-achieving group. Those who scored lower than 60 did not have
adequate vocabulary and syntactic knowledge to understand the reading paragraphs and were classified
as the lower-achieving group. In addition, for data analysis purposes, subjects’ genders and majors also
were classified into four groups (male versus female; English major versus non-English major).
Descriptive statistics were computed to determine the students’ overall vocabulary strategy use.
The independent-samples T test and the One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) method were used in
this study to find out whether there were significant differences in the means of the eight categories of
vocabulary learning strategies among different groups designated in this study. Afterwards, the post hoc
comparison procedure (for example, Scheffe test) was carried out to determine the specific differences
among different groups based on the significance level of the results of ANOVA. Generally, the
probability level (p-value) of significance for ANOVA was set at 0.05. Furthermore, a three-way
ANOVA was employed to analyze whether significant interaction effect occurred among the three
factors namely gender, major and English proficiency level on the eight categories of vocabulary
learning strategies respectively.

Results
Overall Strategy Use
A preliminary examination of data showed that the average mean of frequency of strategy use ranged
from 2.77 to 4.25, with a mean of 3.04 (SD=1.17), which indicated an overall medium strategy use. The
most frequently used strategy, also the only one with a mean above 4 was “I carry a pocket dictionary
(including an electronic dictionary) to look up the words I don’t know” (M=4.25; SD=.83) (item 1). The
least frequently used strategy was “I look up new words in an English–English dictionary” (M=2.77;
SD=1.24) (item 4). An analysis of the eight categories of vocabulary strategies was further conducted
for overall strategy uses. The category of “dictionary use” was the most frequently used strategy
(M=3.24; SD=.72). On the contrary, the category of “vocabulary perceptions” was the least frequently
used strategy (M=3.02; SD=.87).

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Differences among Gender, Majors, and English Proficiency Levels in Their Use of English
Vocabulary Learning Strategies
The results of three-way ANOVA indicated that significant interaction effect occurred between the two
study factors, namely majors and the three English proficiency levels, on each vocabulary learning
strategy except for “rehearsal strategy” (See Table One). We concluded that a significant interaction
effect occurred between majors and English proficiency levels in this study. Based on a significant
interaction effect, the simple main effect analysis should be performed in this study in different majors
for using vocabulary learning strategies. In other words, we need to use the one-way ANOVA method to
further analyze and discuss the differences between two majors and the three different English
proficiency levels for their vocabulary learning strategies. The most noticeable of these findings are as
follows:
First, the results of simple main effect analyses focused on English and non-English major students
and indicated that there were significant differences among the three different English proficiency levels
in terms of their vocabulary learning strategies. It revealed that the higher level students used more
vocabulary strategies than intermediate level students, and intermediate level students used more
vocabulary strategies than lower level students among English and non-English major students.
Second, the results of simple main effect analysis, focused on the lower English proficiency level,
indicated that English-major students used more dictionary use strategies than non-English-major
students did. Non-English major students in lower English proficiency level used more vocabulary
strategies than English major students, such as strategy of sources, guessing, encoding, and activation.
Third, the results of simple main effect analysis, focused on the intermediate English proficiency
level, indicated that English major students used more vocabulary strategies than non-English-major
students, such as strategies of sources, guessing, and encoding.
Fourth, the results of simple main effect analysis, focused on the higher English proficiency level,
indicated that English major students used more vocabulary strategies than non-English-major students,
such as strategy of management and vocabulary perceptions. Non-English major students used more
dictionary use strategies than English-major students did.

Table 1.Test of Interaction Effects

Strategy G×M G×L M×L G×M×L
Dictionary use 1.55a (.21)b 1.12 (.32) 13.03 (0.00*) 2.55 (0.07)
Rehearsal 0.05 (.82) 0.64 (.52) 0.70(0.49) 0.48 (0.61)
Management 0.27 (.59) 0.02 (.97) 5.82 (0.00*) 0.28 (0.75)
Sources 0.01 (.89) 0.63 (.53) 12.3 (0.00*) 0.30 (0.73)
Guessing 0.55 (.45) 0.95 (.38) 8.85 (0.00*) 1.07 (0.34)
Encoding 0.23 (.62) 0.97 (.37) 17.45 (0.00*) 2.68 (0.06)
Activation 0.67 (.41) 0.29 (.74) 3.02 (0.04*) 1.06 (0.34)
Vocabulary 0.00 (.95) 0.36 (.69) 7.40 (0.00*) 0.00 (0.99)
perception
Note: This test of interaction effects based on a three-way ANOVA among the gender, major, and English
proficiency level factors in the eight English vocabulary learning strategy categories
G refers to the factor of gender
M refers to the factor of major
L refers to the factor of reading proficiency level
a
refers to F-value
b
refers to statistical significance p-value
* Interaction effect is significant at the 0.05 level

The results of two-independent samples t test showed that there were no significant differences between
male and female students regarding uses of English vocabulary learning strategies, because p>.05. In
other words, the “gender” factor did not affect English vocabulary learning strategies in this study.

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Discussion
The English Vocabulary Learning Strategy Pattern of Taiwanese University of Technology Learners
The results of the study reveal that the students’ most frequently used strategy was “using an electronic
dictionary.” The result of this study corresponds with those of Wu’s (2005) study of using and
helpfulness rankings of vocabulary learning strategies employed by English as a Foreign Language
(EFL) learners in Taiwan. Wu’s (2005) study showed that the use of an electronic dictionary is the most
popular strategy adopted by students from different age groups. The results of the study reveal that the
students’ least frequently used strategy was “using an English-English dictionary.” The sharp contrast
between the use of an electronic dictionary (M=4.25; SD=0.83) and an English-English dictionary
(M=2.77; SD=1.24) implies that Taiwanese learners are not used to using a traditional dictionary
(printed dictionary) but prefer to use a non-traditional dictionary (hand-held electronic dictionary).
Recently, Weschler and Pitts (2000) compared students’ look-up speed of the electronic and
paper-based dictionary. They took no account of the quality or number of definitions, or even the
students’ ability to read and comprehend them. The results of this findings identified that the average
look-up time for ten words using a paper-based dictionary was 168 seconds (about 17 seconds per word)
and using an electronic dictionary, 130 seconds (about 13 seconds per word). In short, their students
could look up words about 23% faster with an electronic dictionary. As mentioned above, we might find
that why most students prefer to use an electronic rather than a paper-based dictionary partly because of
its look-up speed.
The study shows that the category of “dictionary use” was ranked the most frequently used strategy
among eight learning strategy categories as reported by students, and it meant most students in this study
depend on more bottom-up processing rather than top-down processing to learn English vocabulary. It
also suggested that decontextualized rote learning is still dominant in English vocabulary learning
strategies compared to contextualized processing. Besides this, the categories of “vocabulary
perception” were ranked the least frequently used strategy among eight learning strategy categories.
From the researcher’s observation, English vocabulary is primarily taught through decontextualized
activities in most English classes. In these classes teachers only translated English into Chinese, and
they did not mention or teach vocabulary learning skills or strategies. Teachers promoted rote learning
and direct teaching to push students to learn English vocabulary. In addition, students are usually
expected to learn English vocabulary by themselves, mostly by mechanical memorization, without
strategy instruction from teachers. Every student was forced to recite words, phrases, sentences, even
full paragraphs, and remember grammatical rules. According to the results of this study, we suggest
English teachers in Taiwan should consider contextualized processing in their teaching of vocabulary.
There is no denying that a balanced and integrated teaching approach is a necessary and significant
method to adopt for curriculum designers, teachers, and students in the current Taiwan EFL vocabulary
learning environment. Pedagogically, it is important that teachers play a more active and interactive part
in students’ vocabulary learning, as noted by Oxford and Scarcella (1994), by providing students with
balanced and integrated EFL vocabulary instruction, offering contexualized learning opportunities, and
helping students learn specific learning strategies for acquiring vocabulary. The ultimate purpose is to
encourage students to learn English vocabulary efficiently and effectively and become strategic and
independent readers in the long run.

The Differences between Majors and Language Proficiency Levels in Terms of Their English
Vocabulary Learning Strategies
According to the research results, we can conclude that if student’s English proficiency is higher, they
will use more vocabulary strategies than intermediate and lower proficiency readers regardless of
English major or non-English-major. The results of this study differed from the findings of Liao (2004)
in that the English majors generally exceeded non-English majors in overall vocabulary use. From the
researcher’s perspective, a possible explanation is that students with higher English proficiencies have
more vocabulary learning motivation and interest than intermediate and lower students regardless of

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their majors in this study. Another possible reason is that higher proficiency level students have more
language learning strategies training in their daily classroom compared to intermediate and lower
students. The findings of this study also correspond with the research findings that were done by Wei
(2005) and Nemati (2008). Their findings showed that high proficient students use more vocabulary
learning strategies in comparison to low proficient students.

The Differences between Gender (male and female) in Terms of Using English Vocabulary Strategies
The results of this study indicated that there were no significant differences between male and female
students regarding uses of English vocabulary learning strategies. The results of this study were
consistent with Wafa’s (2003) finding that gender had no significant differences on the use of
vocabulary strategies. Besides this, according to an instructional point of view, we did not know with
certainty whether female and male students are most in need of language strategies (Chamot, 2004).

Conclusion and Pedagogical Implications

The current study helps EFL researchers and teachers in Taiwan understand more about University of
Technology freshmen uses of English vocabulary learning strategy. Below are some pedagogical
implications. English teachers play an important role in helping the learners to explore effective and
efficient vocabulary learning strategies and training methods. Besides this, teachers should think of
ways to provide less successful learners with vocabulary learning, including making them aware of the
need to become independent autonomous learners by recognizing the strategies they process and those
they lack. In this study, we have found that some strategies are rarely used by students in general, such as
using an English-English dictionary, pronouncing new words, paying attention to the grammatical
patterns of new words and so on. Actually, it seems that not many students are familiar with these
strategies.
EFL teachers should make learners practice a wide range of vocabulary learning strategies ranging
from decontextualized and mechanical strategies to contextualized ones. The new research-based
instructional approach by Oxford and Scarcella (1994) has proposed that fully contextualized activities
are supposed to play a vital part in vocabulary teaching because they provide learners with authentic
communication opportunities to experience the function of the language learning. In addition to this,
English newspapers and magazines particularly compiled for language learning are conventionally
employed as supplementary reading materials in many universities of technology in Taiwan as they
provide students with the latest information about different aspects of everyday life and practical
English vocabulary to discuss those issues involved.
Tapes and CDs that record an audio version of the text are also available to accompany the English
reading and vocabulary learning materials, which increases students’ oral reading abilities and
pronunciation and helps in terms of their English vocabulary learning. Also, English magazines are
generally issued in cooperation with radio programs, in which reading of texts are provided so that
students may study the English magazine by themselves after school. Therefore, it might be argued that
“extensive reading” is another alternative to improve English vocabulary learning for students in
Taiwan.
From the results of this study, we clearly found that the strategy of using a dictionary is the most
frequently used vocabulary learning strategy. Interestingly, the uses of an English-English (monolingual)
dictionary are the least used strategy most among University of Technology students. Although
monolingual dictionaries generally include more information about each word than bilingual
dictionaries, some studies have suggested that learners acquire vocabulary much more effectively using
L2-L1 pairs then through L2-L2 definitions pairs (e.g. Laufer & Shmueli, 1997) and there is much
evidence (e.g. Nesi & Meara, 1994) that indicates the difficulties non-native speakers have in
understanding the English definition (Nation, 2001).
Whether using a monolingual or a bilingual dictionary, EFL teachers should be aware of the
advantages and disadvantages of these two kinds of dictionaries. Learners should be trained by EFL
teachers to use a dictionary. Without adequate guidance and sufficient training on dictionary use in class,

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it is likely that some students are not able to make use of the reference material efficiently and
effectively as a facilitator in their independent and autonomous learning. Finally, EFL teachers should
appraise learners’ beliefs regarding vocabulary learning strategies and then try to help them gradually
learn various kinds of learning strategies based on their different majors and language proficiency
levels.

References
Bobko, P. (2001). Correlation and regressions (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.
Chamot, A. U. (2004). Issues in language learning strategy research and teaching. Electronic Journal of
Verbal Language and Verbal Behavior, 1(1), 14-26.
Fan, M. Y. (2003). Frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and actual usefulness of second language
vocabulary strategies: A study of Hong Kong learners, Modern Language Journal, 87(2),
222-241.
Gu, Y., & Johnson, R. K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes.
Language Learning, 46(4), 643-679.
Laufer, B., & Shmueli, K. (1997). Memorizing new words: Does teaching have anything to do with it?
RELC Journal, 28, 89-108.
Lawson, M. J., & Hogben, D. (1996). The vocabulary-learning strategies of foreign language students.
Language Learning, 46, 101-135.
Liao, Y. F. (2004). A survey study of Taiwan EFL freshmen vocabulary learning strategies. Journal of
National Pin-Tung Normal College, 21, 271-288.
Nation, P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge University Press.
Nemati, A. (2008). Use and rankings of vocabulary learning strategies by Indian EFL learners,
Language in India, 8(4), 2-11.
Nesi, H., & Meara, P. (1994). Pattern of misinterpretation in the productive use of EFL dictionary
definitions. System, 22, 1-15.
Oxford, R. L., & Scarcella, R.C. (1994). Second language vocabulary learning among adults: state of the
art in vocabulary instruction. System, 22(2), 231-243.
Wafa, A. S. (2003). Language learning strategy use in Palestine. [Electronic version] Teaching English
as a Second Language Journal, 7(2).
Weschler, R., & Pitts, C. (2000, August). An experiment using electronic dictionaries with EFL students.
The Internet TESL Journal, 6(8). Retrieved May 25, 2009, from
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Weschler-ElectroDict.html
Wu, W. S. (2005). Use and helpfulness rankings of vocabulary learning strategies employed by EFL
learners in Taiwan. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 1(2), 7-13.
Yang, C. H. (2008). A study of journalistic vocabulary learning strategies by EFL college students.
Journal of Meiho Institute of Technology, 27(1), 43-60.

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Re-evaluating the Effectiveness of the Audio-lingual Method in Teaching

English to Speakers of Other Languages
Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim
Irbid University College, Al-Balqa' Applied University, Irbid, Jordan

[Abstract] This articles reports on a study that evaluated the audio-lingual method for teaching English
to speakers of other languages, considering its advantages and disadvantages in light of the increasing
demand for English today. It discusses features and nature of drills and practices used in the classroom.
It finally discusses whether the audio-lingual method alone can be satisfactory in second language
teaching.
[Keywords] Audio-lingual method; eclectic approach; communicative competence; army method;
aural-oral method

Introduction
Teaching English as a Foreign Language has always been a controversial issue. Various teaching
methods have come into vogue and disappeared. One of those methods that practically disappeared
during the first half of the twentieth century is what was known as the direct method, which was widely
used for teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language in the U.S.A., England, and many other parts
of the world. As Maleki (2005) states:
The decline of the direct method led to the emergence of the audio-lingual method. The outbreak of
World War II and the need for Americans to become orally proficient in the languages of their friends
and foes alike contributed to the creation of the new method. Bits and pieces of the direct method were
put together to make it, which was first known as the army method (pp. 2-3).
The term “audio-lingual” refers to two components of the communication process: “audio”
emphasizes listening, while “lingual” stresses the speaking aspect. The audio-lingual methodology,
developed in the mid-40s, was primarily a response to the need for more effective aural and oral skills,
rather than the reading and writing skills that had for many years been in the foreground of language
learning. This emphasis on the literate approach to communication is known as the grammar translation
method. However, the aural-oral approach is a reaction to the old method and a modification of the
direct method. This aural-oral approach is sometimes called the oral approach, the linguistic approach,
the audio-lingual approach, or the army method.
According to Saville-Troike (1973), “older teaching methods emphasized the written forms of
language, largely ignoring speech, and the audio-lingual approach was a reaction to this book-centered
orientation” (p. 395). At some point, the audio-lingual method was described as the “new key”, as stated
by Savignon “…It was called the new key. Existing grammar-translation and reading methods of L2
teaching were described as rusty old keys that had been replaced by a new, scientific method based on
the structural analysis of spoken language” (1983, p.17). As mentioned previously, the audio-lingual
method was formulated near the end of World War II when the U.S. was moving towards a desire to
shed its linguistic isolation and learn other languages. As illustrated by Ovando and Collier, the
audio-lingual method became popular at that time:
…in reaction to the lack of emphasis on oral skills. The method of grammar-translation has little or
no basis in experimental research in linguistics. This method is seen as extremely inappropriate for
teaching modern second languages, given our concern today for full communicative competence in
languages (1985, p. 72).
It has become apparent in recent years that there have been marked changes in the goals of language
education programs (Morley, 1987; Richards & Rodgers, 1987). Celce-Murcia illustrates the high level
of importance for communicative competence for learners of English as a second or foreign language
stating that:

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Today, language students are considered successful if they can communicate effectively in their
second or foreign language, whereas two decades ago the accuracy of the language produced would
most likely be the major criterion contributing to the judgment of
a student's success or lack of success (1991, p. 125).
The audio-lingual approach arose from two schools of thought namely structural linguistics and
behavioral psychology. Saville-Troike notes: In addition, the schools of behaviorist psychology and
structuralist linguistics were in vogue at the time, and their respective views of language learning as a
process of habit formation and of language itself as speech, provided a rationale for the new
methodology (1973, p. 395).
This view is only partially substantiated by Castagnaro (2006), who acknowledges that the school
of behavioral psychology contributes significantly to the field of applied linguistics, but not necessarily
to the area of second language teaching and learning stating that: “In reality, behavior analysis is alive,
well, and making significant contributions in applied language settings, but not typically in the second
language area” (p. 519).
Several tenets of structural linguistics are central to the audio-lingual theory and include:
The primacy of speech.
1. Languages must be set in their own contexts as unique systems.
2. Speakers may know little about a language, but still be competent in its use.
3. Language learning is a process of activities resulting in habit formation.
4. Regarding behavioral psychology, the audio-lingual theory incorporates the notion of stimuli
and responses; the subject is given a stimulus and must respond to it. “Correct” responses are then
rewarded, or positively reinforced.

Purpose
This is a descriptive study the purpose of which is to shed light on the audio-lingual method for teaching
English as a second or foreign language. The study attempts to re-evaluate the audio-lingual method
considering its advantages and disadvantages in teaching English as a second or foreign language in
light of the current need and increasing demand for English today. Furthermore, it discusses the
theoretical background related to the audio-lingual method as well as the general assumptions
underlying its use. Additionally, the study points out the main features of the audio-lingual method
along with the nature of the drills and practices used in the second language classroom. It finally
attempts to answer the question whether the audio-lingual method alone can be satisfactory in the
process of second language teaching. Ultimately the study re-evaluates the adequacy, efficiency, and
level of effectiveness of the audio-lingual method as it is being used in the second language classroom
today.
Significance
The significance of studying and re-evaluating the audio-lingual method for teaching English as a
second or foreign language stems from the great importance of English among other languages of the
world today. It is possible to sum up the main reasons behind the importance of the English language
today as follows: English is considered as a native language in many countries in different parts of the
world such as the United States of America, Canada, Britain, Australia, and New Zealand.
1. English is the official language in many countries such as India, Pakistan, and Nigeria.
2. English is taught as a second or foreign language in many countries all over the world.
3. English is one of the major languages of advanced sciences and technology.
4. It is one of the languages needed to run a first-class business.
5. It is needed by students traveling abroad to start or continue their university learning.
Discussing the importance of teaching English as a second or foreign language today, Alkhuli (2005)
states that “English now, because of economic, political, and historical reasons, is almost an
international language. It is nowadays one of the few languages needed in the fields of business, politics,
and education” (p. 12).

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General Assumptions
Alkhuli (2005) summarizes the main assumptions underlying the aural-oral approach that include the
following:
1. Language is mainly speech and writing is just a representation of speech.
2. Speech is the foreign language skill that has to be emphasized more than reading or writing.
3. Teaching the foreign language should follow the order of listening, speaking, reading, and then
writing. This sequence implies that learners speak what they have listened to, read what they
have spoken, and write what or about what they have read.
4. Acquiring the foreign language is similar to acquiring the native language.
5. The foreign language is best acquired through habit formation achieved by means of pattern
practice.
6. Teaching about the foreign language is of no use.
7. Each language is unique.
8. Translation is harmful in teaching the foreign language.
9. The best foreign language teacher is a trained native speaker of that foreign language, however,
all of the above mentioned assumptions are criticized and even refuted by some methodologists
who put forward the following counter-arguments:
10. Speech is not the sole form of language; it is just one form of it.
11. Speech should not be emphasized at the expense of other foreign language skills, which are as
important as speech.
12. The order of listening, speaking, reading, and then writing is not essential because these skills
may be taught simultaneously rather than sequentially.
13. Foreign language acquisition is utterly different from native language acquisition in both
qualitative and quantitative terms.
14. The foreign language is not learned through habit formation only, but through cognition as well.
15. Teaching about the foreign language is not without advantages.
16. It is true that languages are different, but they have some common features also.
17. Translation may be usefully employed in teaching the foreign language.
18. The native speaker of the foreign language may not be the best teacher of that foreign language
because he often does not know the students' native language and thus cannot predict or account
for students' problems, mistakes, or areas of difficulty.

Audio-lingual Drills and Practices

Audio-linguists perceive language as a set of speech habits that can be mastered through drills. One of
these drills is simple repetition, i.e., students repeat verbatim what the instructor has said. Another drill
is substitution, which requires the students to substitute different words into a sentence or phrase.

Example: I had to write a letter.

a research paper.
an article.

When using transformation, students make a question out of a statement, or vice versa.
Example: Is the dog in the yard?
The dog is in the yard.

In response drills, students are asked a simple question and must give an answer.
Example: Where do you live?
I live in Dallas.

In translation drills, students are given a sentence in the first language and must restate it in the second
language.

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Margolis discusses the nature of the audio-lingual approach to language teaching stating:
Language, we were told, is speech, not writing. A language is a set of habits to be acquired through
conditioning and drill. Since language acquisition was believed to be
a conditioned reflex and language habits were thought to be the outcome of conditioned physical,
vocal, and auditory muscles as well as conditioned mental attitudes, pupils, it was determined,
could best be taught a second language through constant aural-oral repetition. They would hear
and repeat the material of a given lesson until it became second nature, until response followed
stimulus without cause for conscious thought (1982, p. 127).

Main Features of the Audio-lingual Method

Like any other method of teaching foreign languages, the audio-lingual approach is identified by certain
characteristics, many of which may be common to other techniques of teaching foreign languages.
Perhaps the most important feature of the audio-lingual method is that of sequencing language skills:
listening, speaking, reading and writing. Clearly, aural-oral skills are given high priority in this schema.
This hierarchy of skills suggests that a learner must first listen to a language before any other skills are
developed. The theory is that a good listener will ultimately make a better speaker because learners
must focus their attention on actually hearing what is said. Only then, will they be able to internalize
such linguistic features as pronunciation and intonation; thus, making them more effective speakers.
After developing listening and speaking skills, the next logical evolvement in this sequence is
reading. Once the speakers have arrived at a closer mastery of the first two skills, reading becomes
easier and more natural, especially since the reading material addresses the same topics as the listening
and speaking exercises. Special attention is paid to sound-symbol correspondence during this stage.
Writing is considered a subordinate or supportive activity to oral learning.
Another area where sequencing is important is in teaching structural patterns, which are taught one
at a time through the use of repetitive drills. Chastain suggests that, “the large amounts of drill work in
the audio-lingual method seemed to help ...” (1970, p. 98-9). An example of teaching structure through
drills might be teaching students the basic English sentence pattern of subject-verb-object. The
instructor would say a sentence and repeat it several times, while the students listen. Then the students,
either individually or in a group, would be asked to repeat the sentence, paying particular attention to
pronunciation. Successful responses result in something behavioral psychologists would call “positive
reinforcement”, the third major characteristic of the audio-lingual approach. This positive reinforcement
takes the form of utterances such as “good!” or “that’s right!”
Additionally, the first language takes a minimal role in this type of instruction. Here, the teacher
uses some of the first language and likewise, permits the students to use their first language. The last
major feature of the audio-lingual technique is that of introducing new material in dialogue form. This
feature aims at helping the students become more relaxed in conversational settings, while at the same
time, introducing new material to them. If the exercises and drills have been carefully planned, the
audio-lingual method should help language learners by providing them with structural models, and a
larger vocabulary, both of which would ultimately promote language learning. Discussing the
importance of drills in second language teaching, Brooks states:
The language class, at early levels, is essentially a drill session, with learning modeled by the
teacher and gradually incorporated by the student into the repertoire of his own behavior patterns.
As learning increases, drill turns into discussion, for the student eventually has a stock of structural
patterns and lexical items that enable him to express his own intentions and views without, in
desperation, being obliged to invent what he has no model for. If drills have been sufficiently
representative and have been fully practiced, analogy will guide the learner along the right
linguistic path, as it does in the mother tongue (1960, p. 143).

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Advantages of the Audio-lingual Method

Like any other teaching method, the audio-lingual approach has both advantages and disadvantages.
However, scholars frequently disagree on what constitutes either an advantage or a disadvantage,
depending on their pedagogical perspective; thus, making the audio-lingual method a subject of great
debate. Among the advantages is one important feature-emphasizing aural-oral skills. The underlying
theory is that better listeners and speakers will make better readers and writers; hence, the emphasis on
listening and speaking. This gives rise to yet another advantage of the audio-lingual method. Teachers
stress the importance of proper pronunciation, with special attention focused on intonation.
By developing students’ sensitivity to intonation, they become more readily acquainted with the
functions of intonation, i.e., they recognize questions, statements or commands based on the intonation
used. Because teachers make a deliberate effort to correct errors early in the learning stages, speech
errors are corrected before they become persistent or fossilized. Additionally, drills familiarize students
with situational conversations in the target language; thus, enabling them to enter dialogues with a truer
sense of how native speakers interact verbally. One final advantage is the emphasis placed on the
cultural background of the speakers who use the second language. In understanding the culture that
shapes language, students can become acquainted with the different nuances of meaning, especially
since language and culture have profound effects on each other.

Implications
Given these advantages, the implications of the audio-lingual method in actual classroom practice are
bright. Since the students are not expected to speak until after they have had enough input from listening,
comprehension precedes performance. Students are allowed to build confidence through developing
effective aural-oral skills and only when they are comfortable with the target language that they are
asked to perform. Once they do begin speaking, the emphasis on error-correction aids the student in
performing well, which will ultimately ensure linguistic competence, particularly in the areas of
phonology and pronunciation. The emphasis on cultural background gives the students a sense of
comparison between their own cultures to that of the people who speak the second language. This
sharpens their sensitivity to how language works and to how language and culture are inextricably
bound to each other.

Disadvantages of the Audio-lingual Method

Perhaps the most important disadvantage of the audio-lingual method is that students find it dull and
tedious. It does not stimulate their interest and soon after class begins, students find the repetitive drills
mechanical and uninteresting. While this approach may be more interesting for children, adult learners
are rarely as enthused, and thus, show a small degree of long-term retention. As Margolis points out the
audio-lingual approach results in “a lack of student motivation” arising in large part from “pattern drills
that have a tendency to become boring” (1982, p. 128). Indeed, opponents see the mechanical and rote
learning process as a major disadvantage. In essence, students are not learning to communicate
spontaneously as a native speaker would. Rather, they are memorizing set phrases and repeating them on
command. Diller says, “pattern drills require the student to think only about the mechanics of
manipulating grammatical structures. He is not required to think in the language when he does a pattern
drill” (1970, p. 27). Margolis adds that the audio-lingual method relies heavily on “pattern drills and
dialogue routines that are highly structured, stilted utterances.” She questions “whether or not drills in
these utterances prepare one adequately for free-flowing, spontaneous speech” (1982, p. 128).
Another disadvantage of the audio-lingual method relates to using audio-visual tools (i.e., videos,
language labs). Such tools can be beneficial if used correctly; however, if they are overused, the critical
verbal exchange between student and teacher is given secondary importance. Students must have
conversational interaction if they wish to learn a second language effectively. For the language
instructor to rely exclusively-or even primarily-on audio-visual methods is to deny the students of the
crucial human exchange that is necessary in second language development. Another aspect of this

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“artificial learning” is that of a limited vocabulary learned in context. Utterances are treated as complete
entities, rather than discrete units of meaning. For example, students are taught the phrase “I am very
well, thank you.” Regardless of whether the speaker is “very well” or not, this expression is used in
response to the question, “how are you?” This approach emphasizes proper form instead of content and
language is viewed in terms of correct-not appropriate-form. Jacobovits & Gordon observe, “what is
actually being practiced is a particular stereotyped and unnatural dialogue routine. The expectation that
this restricted routine will somehow mysteriously generalize to free, expressive speech enactments is
gratuitous in the extreme” (1974, p. 712).

Implications
What effects do these disadvantages have in the classroom? In this type of classroom setting, motivation
to learn is severely disadvantaged. Students perceive learning as a mechanical, even artificial drill that
does little in helping them develop spontaneous communicative competence. Learners end up using
memorized set-phrases at inappropriate times, rather than actually understanding the language they are
attempting to use. Because the audio-lingual approach emphasizes memorization, it may be concluded
that much of the student’s linguistic repertoire resides in short-term memory. So, the chance of
forgetting what has been “learned,” is greatly increased, since the learners have not actually internalized
what they have learned in the classroom. In essence, the audio-lingual technique produces language
robots that have no real understanding of what they are saying. Instead, they produce phrases on
command and fail to comprehend how and why language works the way it does. Certainly the
audio-lingual method denies the existence of language variation.

Conclusion
Despite the disadvantages of the audio-lingual method, it has been used for many years in language
teaching. It is still used today and will probably continue to be used, even though several other
approaches to second language teaching have been established. No single method can be used
exclusively in the classroom. Depending on the classroom goals and objectives established by the
teacher, it is the instructor’s responsibility to determine what methods must be used, so long as they
fulfill the planned classroom goals since there is a clear and strong interrelationship between classroom
goals and teaching methodology. The teacher should feel free to use the best methods and techniques in
any approach according to students' needs and the teaching-learning situation. This is the philosophy
upon which the eclectic approach was devised. This approach is a reaction to the grammar-translation
approach, the direct approach, and aural-oral approach. Alkhuli (2005) also provides a brief summary
of the general assumptions underlying the eclectic approach, which include the following:
1. Each of the three above mentioned approaches have something to offer to the
process of teaching foreign languages.
2. No approach is completely right or completely wrong since each approach has
arguments for it and arguments against it.
3. The three approaches may supplement one another instead of contradicting or
competing with one another.
4. No approach suits all goals, all students, all teachers, or all foreign language
programs.
5. The important thing should be loyalty to students and not loyalty to a certain
approach.

Finally, based on the general assumptions mentioned above concerning the eclectic approach, it may be
fair to conclude that the teacher of a foreign language should be psychologically and professionally
prepared to vary or at least modify his methods to suit different educational situations. In addition, it
will be exhausting, unfruitful, unfair, or unwise if the teacher blindly and habitually insists on utilizing
one single method in all situations.

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Recommendations
In overcoming these problems, both teacher and student need to assume certain responsibilities.
Perhaps instructors should move away from the teacher-centered classroom, which causes all activities
to revolve around the instructor. This de-emphasizes the student and may cause problems in developing
confidence. Therefore, in achieving a student-centered classroom, teachers should avoid fixed drills and
routines of which they are the center. Rather, exercises should focus on student exchanges that allow
them to improvise answers and develop their knowledge of how and why a language functions the way it
does.
Conversely, students also have responsibilities in learning a second language. Learners must
maintain a high level of self-motivation which can be achieved through individual and active
participation in classroom activities. It is precisely this point concerning the lack of motivation on the
part of the learner that plays a crucial role in hindering the learning process according to Maleki (2005)
who states that: Nowadays, for example, there is a lot of talk about communication and developing
communicative skills. Unfortunately, however, even this has not solved the language problem of many
learners in different parts of the world. The problem may be inherent in the communicative method itself,
or it could be the result of absence of motivation on the part of learners. Looking at the problem from
different angles, we find that lack of motivation is the main cause of learners' apathy towards language
learning (p. 2).
While creating a stimulating classroom environment is primarily the teachers’ task (i.e., developing
challenging and meaningful exercises), students must take it upon themselves to play an active role in
the learning process. They must make an effort to engage in classroom discussion and make the most
out of the learning situation. Students must also feel at liberty to question themselves, their classmates,
and even their instructor, since this inquisitive setting is conducive to gaining knowledge. Furthermore,
the opportunity to question promotes the vitality essential to language learning.

References
Alkhuli, M. (2005). Methods of teaching English. Swaileh, Jordan: Dar Alfalah.
Brooks, N. (1960). Language and language learning. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Castagnaro, J. (2006). Audio-lingual method and behaviorism: From misunderstanding to myth. Oxford
Journal of Applied Linguistics, 27(3), 519-526.
Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. New York: Newbury
House.
Chastain, K. (1970). A methodological study comparing the audio-lingual habit theory and the
cognitive learning theory-a continuation. The Modern Language Journal, 54, 257-266.
Diller, C. (1970). Linguistic theories: Teaching a living language. New York: Harper & Row.
Jacobovits, L., & Gordon, B. (1974). The context of foreign language teaching. Rowley, MA: Newbury
House.
Maleki, A. (2005). A new approach to teaching English as a foreign language: The bottom-up approach.
Asian EFL Journal, 3, 1-8.
Margolis, F. (1982). Encouraging spontaneous speech in the audio-lingual classroom. Foreign
Language Annals, 15, 127-131.
Morley, J. (1987). Current directions in teaching English to speakers of other languages: A state of the
art. TESOL Newsletter, 21(2), 16-20.
Ovando, C., & Collier, V. (1985). Bilingual and ESL classrooms: Teaching in multicultural contexts.
New York, McGraw-Hill book company.
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (1987). Through the looking glass: Trends and directions in language
teaching. RELC Journal, 18(2), 45-73.
Savignon, S. (1983). Communicative competence: Theory and classroom practice. Massachusetts:
Addison-Wesley publishing company.
Saville-Troike, M. (1973). Reading and the audio-lingual method. TESOL Quarterly, 7, 395-405.

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Adult Education and Prevention of HIV/AIDS in Ghana

Alex Kumi-Yeboah
The University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA

[Abstract] In the developing world, Adult Education is used to educate and empower the general
population on the most pressing societal problems such as HIV/AIDS. For the past two decades,
HIV/AIDS has been a problem in the Sub-Saharan Africa resulting in a lower workforce production in
education, agriculture, health, industry, and commerce sectors due to the death of thousands of people,
ages 15 – 50 years that constitutes majority of the labor force. Adult Education and prevention of
HIV/AIDS epidemic in Ghana has not been thoroughly researched. In Ghana, the Government and
Non-governmental Organizations have used various forms of Adult Education programs to educate
people with and without HIV/AIDS. This article describes the role Adult Education plays as part of the
efforts to address the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Ghana. It is important for stakeholders in health education
to understand the trends and socio-economic effects of HIV/AIDS and how adult education programs
can be used to prevent its spread in Sub-Saharan Africa with specific attention to Ghana.
[Keywords] HIV/AIDS education; Sub-Saharan Africa; health education; Ghana AIDS commission;
participatory education; HIV/AIDS epidemic

Introduction
The first two cases of HIV/AIDS were reported in Ghana in 1986. Since then, the rate of HIV/AIDS
cases has increased to over 3 %. It is considered to be an epidemic in Ghana, as it poses serious health
and development problems. In 2000, about 330,000 adults and 20,000 children were infected (Ghana
AIDS Commission, 2009). Also, 3 % of the general population is infected with the virus and most
Ghanaians do not know their HIV/AIDS status, since the patronage of voluntary testing is very low.
There is serious stigmatization of people infected with HIV/AIDS who face societal alienation in the
communities where they live. According to the Ministry of Health, Ghana (2000), the spread of the
disease is facilitated by human behavior; a change of controlled behavior by all sectors of Ghana’s
economy will help prevent HIV/AIDS infection. The prevalence rate for 15-49 years is projected to
increase to 3% in 2000, 4.7% in 2004, and 6.9% in 2009. Under the low prevalence rate, the total
number of infections would rise to 470, 000 by 2009 and 568,000 by 2014.
However, the rate in Ghana has fluctuated at 3.6 % in 2002, 2.6 % in 2003, and 3.1 in 2004 (World
Bank Report, 2006). Ghana’s current HIV prevalence rate is second lowest to Senegal in West Africa.
To address the increasing prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS, the Government and Non-governmental
Organizations have developed comprehensive multi-sectoral adult education programs such as formal
and non-formal education, community-based education, peer education, and the use of mass media as a
response to mitigate the general spread, and care for people living with HIV/AIDS.

HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Ghana

In the table that follows, I report some data on demographic, socioeconomic and HIV/AIDS infection in
Ghana Demographic and Socioeconomic Data.

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Table 1. Basic Information

Data Estimate Source
Total population (Millions) 2004 21.4 United Nations
Population in Urban Areas (%) 2005 46.3 United Nations
Life Expectancy at Birth (Years 2003 58 WHO
Government Budget 2002 8.4 WHO
Spent on Health Care (%)
Per Capita Expenditure 2002 17 WHO
On Health (US. $)
Adult Literacy Rate Both Sexes (%) 2006 63 WHO
Adult Literacy Rate Male (%) 2006 71.2 UNESCO
Adult Literacy Rate Female (%) 2006 57.2 UNESCO

Table 2. HIV Indicators on Ghaha

Data Estimate Source
Adult Prevalence of 2003 1.9-5.0 % WHO/UNAIDS
HIV/AIDS (15-49 years)
Estimated number of people living with 2003 210, 000-560,000 WHO/UNAIDS
HIV/AIDS (0-49 years)
Reported number of People receiving 2005 3584 WHO/UNAIDS
anti Retroviral therapy
(0-49 years)
HIV testing and Counseling Sites: 2005 113 WHO
Number of sites
Knowledge of HIV Preventive methods 2003 38 Demographic Health
(15-24 years % of Female Survey
Knowledge of HIV Preventive Methods 2003 44 Demographic Health
(15-24 years) % of Male Survey
Source: UNAIDS 2008 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic (Ghana)

Table 3. Projected HIV Infections for 15 to 49 years olds under Two Scenarios
High Projections Low Projections
1994 2.7% 2.7%
20000 3.0% 3.0%
2004 4.7% 3.3%
2009 6.9% 3.6%
2014 9.0% 4.0%
Source: Ministry of Health (Ghana)-HIV/AIDS Country Report 2001.

Interpretation
Table 1 shows that the adult literacy rate (71.2%) is higher for the males than females (57.2%). This
could possibly stem from retrogressive African cultural practices marked by a high level of gender
polarization in education. The polygamy practices by most African men could also cause this where a
man owning several women would just sit back and wait for the women to take care of the children,
several domestic chores and work in the fields to set bread on the table at the end of the day. This may
imply that that the women have very little or no time at all to attend to programs such as adult education.
These call for more external intervention if Adult education programs in Ghana are to achieve their
objectives in combating HIV/AIDS.
Table 2 portrays very high numbers of people living with HIV within the 15-49 years age bracket.
However, the reported number of people using antiretroviral drugs is minimal if not negligible! A
possible reason for this low number is illiteracy; giving room for Adult education programs to qualify as
a potent candidate to help fight the vice at stake.

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Table 3 shows rather steady (and very predictable) trends of the high and low projections of HIV
Infections for 15 to 49 years olds. Since these trends appear to be predictable based on high and low
projection scenario, properly designed measures for fighting HIV/AIDS through Adult education
program could be put into practice with more improved levels of predictions of the results.

Adult Education in Ghana

In Ghana, adult education is focused more on providing education and human resources training to
people at all levels so they can solve the most pressing issues adults face in their quest to make a better
living. It also provides functional literacy programs to solve problems of people above 15 years outside
the formal school system with an offer of a second chance for learning. This includes apprenticeship,
vocational training, and technical informal activities that are recognized by the government and training
provided by other state institutions. The Institution of Adult Education in Ghana defines adult education
as, “All activities meant to bring improvement in the living of the individual and the communities in
which they live. It embraces leisure, occupations, social roles as well as peripheral activities” (Institute
of Adult Education Report, 2006).
Adult education is fast becoming a multi-faceted and multi-sectoral discipline, whose specialty
seems to be the tackling and solving of problems, which other disciplines have created, failed to solve or
even failed to comprehend (Zumakpeh, 2006). Adult education in the developing world is considered a
kind of education that creates a participatory environment for people to be involved in socio-economic
activities and to develop the ability to take leadership initiatives to help people at the local level to better
understand the social, political and economic forces that impact their lives. In Ghana, peer education,
formal and non-formal education, adult education at the workplace, community-based education, mass
media and information technology, and education at social centers such as religious settings are some of
the preventive educational measures used to sensitize the awareness and provide knowledge to the
general public.

Non–Formal Education
Peer Education
In Ghana, the peer education process involves the facilitation of discussions, lecturing, counseling,
distribution of materials, provision, and mobilization for advocacy. It also involves training and
supporting members of a given group to effect change among members of the same group (Shoemaker
et al., 1998; Flanagan et al., 1996). The purpose of adapting peer education was to effect behavior
change among individuals to modify their knowledge, beliefs, attitude and behavior.
The peer education concept was based on individual cognitive and group or collective action
theories such as the social learning theory that places emphasis on self-efficacy beliefs in the ability to
change behavior (Bandura, 1986). The theory of participatory education has been very essential in the
development and delivery of peer education programs (Freire, 1970). “Participatory or empowerment
models of education assert that powerlessness at the community or group level, and the economic and
social inherent to the lack of power are major risk factors for poor health” (Amaro, 1995). To promote
empowerment and encourage full participation among people in the community on issues that affect the
people, it should be done through dialogue, where they effectively plan and implement a response to the
problem (Paulo Freire, 1970).
Peer education has been known to effect behavioral change at societal level through changes in
people’s norms, cultures and values in the community. In order to institute preventive programs to stop
the spread of HIV/AIDS in Ghana, the government, through the Ministry of Education developed peer
education curriculum in two forms; structured peer network and unstructured peer network models.
With the structured network model, professional adult educators train groups of 10 -20 people for 2 – 3
contact hours. They intend to train peer promoters in groups of 5-10 and return to their communities or
work place as adult peer contacts. Commercial truck drivers, market women and rural farmers are the
target participants. The unstructured network model has been used as a form of peer education to

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educate young adults on HIV/AIDS. Young adults are trained as volunteers, where they hold informal
discussions about the effects and preventive methods of contracting HIV/AIDS with their peers.
Adult Education at the Workplace
HIV/AIDS remains a continuing challenge to the socio-economic development of Ghana. It is estimated
that if precautionary measures are not taken, the epidemic will affect the most productive section of the
labor force. The Trade Union Congress, the main labor organization for both the private and public
workforce has developed a policy in HIV/AIDS awareness and knowledge for workers in Ghana. There
are workplace policies that describe direct links between Ghana’s human capital development and the
HIV/AIDS epidemic’s potential of lowering productivity. As a result of the above, most private
companies and public institutions such as Unilever, Standard Chartered Bank, Barclays Bank, Vodafone
Ghana (Formerly Ghana Telecom), AngloGold Ashanti Limited, and Ghana Education Service have
developed workplace policies on HIV/AIDS awareness, knowledge, treatment, lowering stigmatization
and counseling on volunteering testing.
Beginning in the 1990s, The Ministry of Health has been organizing HIV/AIDS awareness
campaign to all security agencies including the military, police, prison, customs, excise and preventive
service, fire and immigration services. They offer HIV/AIDS information programs such as: “Stop
AIDS Love Life,” reproductive health and behavior change in sexuality. Health officials provide an
essential campaign Tool Kits Manual on sexually transmitted (STDS) diseases to security officers and
encourage them to make behavior changes in their sexual life.
For the past 15 years, The Ministry of Education has set up a national secretariat for HIV/AIDS and
designed a workplace curriculum manual for executing activities covering about 240,000 workforces.
In the informal sector, self-employed and small business owners such as seamstresses; tailors, taxi
drivers, hairdressers and small shop owners have been mobilizing themselves to create HIV/AIDS
educational awareness programs and engage in open discussions with health officials and peer
volunteers on HIV/AIDS.

Community–Based Education, Religious and Non-Governmental Organizations

The Planned Parenthood Association of Ghana (PPAG) a Non-Governmental Organization and a
member of the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) has offered training to individuals in
the community and to health and social workers concerning HIV/AIDS awareness, knowledge and
preventive measures. They also provide sexual and reproductive health information services to the
youth. PPAG uses teaching strategies such as mini lectures, brainstorming, role-plays, shows, picture
stories, field trips, group discussions and interaction with live cases. PPAG also offers refresher courses
for volunteers and local teachers to equip them with knowledge on STDS/HIV/AIDS issues (Essuman,
2004). PPAG adult centers for learning offer opportunities for young adults to meet, interact and be
provided with important information on HIV/AIDS.
In 2002, about 900 religious leaders were trained on HIV/AIDS knowledge and awareness. The
course focused on ways to reduce stigmatization and alienation of HIV positive Christians and Muslims
in the communities. In addition, community leaders were trained through informal literacy programs,
where adults were given information and provided with Tool Kit Manuals on participatory education.
The Ministry of Information with the support from Action Aid and Catholic Relief Services established
the mobile information services to train social workers. They explained and openly discussed preventive
measures on HIV/AIDS in rural communities.
Overall, community-based education strategies have created a suitable environment for young
adults in the communities to ask questions and get answers that give better understanding into issues on
HIV/AIDS (Appiah & Afranie, 2000). In Ghana, community-based education has been the main
informal instructional strategy used to educate and create HIV/AIDS awareness because of the complex
cultural system.

The Mass Media

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Ghana like any Sub-Saharan African country has a complex cultural belief that makes open discussion
of HIV/STI disease difficult. The print and electronic media have been used to educate and promote
condom use, free volunteering counseling, abstinence, and encourage full participation in discussions on
HIV/AIDS to reduce the cultural myths that have been associated with the disease. The awareness
campaign has been all over the country with community adult educators serving as advocates and
leaders for the discussion group. Posters, Billboards, Signs, Leaflets, Stickers, Radio and Television
talk shows were used to educate people on preventive measures of HIV/AIDS. These have done so
through grassroots participatory education where interpersonal programs such as the use of folk music,
and films on HIV/AIDS prevention are shown to adults in the rural settlements on mobile vans.
The Reach Out, Show Compassion and “Window of Hope” programs were also lunched in 2002.
These targeted the continued stigma surrounding the virus and are based on religious teaching – Bible
and Koran (Antwi & Oppong, 2003). Again, the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) incorporated
HIV/AIDS education in their daily adult education television program in all six major Ghanaian
languages, where public health officials from the ministry of health were invited to talk on HIV/AIDS.
As a result of the above responses to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, Ministry of Health in 2005, reported an
increase in the sale, use and distribution of condoms. Government Ministers have also made speeches
on the effective means of prevention and knowledge of HIV/AIDS mostly in the rural areas of the
country.

Formal Education
In 2000, The Ministry of Education integrated population and family life education into the existing
school curricula. In its efforts to design effective curriculum on HIV/AIDS, the Ministry of Education
implemented HIV/AIDS training that seek to alter sexuality and improve the reproductive health status
of adolescents by promoting healthy behavior change. For example, University of Cape Coast started
offering bachelors degree in population and family life education. The Institute of Adult Education, at
the University of Ghana, also began offering a master’s level degree course with concentration on
HIV/AIDS counseling. In 2002, the University of Ghana, University of Cape Coast and University of
Education developed training programs on the fundamentals of HIV/AIDS awareness, recognition and
prevention to reach out –of-school young adults. In 2002, a total of 15,000 teachers and community
youth workers were trained using participatory education techniques. The purpose was to educate
people about HIV/AIDS awareness, knowledge and prevention. It opened increased discussion about
the disease among youths, adult women and men.
The government of Ghana has also initiated a Nationwide HIV/AIDS prevention training programs
in all 39 teachers-training colleges. Student teachers are being trained in HIV/AIDS during the first two
of three years in the teacher preparation diploma program. Ghana Education Service developed the
School Health Education Program (SHEP) with the support from Non-Governmental Organizations that
have been training volunteers and social workers at the regional and district levels on HIV/AIDS
education. The objective was to assist in the implementation and community-based delivery of School
Health Education Program.
In the early 2000’s, the Institute of Adult Education at the University of Ghana with the support
from UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund) trained about 50 health personnel’s in HIV/AIDS
counseling and care giving courses in a four months distance education program. In Ghana, the
government has made public education, the main focus on creating HIV/AIDS awareness and other
preventive measures of reduce the spread of the disease. The education programs have taken place at all
formal education structures starting from the elementary to tertiary levels. For instance HIV/AIDS is
now incorporated into the existing school curriculum at the elementary, secondary and tertiary levels.

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Conclusion
In spite of the measures taken to address the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Sub-Saharan Africa, the disease
remain a major threat to the socioeconomic advancement of human development in health, education,
industry, and agriculture. In Ghana, the government in conjunction with some non-governmental
organizations has instituted numerous measures to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS by implementing
many training and awareness programs for the general population. It is imported for nations in
Sub-Saharan Africa to adapt the most useful adult education programs as a means to address the
HIV/AIDS epidemic in the Sub-region. Adult education will help create an enabling environment to
openly discuss the threats and consequences of the disease and reach out to people in the remotest part of
the country.

References
Aggor, R. A., & Siabi-Mensah, K. (2003). Literacy: A key to development. The GILLBT Literacy
Program in Ghana. Accra. Ghana: Universities P. Retrieved May 5, 2009, from
http://www.unesco.org
AIDSCAP. (1996). A report of the peer education preconference workshop. In IX International
Conference on AIDS and STDS in Africa. Kampala, Uganda
Amaro, O. (1995). HIV/AIDS prevention program evaluation report prepared for the Massachusetts
Primary Group and the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Boston, MA.
Anarfi, J. K. (2000). Universities and HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa-A case Study of the University of
Ghana. Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research, University of Ghana, Legon, for
ADEA Working Group on Higher Education, New York City: The World Bank
Antwi, P., & Oppong, Y. (2003). Ghana’s attempts at managing the HIV epidemic: A review of efforts.
Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies Working Paper Series, 13(6), 23-26.
Association for the Development of Education in Africa. (2001). Senior Experts Conference on
HIV/AIDS and Education in ECOWAS: Towards National Education Strategies and Regional
Cooperation. Elimina, Ghana.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood
cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Faria, C. (2008) Privileging prevention, gendering responsibility: An Analysis of the Ghanaian
campaigns against HIV/AIDS. Social & Cultural Geography, 9(1), 42-73.
Flanagan, D., & Mahler, H. (n.d.). [Scholarly project]. In How to create an effective peer education
project: Guidelines for prevention projects. Retrieved March 3, 2009, from
http://www.popcouncil.net
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press.
Ghana AIDS Commission (2008). National report on the Follow-up on the United Nations Ghana
Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS. Retrieved
March 27, 2009, from http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/ghana country progress report.
The Development and State of the Art of Adult Learning. (2008). National report of Ghana by The
Ministry of Education, Science and Sports. (2008). Retrieved May 3, 2009, from
http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin
UNAIDS. (2008). Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic. pp.12-18.

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

Analogical Reasoning: A Process for Fostering Learning Transfer from the

Classroom to Clinical Practice
Tim Speicher and Marijke Kehrhahn
Sports Science Program at Sacred Heart University in Fairfield, Connecticut, USA

[Abstract] In 2001, the Institute of Medicine (IOM), a committee of physicians and health policy experts
charged to improve the health of the United States by the National Academy of Science, identified a gap
in the area of education of health care practitioners as one of the reasons for medical error. However, one
of the most common instructional methods in medical education to promote transfer and problem
solving is examination of a single patient case (Shine, 2002), a pedagogical practice shown to be
ineffective (Gentner, Loewenstein & Thompson, 2003; Norman et al., 2007).
Therefore, adult learners in health care may be ill-equipped through traditional classroom
instructional strategies to not only transfer what they have learned in the classroom (Norman, et al.,
2007; Weeks, Lyne & Torrance, 2001), but may also lack problem solving skills needed to address novel
clinical problems (Battles & Shea, 2001; Shine, 2002). To address the transfer gap between the
classroom and clinical environment, a literature review was undertaken. A key finding was use of
multiple case examples with instructor cueing (prompting or provision of hints) was superior to use of
single case examples alone for fostering transfer of learning. Based on empirical evidence and literature
review findings, the authors propose a theoretical model, propositions, and implications for clinical
practice for use by educators to foster transfer of learning from the classroom to the clinical practice
setting.
[Keywords] Cueing; analogical reasoning; schema; applicability

Introduction
In 1999, 44,000 to 98,000 deaths occurred in the United States because of medical error, more than the
number of deaths caused by breast cancer, AIDS, or vehicular accidents (Kohn, Corrigan & Donaldson,
1999). From 1999-2003, one-fourth of adults experienced a medical error (Sage, 2003). In 2001, the
Institute of Medicine (IOM), a committee of physicians and health policy experts charged to improve
the health of the Nation by the National Academy of Science, identified a gap in the area of education of
health care practitioners as one of the reasons for medical error. The identified gap by the IOM prompted
the need to overhaul clinical education at all levels. Moreover, public recognition of medical errors
crystallized concerns that health care students are not effectively transferring their classroom learning to
clinical practice (Battles & Shea, 2001; Shine, 2002). Traditional instructional strategies are insufficient
to enable students to transfer what they have learned in the classroom (Weeks, Lyne & Torrance, 2001),
or to address novel clinical problems they will face as future health care professionals (Shine, 2002).

Problem Statement
Lecture-based teaching has been one of the traditional teaching methods attributed to poor problem
solving ability among health care students (Shine, 2002; Weeks, Lyne, Mosely & Torrance, 2000). For
example, Weeks et al., (2000) found a failure of traditional lecture to promote transfer of critical
life-saving knowledge among United Kingdom student nursing cohorts (N=392). In this study 58.5% of
students made drug dosage calculation errors and after three remedial trials reached only 78%
proficiency. The authors identified traditional lecture-based practices as a primary barrier for transfer of
problem solving skills needed for calculation of drug dosages.
Additionally, one of the most common instructional methods in medical education to promote
problem solving with novices who possess limited real-world clinical experience is examination of a
patient case (Shine, 2002). However, researchers (Gentner, Loewenstein & Thompson, 2003; Norman et
al., 2007) have demonstrated that use of multiple case examples with instructor cueing (prompting or

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provision of hints) is superior to a single case example and essential for fostering transfer of learning to
enable novel problem solving. Traditional instructional practices such as singular case examination may
result in a lack of problem solving skill and mental flexibility, impeding transfer of classroom learning
to clinical practice, and promulgating medical error (Shine, 2002).
Eliminating medical error is not possible because human error is inevitable, but it can be limited
(Al-Assaf, Bumpus, Carter & Dixon, 2003). One way to limit error identified by the IOM (2001),
researchers, and educators (Norman, et al., 2007; Weeks, et al., 2000; 2001) is effective education of
health care students and professionals. Al-Assaf, et al., (2003) advocated addressing medical error
directly with those who provide care. However, to move closer to addressing one of the roots of the
medical error phenomenon, starting with those who educate our health care students is a priority.
The predominant mode of continuing education of health care practitioners once they enter the
workforce is through classroom-based instruction (Shine, 2002). Health care practitioners must have the
ability to solve novel clinical problems. However, adult learners in health care may be ill-equipped
through traditional classroom instructional strategies to not only transfer what they have learned in the
classroom (Norman, et al., 2007; Weeks, Lyne & Torrance, 2001), but may also lack problem solving
skills needed to address novel clinical problems through traditional pedagogical approaches (Battles &
Shea, 2001; Shine, 2002). An instructional approach such as case-based analogical reasoning with
cueing is an alternative pedagogical approach that has been advocated to bridge the learning transfer gap
from the classroom to clinical practice setting (Norman, et al., 2007) and to promote the mental
flexibility practitioners need today for solving novel clinical problems (Shine, 2002).
The challenge for health care educators is to foster learners’ transfer of a classroom learning
experience to clinical practice in order to curb the incidence of medical error. As a first step to address
this challenge, this paper examines the effectiveness of cueing on the case-based analogical reasoning
process and proposes a theoretical model to improve transfer of learning.

Conceptual Framework
After conducting a review of transfer of learning and analogical reasoning literature, a model that nested
the concepts together with the instructional intervention of cueing was not present. Therefore, to fill this
gap in the literature, the Perception of Applicability Model (Figure 1.) was constructed to represent the
role of cueing on promoting learning transfer.

Figure 1. Perception of Applicability Model.

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However, the Trio Model of Adult Learning (Sheckley, Kehrhahn, Bell, & Grenier, 2007) served as the
foundation and impetus for the conceptualization of the model in its early stages, particularly Trio’s
emphasis on key experiences to promote cognitive processes involved in analogical reasoning (see
Figure 2).

Figure 2. TRIO Model of Adult Learning.

Cueing by the instructor during case-based analogical reasoning is a key experience for learners because
it helps them recall and map past experiences to their present. Cueing can also promote students’
forecasting of the match between past and present experiences for problem solving and goal attainment,
thereby, constructing a perception of applicability of their learning experiences for meaningful
application and transfer. Following are three propositions, which evolved from empirical evidence to
support the intervention of cueing during the case-based analogical reasoning process.

Proposition 1: Learning Transfer is fostered when quality schemas are developed

A schema is an abstract representation of a concept or experience and its associated properties; it is a
bundle of knowledge about an experience, the more connections made, the higher quality the schema
(Reed, 1996). An essential method in promoting analogical transfer is to provide the learner with key
experiences (schema), which build their mental models to foster problem solving skills (LeGrow,
Sheckley, & Kehrhahn, 2002). When we have an experience, we make sense of the experience by
searching our relevant prior experiences to contrast and compare them to the present based on their
surface and structural features (mapping)—if a problem exists, we extend the mapping to the problem
(target) to be solved (Holyoak & Koh, 1987). Findings in health care and non-health care disciplines
suggest when novices lack robust schemas; novel problem solving is limited (Norman et al., 2007;
Novick, 1988), but can be overcome by using multiple sample cases to serve as base exemplars for novel
problem solving (Norman et al., 2007; Novick & Holyoak, 1991; Shayo & Olfman, 2000).
The use of multiple case examples demonstrates the power for developing a novice’s schema
quality to solve novel problems, but also the necessity of the learner to perceive them as applicable for

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successful analogical reasoning and learning transfer to occur. Shayo and Olfman (2000) demonstrated
use of multiple examples among novices enhanced schema quality to solve novel problems. The authors
examined undergraduate seniors (N=44) who had previous database and processing experience to
determine to what extent two versus one database training case example in either a relevant or generic
context would affect schema quality and use of a novel database. Large to moderate effect sizes1 for
improved schema quality were found among subjects who received training with two database examples
over subjects who received one in either a generic (ESr =.85) or relevant context (ESr = .40). Moreover,
a large effect size (ESr = .86) for an ability to successfully use a novel database was observed between
subjects who received relevant examples over those who did not. This study showed the value of
multiple case examples in successful analogical reasoning and transfer of learning and the necessity of
learners to perceive that the cases are applicable.
In traditional medical education, acquiring knowledge often precedes understanding its application,
thus leaving individuals unsure if they really need to learn and transfer their learning. Yelon, Sheppard,
Reznich and Sleight (2004) conducted a qualitative study on how teaching fellows (N = 73) formed the
intention to transfer their fellowship training. A rich base of prior experience from which to compare
proposed teaching ideas not only promoted their intention to transfer an idea, but also enabled fellows to
see the applicability or fit between the idea and their experiences for attainment of future goals or
solution of a problem. As illustrated in Figure 1. and articulated in proposition one, the ability of
learners’ to optimally compare their past and present learning experience and its applicability for
solving problems is dependent upon rich past learning experiences. In sum, provision of relevant
multiple case examples can assist in the development of quality schema, which serve an essential role in
fostering learning transfer because they serve as a base from which individuals compare and contrast
past and present experiences in order to assess applicability to problem solving and future experiences.

Proposition 2: Learning Transfer is fostered when the learner is prompted to identify shared
structural relations between a base and target analog
Empirical studies have shown the effectiveness of using analogical reasoning to solve novel problems
relies on learners’ ability to identify the common structural relationship between base and target analogs
(Gentner, Lowenstein & Thompson, 2003; Novick, 1988). According to Gentner’s Structure Mapping
Theory (1983), drawing an analogy between two examples leads to a structural alignment between them
promoting abstraction of schemas, thereby, facilitating improved recall and transfer of learning. Gentner,
et al., (2003, Experiment 1) found the ability of undergraduates (N = 48) to transfer an optimal
negotiation principle for solution of a novel negotiation problem hinged on whether case examples
examined shared a structural relationship. Subjects guided to compare cases containing a structural
relationship proposed the optimal structural negotiation principle more than subjects not prompted to
compare cases (ESr = .57).
As observed with Gentner et al., (2003, Experiment 1) findings, earlier work by Holyoak and Koh
(1987, Experiment 2) on structural relationships also demonstrated undergraduate students (N = 63)
problem solved more effectively when asked to compare two structurally similar examples, particularly,
when provided guidance in finding the structural principle between the examples. Subjects compared
story analogs containing either high or low structural and surface similarity. Transfer of the principle for
solution of the target was significantly compromised if either surface or structural similarity was
reduced (ESr = .38 & .44, respectively). However, once a hint was given only structural dissimilarity in
the base analogues decreased transfer (ESr = .26). “Detection of an analogy based solely on abstract
structural features may be a rare event for novice problem solvers” (p. 338), therefore, necessitating
deliberate cueing (Holyoak & Koh, 1987). Learners’ map experiences based on their surface or
structural characteristics as seen in Figure 1., however, as discussed in proposition two, problem solving
and learning transfer is improved when learners’ are prompted to examine the structural relationship
they share, which requires cueing.

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Proposition 3: Learning transfer is fostered when cueing is utilized to facilitate base analogue
retrieval and mapping
Cueing the learner to search for either surface or relational connections between current and past
experiences promotes identification of correspondences between base and target analogues, promoting
both retrieval and mapping for successful analogical transfer and problem solving (Gentner, et al., 2003;
Novick & Holyoak, 1991). However, identification of structural similarities serve the primary role in the
analogical transfer process after relevance of the base and target analogues have been recognized via the
provision of a hint as observed by the medium effect size found in experiment 2 by Holyoak and Koh
(1987), discussed earlier. Cueing is critical when prompting individuals to identify structural
relationships between analogues because it cues the learner to pay attention to the relationship among
analogues for solution (Holyoak & Koh, 1987). Cueing learners to identify the relationship between
analogues facilitate dissociation of the surface and structural relationship of the examples—the
structural relationship serving a more powerful tool for problem solving (Gentner & Markman, 1997;
Norman, et al., 2007).
Use of multiple case comparison and instructor cueing can compensate for a lack of relational
experience in novices. Norman, et al., (2007) demonstrated extremely large effect sizes for improved
transfer by prompting health science undergraduates (N= 35) to examine the relational structure among
multiple case examples rather than utilizing one example alone to solve a target problem. When subjects
were prompted to compare multiple examples, they transferred their underlying concepts to solve new
clinical problems significantly better than those presented with multiple examples with no cueing (ESr =
1.36). The group which received only one example and no prompting did worse in comparison to the
prompted group which received multiple examples (ESr = 1.74).
As depicted in the Perception of Applicability Model (Figure 1.) and discussed in proposition three,
cueing serves the central role in assisting learners’ to identify, recall and map their experiences to
determine how they can be utilized for problem solving. Moreover, cueing facilitates identification of
the structural relationship between case examples, enhancing problem solving and learning transfer
(Gentner, Loewenstein & Thompson, 2003; Norman et al., 2007).

Conclusion and Implications for Practice

Educational preparation of health care practitioners requires reexamination. The traditional measure of
providing singular patient case examples is ineffective in comparison to having learners’ compare
structurally similar cases with instructor cueing (Norman et al., 2007). If health care educators
understand the factors which impact the formation of a perception of applicability of a learning
experience and methods by which to facilitate it when using case examples, they can assist the learner to
transfer their learning from the classroom to the clinical environment, thereby, possibly reducing the
rate of medical error.

Implications for Practice

1. Educators’ should identify the learner’s level of experience with the instructional or case
content. Identification of experience level will assist the educator to determine the extent of
cueing needed to assist the learner in the case-based analogical reasoning process.
2. Novices’ will require deliberate cueing during the case comparison process in order to foster
their identification of the structural principle inherent in the cases for problem-solving
application and future use in the clinical setting.
3. Use of relevant comparison cases with instructor cueing should occur in the education of health
care practitioners. This practice will help learners’ identify the applicability of the inherent
structural principle for potential application and will build context specific schema of learners’
for future problem solving.
The challenge for educators of health care students and practitioners is to construct and facilitate
learning experiences that capitalize on identification of structurally relevant case comparison examples
for solution of future clinical problems. The Perception of Applicability Model is a first step towards

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establishing a foundation from which to examine to what extent and in what ways multiple case-based
examinations with cueing can improve transfer of learning and problem solving to reduce the incidence
of medical error rampant in the health care system.

Acknowledgement
I would like to acknowledge the contributions of my doctoral advisors, mentors and friends, Drs.
Marijke Kehrhahn, Sandy Bell, Barry Sheckley, Robin Grenier and Doug Casa for their contributions to
this manuscript and my continual development as an Adult Learning Practitioner.

References
Al-Assaf, A. F., Bumpus, L. J., Carter, D., & Dixon, S. B. (2003). Preventing errors in
healthcare: a call for action. Hospital Topic, 81(3), 5-12.
Battles, J. B., & Shea, C. E. (2001). A system of analyzing medical errors to improve GME
curricula and programs. Academic Medicine, 76(2), 125-132.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). London: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Committee on Quality Health Care in America, IOM. (2001). Crossing the quality chasm: A new
health system for the 21st century. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Gentner, D. (1983). Structure mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. Cognitive Science,
7, 155-170.
Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general role for
analogical encoding. Journal of Educational Psychology,95 (2), 393-408.
Gentner, D., Markman, A. B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. American
Psychologist, 52(1), 45-56.
Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive
Psychology, 15(1), 1-38.
Holyoak, K. J., & Koh, K. (1987). Surface and structural similarity in analogical
reasoning. Memory and Cognition, 15(4), 332-340.
Kohn, L. T., Corrigan, J.M., & Donaldson, M.S. (Eds.). (1999). To err is human: Building aSafer Health
System. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
LeGrow, M., Sheckley, B. G., & Kehrhahn, M. T. (2002). Comparison of problem solving performance
between adults receiving credit via assessment of prior learning and adults completing
classroom courses. The Journal of Continuing and Higher Education 50(3), 2-13.
Norman, G., Dore, K., Krebs, J., & Neville, A. J. (2007). The power of the plural: Effect of conceptual
analogies on successful transfer. Academic Medicine, 82(10), 516-518.
Novick, L. A. (1988). Analogical transfer, problem similarity, and expertise. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14(3), 510-520.
Novick, L. R., & Holyoak, K. J. (1991). Mathmatical problem solving by analogy. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 17(3), 398-415.
Reed, S. K. (1996). A schema-based theory of transfer. In Detterman, D.K., & Sternberg, R.J.,
(Eds.), Transfer on trial: Intelligence, cognition, and instruction (pp. 39-68). Norwood,
New Jersey: Ablex Publishing.
Sage, W. (2003). Medical liability and patient safety. Health Affairs, 22(4), 26-36.
Shayo, C., & Olfman, L. (2000). The role of training in preparing end users to learn related software.
Journal of End User Computing, 12(1), 3-13.

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Sheckley, B. G., Kehrhahn, M., Bell, A. A., & Grenier, R. (2007). Trio Model of Adult Learning.
Unpublished manuscript, Department of Educational Leadership, University of Connecticut.,
Storrs, CT.
Shine, K. I. (2002). Health care quality and how to achieve it. Academic Medicine, 77(1), 91-99.
Thompson, L., Gentner, D., & Loewenstein. (2000). Avoiding missed opportunities in managerial life:
Analogical training more powerful than individual case training. Organizational Behavior and
Human Decision Processes, 82(1), 60-75.
Weeks, K. W., Lyne, P., & Torrance, C. (2000). Written drug dosage errors made by students:
The threat to clinical effectiveness and the need for a new approach. Clinical Effectiveness in
Nursing, 4, 20-29.
Weeks, K. W., Lyne, P., Mosely, L., & Torrance, C. (2001). The strive for clinical effectiveness in
medication dosage calculation problem solving skills: The role of constructivist learning theory
in the design of a computer-based 'authentic world' environment. Clinical Effectiveness in
Nursing, 5, 18-25.
Yelon, S., Sheppard, L., Sleight, D., & Ford, J., K. (2004). Intention to transfer: How do autonomous
professionals become motivated to use new ideas? Performance Improvement Quarterly, 17(2),
82- 103.

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International Forum of Teaching and Studies Vol. 5 No. 2 2009

Asthma Education and the Adult Learner

Shawna Strickland
Respiratory Therapy Program, School of Health Professions
University of Missouri, MO, USA

[Abstract] While it is not possible to prevent or cure asthma, this disease can be controlled with proper
treatment strategies and education. Our purpose was to identify the barriers to asthma education in
adults and develop methods to overcome these barriers. The major barriers to asthma education
identified include low health literacy, lack of health insurance and lack of access to health care. The
barriers to proper asthma control can be overcome with proper asthma education. A successful program
includes a trusting relationship between educator and participant, sufficient time for the processing of
new knowledge and easily accessible materials.

[Keywords] Asthma education; chronic illness; patient education; health education; adult asthmatics;
asthma self-management education; health literacy

Introduction
Asthma is a chronic respiratory disease that affects approximately 8% of adults in the United States
(American Lung Association, 2007). This disease process is characterized by a narrowing of the airways
which produces a feeling of breathlessness and the inability to sufficiently exchange oxygen within the
lungs. While it is not possible to prevent the initial development of asthma or cure the disease, persons
afflicted with asthma can control the onset of symptoms, thus achieving a higher quality of life
(Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS]-Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
[CDC], 2007). Both the CDC and the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP)
encourage self-management programs to assist asthmatics in using the appropriate medications, seeking
medical care and preventing asthma symptoms (CDC, 2007).
The CDC dramatically increased funding for its education programs between 1999 and 2006 in the
hopes of reducing the number of deaths, hospitalizations, emergency department visits as well as missed
school and work days. The CDC has also partnered with many national asthma organizations to improve
asthma control in the United States (DHHS-CDC, 2007). Health care providers can assist the asthmatic
in his/her quest for a high quality of life by serving as asthma educators for self-management of the
disease. However, not all asthma education endeavors will be successful. To ensure success, the
education community needs to identify the barriers associated with asthma education and implement
programs that overcome these barriers and provide education that can affect change.

Barriers to Adult Asthma Education

Asthma education is a complex issue that should ideally address the disease state and available resources,
as well as the educational level of the asthmatic and training of the health care provider. The burden that
asthma places on the United States’ health care economy is significant; the reality is that communities
with asthmatics who have lower education and income levels produce a higher socioeconomic burden
(Canonica et al., 2007). It has been reported that “the total hospitalization cost due to asthma as a
primary diagnosis was approximately $47 million and due to asthma as any diagnosis was
approximately $407 million” (Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, 2002, p. 1) for
Missourians in 2000.
One major issue in the education of asthmatics is the utilization of care. Barriers to utilization of
health care include poor information dissemination to asthmatics, unavailable continuing education
specific to asthma for physicians and allied health professionals, inadequate asthma training for health
care providers, lack of access to health care, lack of health insurance, and shortages of health care
providers. As a direct result, “asthmatic patients are subject to longer travel distances for health care
services, less public transportation and fewer health care facilities and personnel per capita” (Ownby,

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2005, p. S20). Poor education provided to asthmatic patients can have major implications. Zayas and
McLean (2007) sponsored four town hall meetings and four focus groups in an urban minority
community in western New York. This study focused on the participants’ perception of asthma, how
they cope with asthma and how they learned about asthma. In this study, respondents stated that poor
communication with their physician and inadequate access to medical care as the major barrier to
asthma education. The authors quoted one participant as stating, “I’ve learned more about asthma in the
emergency room than from my doctor!” (Zayas & McLean, 2007, p. 763).
Another study produced similar results. This quantitative survey sent to adult asthma sufferers in
western New York focused specifically on the asthmatics’ perception of their knowledge about asthma
management. Various reviews of physician notes and patient skills were conducted, as well as asthma
classification.
To illustrate the knowledge gap of adult asthmatics, the authors presented this evidence: when
asked to classify their asthma according to national guidelines, 38 participants stated that they were
“mild intermittent.” A review of these respondents’ medical charts indicated that only 9 of the 75
participants fell into this category; all others had a more severe asthma classification. The authors also
note that only 8% of participants had knowledge of the asthma action plan as required by national
guidelines and only one participant actually used this plan (Garg, Bidani, Rich, Hershey & Hershey,
2005). The Global Asthma Physician and Patient (GAPP) survey working group reported a more drastic
finding: less than 50% of patients with mild asthma knew that asthma could be fatal (Canonica, et al.,
2007).
The GAPP survey working group conducted a global survey of patients, physicians and other health
care providers in 2005. The surveyed population provided care to approximately 14-30 asthmatic
patients per week. When reviewing the results, the authors found conflicting information when patients
and physicians were asked about the level of asthma education provided during office visits. “When
questioned on perceptions of asthma education, 87% of physicians and 67% of patients said that up to
half of the office visit was devoted to educational issues” (Canonica, et al., 2007, p. 670). In contrast, a
New York study showed that of 6,237 surveyed asthmatics with Medicaid, 89.2% of respondents rated
the overall information provided by their physicians were “good” or “very good” (Anarella, Roohan,
Balistreri & Gesten, 2004, p. 1362).
Regardless of quality, current asthma education efforts show low levels of participation. One study
found that deficiencies in asthma self-management were observed not in persons with specific
sociodemographic characteristics (i.e. age, sex, or ethnicity) but in those with inadequate health literacy
(Paasche-Orlow, Riekert, Bilderback, et al., 2005). Lemaigre, Van den Bergh, Van Hasselt, De Peuter,
Victoir, and Verleden (2005) found that persons with lower levels of education (i.e. high school
education or less) were less likely to participate in structured educational offerings than those with
college education. The authors found no correlation between severity of disease process and
participation but did note that those persons with “more intense subjective asthma symptoms 2 weeks
before recruitment had more chance to participate in our educational program” (Lemaigre, Van den
Bergh, Van Hasselt, De Peuter, Victoir, & Verleden, 2005, p. 3138). Other persons that were more likely
to participate included those with a high perception of personal benefit and those with social influences
encouraging participation (Lemaigre, et al., 2007).
Physicians’ attitudes and actions displayed toward asthmatics can have an impact on participation
in educational programs as well. Adams, Smith and Ruffin (2001) found that patients’ “perception of the
propensity of the physician to involve them in making decisions about their care” (p. 270) impacted both
the patient satisfaction and the likelihood of proper asthma self-management. The authors state that “the
potential importance of this issue is seen in…health related quality of life, work disability and recent
need for health services” (Adams, Smith & Ruffin, p. 270).

Overcoming Barriers to Adult Asthma Education

Unfortunately, simple solutions for overcoming all of these barriers do not exist. As with all educational
endeavors, tackling this problem should be as individualized as possible to assist those with unique

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challenges control their asthma. Specifically, each barrier must be addressed on an individual basis for
the program to be a success. The asthmatic person’s level of health literacy can impact the level of
success of an asthma education project. Educators in the health care environment try to ensure these
persons receive written educational materials and verbal instructions, but these instructions typically are
written at a reading level higher than the individual’s or the use of medical jargon makes the material
hard to understand (Frankel, 2008). The challenge for health educators is to identify those persons at risk
for low health literacy and tailor the methods of delivering health education for it to be more effective
and useful to each individual.
One set of researchers found that a lower level of health literacy is not an insurmountable barrier.
Paasche-Orlow et al. (2005) showed that providing “intense asthma medication education” (p. 984), can
improve comprehension and asthma self-management. These authors recommend the “teach-to-goal”
design that is tailored to the asthmatic adult based on an individual needs assessment (Paasche-Orlow, et
al, 2005).
The ability to be an active participant in one’s health care is in part dependent upon the relationship
with the health care provider and the provider’s educational style. One study found that “a more
participatory style, involving giving asthma patients choices about, control over, and responsibility for
their care, is related to patient satisfaction with interpersonal care” (Adams, Smith, & Ruffin, 2001, p.
268). This style is partly achieved by sessions greater than 20 minutes in length as well as the
development of self-management plans that are constructed cooperatively by the asthmatic and the
health care educator. The longer sessions provide more time for the asthmatic adult to process the
information provided and formulate questions. The co-construction of the asthma plan also gives the
asthmatic a sense of ownership and increases the likelihood that the plan will be followed. The
provider-patient relationship is also important; the same study found that switching providers within a
clinic (i.e. a provider rotation) is counterproductive to building a trusting relationship (Adams, Smith &
Ruffin).
The purpose of most asthma programs is to improve the asthmatic adult’s ability to self-manage
their disease. Simply providing pamphlets or booklets to the asthmatic, however, is not sufficient to
ensure compliance with standards of treatment at home. Tousman, Zeitz, Bristol and Taylor (2006)
noted that acquisition of knowledge and change in health behaviors were influenced by several factors.
For example, the participant needs to be motivated to change. Using Prochaska’s model, the researchers
noted that all of their participants were at the preparation or action stage of motivation (Tousman, et al,
2006). Persons not ready for change will be less successful as these programs are dependent upon a
self-directed learning theory (Hiemstra, 2003).
The ideal asthma education program should be carefully planned with appropriate materials and
structured over a lengthy period of time. McDonald and Gibson (2006) state that four components
should be addressed in each asthma self-management program: “provision of information;
self-monitoring; regular medical review; and provision of written asthma management plan” (p. 29).
The authors note that this can be challenging for the health care provider to achieve, but necessary to
ensure success of the asthma education program (McDonald & Gibson). Follow-up with the participants
is vital to ensuring success at home and strengthening the relationship between educator and program
participant.
Rural or urban, many homes are internet-accessible and persons with asthma can use the World
Wide Web to retrieve information. In light of this, some authors encourage the use of electronic
resources. A personalized, Web-based program for parents of asthmatic children has been implemented
and a clinical trial to determine effectiveness is currently in place (Wise, Gustafson, Sorkness, et al.,
2007). This program encourages both the participation of the child and parent. If successful in this
clinical trial, this tool could hold promise for the education of adult asthmatics as well. While the
internet often provides valuable guidance on many topics, caution must be used when recommending
this resource as a source of asthma information. Not all websites are reputable and some offer
misinformation in the diagnosis, treatment and management of asthma.

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Lack of participation or minimal or sporadic participation defeats the goals of the programs currently in
place (Lemaigre, et al, 2005). Lemaigre, et al, suggest emphasizing the personal benefits to the
asthmatic, including the asthmatic’s social network and taking into consideration the socioeconomic
barriers. Other researchers recommend increased community awareness and support for adult
asthmatics; they assert that this can result in increased compliance and participation in asthma programs
(Ownby, 2005; Zayas & McLean, 2007). Lemaigre, et al., found that “patients experiencing higher
social pressure to take better care of their asthma had approximately three times more chance to intent to
participate” (p. 3138).

Conclusion
The burden that asthma places on the United States is substantial. Missed school and work days, as well
as more visits to the emergency room and in-patient hospital visits, impacts the economy. Asthma
education programs are predominantly designed to assist asthmatic adults in managing their own disease
process and limiting the amount of emergent or hospital care necessary. However, not all educators take
the participants’ educational barriers into account when planning the program. The successful program
includes a trusting relationship between provider and participant; sufficient time for the processing of
the new knowledge and formulation of questions; materials that are easily accessible and readable by the
participants; cooperative development of an asthma plan; and follow-up to ensure compliance with the
plan. Improved educational programs for asthmatics can significantly lower the burden currently caused
by this incurable but treatable disease.

References
Adams, R. J., Smith, B. J., & Ruffin, R. E. (2001). Impact of the physician’s participatory style in
asthma outcomes and patient satisfaction. Annals of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, 86(3),
263-271.
American Lung Association. (2007). Estimated prevalence and incidence of lung disease by lung
association territory. Retrieved February 3, 2008, from
http://www.lungusa.org/atf/cf/%7B7A8D42C2-FCCA-4604-8ADE-7F5D5E762256%7D/EST
PREVLUNGDISEASE0407.PDF
Anarella, J., Roohan, P., Balistreri, E., & Gesten, F. (2004). A survey of Medicaid recipients with
asthma: Perceptions of self-management, access and care. Chest, 125(4), 1359-1367.
Canonica, G. W., Baena-Cagnani, C. E., Blaiss, M. S., Dahl, R., Kaliner, M. A., & Valovirta, E. J.
(2007). Unmet needs in asthma: Global Asthma Physician and Patient (GAPP) survey: global
adult findings. Allergy, 62(6), 668-674.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2007). Asthma self-management education among youths
and adults-United States, 2003. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 56(35), 912-915.
Fuhlbrigge, A. L., Adams, R. J., Guilbert, T. W., Grant, E., Lozano, P., Janson, S. L., et al. (2002). The
burden of asthma in the United States: Level and distribution are dependent on interpretation of
the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program guidelines. American Journal of
Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 166(8), 1044-1049.
Garg, V. K., Bidani, R., Rich, E. P., Hershey, E., & Hershey, C. O. (2005). Asthma patients’ knowledge,
perception, and adherence to asthma guidelines. Journal of Asthma, 42(8), 633-638.
Grbich, C. (2007). Qualitative data analysis: An introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Hiemstra, R. (2003). More than three decades of self-directed learning: From whence have we
come? Adult Learning, 14(4), 5-8.
Lemaigre, V., Van den Bergh, O., Van Hasselt, V., De Peuter, S., Victoir, A., & Verleden, G. (2005).
Understanding participation in an asthma self-management program. Chest, 128(5), 3133-3139.
McDonald, V. M., & Gibson, P. G. (2006). Asthma self-management education. Chronic Respiratory
Disease, 3(1), 29-37.
Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services. (2002). Asthma in Missouri. Jefferson City, MO:
Unit of Chronic Disease Control.

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Olajos-Clow, J., Costello, E., & Lougheed, M. D. (2005). Perceived control and quality of life in asthma:
Impact of asthma education. Journal of Asthma, 42(9), 751-756.
Ownby, D. R. (2005). Asthma in rural America. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology, 29(Suppl. 2),
17-22.
Paasche-Orlow, M. K., Riekert, K. A., Bilderback, A., Chanmugam, A., Hill, P., Rand, C. S, et al.
(2005). Tailored education may reduce health literacy disparities in asthma self-management.
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 172(8), 980-986.
Tousman, S., Zeitz, H., Bristol, C., & Taylor, L. (2006). A pilot study on a cognitive-behavioral asthma
self-management program for adults. Chronic Respiratory Disease, 3(2), 73-82.

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Contributing Authors
Judit Kerekes, EdD is an assistant professor of Mathematics Education at the College of Staten Island, City
University of New York. Dr. Kerekes is a graduate of the EdD, Education, MA Mathematics, and MA
Mathematics & Physics programs at Eotvos University in Budapest, Hungary. She is the author of several
publications, and coauthor of Integrating Mathematics, Science and technology in the elementary classroom
with Lyublinskaya.

Maryann Diglio, MA served as an elementary teacher in a Catholic school and enrolled in the graduate
teacher program at College of Staten Island. She graduated with an MA in elementary education from CSI.

Kathleen P. King, EdD is Professor of Education at Fordham University in New York City. Dr. King has an
EdD and MEd in higher education and adult education from Widener University, Chester, PA. She has
published many books and research articles. Recent books in 2009 include, Handbook of Evolving Research in
Transformative Learning: 10th Anniversary Edition and Podcasting for Teachers (2nd ed.) with Gura. She is
popular keynote and conference speaker.

Nozella Brown, a Family and Consumer Sciences Extension Agent, has worked with low-resource
audiences as a nutrition educator for six years. She coordinates the county Family Nutrition Program
(FNP), a USDA-funded initiative for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), charged
with providing nutrition education for families with youth who qualify for supplemental food assistance.
She earned her B.S. degree in Home Economics and Journalism and her M.S. in Adult, Occupational
and Continuing Education, both from Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS. Currently, she is a
graduate student in the Kansas State University Adult Education doctoral program.

Dr. Enid Conley is currently a professor of Criminal Justice at Johnson & Wales University, at the
North Miami Campus. She is a retired law enforcement officer whose interest is in social justice, public
service, education, women’s issues, and Native American Indian issues. Dr. Conley received her PhD in
Educational Leadership from Florida Atlantic University.

Dr. Valerie C. Bryan is Professor in Educational Leadership in Adult Education at Florida Atlantic
University teaching courses, consulting, and serving on doctoral dissertations (49 to date) in
management, adult learning, administration, aging, and in integration of technology. Much of her
service work addresses disenfranchised populations.

Dr. Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim is a Jordanian-American, currently teaching as an Assistant

Professor of English language and literature at Al-Balqa'a Applied University in Jordan. He graduated
from Texas A&M University, College Station in 1992. His degree was in English with emphasis on
Socio-Linguistics. He participated in numerous academic conferences both in the U.S and abroad. His
research interests include Socio-Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, Psycho-Linguistics, and
Cross-Cultural Communication. He has lately developed a special research interest in the application of
modern technology to new methods of teaching English to speakers of other languages.

Alex Kumi-Yeboah is currently pursuing doctoral studies in adult education at the University of South
Florida, Tampa, Florida. He is an international student from Ghana, West Africa where he worked with
local NGO HIV/AIDS volunteer program. His research interests are learning styles of Black African
students, adult education and prevention of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa, poverty and rural adult
education. ([email protected])

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Tim Speicher, MS, ATC, LAT, CSCS, is a Clinical Associate Professor in the Human and Movement
and Sports Science Program at Sacred Heart University in Fairfield, Connecticut and a PhD candidate in
the Adult Learning Program at the University of Connecticut. He has been an allied health care educator
of undergraduate students for over 12 years.

Marijke Kehrhahn, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Adult Learning at the University of Connecticut
and Associate Dean of UConn’s Neag School of Education. Her research focus is professional
development of pre-service and in-service professionals and the transfer of learning from the classroom
to employment settings.

Shawna Strickland, MEd, RRT-NPS, AE-C, is a doctoral candidate in the adult education program at
the University of Missouri-St. Louis. She is also a Clinical Assistant Professor and the Director of the
Respiratory Therapy Program in the School of Health Professions at the University of Missouri in
Columbia, Missouri. Her research interests include asthma education, health ethics and distance
learning technologies.

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