DC Choppers

Dr. K. C. Jana, Associate Professor, EE

Department, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad
Monsoon, 2021, Power Electronics, 5th B. Tech, EE (EEC310) 1
Introduction
DC-DC converters are power electronic circuits that convert a DC voltage to
a different DC voltage level, often providing a regulated output.

• Chopper is a static device.

• A variable dc voltage is obtained
from a constant dc voltage
DC supply
(from rectifier- DC output LOAD
source.
filter, battery,
fuel cell etc.) • Also known as dc-to-dc converter.
Vcontrol
• Widely used for motor control.
(derived from
feedback circuit)
• Also used in regenerative
braking.
General block diagram • Thyristor converter offers
greater efficiency, faster response,
lower maintenance, smaller size
and smooth control.
Applications:
– Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC motor control, 2
battery
Prof. chargers,
T.K. Anantha Kumar,subway cars,
E&E Dept., trolley buses, vehicles, etc.
MSRIT
Types of Choppers
Based on the principle of operation and output voltage magnitude:

•Step-down choppers.

•Step-up choppers.
• In step down chopper output voltage is less than input
voltage.
❖ Applications: mostly applied for battery
charging and power supply design.
• In step up chopper output voltage is more than input
voltage.
❖ Applications: mostly applied for motor drives,
and power supply design.
3
Step-down Chopper With
R- Load
Principle Of Step-down Chopper with R Load:
Chopper
v0 t𝑂𝑁 𝑇 = t𝑂𝑁 + t𝑂𝐹𝐹
i0 d=
+ V
𝑇

Vdc
V R V0 t
tON tOFF
i0

−
V/R
Idc
t
T
 A step-down chopper with resistive load.
 In high-power applications, the thyristor in the circuit acts as a
switch. For low power applications IGBTs/MOSFETs are used.
 When switch is ON, supply voltage appears across the load
 When switch is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero. 5
1) Average output voltage Of Step-down Chopper
Chopper
Average Output Voltage
i0
 tON  +
Vdc = V  
t +
 ON OFF 
t
V R V0
t  𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐷𝑉
Vdc = V  ON  = V .d 𝐼𝑑 c = =
 T  𝑅 𝑅
−
t  v0
but  ON  = d = duty cycle V
 T 
Vdc
Vdc , I dc = Average value of output or load voltage and current
t
tON = Time interval for which SCR conducts. tON tOFF
i0
tOFF = Time interval for which SCR is OFF.
T = tON + tOFF = Period of switching or chopping period. V/R
Idc
1
f = = Freq. of chopper switching or chopping freq. t
T T

➢ d is duty cycle = tON/T, tON can be varied from 0 to T, so 0 ≤ d ≤ 1.

6
➢ The output voltage VO can be varied from 0 to V
2) RMS output voltage Of Step-down Chopper
Chopper
i0
RMS value of output voltage +

tON
1
= VO =  v dt
2 V R V0
Vrms o
T 0
−
But during tON , vo = V v0
V
Therefore RMS output voltage Vdc
tON 2 t
1 V
= VO = 0 dt = T tON
2 tON tOFF
Vrms V i0
T
V/R
tON
= .V Idc
t
T T

Vrms = VO = d .V 7
Output power PO = VO I O Ripple factor (RF) can be found from
2
V 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 d𝑉2 1 1−d
But IO = O 𝑅𝐹 =
𝑉𝑑𝑐
−1=
d 2𝑉 2 −1= d
−1=
d
R
VO2 d  V 2
 O/P power, PO = = 𝐼𝑟 𝑚 =
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
=
d𝑉
R R 𝑅 𝑅
Effective input resistance 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠2 𝑉2
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = =d
V V 𝑅 𝑅
of chopper Ri = =
I dc Vdc / R
 tON 
As Vdc = V   = V .d
The output voltage is always less than the
 T  input voltage and hence the name step
down chopper is justified.
RV R
Ri = =
V .d d
Thus, the output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.
Internal impedance is invesely proportional to d 8
• Examlpe: A transistor dc chopper circuit (Buck converter) is
supplied with power form an ideal battery of 100 V. The load
voltage waveform consists of rectangular pulses of duration 1 ms in
an overall cycle time of 2.5 ms. Calculate, for resistive load of 10 Ω.
(a) The duty cycle d.
(b) The average value of the output voltage Vdc.
(c) The rms value of the output voltage Vrms.
(d) The ripple factor RF.
(e)The output dc power.
(a) d=
𝑡𝑂𝑁
=
1𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 Step Down Chopper
= 0.4
𝑇 2.5𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 with Resistive Load
(b) 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = d𝑉 = 0.4 × 100 = 40 V
(c) 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = d𝑉 = 0.4 × 100 = 63.2 V
1−d 1−0.4
(d) 𝑅𝐹 = = = 1.225
d 0.4

(e) 𝑉𝑑𝑐2 402

𝑃𝑜 = = = 160 W
𝑅 10
Methods Of Chopper Control
• The output dc voltage can be varied by the following
methods.

• Pulse width modulation control or constant

frequency operation for PWM converters.

• Variable frequency control for Resonant DC-DC

Converters.
Average Output Voltage
t 
Vdc = V  ON  = Vf (tON )
 T 
Here V and f (or T ) are constant (PWM controlled)
or
=VtON ( f )
10
Here V and tON are constant (frequency or T controlled)
Pulse Width Modulation Chopper
i0
+
• tON is varied keeping chopping
frequency ‘f’ & chopping period V R V0
‘T’ constant.
• Output voltage is varied by −
varying the ON time tON V0
V
Average Output Voltage tON tOFF

 tON 
Vdc = V 
t
 T
t +
 ON OFF 
t V0

 tON 
Vdc = V   = V .d
V
 T 
t 
but  ON  = d = D = duty cycle t t
t
 T  ON OFF

11
Here, d or D can be varied by varying t on keeping T (or frequency) constant
Variable Frequency Control v0
V
• Chopping frequency ‘f’ is varied
keeping either tON or tOFF constant. tON tOFF
t
• To obtain full output voltage range,
T
frequency has to be varied over a wide v0
range.
• This method produces harmonics in the V
output and for large tOFF load current ton constant
may become discontinuous tON tOFF
t
T
Average Output Voltage
 tON   tON 
Vdc = V   =V   = V .d ton
toff constant
+
 ON OFF 
t t  T  toff

 tON  T
but   = d = duty cycle
 T 
Here, d can be varied by varying T (or frequency, f) 12
Step Down Chopper with RL Load
➢ When chopper is ON, supply is connected
across load. Current flows from supply to
load.
➢ When chopper is OFF, load current
continues to flow in the same direction
through FWD due to energy stored in
inductor ‘L’.

v0 O ut p ut
➢ Load current can be continuous or v o ltag e
V
discontinuous depending on the values of tON tOFF
‘L’ and duty cycle ‘D’ i0
T
t
O u tput
➢ For a continuous current operation, load I ma x c urre nt

current varies between two limits Imax and C o ntinu o us

I m in
Imin. current
t
i0 O u tput
➢ When current becomes equal to I max the c urre nt
chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on Disco ntin uo u s
c urre nt
when current reduces to Imin. t
 Step Down Chopper with RL Load
Continuous Current Operation When Chopper is ON (0 ≤t ≤tON
➢ When the switch is closed in the buck
converter, the circuit will be as shown in
the figure, the diode is reverse-biased.
The voltage across the inductor is
𝑉𝑠= 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐿 → =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 i0
For (∆𝑖)closed Output
d𝑇
Imax current
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑅 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑅
∆𝑖 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠 d𝑇 = 𝑠 𝑡 𝑂𝑁 (1)
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 Imin
Continuous
0 current
𝑑𝑖 ∆𝑖 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅 t
= = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑂𝑁 𝑡𝑂𝑁 𝐿
𝐼𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚 𝑖 𝑛 𝐼𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚 𝑖 𝑛 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅
From straight 𝑖𝑜 1 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑖 𝑛 + 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑖 𝑛 + 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑖 𝑛 + 𝑡 (2)
line equation 𝑡𝑂𝑁 d𝑇 𝐿
 Step Down Chopper with RL Load

Continuous Current Operation When Chopper is OFF (tON ≤t ≤ T)

0 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑉
0 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐿 → =− 𝑅
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
For (∆𝑖)Opened

𝑡 𝑂𝐹𝐹
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅
∆𝑖 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 (3)
𝐿 𝐿
0 i0
Output
𝑑𝑖 ∆𝑖 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑚 𝑖 𝑛 𝑉 Imax current
= = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = − 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =- 𝑅 IL
𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝐿
Continuous
Imin current
From straight line equation t

𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉
𝑖𝑜 2 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑎 + 𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑂𝑁 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑎 − 𝑅 (𝑡 − 𝑡𝑂𝑁 ) (4)
𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝐿
 Step Down Chopper with RL Load
Steady-state operation requires that the inductor current at the end of the
switching cycle be the same as that at the beginning, meaning that the net change
in inductor current over one period is zero. From Eq(1) and (3) we have

𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹
𝑡 𝑂𝑁 − 𝑉𝑅 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0 =
𝐿 𝐿 𝑉𝑅 𝑡𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝑠 𝑡 𝑉𝑠 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹
− 1 = 𝑂𝐹𝐹 = +1
𝑉𝑅 𝑡𝑂𝑁 𝑉𝑅 𝑡𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝑠 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 + 𝑡𝑂𝑁 𝑇
= = 𝑉𝑅 = d𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑅 𝑡𝑂𝑁 𝑡𝑂𝑁

From equation (1)

𝑡𝑂𝑁
since d=
𝑇
𝑉𝑠 − d𝑉𝑠 𝑉 1−d d
∆𝑖 = d𝑇 = 𝑠 1
𝐿 𝐿𝑓 𝑓=
𝑇 16
 Step Down Chopper with RL Load
At steady state operation, the average inductor current must be the same as
the average current in the load resistor.
𝑉𝑅
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑅
The maximum and minimum values of the inductor
current are computed as
∆𝑖
𝐼𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝐼𝐿 +
2
𝑉𝑠 1 − d d 𝑉𝑅 1 − d i0
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝐿 + = 𝐼𝐿 + Output
2𝐿𝑓 2𝐿𝑓 Imax current
IL
∆𝑖
𝐼𝑚 𝑖 𝑛 = 𝐼𝐿 − Continuous
2 Imin current
𝑉𝑠 1 − d d 𝑉𝑅 1 − d t
𝐼𝑚 𝑖 𝑛 = 𝐼𝐿 − = 𝐼𝐿 −
2𝐿𝑓 2𝐿𝑓
The average dc output voltage and current can found as
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = d𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑑 ≅ 17
2
 Step Down Chopper with RL Load
Examlpe-1: A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20Ω and input voltage
VS=220V. When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts and chopping
frequency is 10 kHz. If the duty cycle is 80%, determine the average output
voltage and the chopper on time.

𝑉𝑠= 220V
𝑡
d = 𝑂𝑁 = 0.8
𝑇
𝑡𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = d𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝐶𝐻 = 0.8 220 − 1.5 = 174.8 V
𝑇 𝑠

1 1
𝑇= = = 0.1m 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 10 × 10−3

𝑡𝑂𝑁 = d𝑇 = 0.8 × 0.1 × 10−3 = 80μ 𝑠𝑒𝑐

18
 Step Down Chopper with RL Load
Examlpe-2: A Chopper circuit is operating at a frequency of 2 kHz on a
460 V supply. If the load voltage is 350 volts, calculate the conduction
period of the thyristor in each cycle.

𝑉𝑠= 460V
Chopping period
1 1
𝑇= = = 0.5m 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 2 × 10−3
𝑡𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = d𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉
𝑇 𝑠
𝑇𝑉𝑑𝑐 0.5 × 10−3 × 350
𝑡𝑂𝑁 = = = 0.38m 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑉𝑠 460
Step-down Chopper With
RLE- Load
Step-down Chopper With R-L-E Load
v0 Output
Chopper voltage
i0 V
+
tON tOFF
R t
T
i0 Output
V0 Imax current
V FWD L
Continuous
E Imin current
− t
i0 Output
 When chopper is ON, supply is connected current
across load. Discontinuous
current
 Current flows from supply to load. t

 When chopper is OFF, load current

continues to flow in the same direction
through FWD due to energy stored in
inductor ‘L’.
21
Step-down Chopper With R-L-E Load (contd.)
v0 Output
Chopper voltage
i0 V
+
tON tOFF
R t
T
i0 Output
V0 Imax current
V FWD L
Continuous
Imin current
E
− i0
t
Output
current
Discontinuous
current
t
Load current can be continuous or discontinuous depending on the
values of ‘L’ and duty cycle ‘d’
For a continuous current operation, load current varies between two
limits Imax and Imin
When current becomes equal to Imax the chopper is turned-off and it is
turned-on when current reduces to Imin. 22
Expressions of instantaneous Load Current iO
For Continuous Current Operation i0
+
1) Duty Interval: When Chopper is ON (0  t  tON): R
di
V = iO R + L O + E (1) V0
dt V L
Taking Laplace Transform
E

= RI O ( S ) + L  S .I O ( S ) − iO ( 0 )  +
V E
 −
 (2)
-
S S v0
At t = 0, initial current iO ( 0− ) = I min
Output
voltage
V
V E
− + LI min = L( R / L + S ) I O ( S )
tON tOFF
So, T
t
S S i0 Output
V −E Imax current
I min
Thus, I O ( S ) = + (3)
 R  S+R Continuous
LS  S +  Imin current
 L L t
i0 Output
V −E  −
R
  t  −
R
 t
current
So, iO ( t ) = 1 − e L
 + I min e  
L
At the end of the period (t=t on ), io =Discontinuou
I max
R   current
t
Expressions of Load Current (contd..
2) Freewheeling Interval: When Chopper Is OFF (tON  t  tOFF)
diO
0 = iO R + L +E (4) Chopper
i0
dt +
With initial current, io (t ' =0)=I max , the equation of R

I max E
output current, I O ( S ) =
V0
− (5) V FWD L
S+
R  R
LS  S + 
L  L E
−
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform
v0
R '
 − t' 
R
iO ( t )=I
− t E Output
'
max e L
− 1 − e
L
 (6) voltage
R   V
tON tOFF
t
The expression is valid for t ON  t  tOFF or 0  t '  tOFF i0
T
Output
i.e., during the period chopper is OFF Imax current

At the instant the chopper is turned ON or at

Continuous
the end of the off period, the load current is Imin current

iO ( t ' = tOFF ) = I min i0

t
Output
current
Expressions of maximum and minimum Load Current:
From equation (3) v0 Output
voltage
V −E  − t 
R R
− t V
iO ( t ) = 1 − e    + I min e  
L L
(7) tON tOFF
R   T
t
i0
= dT , iO ( t ) = I max
Output
At t = tON Imax current

V −E  −
dRT
 −
dRT
Continuous
 I max = 1 − e
L
 + I min e
L
(8) Imin current
R   t
i0 Output
current
From equation (4) Discontinuou
current
R '
 − t' 
R
iO ( t )=I
− t E t
'
max e L
− 1 − e
L
 (9)
R  
At t ' = tOFF = T − tON , iO ( t ' ) = I min
t ' = tOFF = (1 − d ) T
R
(1− d )T  − (1− d )T 
R
iO ( t )=I
− E
'
min = I max e L
− 1 − e
L
 (10)
R  
Expressions of maximum Current (contd..
(1− d ) RT (1− d ) RT
− E − 
From equation (10), I min = I max e L
− 1 − e L
 (11)
R  
V −E  −
dRT
 −
dRT
Now, from Eq(8) I max = 1 − e
L
 + I min e
L
(12)
R  
V −E  −
dRT
  −
(1− d ) RT
E  −
(1− d ) RT  
 −
dRT
Combining Eqs. (11)-(12) I max = 1 − e
L
 +  I max e
L
− 1 − e L    e L
R    R   
V −
dRT
 E  −
dRT
 
 −
RT
E  −
dRT
−
RT

L 
I max = 1 − e L
 − 1 − e
L
 +  I max e − e
L L
− e 
R  R   R  
−
RT
V −
dRT
 E  −
dRT
−
dRT
−
RT

I max − I max e L
= 1 − e L
 − 1 − e
L
+e L
−e  L
R  R  
 −
dRT
  −
dT

V 1 − e L  − E = V 1 − e

− E L
Upon simplification, I max = (13), where  =
R −
RT  R R −
T  R R
 1 − e L   1 − e  
Expressions of minimum Current (contd..
(1− d ) RT (1− d ) RT  −
dT

− E −  V 1 − e  − E
From Eq(10) I min = I max e L
− 1 − e L
 and Eq(13), I max =
R   R −
T  R
 1 − e  
Combining the above equations
  −
dT
  (1− d ) RT (1− d ) RT 
V 1 − e  E  − L

E −
we get, I min =  − e − 1 − e L 
 T  R  
 R  1 − e−   R 
   
  −
dT
  (1− d ) RT
E − ( L) E E − ( L)
1− d RT 1− d RT
V 1 − e   − L

I min =  T 
e − e − + e

 R  1 − e−    R R R
  
 dRT 
V  e L − 1 E
Upon simplification, we get I min = −
R  RT  R
 e L
− 1 
( I max − I min ) is known as the steady state ripple.
Expressions ripple Current for continuous conduction:
Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current
 −
dRT
  dRT

V 1− e − 1 E
I = I max − I min =   − E − V e
L L
+
R  −
RT 
R R  RT  R
 1 − e L
  e − 1 
L

d ( I )
for maximum ripple, =0 we get d=0.5
dt
 −0.5
T

V 1 − e 
 = V tanh T = V tanh R
Corresponding I max =
R −
0.5T 
R 4 R 4 Lf
 1 + e 

R R
For 4 Lf R, t anh =
4 Lf 4 Lf
V R V
So, I max =  =
R 4 Lf 4 Lf
Expressions of different Current
v0 Output
voltage
Average output voltage V Vdc
tON tOFF
Vdc = d .V i0
T
t
Output
Imax current
Average output current Idc
I max + I min Continuous
I dc( approx ) =
Imin current
2 i0
t
Output
current
Assuming load current varies linearly
Discontinuou
from I min to I max instantaneous current
t
load current is given by
( I ) .t
iO = I min + for 0  t  tON ( dT )
dT
I − I min 
iO = I min +  max t
 dT 
Expressions of Load Current for dis-continuous conduction:
v0 For continuous conduction Output
For discontinuous Current Operation Imin=0 voltage
V

Substituting I min =0 in equation tON tOFF

t
(1− d ) RT (1− d ) RT  T
− E −
i0 Output
I min = 0 = I max e L
− 1 − e L  Imax current
R  
Continuous
we get, Imin current
 (1− d ) RT
 t
E 1 − e L

i0 For discontinuous conduction Output
I max = Vo V current
R  (1− dL) RT 
 e  E Discontinuous
current
t
Which is also the steady state ripple.
 v0
Expressions of different Current Output
voltage
V
1) RMS value of load current for continuous conduction
tON tOFF
dT t
1 T
I O( RMS ) =  i dt
2 i0
0
Output
dT 0 Imax current

( I max − I min ) t  dt
2
1
dT
 Imax-Imin Continuous
I O( RMS ) =
dT   min

I +
dT


Imin current
0 t
i0 Output
 2  I max − I min  2 2 I min ( I max − I min ) t 
dT 2 current
1
I O( RMS ) =   I min + 

 t +

 dt Discontinuous
dT 0  dT dT  current
t
Integrating and putting the limits, the RMS current can be derived as
1
 2 ( I − I min ) + I 
2 2
I O ( RMS ) =  I min + max min ( I max − I )
min 

 3 

2) RMS value of source or chopper current can be expressed as
dT
1
I CH = i
2
0 dt
T 0

2
  I max − I min  
dT
1
I CH =
T 
0 
+
 min 
I
 dT
 t  dt
 
 2  I max − I min  2 2 I min ( I max − I min ) t 
dT 2
1
=
T   I min + 
  dT
 t +
 dT
 dt

0  
Expressions of different Current (contt..
RMS source or chopper current after integrating and putting the limits is
1
 2 ( I max − I min ) 
2 2
I CH = d  I min + + I min ( I max − I min ) 
 3 
I CH = d I O( RMS )
Effective input resistance is
V
Ri =
Where IS
I S = Average source current

I S = dI dc

V
 Ri =
dI dc
Step-down Chopper With
Filter for R- Load
 Step Down Chopper with Low Pass Filter
➢ This converter is used if the
objective is to produce an output
that is purely DC.
➢ If the low-pass filter is ideal, the
output voltage is the average of the
input voltage to the filter.

Analysis for the Switch Closed

When the switch is closed in the buck
converter circuit of fig. a, the diode is
reverse-biased and fig. b is an
equivalent circuit. The voltage across
the inductor is

34
 Step Down Chopper with Low Pass Filter
Analysis for the Switch Closed -
Since the derivative of the current
is a positive constant, the current
increases linearly. The change in
current while the switch is closed is
computed by modifying the
preceding equation.

𝐷𝑇
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑜
(∆𝑖𝐿)𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠 D𝑇
𝐿 𝐿
0
For duty cycle d or D
(1)

35
 The Buck (Step-Down) Converter
Step Down Chopper with Low Pass Filter
Analysis for the Switch Opened __

When the switch is open, the diode

becomes forward-biased to carry the
inductor current and the equivalent
circuit of fig. c applies. The voltage
across the inductor when the switch
is open is

The derivative of current in the inductor is a negative constant, and the

current decreases linearly. The change in inductor current when the switch is
open is
(1−𝐷)𝑇
−𝑉𝑜 −𝑉𝑜 or
(∆𝑖𝐿)𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑑 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = (1 − 𝐷)𝑇
𝐿 𝐿 (2)
0
36
 Step Down Chopper with Low Pass Filter
Steady-state operation requires that the vbe Ts

inductor current at the end of the switching Ton Toff

t
cycle be the same as that at the beginning,
iL
meaning that the net change in inductor
current over one period is zero. This Io
t

requires iS

Using equations 1&2 iD

Vl

Vin −Vo t
The average inductor current must be the −Vo

Ic
same as the average current in the load
Q
resistor, since the average capacitor current t

must be zero for steady-state operation:

Vo

Vo
t

37
 The Buck (Step-Down) Converter
Selection of Low Pass Filter for Step Down Chopper
1) Selection of Filter Inductor (L):

The maximum and minimum values of the inductor current are computed as

As

Since Imin=0 is the boundary between continuous and discontinuous current,

The minimum combination of inductance and switching frequency for

continuous current in the buck converter is
38
Selection of Low Pass Filter for Step Down Chopper
where Lmin is the minimum inductance required for continuous current. In
practice, a value of inductance greater than Lmin is desirable to ensure
continuous current.
Since the converter components are assumed to be ideal, the power supplied by
the source must be the same as the power absorbed by the load resistor.

This relationship is similar to the voltage-current relationship

for a transformer in AC applications. Therefore, the buck
converter circuit is equivalent to a DC transformer.

2) Selection of filter Capacitor:

In the preceding analysis, the capacitor was assumed to be very large to keep
the output voltage constant. In practice, the output voltage cannot be kept
perfectly constant with a finite capacitance. The variation in output voltage, or
ripple, is computed from the voltage-current relationship of the capacitor. The
current in the capacitor is
39
Selection of filter Capacitor cont…

While the capacitor current is positive, the

capacitor is charging. From the definition of ic
capacitance, C
D D
C D=Discharging of capa.
C= Charging of capa.
vc
The change in charge ∆Q is the area of the
triangle above the time axis

Substitute (∆iL)open in the above equation yields

∆Vo is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage at the output

The required capacitance in terms of specified voltage ripple:

 The Buck (Step-Down) Converter
Step Down Chopper with Low Pass Filter
Examlpe: buck dc-dc converter with Low Pass Filter has the following
parameters:

Assuming ideal components, calculate (a) the output voltage Vo, (b) the
maximum and minimum inductor current, and (c) the output voltage
ripple.
(a)
(b)

The average inductor current is 1 A, and ∆iL=1.5 A.

(c)

41
Step-up or Boost
Chopper
 Principle Of Step-up Chopper
I L D
+
+ −

L
C O VO
V A
D
Chopper
C is optional
−
• Step-up chopper is used to obtain a load voltage higher than the input voltage V.
• The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of output voltage and
current.
I L D
I L D
+ − Open +
+
+ −
- +
L
C O VO L
V A O
D V C VO
Open A
Chopper D
Chopper
C is optional − C is optional −

tON interval
tOFF interval
Principle Of Step-up Chopper
1) Duty Interval:
I L D
+ − Open +

L
C O VO
V A
D
Chopper
C is optional −

tON interval Vo without capacitor

V+vL
 When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is Vo with capacitor

connected across the supply.

 The inductor current ‘I’ rises and the inductor
stores energy during the ON time of the chopper,
tON.
dI
V =L i.e., VO = 0 if no capacitor across load
dt 44
Principle Of Step-up Chopper (contd..)
2) Freewheeling Interval:
I L D
+
+ −
- +
L
C O VO
V A
Open D
Chopper
C is optional −

tOFF interval
• When the chopper is OFF, the inductor current I is
forced to flow through the diode D and load for a
period, tOFF. Vo without capacitor
Vo with capacitor
• The current tends to decrease resulting in reversing the
polarity of induced EMF in L.
• Therefore voltage across load is given by
dI
VO = V + L i.e., VO  V 45
dt
 Step-up Chopper with C filter
I L D
+
+ −

L
C O VO
V Vs A
D
Chopper

• A large capacitor ‘C’ connected across the load, will

provide a continuous output voltage .
• This capacitor will discharge and provide constant load
current during closed condition of chopper.
• Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to
the source.
• Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of
dc motors.
46
Expression For Output Voltage I L D
+
1) Switch closed condition + −

Assume the average inductor current to be L

C O
V Vs A VO
I during ON and OFF time of Chopper. D
Chopper
When Chopper is ON (Duty Interval)
−
Voltage across inductor L = Vs
vL tON
Therefore energy stored in inductor
= Vs .I .tON
V tOFF
Where tON = ON period of chopper.
2) Switch Open condition V −Vo
t
When Chopper is OFF (Freewheeling interval) iL Imax
I
(energy is supplied by inductor to load) Imin
Voltage across L = VO − Vs t
Energy supplied by inductor L = (VO − Vs ) ItOFF
where tOFF = OFF period of Chopper. Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor
L = energy supplied by inductor L 47
Expression For Output Voltage cont..

 Vs ItON = (VO − Vs ) ItOFF

Vs tON + tOFF 
tON tOFF
 T  vL
VO = = Vs   Vs
tOFF  T − tON 
  t
 1   1  Vs −Vo
VO = Vs   = Vs 
iL Imax
 1−
tON
  1− d  Imin
I
 T  t
t
Where d = ON = duty cyle,
T
T = Chopping period or period of switching.
For variation of duty cycle ' d ' in the range of 0  d  1
the output voltage VO will vary in the range Vs  VO  
48
Performance Parameters
 1 
Expression For Output Voltage VO = Vs  
 1 − d 
• Duty cycle d can be varied only between a min. & max. value
(Ideally 0 to 1), limiting the minimum (ideally Vs) and maximum
(ideally infinity) value of the output voltage.
• Ripple in the load current depends inversely on the chopping
frequency, f.
• To reduce the load ripple current, frequency should be as high as
possible.
• The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to turn ON and turn
OFF.

49
Parameters of the Converter:
The average current in the inductor is determined by recognizing that the average
power supplied by the source must be the same as the average power absorbed by
the load resistor. Output power is

The input power is VsIs= VsIL. Equating input and

output power and with the derived output voltage
equation, we can have

By solving for average inductor current and making

various substitutions, IL can be expressed as
1) Calculation of L:
Maximum and minimum inductor currents are determined by using the
average value and the change in current

A condition necessary for continuous inductor current is for Imin to be positive.

Therefore, the boundary between continuous and discontinuous inductor current
is determined by

The minimum combination of inductance and switching frequency for continuous

current in the boost converter is therefore
2) Calculation of filter capacitance (C):
The peak-to-peak output voltage ripple can be
calculated from the capacitor current waveform, as
shown in figure here. The change in capacitor charge can
be calculated from

An expression for ripple voltage is then

Or

where f is the switching frequency. Alternatively,

expressing capacitance in terms of output voltage
ripple yields
Buck-Boost
Chopper
Circuit Schematic:

Under switch closed Under switch Opened

Circuit Schematic under different mode:
Under switch closed condition:
When the switch is closed, the voltage across the
inductor is

Under switch closed

The rate of change of inductor current is a constant,

indicating a linearly increasing inductor current. The
preceding equation can be expressed as

Solving for ΔiL when the switch is closed gives

Circuit Schematic under different mode:
Under switch opened condition:
_
When the switch is open, the current in the
inductor cannot change instantaneously,
resulting in a forward-biased diode and +
current into the resistor and capacitor. In
this condition, the voltage across the
inductor is Under switch opened

Again, the rate of change of inductor current is

constant, and the change in current is

Solving for ΔiL

Combined waveforms and expression of O/P voltage :
For steady-state operation, the net change in
inductor current must be zero over one period.
Using the derived Equations.

Solving for Vo,

• The above Equation shows that the output voltage

has opposite polarity from the source voltage.
• The output voltage magnitude of the buck-boost
converter can be less than that of the source or
greater than the source, depending on the duty
ratio of the switch.
• If D>0.5, the output voltage is larger than the
input; and if D<0.5, the output is smaller than the
input. Therefore, this circuit combines the
capabilities of the buck and boost converters.
Calculations of circuit Parameters
1) Calculations of L:
Power absorbed by the load must be the same as that supplied
by the source, where

Average source current is related to average inductor current by

Which results in

Substituting the value of Vo and solving for IL, we find

Thus, Maximum and minimum inductor currents are determined using

Calculations of circuit Parameters cont..
For continuous current, the inductor current
must remain positive. To determine the boundary
between continuous and discontinuous current,
Imin is set to zero, resulting in

2) Calculations of C:
The output voltage ripple for the buck-boost converter is
computed from the capacitor current waveform

Solving for ΔVo,

Or

Thus, for a given ripple voltage and frequency,

we can obtain the filter capacitance value, C
Classification Of Choppers

• Choppers are classified as

• Class A Chopper
• Class B Chopper
• Class C Chopper
• Class D Chopper
• Class E Chopper

60
1) Class A Chopper (Step-down type)
• Class A Chopper is a Chopper i0 v0
first quadrant chopper i0
+ +
(equivalent to step-
Chopper R
down chopper)
L
O V
v
V 00 V
• The average values of V FWD L A
FWD D
output voltage and
current are always E
positive . − − i0
 Duty Interval: When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the
load. di
V = iO R + L O
+E (1)
dt
V −E  − t 
R R
− t
iO ( t ) = 1 − e    + I min e   (2)
L L

R  
Freewheeling Interval: When chopper is OFF, vO = 0 and the load current continues to flow
through the FWD. di
. 0 = iO R + L O + E (3)
dt
R
E − t' 
R
iO ( t ) = I max e
− t'
' L
− 1 − e L  (4)
R  61
Class A Chopper (contt..:
Chopper ig Thyristor
i0
+ gate pulse

R
t
i0
V V0 Output current
FWD L

E CH ON
− t
FWD Conducts
• Class A Chopper is a step-down v0
Output voltage
chopper in which power always
flows form source to load.
t
• It is used to control the speed of dc tON
T
motor during Motoring operations.
• The output current equations
obtained in step down chopper
with R-L load can be used to study
the performance of Class A
Chopper. 62
 D
i0 v0
2) Class B Chopper R
+

(Step-up type) V L v0

• Class B Chopper is Chopper

E −i0
−
also a first quadrant
chopper (equivalent ig
Thyristor
to step-up chopper) gate pulse

t
• The average values i0 tOFF tON

of output voltage is T
t
always positive but Output current
Imax
output current is
Imin
negative . D
conducts Chopper
• It is mainly used v0
conducts
Output voltage
during Regenerative
action only.
t 63
Class B Chopper (cont..
• When chopper is ON, E drives a current through L and R in a
direction opposite to that shown in figure.
• During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy.
• When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts, and part of the energy
stored in inductor L is returned to the supply.
D
i0
 Average output voltage is positive. +
R
 Average output current is negative.
V L v0
 Therefore Class B Chopper operates in
second quadrant. Chopper
E −
−
 In this chopper, power flows from load to
source.
 Class B Chopper is used for regenerative
braking of dc motor.
 Class B Chopper is a step-up chopper. 64
3) Class C Chopper (2 Quadrant chopper)
CH1 D1
i0 v0
+

V R

CH2 D2 L v0

Chopper
i0
E
−

 Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers.

 For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2 conducts (Class-A Chopper)
 For second quadrant operation, CH2 is ON or D1 conducts (Class-B Chopper)
 When CH1 is ON, the load current is positive.
 The output voltage is equal to ‘V’ & the load receives power from the source.
 When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow
through the diode D2 and the output voltage is zero.
 Used for bidirectional operations such as Battery charging/discharging, Motor speed
control /regenerative braking in one direction 65
Class C Chopper (cont.. CH1 D1
i0
+
ig1 R
Gate pulse V
of CH1
CH2 D2 L v0
t
ig2 Chopper
Gate pulse E
of CH2 −
t • When CH1 is ON, the load
i0 current is positive.
Output current
• The output voltage is equal to
t ‘V’ & the load receives power
from the source.
D1 CH1 D2 CH2 D1 CH1 D2 CH2
ON ON ON ON • When CH1 is turned OFF,
V0 energy stored in inductance L
Output voltage
forces current to flow through
the diode D2 and the output
t
voltage is zero.
• Current continues to flow in
positive direction. 66
Class C Chopper (cont.. CH1 D1
i0
+

V R

ig1 CH2 D2 L v0
Gate pulse
of CH1
Chopper
t E
ig2 −
Gate pulse
of CH2 • When CH2 is triggered, the voltage E
t
forces current to flow in opposite
i0 direction through L and CH2 .
Output current
• The output voltage is zero.
t
• On turning OFF CH2 , the energy
D1 CH1 D2 CH2 D1 CH1 D2 CH2 stored in the inductance drives
V0
ON ON ON ON current through diode D1 and the
Output voltage supply

• Output voltage is V, the input current

t
becomes negative and power flows
from load to source. 67
Class C Chopper (cont..
• Average output voltage is positive
• Average output current can take both positive and negative values.
• Choppers CH1 & CH2 should not be turned ON simultaneously as it would
result in short circuiting the supply.
• Class C Chopper can be used both for dc motor control and regenerative
braking of dc motor in positive direction of rotation.
• Class C Chopper can be used as a step-up or step-down chopper.
ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current

D1 CH1 D2 CH2 D1 CH1 D2 CH2

ON ON ON ON
V0
Output voltage
68
t
Class D Chopper (2 quadrant chopper)
v0
CH1 D2

R i0 L E
V
+ v0 − i0

D1 CH2

 Class D is a two quadrant chopper.

 When both CH1 and CH2 are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO = V
and output current flows through the load.
 When CH1 and CH2 are turned OFF, the load current continues to flow in the
same direction through load, D1 and D2 , due to the energy stored in the inductor
L.
 Output voltage vO = - V . 69
Class D Chopper (Contt..)
ig1
• Average load voltage is positive Gate pulse
of CH1
if chopper ON time is more than
the OFF time t
ig2
• Average output voltage becomes Gate pulse
of CH2
negative if tON < tOFF .
t
• Hence the direction of load i0
current is always positive but Output current
load voltage can be positive or
negative.
t
CH1,CH2 D1,D2 Conducting
ON
v0
Output voltage
V
Average v0
t

70
Class E Chopper (4 Quadrant Chopper)
 Class E is a four quadrant chopper
CH1 D1 CH3 D3
 1) First quadrant operation:
 Duty Interval: When CH1 and CH4 i0 R L E
are triggered, output current iO V
flows in positive direction through + −
v0
CH1 and CH4, and with output CH2 D2 CH4 D4
voltage vO = V.
diO
V = iO R + L +E (1) v0
dt
V −E  − t 
R R
− t
CH2 - D4 Conducts CH1 - CH4 ON
iO ( t ) = 1 − e    + I min e   (2)
L L D1 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts
R  
i0
Four Quadrant
Operation CH3 - CH2 ON D2 - D3 Conducts
CH2 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts 71
Class E Chopper (cont..

Freewheeling Interval: When CH4 and D2

CH1 D1 CH3 D3
are conducting, output current iO still positive L E
i0 R
V
direction but the output voltage vO = 0. + −
v0
CH2 D2 CH4 D4

diO
0 = iO R + L +E (3)
dt v0 Output
R
E R

iO ( t ' ) = I max e
− t' − t' voltage
L
− 1 − e
L
 (4) V
R  tON tOFF
t
T
i0 Output
Imax current

Continuous
Imin current
t
i0 Output
Class E Chopper (cont..)
• 2) Fourth quadrant operation: CH1 D1 CH3 D3

i0 R L E
• Duty Interval: When both CH1 and CH4 are OFF, V
+ −
v0
the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through CH2 D2 CH4 D4

D2 and D3 in the same direction, but output voltage

diO
vO= -V. −V = iO R + L + E (1)
dt
V +E − t 
R R
− t
iO ( t ) = − 1 − e    + I min e   (2)
L L

R  

• Freewheeling Interval: When CH4 and D2 are

conducting, output current iO still positive direction
but the output voltage vO = 0.
diO
0 = iO R + L + E (3)
dt
R
 − t' 
R
iO ( t ) = I max e L − 1 − e L 
− t' E
'
(4)
R 73

Class E Chopper (cont..)
• 3) Third quadrant operation: CH1 D1 CH3 D3
• Duty Interval: When CH2 and CH3 R L E
i0
are triggered, the load current iO V
flows in opposite direction & output +
v0
−
voltage vO = -V. Since both iO and vO CH2 D2 CH4 D4
are negative, the output
power=positive.
V +E − t 
R R
− t
iO ( t ) = −
v0
1 − e    + I min e   (1)
L L

R   CH2 - D4 Conducts CH1 - CH4 ON

D1 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts
• Freewheeling Interval: When CH2
and D4 are conducting, output current
iO still negative direction but the i0
output voltage vO = 0.
di CH3 - CH2 ON D2 - D3 Conducts
0 = iO R + L O + E (2) CH2 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts
dt
R
E − t' 
R
iO ( t ) = I max e
− t'
' L
− 1 − e L  (3)
R  74
Class E Chopper (cont..)
• 4) Second quadrant operation: CH1 D1 CH3 D3
• Duty Interval: When both CH2 and R L E
i0
CH3 are OFF, the load current iO V
continues to flow in negative direction + −
v0
through D1 and D4 and the output CH2 D2 CH4 D4
voltage, vO = V. As vO is positive but iO
is negative the power=negative.
diO
−V = iO R + L + E (1) v0
dt
CH2 - D4 Conducts
V +E − t 
R R
− t CH1 - CH4 ON
iO ( t ) = − 1 − e    + I min e   (2)
L L
D1 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts
R  
• Freewheeling Interval: When CH2 and
D4 are conducting, output current iO i0
still negative direction but the output
voltage vO = 0. di CH3 - CH2 ON D2 - D3 Conducts
0 = iO R + L O
+E (3) CH2 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts
dt
R
E − t' 
R
iO ( t ) = I max e
− t'
' L
− 1 − e L  (4) 75
R 
Effect Of Source & Load Inductance
• The source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the
transient voltage.
• Also source inductance may cause commutation problem for the
chopper.
• Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source
inductance.
• The load ripple current is inversely proportional to load
inductance and chopping frequency.
• Peak load current depends on load inductance.
• To limit the load ripple current, a smoothing inductor is
connected in series with the load.

76