Mixtures, Elements and Compounds ● The particles that make up the

● Mixtures – two or more substances mixture are very small and not
that are not chemically combined easily recognizable.
with each other and can be Examples of homogeneous mixtures
separated by physical means. The Milk, toothpaste, and mayonnaise are
substances in a mixture retain their homogeneous mixtures. They are also
individual properties. colloids.
○ Solutions – a special kind of Colloids
mixture where one ● In a colloid the particles are mixed
substance dissolves in together but not dissolved.
another. ● The particles are relatively large
● Elements – simplest form of pure and are kept permanently
substance. They cannot be broken suspended.
into anything else by physical or ● A colloid will not separate upon
chemical means. standing.
● Compounds – pure substances that ● The particles are constantly
are the unions of two or more colliding, and this allows a colloid
elements. They can be broken into to scatter light – thus colloids o en
simpler substances by chemical seem cloudy.
means. Solutions
Examples of heterogeneous mixtures ● A solution is a type of
● Sand and pebbles homogeneous mixture formed
● Oil and water when one substance dissolves in
● Powdered iron and powdered sulfur another.
Is it uniform throughout? ● It is the best mixed of all mixtures.
● If the answer is yes, the matter is ● A solution always has a substance
homogeneous (looks the same that is dissolved and a substance
throughout). that does the dissolving.
● That leads us to another question. ● The substance that is dissolved is
Can it be separated by physical means? the solute and the substance that
● If the answer is yes, the matter is a does the dissolving is the solvent.
homogeneous mixture or solution. Water as a solvent
Homogeneous Mixtures ● Many liquid solutions contain
● A mixture that appears to be the water as the solvent.
same throughout. ● Ocean water is basically a water
● It is “well mixed.” solution that contains many salts.
 ● Body fluids are also water solutions ● In 1813, a system of representing
Alloys elements with symbols was
Stainless steel is a mixture of iron and introduced.
chromium. ○ Each symbol consists of one
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. or two letters.
○ Two letters are needed for a
Can it be separated by physical means? chemical symbol when the
● If the answer is no, the matter is a first letter of that element’s
pure substance. name has already been used.
○ An element Compounds
○ Or a compound ● Compounds are also pure
Elements substances.
● Elements are the simplest pure ● But compounds are made from
substance. more than one element.
○ An element can not be ● Water is a compound.
changed into a simpler ● Water can be broken down into
substance by heating or any simpler substances – hydrogen and
chemical process. oxygen.
● The smallest particle of an element
that has the properties of that States of Matter
element is called an atom. Properties of Matter
○ An atom is the basic ● Matter Anything that has mass and
building block of matter. takes up space (it has volume)
● There are more than one hundred ● All matter is made up of atoms.
known elements in the universe States of matter
listed on the periodic table of ● Natural states of matter
elements. ● Solid
○ These elements combine in ● Liquid
such a way to create millions ● Gas
of compounds. ● Plasma
Elements
● All elements are made of atoms. ● Bose-Einstein Condensate –
● Atoms of the same element are man-made
alike.
● Atoms of different elements are Solid
different.
 ● Particles are packed tightly Describe the characteristics of the chalk as
together shown on the picture.
● Has definite shape and volume ● The chalk is color white
● Has mass ● It is cylindrical in shape
Liquid ● This refers to the characteristic or
● Particles are more loosely packed trait of matter that can be
and are able to flow around each observed or perceived with our
other senses easily without changing its
● Takes the shape of its container chemical composition.
● Has volume ● We use our senses to describe
Gas physical properties: sight, touch,
● Has no definite shape or volume smell
● Compressible Can be classified into two:
Plasma ● Intensive Physical Property
● Common state of matter in the ○ Does not depend on the
universe amount
● Consists of highly charged ○ Malleability, diffusion and
particles with extremely high ductility
kinetic energy ● Extensive Physical Property
● The noble gases are o en used to ○ Characteristic or trait of
make glowing signs by using matter which is dependent
electricity to ionize them to the on the amount or quantity.
plasma state. ○ Examples of extensive
Bose-Einstein Condensate physical properties of
● Created by scientists in 1995 matter are size, mass,
● Used to study quantum mechanics volume, density, length and
on a macroscopic level width.
● has many of the properties of a
superfluid Chemical Property
● These are the observable ● This is the characteristic or trait
characteristics, traits or qualities that can be observed when a
of matter. matter reacts to another
● Physical Property substance
● Chemical Property ● Combustibility/flammability and
Physical Property oxidation like rusting are
 examples of chemical properties ● Based on differences in boiling
of matter. points of substances involved
Uses of the Properties of Matter Evaporation can be used to separate a solute
● First is to avoid accident because from the solvent in a solution
of the wrong choice of substance. ● Chromatography
● Second is get the best result by ○ Separates components of a
using the right material. mixture based on ability of
each component to be
Separation Methods drawn across the surface of
Separating Mixtures another material
● Substances in a mixture are ○ Mixture is usually liquid
physically combined, so processes and is usually drawn across
bases on differences in physical chromatography paper
properties are used to separate ○ Separation occurs because
component various components travel
● Numerous techniques have been at different rates
developed to separate mixtures to ○ Components with strongest
study components attraction for paper travel
● Filtration the slowest
○ Used to separate ○ Chromatography ( colour
heterogeneous mixtures writing) is used to separate
composed of solids and small amounts of chemicals
liquids so that they can be
○ Uses a porous barrier to analysed.
separate the solid from the ○ Different substances or
liquid different components move
○ Liquid passes through at different speeds through
leaving the solid in the a strip of wet paper a gel or
filter paper a gas.
Filtration can be used to separate ● Centrifuging
an insoluble substance from a ●
soluble substance ○ Centrifuges rotate
Distillation containers of
● Used to separate homogeneous ○ liquids to separate
mixtures suspended
 ○ materials with different ○ Decanting is done to
densities. separate particulates from
○ Centrifuges separate a liquid by allowing the
different components of solids to settle to the
human blood or milk and bottom of the mixture and
to clarify solutions. A high pouring off the
speed separator can rotate particle-free part of the
at great speed to separate liquid. Another method is
fat (cream) from milk. to allow two immiscible
○ The spin drier in washing liquids to separate and the
machines is a type of lighter liquid is poured off.
centrifuge that throws out ● Sieving
the liquid by the ○ a porous material is used to
"centrifugal force" of the separate particles of
rotation. different sizes.
A Magnet ○ method is most commonly
Can be used to separate a magnetic used to effect gross
substance from a non-magnetic substance separations, as of liquids
from suspended crystals or
● Evaporating other solids.
● Crystallization ○ to accelerate filtration,
○ Separation technique that pressure usually is applied.
results in the formation of ○ a series of sieves is stacked,
pure solid particles from a with the screen of largest
solution containing the hole size at the top
dissolved substance ● Flotation
○ As one substance ● Physical Means
evaporates, the dissolved PROPERTIES OF MATTER
substance comes out of Describing Matter
solution and collects as Physical Properties
crystals ● A property of matter that can be
○ Produces highly pure solids observed or measured without
○ Rocky candy is an example changing the identity of the
of this matter.
● Dissolving ● Physical properties identify
● Decantation matter.
 ○ Examples include but are ● The ability to dissolve in another
not limited to: substance.
■ Density ● Example:
■ Malleability ○ Sugar or salt dissolve in
■ Ductility water
■ Solubility ● Three ways to increase solubility
■ State ○ Heat or make warmer
■ Thermal ○ Grind or smash
Conductivity ○ Stir or mix
● Density ● State of Matter
● Amount of mass in a given volume ● The physical form in which a
● A substance is always the same at substance exists at room
a given pressure and temperature temperature, such as:
regardless of the size of the ○ Solid – matter has a
sample of the substance. definite shape and volume
● The density of one substance is ○ Liquid – matter takes the
usually different from that of shape of its container and
another substance. has a definite volume
● Density equals mass divided by ○ Gas – matter changes in
volume. both shape and volume
○ D=m/v ● Thermal Conductivity
● Malleability ● The ability to transfer thermal
● The ability to be pounded into energy from one area to another.
thin sheets. ○ Examples:
○ Example: ○ Plastic foam is a poor
○ Aluminum can be rolled or conductor, so a hot drink
pounded into sheets to won’t burn your hand.
make foil. ○ The inside of the toaster
● Ductility (hot coils)
● The ability to be drawn or pulled Chemical Property
into a wire ● A property of matter that
○ Example describes a substance based on its
○ Copper in wiring – ability to change into a new
soldering wires or joints substance with different
● Solubility properties.
● Combustibility
 ● Flammability changed back by other chemical
● Reactivity means)
○ Acids ● Common Examples:
○ Bases ○ Reactivity – Oxidation
○ Oxidation (rust) on a bicycle
● Can be observed with your senses. ○ pH (Acid / Base) –
● Are Not as easy to observe as Effervescent tablets
physical properties ○ Flammability – Burnt wood
○ Example: ○ Combustibility - Fireworks
■ Flammability – Only 5 Signs of a Chemical Change
when wood burns ● The only sure way to know there
■ Combustibility – has been a chemical change is the
Only when fireworks observance of a new substance
explode formed
■ Reactivity – Only ● Sometimes that is hard to do, so
when iron Oxidizes look for the signs…….
(rust) Sign 1 a Chemical Change
● Odor Production-this is an odor
Physical Change far different from what it should
● A change that affects one or more smell like
physical properties of a substance. ● Ex: Rotting eggs, food in fridge,
● Do Not form new substances. decomposing flesh
nd
● Can o en be Undone 2 Sign of a Chemical Change
○ Example Butter on counter ● Change in Temperature
can be placed back in ● Exothermic-When energy is
refrigerator. released do during the chemical
○ Change of State change ex: wood burning
■ Solid to Liquid Change in Temperature
■ Liquid to Gas ● Endothermic- Energy is absorbed
Chemical Change causing a decrease in temperature
● A change that occurs when one or of the reactant material ex: cold
more substances are changed into pack in first aid kit
rd
entirely new substances with 3 Sign of a Chemical Change
different properties. Change in Color
● Can Not change back under
normal conditions (some can be
Ex: fruit changing color when it ripens, not: 23 400 km (three,
leaves changing color in the Autumn, dying four, five)
your hair Scientific notation eliminates uncertainty
th 4
4 sign of a Chemical Change ● 2.3400 x 10 (five S.F.)
4
● Formation of Bubbles ● 2.340 x 10 (four S.F.)
4
● This can indicate the presence of ● 2.34 x 10 (three S.F.)
a gas. Bubbles produced when ● 23 400. also indicates five S.F.
boiling water is not a chemical ● 23 400.0 has six S.F.
change. Note: significant figures and decimal places
th
5 Sign of a Chemical Change are not the same thing
● Formation of a Precipitate ● 38.57 has four significant figures
● When two liquids are combined but two decimal places
and a solid is produced ● 283 has three significant figures
SIGNIFICANT figures but no decimal places
Two types of numbers: exact and inexact. ● 0.0012 has two significant figures
● Exact numbers are obtained by but four decimal places
counting or by definitions – a ● A balance always weighs to a fixed
dozen of wine, hundred cents in a number of decimal places. Always
dollar record all of them
● All measured numbers are inexact. ○ As the weight increases, the
RULES OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES number of significant
● Nonzero digits are always figures in the measurement
significant 38.57 (four) 283 will increase, but the
(three) number of decimal places is
● Zeroes are sometimes significant constant
and sometimes not ○ 0.0123 g has 3 S.F.; 10.0123
○ Zeroes at the beginning: g has 6 S.F.
never significant 0.052 Significant figure rules
(two) ● Rule for addition/subtraction: The
○ Zeroes between: always last digit retained in the sum or
6.08 (three) difference is determined by the
○ Zeroes at the end a er position of the first doubtful digit
decimal: always 39.0 37.24 + 10.3 = 47.5
(three) 1002 + 0.23675 = 1002
○ Zeroes at the end with no 225.618 + 0.23 = 225.85
decimal point may or may ● Position is key
 ● Rule for multiplication/division: ● Accuracy – Compares a
The product contains the same measurement to the true value
number of figures as the number Example: Accuracy
containing the least sig figs used to ● Who is more accurate when
obtain it. measuring a book that has a true
12.34 x 1.23 = 15.1782 length of 17.0 cm?
= 15.2 to 3 S.F. Susan:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
0.123/12.34 = 0.0099675850891
= 0.00997 to 3 S.F. Amy:
● Number of S.F. is key 15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
Rounding up or down? ● Precision = describes how closely
● 5 or above goes up measurements are to each other
○ 37.45 → 37.5 (3 S.F.) and how carefully measurements
○ 123.7089 → 123.71(5 S.F.); 124 were made
(3 S.F.) ● Which set is more precise?
● < 5 goes down 18.2 , 18.4 , 18.35
○ 37.45 → 37 (2 S.F.) 17.9 , 18.3 , 18.85
○ 123.7089 → 123.7 (4 S.F.) 16.8 , 17.2 , 19.44
Scientific notation simplifies large and small Example: Precision
numbers Who is more precise when measuring the
6
● 1,000,000 = 1 x 10 same 17.0 cm book?
-6
● 0.000 001 = 1 x 10 Susan:
5
● 234,000 = 2.34 x 10 17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
-3
● 0.00234 = 2.34 x 10
Multiplying and dividing numbers in Amy:
scientific notation 15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
n m n+m
● (A x 10 )x(B x 10 ) = (A x B) x 10
n m n-m
● (A x 10 )/(B x 10 ) = (A/B) x 10
Adding and subtracting
n n n
● (A x 10 ) + (B x 10 ) = (A + B) x 10
●
n n n
● (A x 10 ) - (B x 10 ) = (A - B) x 10

Accuracy & Precision

 Set up your density problems like this:
Given: Mass = 35 grams
Mass, Volume, & Density
3
Mass Unknown: Density (g/ cm )
3
Measurement of the amount of matter Volume = 7 cm
(or stuff) in an object Formula: D = M / V
○ Measured in grams (g)
● There are 3 states of matter:
● Solid
● Liquid Ways to Affect Density
● Gas Change Mass AND Keep Volume Same
Volume Increase the mass à increase density
Measurement of the amount of space Decrease the mass à decrease in density
an object takes up Which container has more density?
○ Measured in milliliters (ml) A
3
or cm
Density B
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Change Volume AND Keep Mass Same
It is a measure of how tightly packed and how Increase the volume à decrease density
heavy the molecules are in an object. Density Decrease the volume à increase density
is the amount of matter within a certain Which container has more density?
volume. A
To find the density
1- Find the mass of the object B
2- Find the volume of the object Liquid Layers
3- Divide If you pour together liquids that
Density = Mass g don’t mix and have different densities,
Volume c³ they will form liquid layers.
ALWAYS REMEMBER UNITS! The liquid with the highest density
To find density: will be on the bottom.
1. Find the mass of the object The liquid with the lowest density
2. Find the volume of the object will be on the top.
3. Divide : Density = Mass / Volume Objects or substances with MORE
Ex. If the mass of an object is 35 grams density will sink below objects or
3
and it takes up 7 cm of space, calculate substances with LESS density
the density.
 ○ Which do you think is 1. Each element is composed of
MORE dense, extremely small particles called
Water or Oil??? atoms.
The oil is less dense than the water, so it’s 2. All atoms of a given element are
on top. The superball is less dense than identical to one another in mass
water, but more dense than oil, so it sinks and other properties, but the atoms
to the bottom of the oil layer, yet floats on of one element are different from
the top of the water layer. the atoms of all other elements.
3. Atoms of an element are not
Liquid 5 changed into atoms of a different
element by chemical reactions;
Liquid 3
atoms are neither created nor
Liquid 1
destroyed in chemical reactions.
Liquid 2 Law of Conservation of Mass

Liquid 4 ● The total mass of substances

The density of five liquids are measured as present at the end of a chemical

follows: process is the same as the mass of

○ Liquid 1: 1.0 g/mL substances present before the

○ Liquid 2: 1.38 g/mL process took place.

○ Liquid 3: 0.77 g/mL ● This law was one of the laws on

○ Liquid 4: 2.95 g/mL which Dalton’s atomic theory was

○ Liquid 5: 0.056 g/mL based.

Draw a picture of all 5 liquids in a ● Lavoisier

test tube how they would layer according 4. Atoms of more than one element

to density combine to form compounds; a

given compound always has the
same relative number and kind of
atoms.

My fourth postulate is an extension of a law

Atomic Theory of Matter
formulated by the
The theory that atoms are the
French chemist, Joseph Proust (1754-1826), in
fundamental building blocks of matter
1799. Proust’s
reemerged in the early nineteenth century,
Law of Definite Proportions states:
championed by John Dalton.
Dalton’s Postulates
Different samples of the same compound atom itself was made up of smaller
always contain its particles.
constituent elements in the same proportion ● Electrons and cathode rays
by mass. ● Radioactivity
● Nucleus, protons, and neutrons
If we analyzed any number of samples of The Electron (Cathode Rays)
sodium chloride, NaCl, ● Streams of negatively charged
collected from different sources, we would particles were found to emanate
find in each and every from cathode tubes, causing
sample the same ratio BY MASS of sodium fluorescence.
(Na) to chlorine (Cl). ● J. J. Thomson is credited with their
discovery (1897).
Thus, if the ratio of the MASSES of different Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment
elements in a compound (Electrons)
is fixed, the ratio of the ATOMS of these ■ Once the charge/mass ratio of the
elements in the compound electron was known, determination
must also be constant. of either the charge or the mass of
Law of Multiple Proportions an electron would yield the other.
● If two elements, A and B, form ■ Robert Millikan determined the
more than one compound, the charge on the electron in 1909.
masses of B that combine with a Radioactivity
given mass of A are in the ratio of ● Radioactivity is the spontaneous
small whole numbers. emission of high-energy radiation
● Dalton predicted this law and by an atom.
observed it while developing his ● It was first observed by Henri
atomic theory. Becquerel.
● When two or more compounds ● Marie and Pierre Curie also studied
exist from the same elements, they it.
can ● Its discovery showed that the atom
not have the same relative number had more subatomic particles and
of atoms. energy associated with it.
Discovery of Subatomic Particles ● Three types of radiation were
● In Dalton’s view, the atom was the discovered by Ernest Rutherford:
smallest particle possible. Many ○ a particles (positively
discoveries led to the fact that the charged)
 ○ b particles (negatively ● Atoms have extremely small
charged, like electrons) masses.
○ g rays (uncharged) ● The heaviest known atoms have a
–22
The Atom, circa 1900 mass of approximately 4 × 10 g.
● The prevailing theory was that of ● A mass scale on the atomic level is
the “plum pudding” model, put used, where an atomic mass unit
forward by Thomson. (amu) is the base unit.
–24
● It featured a positive sphere of ● 1 amu = 1.66054 × 10 g
matter with negative electrons Atomic Weight Measurement
embedded in it. ● Atomic and molecular weight can
Discovery of the Nucleus be measured with great accuracy
Ernest Rutherford shot a particles at a using a mass spectrometer.
thin sheet of gold foil and observed the ● Masses of atoms are compared to
pattern of scatter of the particles. the carbon atom with 6 protons and
The Nuclear Atom 6 neutrons (C-12).
● Rutherford postulated a very small, Symbols of Elements
dense nucleus with the electrons ● Elements are represented by a one
around the outside of the atom. or two letter symbol. This is the
● Most of the volume is empty space. symbol for carbon.
● Atoms are very small; 1 – 5 Å or ● All atoms of the same element have
100 – 500 pm. the same number of protons, which
● Other subatomic particles (protons is called the atomic number, Z. It is
and neutrons) were discovered. written as a subscript BEFORE the
Subatomic Particles symbol.
● Protons (+1) and electrons (–1) have ● The mass number is the total
a charge; neutrons are neutral. number of protons and neutrons in
● Protons and neutrons have the nucleus of an atom. It is written
essentially the same mass (relative as a superscript BEFORE the
mass 1). The mass of an electron is symbol.
so small we ignore it (relative mass Isotopes
0). ● Isotopes are atoms of the same
● Protons and neutrons are found in element with different masses.
the nucleus; electrons travel around ● Isotopes have different numbers of
the nucleus. neutrons, but the same number of
Atomic Mass protons.
 ● Atomic number (Z) = number of
protons in nucleus
● Mass number (A) = number of
protons + number of neutrons
● = atomic number
(Z) + number of neutrons
● Isotopes are atoms of the same
element (X) with different numbers
of neutrons in the nucleus
LESSON 2
Atomic Weight
● Because in the real world we use
large amounts of atoms and
molecules, we use average masses
in calculations.
● An average mass is found using all
isotopes of an element weighted by ● The rows on the periodic table are
their relative abundances. This is called periods.
the element’s atomic weight. ● Columns are called groups.
● That is, Atomic Weight = Ʃ ● Elements in the same group have
[(isotope mass) × (fractional natural similar chemical properties.
abundance)]. Note: the sum is for ● Metals are on the le side of the
ALL isotopes of an element. periodic table.
Periodic Table ● Some properties of metals include
● The periodic table is a systematic ● shiny luster.
organization of the elements. ● conducting heat and electricity.
● Elements are arranged in order of ● solidity (except mercury).
atomic number. ● Nonmetals are on the right side of
● Unlike the way we write isotopes, the periodic table (with the
the atomic number is at the TOP of exception of H).
a box in the periodic table. ● They can be solid (like carbon),
● The atomic weight of an element liquid (like bromine), or gas (like
appears at the BOTTOM of the neon) at room temperature.
box. (They are not shown on this ● Elements on the steplike line are
version of the Periodic Table.) metalloids (except Al, Po, and At).
 ● Their properties are sometimes like its empirical formula. The converse
metals and sometimes like is not true!
nonmetals. A molecular formula shows the exact number
Periodicity of atoms of each element in the smallest unit
When one looks at the chemical of a substance
properties of elements, one notices a An empirical formula shows the simplest
repeating pattern of reactivities. whole-number ratio of the atoms in a
LESSON 3 substance
Chemical Formulas
● The subscript to the right of the
symbol of an element tells the
number of atoms of that element in
one molecule of the compound.
● Molecular compounds are
composed of molecules and almost
always contain only nonmetals.
Diatomic Molecules
● These seven elements occur
naturally as molecules containing
two atoms:
○ Hydrogen
○ Nitrogen
○ Oxygen
○ Fluorine
○ Chlorine
○ Bromine
○ Iodine
Types of Formulas
● Empirical formulas give the lowest
whole-number ratio of atoms of
each element in a compound.
● Molecular formulas give the exact
number of atoms of each element
in a compound.
Types of Formulas
● If we know the molecular formula
● Structural formulas show the
of a compound, we can determine
order in which atoms are attached.
 ● Perspective drawings also show
the three-dimensional order of the
atoms in a compound. These are
also demonstrated using models.
Ions
● When an atom of a group of atoms Common Anions
loses or gains electrons, it becomes
an ion.
● Cations are formed when at least
one electron is lost. Monatomic
cations are formed by metals.
● Anions are formed when at least
one electron is gained. Monatomic
anions are formed by nonmetals.
● An atom or group of atoms having
a net positive or negative charge.
A monatomic ion contains only one atom.
+ - 2+ 2- 3+ 3-
Na , Cl , Ca , O , Al , N
A polyatomic ion contains more than one
atom
- - + -
OH , CN , NH4 , NO3
Common Cations

Ionic Compounds
● Ionic compounds (such as NaCl)
are generally formed between
metals and nonmetals.

●
● Electrons are transferred from the
metal to the nonmetal. The
oppositely charged ions attract
 each other. Only empirical ● Both CrO3 and CrCl3 have an
formulas are written. overall charge of zero.
2-
Writing Formulas ● The oxide anion, O , in CrO3 has a
-
-2 charge. The chloride anion, Cl ,
● Because compounds are electrically in CrCl3 has a -1 charge.
neutral, one can determine the ● Use algebra to set up an expression
formula of a compound this way: to solve for the charge on Cr for
○ The charge on the cation each compound:
becomes the subscript on ○ Let x = charge on Cr in
the anion. CrCl3.
○ The charge on the anion ○ (1)x + (3)(-1) = 0 OR
becomes the subscript on x + (3)(-1) = 0
the cation. ○ x + (3)(-1) = 0
○ If these subscripts are not in ○ x - 3 = 0 ; x = 3 ® This is
the lowest whole-number the charge on
ratio, divide them by the ○
greatest common factor. ○
Formulas of Ionic Compounds ○ Cr in CrCl3.
● Usually the same as their LESSON 4
empirical formulas Inorganic Nomenclature
● Made up of ions -- actually, a 1:1 ● Write the name of the cation. If the
ratio of cations to anions cation can have more than one
● Ionic compound itself is electrically possible charge, write the charge as
neutral -- SUM OF POSITIVE and a Roman numeral in parentheses.
NEGATIVE CHARGES MUST ● If the anion is an element, change
EQUAL ZERO!! its ending to -ide; if the anion is a
● PRINCIPLE OF CHARGE polyatomic ion, simply write the
BALANCE applied to formulas of name of the polyatomic ion.
ionic compounds: Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
● The subscript of the cation is ● When there are two oxyanions
numerically equal to the charge on involving the same element
the anion, AND the subscript of the ○ the one with fewer oxygens
anion is numerically equal to the ends in -ite.
charge on the cation. ○ the one with more oxygens
CHARGE BALANCE: How it works ends in -ate.
Examples: CrO3 and CrCl3
 − −
■ NO2 : nitrite; NO3 : ○ HClO3: chloric acid
nitrate ○ HClO4: perchloric acid
2− 2−
■ SO3 : sulfite; SO4 : Nomenclature of Binary Molecular
sulfate Compounds
■ ● The name of the element farther to
● Central atoms on the second row the le in the periodic table (closer
have a bond to, at most, three to the metals) or lower in the same
oxygens; those on the third row group is usually written first.
take up to four. ● A prefix is used to denote the
● Charges increase as you go from number of atoms of each element
right to le . in the compound (mono- is not used
● The one with the second fewest on the first element listed,
−
oxygens ends in -ite: ClO2 is however).
chlorite. ● The ending on the second element
● The one with the second most is changed to -ide.
−
oxygens ends in -ate: ClO3 is ● CO2: carbon dioxide
chlorate. ● CCl4: carbon tetrachloride
● The one with the fewest oxygens ● If the prefix ends with a or o and
has the prefix hypo- and ends in the name of the element begins
−
-ite: ClO is hypochlorite. with a vowel, the two successive
● The one with the most oxygens has vowels are o en elided into one.
the prefix per- and ends in -ate: ● N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide
−
ClO4 is perchlorate. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
Acid Nomenclature ● Organic chemistry is the study of
● If the anion in the acid ends in -ide, carbon.
change the ending to -ic acid and ● Organic chemistry has its own
add the prefix hydro-. system of nomenclature.
○ HCl: hydrochloric acid ● The simplest hydrocarbons
○ HBr: hydrobromic acid (compounds containing only
○ HI: hydroiodic acid carbon and hydrogen) are alkanes.
● If the anion ends in -ite, change the ● The first part of the names just
ending to -ous acid. listed correspond to the number of
○ HClO: hypochlorous acid carbons (meth- = 1, eth- = 2, prop- =
○ HClO2: chlorous acid 3, etc.).
● If the anion ends in -ate, change ● When a hydrogen in an alkane is
the ending to -ic acid. replaced with something else (a
 functional group, like -OH in the When polyatomic ions are used, simply use
compounds above), the name is the name of the polyatomic ion in the
derived from the name of the compound.
alkane. You can also determine the formula of an
● The ending denotes the type of ionic compound from its name. To do this,
compound. you will need to use what you already know
○ An alcohol ends in -ol. about the Periodic Table.
Naming Ionic Compounds Step 1: Write the symbol of the metal ion.
Rules for Naming Ions Step 2: Write the symbol of the nonmetal ion.
When metals lose electrons they become ions, Step 3: Determine the charges using the
but their name does not change. periodic table.
When nonmetals gain electrons they become Step 4: Determine the formula from the ions.
ions, and their name does change. This is just as easy to do with polyatomic
1. The names of metals do not change. ions. You just need to use the name of the
2. Changing the name of nonmetals: polyatomic ion.
Step 1: Write the symbol of the metal ion.
Step 2: Write the formula of the polyatomic
There are also ions that form a er elements
ion.
have shared electrons. These ions are known
Step 3: Determine the charges using the
as polyatomic ions, and each polyatomic ion
periodic table and the table of polyatomic
already has a name.
ions.
Step 4: Determine the formula from the ions.
Be very careful that you do not mix up the
names of ions. This is very common for
beginners to naming.
The charges of the transition metals are
important when you are determining the
formula of an ionic compound.
Step 1: Write the symbol of the cation.
Steps for Naming Ionic Compounds
Step 2: Write the symbol of the anion.
CaBr2
Step 3: Determine the charges using the
calcium bromide
periodic table and the roman numerals.
Step 1: Write the name of the metal ion.
Step 4: Determine the formula from the ions.
Step 2: Write the name of the nonmetal ion.
Helpful Hint:
Step 3: YOU ARE DONE! It is that easy.
If the ion ends in –ide, it is probably from the To show the correct ratio of elements, we use
periodic table. If the ion ends in –ate or –ite, prefixes.
it is a polyatomic ion.
Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
Chemical reactions occur when atoms gain,
lose, or share electrons.
Sharing electrons creates a covalent bond
Nonmetals can share electrons to form a
covalent bond.
This creates a molecule.
Determining if a compound is ionic or
covalent is easy.
● Covalent compounds contain only
nonmetals.
● Ionic compounds contain a metal
and a nonmetal.
Important Facts:
Because hydrogen only has 1 proton and 1
electron, it behaves differently than any other
element on the periodic table of elements.
Steps for Naming Binary Covalent
This means that hydrogen can act as either a
Compounds
metal or a nonmetal!
Step 1: Write the name of the first nonmetal.
There are millions of covalent compounds.
Step 2: Write the name of the second
These can be classified into many different
nonmetal changing its ending to -ide.
types of compounds. Each type of compound
Step 3: Add prefixes to specify how many of
has a different set of rules for naming. You
each element are present.
will be learning about the easiest type of
Rules for Using Prefixes
covalent compound to name:
Rule 1: Prefixes are only for BINARY
Nonmetals can share electrons in many
COVALENT compounds.
different ways. This means that two
Rule 2: The prefix mono- is never used on the
nonmetals can create multiple compounds
first element of a binary covalent compound.
together.
Without a prefix it is assumed that there is
Each of these contains a different ratio of
only 1.
elements. Because of this, we have to make
Example: CO2 is carbon dioxide, and not
sure that the name of the compound explains
monocarbon dioxide.
the correct ratio.
Rule 3: Remove the -o or -a from a prefix Rule 3: Remove the -o or -a from a prefix
before adding it to oxide. before adding it to oxide.
Example: CO is carbon monoxide, and not Determining if a compound is
carbon monoxide. ionic or covalent is easy.
Because of the prefixes, it is very easy to go Ionic compounds contain a metal and a
from the name of a binary covalent nonmetal.
compound to its formula. Covalent compounds contain only
Step 1: Write the symbol of the first nonmetal nonmetals.
and the subscript that matches the prefix. Once you decide if a compound is ionic or
Step 2: Write the symbol of the second covalent you know whether or not to use
nonmetal and the subscript that matches the prefixes.
prefix. Only COVALENT COMPOUNDS use
Naming Ionic and Covalent Compounds PREFIXES!
Review Do NOT make the mistake of using prefixes
Steps for Naming Ionic Compounds with ionic compounds. You will be forced to
Step 1: Write the name of the metal ion. decide between answer choices with and
Step 2: Write the name of the nonmetal ion. without prefixes on your exam. Know the
Remember that we change the name of difference!
nonmetal ions to –ide. Steps for Naming a Compound
Chemical reactions occur when atoms gain, Step 1: Decide if the compound is ionic or
lose, or share electrons. covalent.
Sharing electrons creates a covalent bond Step 2: Write the name of the first element as
Steps for Naming Covalent Compounds it appears on the periodic table, change the
Step 1: Write the name of the first nonmetal. name of the second element to end with -ide.
Step 2: Write the name of the second Ionic compounds are finished at this point.
nonmetal changing its ending to -ide. Step 3: If, and only if, the compound is
Step 3: Add prefixes to specify how many of covalent, add prefixes.
each element are present. Remember, if polyatomic ions appear in an
Rules for Using Prefixes with Covalent ionic compound, simply use the name of the
Compounds ion as it appears in the table of polyatomic
Rule 1: Prefixes are only for COVALENT ions.
compounds. Determining the Formula of an Ionic
Rule 2: The prefix mono- is never used on Compound from Its Name
the first element of a binary covalent Step 1: Write the symbol of the metal ion.
compound. Without a prefix it is assumed Step 2: Write the symbol of the nonmetal ion.
that there is only 1.
Step 3: Determine the charges using the Step 1: Write the symbol of the first nonmetal
periodic table. and the subscript that matches the prefix.
Step 4: Determine the formula from the ions. Step 2: Write the symbol of the second
This is just as easy to do with polyatomic nonmetal and the subscript that matches the
ions. You just need to use the table of prefix.
polyatomic ions found on the naming Remember: The prefix mono- is never used
compounds reference sheet. on the first element of a binary covalent
Step 1: Write the symbol of the metal ion. compound. Without a prefix it is assumed
Step 2: Write the formula of the polyatomic that there is only 1.
ion. Stoichiometry
Step 3: Determine the charges using the “stochio” = Greek for
periodic table and the table of polyatomic element
ions. “metry” = measurement
Step 4: Determine the formula from the ions. Stoichiometry is about measuring the
Be very careful that you do not mix up the amounts of elements and compounds
names of ions. This is very common for involved in a reaction.
beginners to naming. Consider the chemical equation:
Remember that the names of transition 4NH3 + 5O2 ® 6H2O + 4NO
metals include their charge because their Recall that Chemical formulas are balanced
charges are less predictable. with coefficients
We know they are positive because metals are 4 X NH3 = 4 nitrogen + 12 hydrogen
always positive.
5 X O2 = 10 oxygen
The charges of the transition metals are
important when you are determining the 6 X H2O = 12 hydrogen + 6 oxygen

formula of an ionic compound. 4 X NO = 4 nitrogen + 4 oxygen

Step 1: Write the symbol of the metal ion.
Step 2: Write the symbol of the polyatomic
With Stoichiometry we find out that
ion.
Coefficients like
Step 3: Determine the charges using the
4:5:6:4
periodic table, polyatomic ions table, or the
roman numerals.
convey the ratio of substances need for a
Step 4: Determine the formula from the ions.
reaction to occur, in terms of moles ( mole
Because of the prefixes, it is very easy to go
ratio)
from the name of a binary covalent
4:5:6:4
compound to its formula.

4:5:6:4
Can mean either: ● Stoicheion à element
4 molecules of NH3 react with 5 molecules of ● Metron à measure
O2 ○ \area of study that examines
to produce 6 molecules of H2O and 4 the quantity of substances
molecules of NO consumed and produced in a
OR chemical reaction
4 moles of NH3 react with 5 moles of O2 ○ Exs:
to produce 6 moles of H2O and 4 moles of ■ [ozone] in the
NO atmosphere
4NH3 + 5O2 ® 6H2O + 4NO ■ Potential yield of gold
● How many moles of H2O are from it’s ore
produced if 2.00 moles of O2 are ■ Assessing processes
used? for converting coal
● Notice that a correctly balanced into gaseous fuels.
equation is essential to get the right The study of chemical change is at the heart
answer of chemistry
Moving along the stoichiometry path ● Built on an understanding of
● We always use the same type of atomic masses, formulas, and the
information to make the jumps law of conservation of mass
between steps: ● And atoms are neither created nor
Converting grams to grams destroyed (i.e., not dealing with
Many stoichiometry problems follow a nuclear reactions)
pattern: Law of Conservation of Mass
grams(x) « moles(x) « moles(y) « grams(y) “We may lay it down as an incontestable
We can start anywhere along this path axiom that, in all the operations of art and
depending on the question we want to answer nature, nothing is created; an equal amount
Notice that we cannot directly convert from of matter exists both before and a er the
grams of one compound to grams of another. experiment. Upon this principle, the whole
Instead we have to go through moles. art of performing chemical experiments
Chapter 3 depends.”
Stoichiometry: --Antoine Lavoisier, 1789
Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Chemical Equations
Equations Concise representations of chemical
Stoichiometry reactions
The study of chemical change is at the heart “Chemical Sentences”
of chemistry Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
Reactants appear on the le side of the
equation.
Products appear on the right side of the 111.1 amu
equation.
The states of the reactants and products are
written in parentheses to the right of each ● These are generally reported for
compound. ionic compounds
Coefficients are inserted to balance the ●
equation. ●
Subscripts and Coefficients Give Different Molecular Weight (MW)
Information ● Sum of the atomic weights of the
● Subscripts tell the number of atoms atoms in a molecule
of each element in a molecule ● For the molecule ethane, C2H6, the
● Coefficients tell the number of molecular weight would be
molecules Percent Composition
Reaction Types One can find the percentage of the mass of a
Combination Reactions compound that comes from each of the
● Two or more substances react to elements in the compound by using this
form one product equation:
Decomposition Reactions Moles
● One substance breaks down into Molar Mass
two or more substances ● By definition, these are the mass of
Combustion Reactions 1 mol of a substance (i.e., g/mol)
● Rapid reactions that produce a ○ The molar mass of an
flame element is the mass number
● Most o en involve hydrocarbons for the element that we find
reacting with oxygen in the air on the periodic table
Formula Weights ○ The formula weight (in
● Sum of the atomic weights for the amu’s) will be the same
atoms in a chemical formula number as the molar mass
● So, the formula weight of calcium (in g/mol)
chloride, CaCl2, would be Using Moles
Ca: 1(40.1 amu) Moles provide a bridge from the molecular
scale to the real-world scale
Mole Relationships
+ Cl: 2(35.5 amu)
 ● One mole of atoms, ions, or Compounds containing other elements
molecules contains Avogadro’s are analyzed using methods analogous to
number of those particles those used for C, H and O
● One mole of molecules or formula Stoichiometric Calculations
units contains Avogadro’s number The coefficients in the balanced equation
times the number of atoms or ions give the ratio of moles of reactants and
of each element in the compound products
Finding Empirical Formulas Limiting Reactants
Calculating Empirical Formulas How Many Cookies Can I Make?
One can calculate the empirical formula from ● You can make cookies until you run
the percent composition out of one of the ingredients
The compound para-aminobenzoic acid (you ● Once this family runs out of sugar,
may have seen it listed as PABA on your they will stop making cookies (at
bottle of sunscreen) is composed of carbon least any cookies you would want to
(61.31%), hydrogen (5.14%), nitrogen (10.21%), eat)
and oxygen (23.33%). Find the empirical ● In this example the sugar would be
formula of PABA. the limiting reactant, because it
Assuming 100.00 g of para-aminobenzoic will limit the amount of cookies
acid, you can make
C: The limiting reactant is the reactant
61.31 g x present in the smallest stoichiometric
amount
= 5.105 mol C ○ In other words, it’s the
H: reactant you’ll run out of
5.14 g x first (in this case, the H2)
Theoretical Yield
= 5.09 mol H ● The theoretical yield is the amount
N: of product that can be made
10.21 g x ○ In other words it’s the
amount of product possible
= 0.7288 mol N as calculated through the
O: stoichiometry problem
23.33 g x ● This is different from the actual
yield, the amount one actually
= 1.456 mol O produces and measures
Elemental Analyses Percent Yield
 Gas Pressure results from fast moving
gas particles colliding with the sides of
A comparison of the amount
a container
actually obtained to the amount it was
More Collisions = Higher Pressure
possible to make
How does Temperature relate to
Kinetic Theory?
Percent Yield =
Temperature is a measure of the
average kinetic energy of all the
particles in a gas
Higher Energy = Higher Temperature
Through KMT, several Laws were
x 100
developed to help calculate the changes in
pressure, temperature, and volume of gases.
The Gas Laws
There are 6 Basic Laws:
Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)
1. Boyle’s Law
Kinetic Molecular Theory of gases
2. Charles’ Law
attempts to explain the properties of gases
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law
such as pressure, temperature, or volume,
4. Avogadro’s Law
by looking at what they are made up of
5. Ideal Gas Law – volume liters
and how they move
only
Kinetic refers to motion
6. Dalton’s Law
The energy an object has because of its
Units used to describe gas samples:
motion is called kinetic energy
Volume
Example: A ball rolling down a hill has
Liter (L)
kinetic energy
Milliliter (mL)
There are three main components to
1000 mL = 1L
kinetic theory:
Temperature
1. Perfectly elastic collisions, no
Kelvin ONLY
energy is gained or lost when gas
a
molecules collide
K = ºC + 273
2. Gas molecules take up no space
Pressure
they are so small
Atmosphere (atm)
3. Gas molecules are in constant,
Kilopascale (kPa)
linear, random motion
Torr (torr)
How does Kinetic Theory explain Gas
mm of mercury (mm Hg)
Pressure?
1 atm = 101.3 kPa
 1 atm = 760 mm Hg STP is the abbreviation for standard
1 atm = 760 torr temperature and pressure.
Standard Temperature and Pressure Standard temperature is 273K
(STP) Standard pressure is 1 atm
Standard Temperature = 273K You must memorize the meaning of
Standard Pressure = 1 atm STP.
Boyle’s Law Avogadro’s Law (Hypothesis pg 320)
Boyle’s Law – at constant Avogadro’s Law – equal volumes of
temperature, the volume of the gas gases at the same temperature and
increases as the pressure decreases. pressure contain equal numbers of
(and the volume of the gas decreases molecules.
and the pressure increases). They are 1 mole of ANY gas takes up a volume
inversely related of 22.4 L at STP. This is called Molar
Charles’ Law Volume
Charles’ Law – at a constant pressure, 22.4L = 1 mole of gas at STP
the volume of a gas increases as the Memorize this!
temperature of the gas increases (and One mole of ANY gas takes up a
the volume decreases when the volume of 22.4 L at STP.
temperature decreases). They are So how many molecules of any gas are
directly related. there in 22.4 L at STP?
23
Gay-Lussac’s Law One mole which is 6.022 x 10
Gay-Lussac’s Law – at a constant Ideal Gases
volume, the pressure of a gas increases ● Gases whose behavior can be
as the temperature of the gas increases predicted by the kinetic molecular
(and the pressure decreases when the theory are called ideal, or perfect,
temperature decreases). They are gases. No gases are truly ideal
directly related. because no gas totally obeys all of
Combined Gas Law the gas laws.
A combination of Boyle’s, Charles’, and ● An ideal gas is an imaginary gas
Gay-Lussac’s Laws that is perfect and does follow
P1V1 = P2V2 everything perfectly.
T1 T2 ● We assume that all gases behave
Note that all temperatures must be in like ideal gases so there is an ideal
Kelvin! gas law
What is STP? There are no intermolecular forces
between the gas molecules.
 The volume occupied by the molecules
themselves is entirely negligible 22.4L
relative to the volume of the container. For the following reaction:
Ideal Gas Law N2(g) +3H2 (g)® 2NH3(g)
PV = nRT What volume of nitrogen gas at STP would be
P = pressure in atmospheres (atm) required to react with excess hydrogen gas to
V = volume in Liters (L) produce .830L of NH3 in the reaction above?
n = # of moles Topic #32: Introduction to Gases
T = temperature in Kelvin (K) States of Matter
R =0.08205 L·atm/mol·K ● 2 main factors determine state:
What is STP? STP stands for standard ○ The forces
temperature and pressure. Standard (inter/intramolecular)
temperature is always 273K. Standard holding particles together
pressure is always 1.00 atm. ○ The kinetic energy present
Examples using STP: (the energy an object
At 1.80 atm of pressure and 30.0 °C possesses due to its motion
temperature, a gas occupies a volume of 65.5 of the particles)
mL. What will be the volume of the same gas ○ KE tends to ‘pull’ particles
at STP? apart
Which gas law should we use? Kinetic Energy , States of Matter &
Combined Gas Law Temperature
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures - ● Gases have a higher kinetic energy
In a mixture of gases, each gas exerts a because their particles move a lot
certain pressure as if it were alone. The more than in a solid or a liquid
pressure of each one of these gases is called ● As the temperature increases, there
the partial pressure. The total pressure of a gas particles move faster, and thus
mixture of gases is the sum of all of the kinetic energy increases.
partial pressures. Characteristics of Gases
Gas Stoichiometry ● Gases expand to fill any container.
Example 1: One mole of any gas at STP ○ random motion, no
occupies a volume of 22.4 L . attraction
How do you write this as a conversion factor? ● Gases are fluids (like liquids).
22.4 L ○ no attraction
OR ● Gases have very low densities.
1 mol ○ no volume = lots of empty
1mol space
 ● Gases can be compressed. valid under normal temp/pressure
○ no volume = lots of empty conditions. BUT…
space ○ at high pressures: gas
● Gases undergo diffusion & effusion molecules are pushed closer
(across a barrier with small holes). together, and their
○ random motion interactions with each other
Kinetic Molecular Theory of ‘Ideal’ Gases become more significant due
● Particles in an ideal gas… to volume
○ have no volume. ○ at low temperatures: gas
○ have elastic collisions (ie. molecules move slower due
billiard ballà particles to KE and intermolecular
exchange energy with forces are no longer
eachother, but total KE is negligible
conserved Atmospheric Pressure
○ are in constant, random, ● The gas molecules in the
straight-line motion. atmosphere are pulled toward
○ don’t attract or repel each Earth due to gravity, exerting
other. pressure
○ have an avg. KE directly ● Why do your ears ‘pop’ in an
related to temperature ( airplane?
temp= motion= KE) Pressure
Real Gases Barometer
● Particles in a REAL gas… ○ \measures atmospheric
○ have their own volume pressure
○ attract each other Units of Pressure
(intermolecular forces) ● At Standard Atmospheric
● Gas behavior is most ideal… Pressure (SAP)
○ at low pressures 101.325 kPa (kilopascal)
○ at high temperatures 1 atm (atmosphere)
Why??? 760 mm Hg
● At STP, molecules of gas are (millimeter Hg)
moving fast and are very far apart, 760 torr
making their intermolecular forces 14.7 psi (pounds per square inch)
and volumes insignificant, so
assumptions of an ideal gas are
Standard Temperature & Pressure
 o
Standard Temperature & Pressure 2x(-5 C) because we would get
o
0°C -10 C!)
Kelvin Scale

273 K
1 atm

101.325 kPa
Temperature: The Kelvin Scale Part B: The Gas Laws
● Always use absolute temperature Part B:
(Kelvin) when working with gases. Learning Goals
● Kelvin and Absolute Zero I will be able to describe Boyle’s, Charles’ and
● Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin Gay-Lussac’s Laws relating T, P and/or V and
o
suggested that -273 C (0K) was the be able to calculate unknown values using the
temperature at which the motion equations derived from these laws, as well as
particles within a gas approaches the combined gas law.
zero.. And thus, so does volume)
● Absolute Zero: Intro to Boyle’s Law
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JHXxPnmy ● Imagine that you hold the tip of a
Dbk syringe on the tip of your finger so
● Comparing the Celsius and Kelvin no gas can escape. Now push down
Scale: on the plunger of the syringe.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-G9FdNqU What happens to the volume in the
VBQ syringe?
Why Use the Kelvin Scale? What happens to the pressure the gas
o
● Not everything freezes at 0 C, but is exerting in the syringe?
for ALL substances, motion stops 1. Boyle’s Law
at 0K. ● the pressure and volume of a gas
● It eliminates the use of negative are inversely proportional (as one
values for temperature! Makes increases, the other decreases, and
mathematic calculations possible vice versa
(to calculate the temp. twice ● at constant mass & temp
o
warmer than -5 C we can’t use
 Boyle’s Law leads to the mathematical ● Gay-Lussac’s Law leads to the
expression: *Assuming temp is constant mathematical expression:
P1V1=P2V2
Where P1 represents the initial *Assuming volume remains constant
pressure 4. Combined Gas Law
V1 represents the initial volume, By combining Boyle’s, Charles’ and Gay
And P2 represents the final Lussac’s Laws, the following equation is
pressure derived:
V2 represents the final volume Limiting and Excess Reagents
Intro to Charles’ Law Let us analyze
● Imagine that you put a balloon ● Suppose you want to make egg
filled with gas in liquid nitrogen sandwiches, you need 1:1 ratio of
What is happening to the temperature buns and egg.
of the gas in the balloon? ● But what if you have 10 pieces of
What will happen to the volume of the buns and only 7 pieces of eggs, how
balloon? many egg sandwiches
2. Charles’ Law Do you think you’ll be able to make?
● The volume and absolute ● You can only produce 7 egg
temperature (K) of a gas are directly sandwiches even though there are 3
proportional (an increase in temp extra buns you already used up all
leads to an increase in volume) the 7 eggs.
○ at constant mass & pressure Limiting Reagent
Intro to Gay-Lussac’s Law ● Is the reactant that is completely
● Imagine you have a balloon inside a used up in a reaction
container that ensures it has a fixed ● It determines when the reaction
volume. You heat the balloon. stops.
What is happening to the temp of the gas ● Totally consumed
inside the balloon? ● Limits the rxn from continuing bec
What will happen to the pressure the gas is none le to react with the excess
exerting on the balloon? Excess Reagent
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law ● Is the reactant that is present with
● The pressure and absolute large amount greater than the
temperature (K) of a gas are directly necessary to react with the limiting
proportional (as temperature rises, ● Steps in Determining Limiting and
so does pressure) Excess Reagent
○ at constant mass & volume STEP 1:
 ● Write the chemical equation ● High computed value = Excess
STEP 2: reagent
● Balance the chemical equation
STEP 3:
● Convert the given masses of
reactants to moles
STEP 4:
● Solve the ratio of mole/s per
coefficient of each reactants
(moles/coefficient)
STEP 5:
● Identify the limiting reagent
STEP 6:
● Identify the excess reagent
Sample Problem 1
● 5 moles of hydrogen gas and 6
moles of nitrogen monoxide react
to form water and nitrogen gas.
What is the limiting reagent?
Excess reagent?
Sample Problem 2
● Ammonium nitrate reacts to
sodium phosphate to produced
ammonium phosphate and sodium
nitrate. If you started with
● 30.0 grams of ammonium nitrate
and 50.0 grams sodium phosphate.
Which of the reactants is limiting
reagent? Excess reagent?
Summary
● Limiting reagent is the one that
runs out first between the
reactants during reactions.
● Lower computed value = Limiting
reagent