SuMMary An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the object can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in a straight line, position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as negative. ‘The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. 2. Instantancous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity fas the time interval Af becomes infinitesimally small : ‘The velocity at a particular instant fs equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on position-time graph at that instant. 3, Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which the change occurs, Av at 4, Instantaneous acceleration 1s defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the ‘ime interval Af goes to zero : a= tim a= tm Se -S2 Bi are ‘The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time graph at that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the v4 graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis, For motion with uniform acceleration, x-f graph is a parabola while the v-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis, 5, The area under the velocity time eurve between times ¢, and ¢, is equal to the displacement of the object during that interval of time. 6. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear mation, the five quantities, displacement 4X, time taken & initial velocity vg final velocity vand acceleration a are related by a set of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion : v= reget Dp, xe uytt gal iit = uf+ 20x ifthe position of the object at time ¢= 0 is 0. If the particle starts at x ‘equations is replaced by (x— x).10. uL 12, 13, Scalar quantitiesare quantities with magnitudes only. Examples are distance, speed, mass and temperature. Vector quantities are quantities with magnitude and direction both. Examples are displacement, velocity and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra A vector A multiplied by a real number 1. is also a vector, whose magnitude is 1 times the magnitude of the vector A and whose direction is the same or opposite depending upon whether J is positive or negative. ‘Two vectors A and B may be added graphically using head-to-tail method or parallelogram. method. Vector addition is commutative : A+B=B+A It also obeys the associative law (A+B) +C=A+B+C) A nullor zero vectoris a vector with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, we don't have to specify tts direction. It has the properties A-B=Ar(-B) Avector A can be resolved into component along two given vectors and b lying in the ‘same plane : AnAatub where and pare real numbers. ‘A untt vector associated with a vector A has magnitude 1 and 1s along the vector A: a al The unit vectors 1,3, imagers of unit magus Meaalosat ta fhe direction of the x. y-, and z-axes. respectively in a right-handed coordinate system. Avector A can be expressed as aaaieal porere AA fede te pe npemsscs hierg 2 andl Prenestl 1 vectan/AUceakes ext anges = JAZ + Az, tand Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A and B, that He in xy plane, is, then : R=RI+R.where, R=A+B. and R=A,+B, The postionpeonpt aMfobject in xy plane is giren by 1 = xi+ yj and the displacement from position r to position "is given by ar= rar withthe waa es A, = Acos@ Aga ana 4=lAl = wis wi Axi+ayj Ian object undergoes a displacement Ar in time At, its average velocity is given by ‘ar = 7); The velocity of an object at time 1s the limiting value of the average velocity as At tends to zero14. 15. 16. ar_dr = alone at It can be written in unit vector notation as : lev jon Lae dy) de ide u,jtugk where vy =F¥.vy = Se, = 52 ‘When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system, v is always tangent to the curve representing the path of the object. If the velocity ofan abject changes from v to Win time A¢. then its average acceleration v-v av isgiven by: =" =~ by eae “The acceleration a at any time ¢1s the limiting value of as A¢—-0: av_av a= im atone a eteeereneet errr eine tt ee Ifan object is moving in a plane with constant acceleration a=|al= a? +az and {ts position vector at Lime ¢= Oto ,, then at any other time &, {twill be ata point given by: tae ron, +v,t+sar + vet + and its velocity is given by vev,tat ‘where v, 1s the velocity af time ¢ = 0 In component form : 1 exinteat wax smth pas 1 y=y, +, 05a, By = gy +ayt ‘Motion in a plane can be treated as superposition of two separate simultaneous one~ dimensional motions along two perpendicular directions ‘An object that is in ight after being projected is called a projectile. If an object is projected with initial velocity v, making an angle ¢, with xaxis and ifwe assume its Initial position to coincide with'the origin of the coordinate system, then the position, and velocity of the projectile at time fare given by : {y,cos @) ¢ (vjsin 0) t- (1/2 a v= ¥,sin@—et ‘The path of d projectile ts parabolic and is given by : y~ (tana, ‘The maatmum height that a projectile attains ts17. 2g The time taken to reach this height is + Lv sind The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position it passes y =O during its falls called the range, eof the projectile. Itis easing, 0 When an object follows a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object is called unifarm circular motion. The magnitude of its acceleration isa, =v? /R. The direction of a, is always towards the centre of the circle. The angular speed a, is the rate of change of angular distance. It is related to velocity vby = OR. The accelerations a, = w*R. If Tis the time period of revolution of the object in circular motion and v is its frequency, we have w= 2nv, v= 2mR, a= 4nvR Position vector r ir) m —_Vecior. It may be denoted by any other symbol as well, Displacement ar ii) m | -do- Velocity wry mst (@)_ average v (bj Instantaneous ov Acceleration ur) ms (a) Average (©) Instantaneous a Projectile motion {al Time of max. h m helght (b) Max. height n, a (6) Horizontal range i mm _wsin2%, 7 Circular motion ae_e (a) Angularspeed tr] rad/s -A0_2 () Centripetal acceleration a ur msSUMMARY Reflection is governed by the equation Zi = Zr’ and refraction by the Snell's law, sini/sinr= n, where the incident ray, reflected ray, refracted ray and normal lie in the same plane. Angles of incidence, reflection and refraction are 1, r’ and r, respectively. ‘The critical angle of incidence i, for a ray incident from a denser to rarer medium, is that angle for which the angle of refraction is 90°. For i> i, total internal reflection occurs. Multiple internal reflections in diamond (i, = 24.4°), totally reflecting prisms and mirage, are some examples of total internal reflection. Optical fibres consist of glass fibres coated with a thin layer of material of lower refractive index. Light incident at an angle at one end comes out at the other, after multiple internal reflections, even if the fibre is bent.10. 11 re resistance R of @ conductor depends on its Tengin Tank ‘cross-sectional area A through the relation, feed a where p, called resistivity isa property of the material and depends on ‘temperature and pressure. Electrical resistivity of substances varies ever a very wide range. Metals, have low resistivity. in the range of 10° 0 m to 10 Om. Insulators like glass and rubber have 10" to 10! times greater resistivity ‘Semiconductors like Si and Ge le roughly in the middle range of resistivity on a logarithmic scale. In most substances, the carriers of current are electrons; in some ‘cases, for example, ionic crystals and electrolytic liquids, positive and negative ions carry the electric current. Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing per second per ‘unit area normal to the flow, i=nay, where 1 is the number density (number per unit volume) of charge ‘carriers cach of charge q. and », is the drift velocity of the charge ‘carriers. For electrons q=~ ¢. If} is normal toa cross-sectional area and isconsiant over the area, the magnitude of the eurrent J through ‘the area is nev, A. V/l. I= new, A, and Ohm's law, one obtains ‘The proportionality between te force eF on the electrons in a metal due (o the extemal field E and the drift velocity v, (not acceleration) ‘can be understood, if we assume that the electrons suffer collisions with ions in the metal, which deflect them randomly. If such collisions ‘occur on an average at a time interval #, vytar=eEs/m where a is the acceleration of the electron. This gives, net In the temperature range in which resistivity increases linearly with ‘temperature, the temperature coefficient of resistivity a is defined as the fractional increase in resistivity per unit increase in temperature. ‘Ohm's lawis obeyed by many substances, but it is not a fundamental Jaw of nature, It fails if {a]_ Vdepends on J non-linearly. (b) therelation between Vand [depends on the sign of V for the same absolute value of V. (c) The relation between Vand | is non-unique. An example of (a) is when p increases with I (even if temperature is ‘Kept fixed). A rectifier combines features (a) and (b). GaAs shows the feature (c). When a source of emf « is connected to an external resistance R, the voltage V,, across R Is given by12, Kuehtoffs Rules~ (@) Junction Rule: At any junction of circuit elements, the sum of currents entering the junction must equal the sim of currents Teaving it. (©) Loop Rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop must be 22r0. 19, The Wheatstone bridge's an arrangement of four resistances ~R,, Ry, FR, R, as shown ia the (ext, The null-point coudidon Is given by pares ROR using which the value of one resistance can be determined, knowing the other three resistances. Xx