RADIATION HEALTH

11 February 2020

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 2

2. THE ACTION OF X-RAYS .................................................................................................................. 2

3. THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION ................................................................................. 3

4. THE MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION ............................................................................................. 3

5. THE EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON HUMANS ................................................................................. 4

6. REGULATORY LIMITS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE ...................................................................... 6

7. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF RADIATION SAFETY ........................................................................... 6

7.1. HOW TO USE THE REST OF THIS BOOKLET .............................................................................. 7
8. RADIATION PROTECTION IN MEDICAL AND DENTAL USE OF X-RAY RADIATION .................. 7
8.1. RADIATION PROTECTION IN MEDICAL RADIOGRAPHIC X-RAY IMAGING ................................ 8
8.2. RADIATION PROTECTION IN MEDICAL FLUOROSCOPIC X-RAY IMAGING ............................... 9
8.3. DIAGNOSTIC MEDICAL PHYSICS PERFORMANCE MONITORING ......................................... 10
8.4. RADIATION PROTECTION IN MAMMOGRAPHY INSTALLATIONS........................................... 11
8.5. RADIATION PROTECTION IN COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY INSTALLATIONS ................ 12
8.6. RADIATION PROTECTION IN DENTAL X-RAY INSTALLATIONS .............................................. 12
9. RADIATION PROTECTION IN VETERINARY X-RAY INSTALLATIONS ....................................... 14

10. RADIATION PROTECTION IN SECURITY X-RAY SYSTEMS ....................................................... 16

10.1. X-RAY EQUIPMENT FOR CARRY-ON BAGGAGE INSPECTION .......................................... 16
10.2. RADIATION PROTECTION IN X-RAY USE FOR AIR CARGO BAGGAGE INSPECTIONS .... 17
10.3. RADIATION PROTECTION IN X-RAY EQUIPMENT FOR POLICE INSPECTIONS ................ 17
11. RADIATION PROTECTION IN NUCLEAR APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE ................................... 17
11.1. RADIATION PROTECTION IN DIAGNOSTIC USE OF RADIOISOTOPES ............................. 17
11.2. RADIATION PROTECTION IN THERAPEUTICAL USE OF RADIOISOTOPES ...................... 18
12. RADIATION PROTECTION IN NUCLEAR APPLICATIONS IN INDUSTRY ................................... 18
12.1. RADIATION PROTECTION IN THE USE OF SEALED HIGH- ACTIVITY SOURCES .............. 19
12.2. NUCLEAR REACTORS ............................................................................................................ 22

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1. INTRODUCTION
This booklet is about x-rays and the gamma rays from radioactive materials.

`Ionizing radiations’, such as x-rays and the gamma rays from radioactive materials, are electromagnetic in
nature. They can penetrate matter and cause damage when absorbed in it. They are useful in many ways,
but there is a flip side; they can be harmful if used without due care. They are capable of killing living cells, or
they can produce undesirable changes in cells without killing them. Thus, they pose a potential hazard to
anyone using them.
In your line of work, you use this type of radiation. As a result you should know what the risks are, and how
they compare with the other hazards of everyday life. You should also know how they could be reduced to a
safe level. These questions will be answered in this handbook.

All X-ray equipment operators and users of radioactive materials should be certified according to a recognized
standard, and must possess qualifications required by any relevant Bermuda regulations or statutes.

All operators must:

1. Be aware of the contents of the Bermuda Radiation Act, regulations, and licence conditions
2. Be aware of the radiation hazards associated with their work and that they have a duty to protect
themselves and others
3. Have a thorough understanding of their profession, of safe working methods and of special
techniques
4. Through conscientious use of proper techniques and procedures, strive to eliminate or reduce to
lowest practical values all exposures
5. Be 18 years of age or older.

A female operator should be encouraged to notify her employer if she believes herself to be pregnant, in order
that appropriate steps may be taken to ensure that her work duties during the remainder of the pregnancy are
compatible with accepted maximum radiation exposure, as set out in this regulation.

2. THE ACTION OF X-RAYS

X-rays travel outward from the focal spot of the x-ray tube (like light from a light bulb), and they can be
blocked out to cast a shadow. Just as light is scattered in all directions from an object it strikes, so are x-rays.
But unlike light, x-rays are not stopped at the first surface they encounter. They penetrate materials to a
degree depending upon how they are generated and upon the nature of the material. Bone shows up in a
radiographic image because it absorbs more x-rays than does soft tissue. Lead and steel absorb x-rays even
more effectively and are used as protective barriers to x-rays.
X-rays are emitted in all directions when the x-ray tube is energized. Lead incorporated into the tube housing
stops x-rays from escaping in all directions. The maximum size of the useful x-ray beam is determined by the
size of the opening in this shield. The beam size (as set by the diaphragms) determines how much of the
object can be seen at a time, and also how much scattered x-radiation is produced. This scattered radiation,
which emanates from anything struck by the x-ray beam, goes in all directions, and must be blocked if it is not
to pose a personnel hazard. It is not nearly as intense as the primary x-ray beam, but is present in the space
around an object while the x-ray beam is striking it.
The intensity (and hence the hazard) of both primary and scattered x-rays decreases very rapidly with
distance from the source, just as the intensity of light diminishes with distance. In fact, if the distance is
doubled, in both cases, the intensity goes down by a factor of four. If the distance is tripled, the intensity is
down to one-ninth, and so on.
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X-rays are present only when an x-ray machine is turned on. They are not present when the unit is off.
Neither the operator nor the material under examination becomes radioactive during or after a x-ray exposure
- just as you don’t glow in the dark when a light is turned off.
Gamma rays, on the other hand, are emitted by radioactive materials continuously, and cannot be turned off
by the flick of a switch. Their intensity and penetrating ability depends upon the radioisotope from which they
are emitted. In all other ways, they are similar to x-rays.
Apart from the radiation exposure received from the use of x-rays and radioisotopes, all members of the
human race are exposed to a background level of "environmental radiation", and have been since the dawn of
time. This environmental radiation comes form cosmic rays from outer space, from in the radioactive air we
breathe in our natural surroundings, and in the radioactivity of our own bodies. So any exposure we receive
from occupational sources is an addition to this "background", which varies somewhat from place to place on
the earth.

3. THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

X - and gamma rays have been found to be indispensable in diagnostic and therapeutic medicine, and in
various aspects of industry and research. It is inevitable, therefore, that people will be exposed to them. The
problem is to determine a level of radiation exposure (over the inevitable background) which is acceptable
compared to other hazards of everyday life.
The International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP) is a body of experts, which for many years
have collected and analysed data on the effects of radiation on humans. Periodically, it has published so-
called “recommended limits of radiation exposure” which it considers reasonable.
These recommended limits for radiation exposure (over and above the unavoidable background) have been
reduced from time to time over the past fifty years. This is not because of any adverse effects being observed
at the previous levels. Rather, it is because it has been found possible to reduce the levels without seriously
limiting the use of radiation for medical and other purposes. This "As Low As is Reasonably Achievable", or
ALARA principle, is applied to all radiation risk levels, and includes patients under examination as well as
occupationally exposed personnel.
In its present recommendations the ICRP distinguishes between three groups of people: (1) the general
public, (2) men and women whose work involves some exposure to radiation, and (3) pregnant women
working with radiation sources.
The recommendations of the ICRP are used by most nations as a basis for regulations governing the use of
radiation sources.

4. THE MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

Before discussing the recommendations in detail, we must first introduce the concepts of radiation units.
The biological effect of radiation cannot be measured directly. Instead, we measure its physical effect (in units
of GRAYS - abbreviated Gy), and we use this to quantitate the biological effect.
The unit that is used to describe the biological effect of radiation is the milliSievert (abbreviated mSv). Using
this unit, we can put radiation exposures of humans into some sort of perspective. For instance, at sea level,
the average background radiation level is about 3 mSv per year, which includes a contribution from radon
gas. At higher elevations, it is about 3.5 mSv per year due to the cosmic radiation intensity increasing with
altitude. In some parts of the world, background radiation can be as high as 17 mSv per year, because of the
radioactivity of the soil in the area. Long-term studies under the auspices of the World Health Organization
have found no evident increase in cancer or of genetic effects in the population of these areas. This is in spite
of the fact that the people have been living in this radiation environment for thousands of years.

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5. THE EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON HUMANS
A great deal is known about the effects of radiation - more than is known about the effects of chemicals such
as insecticides, fungicides, etc. The two effects, which may be produced by the small amounts of radiation
received by people involved in the use of x-rays, are genetic changes and cancer induction.
Genetic change is extremely unlikely, and in fact, has never been observed in x-ray personnel.
A considerable body of knowledge has been accumulated over the years regarding the probability of cancer
induced by radiation. This is sufficient to allow us to compare it to other known hazards of everyday life. For
example, the following can be associated with the probability of death of one chance in a million:
• 0.2 mSv - the exposure received from two chest x-rays (cancer)
• A 10 mile ride on a bicycle (accident)
• 6 minutes in a canoe (drowning)
• 300 miles in a car (accident)
• 1000 miles in a commercial aeroplane (crash)
• Smoking 1.4 cigarettes (cancer)
• Drinking 30 12 oz cans of diet soda (saccharin)
• 20 minutes of life at age 60 (actuarial statistics)

We have already seen that the average background level of radiation gives an exposure of about 3 mSv/year.
The effectiveness of various types of manmade exposure may be stated in terms of the time necessary to
produce an exposure equal to this annual, unavoidable figure. This concept is called the Background
Equivalent Radiation Time, or BERT, and is easily understood by patients and the general public.

For example, if the effective dose from a single chest x-ray examination is 0.1 mSv. The equivalence to
this is about 12 days (365 x 0.1/3.0 = 12) of natural background radiation. An intraoral dental examination,
with an effective dose of about 0.06 mSv, is equivalent to about 1 week of background.

TYPICAL EFFECTIVE DOSES AND BERT VALUES FOR SOME COMMON X-RAY STUDIES

X-ray examination Effective dose (mSv) BERT (time)

Intraoral dental 0.06 1 week
AP Chest 0.1 12 days
Thoracic spine LAT 1.5 6 months
Lumbar spine 3.0 1 year
Upper GI series 4.5 1.5 years

It is seen that the BERT values for these various medical examinations vary widely. The value of this
BERT concept is that tables of this type can be prepared, from which questions by patients can be readily
answered. The tables compare the effects of man-made medical procedures with that of the unavoidable
natural radiation background.

The effects of large amounts of radiation are readily apparent. But those from the small amounts that are
normally encountered are very difficult to observe. Furthermore, they may only appear after a latent period of
many years. Since we cannot perform experiments on human beings that will clarify this situation, we have to
work downward from the effects of large amounts in order to decide on safe limits.

We do know that the effects of radiation are cumulative: That is, the more radiation that an individual is
exposed to over a period of time, the more likely the effects are to appear.

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 In the early days of radiology, when little was known about radiation, and when x-ray equipment was very
primitive, some cancers in radiologists were found to be due to their exposure to radiation. It is the results of
these "after-the-fact" calculations of the radiation exposures received by these individuals (and by people
exposed to radiation from the atomic bombs detonated at Hiroshima and Nagasaki) that form the basis of our
present-day regulatory limits of occupational exposure.

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6. REGULATORY LIMITS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE

The present annual regulatory limits (as recommended by the ICRP and accepted by the Ministry of Health of
Bermuda) are:

Body Organ or Tissue Radiation Workers Members of the Public

Whole body 20 mSv/year 1 mSv/year
Lens of the eye 150 mSv/year 15 mSv/year
Skin 500 mSv/year 50 mSv/year
Hands 500 mSv/year 50 mSv/year

Notes:
(a) The reasons for the distinction between “radiation workers” and “members of the public” is that the
exposure of radiation workers is under the supervision of a responsible individual and is capable of
being monitored.
In fact, if an adequate radiation safety program is in place, no person working with radiation sources
should receive more than one-tenth of the amount indicated in the table. At these levels no adverse
effect has ever been seen, nor is it likely that it ever will be.
(b) While the same limits apply to both men and women, more stringent limits apply to a pregnant
radiation worker in order to safeguard the fetus.
(c) The exposure of the public is not controlled in the same manner, and so more stringent limitations
apply.
(d) The distinction between the various organs arises from the type of damage that might occur and the
relative sensitivity of the organ to radiation.

7. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF RADIATION SAFETY

The badges, which are available to monitor personal exposure, contain two tiny crystalline chips, which are
sensitive to very small amounts of radiation. They should be worn for a reasonable period (normally three
months) before being returned for measurement of the exposure received. The reported results indicate what
the badge received during the three-month period.
Since we are interested in the radiation exposure the individual wearing the badge receives, the badge should
be protected from radiation at all times when it is not being worn. It should also be worn next to the body
when x-rays are being used. If a badge is not worn, there is no way of determining how much radiation the
individual receives. The individual issued the badge must be responsible for wearing it when x-rays are likely
to be present.
We come then to the four D’s of radiation protection: DURATION, DISTANCE, DENSITY and DUTY.
DURATION: The less time one is exposed to x- or gamma rays, the less risk one faces from their effects. So,
don’t be around an operating x-ray machine or an isotopic source for any longer than is necessary.
DISTANCE: The farther away you are from the source of both primary and scattered x-rays, the smaller the
x-ray risk. So, given a choice, stand further away.

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DENSITY: The denser (heavy) a material is, the better it blocks ionizing radiation. This is why lead and steel
are used as x-ray barriers in radiation environments. They are dense.
DUTY: A person involved with the use of x-rays has a duty to him/herself and to others to be aware of the
potential hazard involved in their use, and to do everything possible to minimize it. Supervisors have a
responsibility to ensure that operators are knowledgeable about radiation hazards, and that adequate
radiation standards are met.
A person working with radiation will be in no greater hazard than an individual working at any other
occupation if the recommendations outlined in this handbook are followed.

7.1. HOW TO USE THE REST OF THIS BOOKLET

Since there are many different uses of radiation in Bermuda, the rest of this booklet treats them individually.
While the other applications may be of interest to you, you should concentrate on the section aimed at your
particular area of interest.

The first two sections (medical and dental) are more detailed because they involve applications in which
humans are purposely irradiated for diagnostic reasons. In these cases, the value of the procedure must be
balanced against the radiation risk to the patient, and so the quality of the diagnostic information obtained
enters into the picture. That is, if the radiation exposure is kept too low, the procedure is valueless since no
useful information is obtained and the patient and the operator are exposed unnecessarily.

The other applications covered in the following sections do not involve the purposeful exposure of humans.
Thus the primary concern is the safety of the operators.

8. RADIATION PROTECTION IN MEDICAL AND DENTAL USE OF X-

RAY RADIATION
The uses of radiation in medicine and dentistry are unlike the other uses of radiation discussed later in this
handbook. This is because it involves the irradiation of human beings other than the operator. The reasons
may be therapeutic (as in radiation oncology) or diagnostic (as in medical or dental imaging and isotopic
scanning).

This means that the safety of the operator and the patient must be considered.

The treatment of cancer patients by external radiation (radiation oncology) will not be discussed here since
this is not done in Bermuda at the present time. The use of radioisotopes for therapeutic purposes is limited to
the hospital, and the care of the patients and the disposal of radioactive wastes is covered by the conditions
of the Licence.

We are then concerned with the irradiation of medical and dental patients by external x- rays, and the
exposure of medical patients to small amounts of internal radioactive isotopes.

Here lies the question of risk versus benefit. The object of the irradiation is to gain some knowledge of the
condition of the patient that cannot be obtained by any other means - knowledge that is of immediate benefit
to the person being irradiated. However, the exposure involves some minimal risk, as discussed earlier in this
handbook. An analogy might be one in which you cross a busy street to buy an ice cream cone - you put
yourself at risk of being hit by a car in order to obtain something that is important to you. In both cases, the
risk should be weighed against the benefit obtained.

The benefit comes from the x-rays producing an image that is useful in the diagnosis of the medical or dental
condition under study. It goes without saying that an unreadable image means that the patient has been
exposed to radiation with no benefit. Thus it is important that the exposure be controlled within relatively
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narrow limits, and in the case of a radiograph, that the processing be optimal. In fluoroscopy, not only must
the exposure rate be kept to the minimum that will produce a useful image, but also ensure that all steps in
the imaging chain must be functioning optimally. Similarly, in nuclear medicine procedures, the amount of
radionuclide administered and the functioning of the imaging chain must be optimal.

The operative term here is quality control. It is possible to measure both the quantity (mAs) and quality (half-
value thickness) of the x-rays emitted from an x-ray tube, and to know the combination of these parameters
that, combined with an appropriate receptor (film-screen processing combination or fluoroscopic imaging
chain), will produce a useful image. The size of the focal spot determines how much fine detail can be seen in
the image. While this is of importance in all diagnostic x-ray applications, it is particularly significant in
mammography and dentistry. Any part of the x-ray beam that does not hit the receptor does not contribute to
the image, and so results in unnecessary irradiation of the patient. Thus it is important that an adequate
collimating device limits the crossectional area of the beam to the size of the receptor.

All these, and many other parameters, must be measured before putting the equipment into use (acceptance
testing) and then routinely to ensure that otherwise invisible changes have not taken place in the operation of
the equipment with the passage of time. This work requires specialized skills and instruments, and must be
fully documented so that comparisons can be made with the results of previous measurements.

The amount of radiation reaching the receptor, and so contributing to the image, depends (among other
things) upon the focal-skin distance as well as the thickness of the patient. The charts showing the optimal
exposure conditions for each view must be prepared and followed. The entrance skin exposure (or exposure
rate in fluoroscopy) should be measured and recorded for each view, and related to the BERT value (see
above).

In medical imaging the greatest radiation exposure of the patient (and, for that matter, the fluoroscopist)
occurs during fluoroscopic examinations. Here, not only must the operating parameters of the equipment be
optimal, but also everyone concerned must be aware of the four D's mentioned in chapter 7 above.

8.1. RADIATION PROTECTION IN MEDICAL RADIOGRAPHIC X-RAY IMAGING

These units are examined biannually by a qualified medical physicist, whose report will indicate any failures
to meet acceptable standards on the part of the unit or of the operating procedures at the time of the
inspection.

Under the terms of the License, these deficiencies must be corrected as soon as possible.

In the course of this examination, the physicist determines the mechanical and electrical integrity of the
system, the accuracy and reproducibility of the kVp, mAs and time controls, and the proper functioning of the
AEC system. He/she measures the size of the focal spot(s), and checks that the image produced by the
collimating system agrees with the light field. He/she measures the half-value thickness of the beam at
representative kVp settings and evaluates the image quality in terms of spatial resolution and high and low
contrasts detectability. Finally, he/she measures the patient Entrance Exposure (in mR) for a variety of
representative techniques. The results of all these measurements are recorded so that comparison can be
made with those of past and future examinations.

With use and the passage of time between these examinations, the performance of the unit can deteriorate
at a rate that is not immediately obvious from the appearance of a radiograph. For this reason, a Quality
Assurance Program should be in place and be carried out routinely by a trained and qualified member of the
department staff. This program should be designed to test the performance of the unit to ensure that it
continues to meet the conditions of the License. The results of these tests should be recorded and compared
with those of previous tests to indicate significant changes.

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 While these tests need not be as comprehensive as the biannual examinations, they should be capable of
demonstrating changes that could affect the production of useful images or of increased radiation risk. They
must include film sensitometry and densitometry as a check on film processing.

Such a program will require, at a minimum:

1. Aluminum step-wedge
2. A dosimeter capable of measuring radiation exposure
3. A phantom allowing testing of radiographic sharpness and contrast
4. A film densitometer.

Typical tests might be:

1. A thorough examination of the mechanical stability and operation of the unit

2. At chosen kVp and mAs settings and distance to the phantom, measure the Entrance Skin Exposure
in mR/ exposure
3. At a chosen kVp, measure the transmission of aluminum sheet under reproducible conditions
4. At fixed settings of kVp, mAs and distance, and using the typical film-screen combination, expose the
test phantom. Compare the displayed resolution and contrast with those of previous tests.
5. Under controlled conditions, expose a film using the step-wedge. Process routinely, and compare the
results of densitometric measurement with those of previous similar tests.

The senior radiographer must prepare a Technique Chart to display optimal exposure settings and conditions
for all radiographic examinations for which the unit is used, and for the grid and film-screen combinations
employed. The chart should include a range of expected Entrance Skin Exposures for each technique.

A Fault Book must be kept in the control area. If some deficiency appears in the course of use of the unit, this
should be recorded and brought to the attention of the senior radiographer, who is responsible for ensuring
that the problem is corrected by either the Biomedical Engineering Department or by the manufacturer's
service representative. The senior radiographer decides whether the fault is serious enough to label the unit
out of service until it is repaired.

8.2. RADIATION PROTECTION IN MEDICAL FLUOROSCOPIC X-RAY IMAGING

Unlike radiographic units, non-radiological personnel, who usually lack the training in radiological safety that is
mandatory for radiological staff, frequently use fluoroscopic x-ray units. In addition, the nature of the
examination frequently requires that personnel stand adjacent to the patient, thereby being exposed to
scattered radiation.
However, with good equipment design, appropriate choices of medical and technical operating factors, and
proper attention to radiation hygiene, useful dynamic fluoroscopic examinations can be carried out with a
minimal amount of radiation exposure to the personnel involved.
Even more than in the case of radiographic units, the biannual examination of fluoroscopic units by the
physicist and the departmental quality control tests are of the greatest importance. This is because the
exposure of the patient may take seconds or minutes, rather than fractions of a second, and so the
accumulated dose to the patient during an examination may be high. It is imperative, therefore, that both the
x-ray generator and the imaging chain be adjusted to give the best possible image with the least dose rate to
the patient (this optimization means that the exposure of the operator is also minimized).
As in radiography, most of the incident x-ray photons are absorbed within the patient, while some are
scattered and the remainders are transmitted to form the image. Since more incident radiation is needed to
form an image of a thick body part than of a thin one, it follows that more scattered radiation is present. It is
for this reason that compression is used to reduce the thickness of the part under examination.
As mentioned previously, distance reduces the dose to the operator. Even a step backward when the beam
is on will produce a significant dose reduction. A good rule of thumb is to avoid a position from which the part
of the patient through which the beam enters can be seen, since this is the direction of the most intense
scatter.
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 Many factors in the operation of a fluoroscopic unit can be used to reduce the dose to the operator. In
general, anything that can be done to reduce patient dose without compromising the clinical usefulness of the
examination will reduce the dose to the operator. Equipment layout and operation should be such that
personnel are as far from the high dose rate region around the patient as possible. Shielding attached to the
procedure table or worn by the operator must be employed, provided it does not reduce the usefulness of the
procedure. Personal protective devices include lead rubber aprons, thyroid collars, and eyeglasses containing
high atomic number materials.
Personnel not directly involved in the procedure should be behind protective barriers or walls while the x-
ray beam is on.
In fluoroscopy, sensors in the image handling chain continuously monitor the amount of radiation used to
form the image. The output signal is used to automatically adjust the x-ray operating factors so that an optimal
image is produced.
There are two basic designs of fluoroscopic unit. The first, which is frequently used in a radiographic mode
as well, involves an undercouch tube and an image intensifier (I.I.), which may be positioned over the table to
intercept the x-ray passing through the table and the patient. Compression and palpation devices are included
so that the image may be viewed on a distant monitor. Table tilt is frequently available. Spot films can be
taken during fluoroscopy. Lead rubber drapes are attached to the I.I. support to reduce scattered radiation.
The other type is the so-called C-arm, in which the x-ray tube and the I.I. are supported at opposite ends of a
C-shaped arm, with the crossection of the x- ray beam being limited to the size of the entrance phosphor of
the I.I. The patient is supported on a radiolucent table, and the x-ray beam can be positioned to image the
patient at any angle. A remote monitor (usually with last-image storage) is used to view the image. Where
possible, the patient should be positioned close to the I.I. to minimize entrance dose.
Interventional techniques, in which the physician must be physically in contact with the patient during the
examination, are commonly employed with both types of units. It is in this situation that the greatest radiation
hazard exists, due to scatter from the patient, and from placing of the hands and arms in the primary beam.
Even when properly used, lead rubber gloves offer minimum protection, since systems with automatic dose
control increase radiation dose until the gloves are penetrated.
Most modern fluoroscopic systems can record images for viewing after the x-rays are switched off. Image
quality requirements may differ for live viewing (fluoroscopy) and for acquisition of images for later viewing
(fluorography). When the operating mode is changed, most systems select image receptor dose levels which
are appropriate to the mode.
Fluoroscopy should only be used to observe motion. The use of fluoroscopy to maintain a constant image
on the monitor during clinical decision-making is inappropriate and should not be done. Fluorography is
designed to produce images for later review. The operating physician should be sufficiently familiar with the
unit settings and their resultant doserates to enable him to obtain useful images with a minimum of exposure
to the patient, and incidentally, to himself.

8.3. DIAGNOSTIC MEDICAL PHYSICS PERFORMANCE MONITORING

All radiographic and fluoroscopic equipment should be monitored at least annually to ensure that it is
functioning properly. Additional or more frequent performance monitoring may be necessary in certain
situations (e.g., after major equipment maintenance). Adherence to this standard will maximize image quality
and assist in reduction of patient doses. Key points to consider are performance characteristics to be
monitored, qualifications of personnel, follow-up procedures, and patient radiation exposure.
The goal is to produce the highest quality diagnostic image with the lowest reasonable dose, consistent with
the clinical use of the equipment and the information requirement of the examination.
The following characteristics shall be evaluated for the equipment to which they apply:
1. Image quality
2. Parameters of radiation production
3. Technique accuracy
4. Radiation beam alignment
5. Radiation exposure
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6. Radiation protection features

The medical physicist shall report the findings to the responsible professional in charge of obtaining or
providing necessary service to the equipment and, if appropriate, initiate the required service. Action shall be
taken immediately by verbal communication if there is imminent danger to patients or staff using the
equipment due to either unsafe conditions or unacceptably poor image quality. Written reports shall be
provided in a timely manner consistent with the importance of any adverse findings.
Patient radiation exposure shall be evaluated for radiographic and fluoroscopic equipment at least annually.
Tables of patient radiation exposure for representative examinations shall be prepared and supplied to the
facility together with BERT values. These tables shall be prepared using measured radiation output data and
imaging techniques provided by the facility. These results should be compared with appropriate guidelines or
recommendations when they are available.

8.4. RADIATION PROTECTION IN MAMMOGRAPHY INSTALLATIONS

The owner is ultimately responsible for radiation safety and image quality of a mammographic X-ray facility. It
is the responsibility of the owner to ensure that the equipment and the facilities in which such equipment is
installed and used meet all applicable radiation safety standards. The owner may delegate this responsibility
to staff. How this responsibility is delegated will depend upon how many staff there is, the nature of the
operation, and the number of mammographic X-ray units owned. It is acceptable for facilities to have some of
the duties listed assumed by suitable consulting bodies such as medical physics consulting organizations.

All radiologists must be licensed according to CAR or ACR standards. They must have received sufficient
training in mammography and must receive continuing education. The radiologist must understand the
contents of the accreditation and follow all recommendations.

The medical physicist is an individual who has received adequate training and is sufficiently experienced in
radiation protection, and in the operation and testing of mammography X-ray equipment. The medical
physicist should perform accreditation tests and be available to act as advisor on all radiation protection and
diagnostic image quality matters during the planning stages, the construction of the facility, the installation of
the equipment, and should also be available for consultation during regular operation of the facility.

There must be a staff member (Quality Control Technologist) who is responsible for the optimization of image
quality. This person must have received adequate training in mammography quality control and in the
operation of quality control test equipment. Depending on the size of the facility, these duties can be
performed by a staff X-ray technologist on either a part-time or full-time basis.

All mammographic X-ray technologists must be certified according to a recognized standard, such as that of
the Canadian Association of Medical Radiation Technologists. They must have received adequate training,
and must receive continuing education in mammography techniques and procedures. If a technologist is to
perform special techniques such as mammography of patients with breast implants, he/she must also receive
adequate training in these techniques.

In general, radiation levels directly beside the image receptor of mammographic X-ray equipment are such
that the above limits could be exceeded. The radiation shielding barriers required to reduce radiation levels
below maximum permitted limits may be determined on the basis of distance, maximum expected X-ray tube
voltage, work-load, and occupancy factor. To ensure that the radiation levels are always below maximum
permitted limits, the maximum possible workload should be used to calculate shielding requirements during
the planning stage of the facility. Also, due consideration should be given to possible future increases in
occupancy factors.

The thickness of lead, concrete or gypsum wallboard required to reduce radiation levels to the recommended
dose limits can be determined through calculations.

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All new, used and refurbished medical X-ray equipment and accessories, purchased or leased in Bermuda,
must conform to the requirements of the CAR Accreditation Standards. The manufacturer or distributor is
responsible to ensure that the equipment conforms with the requirements.

Acceptance testing must be performed before any clinical use of the equipment. Acceptance testing is a
process to verify compliance with the performance specifications of the mammographic X-ray equipment as
written in the purchase agreement. It must also verify that the equipment performance meets the
manufacturer's specifications and complies with these regulations. It is recommended that acceptance testing
be performed by a medical physicist, or other individual knowledgeable in mammographic X-ray equipment
testing and relevant regulations.
The results from the acceptance testing should be used to set baseline values and limits on operational
performance of the mammographic X-ray equipment. These baseline values and limits are essential to the
Quality Assurance Program.

Radiation protection inspections in addition to CAR testing must be established on a regular basis to assess
that:
• The mammographic X-ray equipment functions properly and according to applicable standards and
legislative requirements
• The mammographic X-ray equipment is installed in a safe environment and is used in a way which
provides maximum radiation safety for patients, technologists, and the public
• An adequate Quality Assurance program is properly implemented and maintained
• The level of diagnostic image quality is optimized and maintained
• The image receptor support shall transmit less than 0.87 µGy (O. I mR) per irradiation at all operating
loading factors at the minimum source to image receptor distance.

8.5. RADIATION PROTECTION IN COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY INSTALLATIONS

The radiation dose received by the patient is usually higher in computed tomography than in other
radiographic procedures. On the other hand, because of the initial design of computerized tomography suites,
the exposure of the operator is normally quite small.

The planning of a CT facility takes into account the design of the equipment, the maximum workload, and
the location of operating personnel and the public. Since the primary x-ray beam is fully intercepted by the
detectors and equipment housing, scatter and leakage radiation must be dealt with in the facility design. Once
installed, the entire facility must be checked at the time of acceptance testing. Unless subsequent major
changes are made in the facility, it is unlikely that any significant hazard to the operators or the public will
occur.

It is the responsibility of the operator to ensure that all safety interlocks are operational at the start of each
working day, and that the CT equipment is functioning according to specifications. Prior to each CT
examination, the operator must ensure that only the patient is in the x-ray room, and that the patient is
properly positioned and immobilized. Optimal exposure parameters (kVp, mAs per slice, slice thickness, scan
time per slice, number of slices, etc.) must be set. Images, as they become available, must be examined to
ensure that the planned sections are being studied and that the desired information is being obtained.

8.6. RADIATION PROTECTION IN DENTAL X-RAY INSTALLATIONS

There are three types of x-ray units that may be found in a dental office. These are:

1. Cephalometric units
2. Intraoral units
3. Panoramic units.

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In some cases, a single x-ray tube and generator will serve two of these functions.

As discussed earlier, the use of these units entails a possible radiation risk to the patient, the operator, and
the general public.

An operator using any of these units must be fully qualified to take dental radiographs, and be conversant with
the License conditions for the type of unit involved. We first discuss the reasons for those conditions, which
are applicable to all three types of units.

(Item 1 - Distance)
As mentioned in the Introduction, distance from the tube-head and from the patient reduces the exposure that
the operator receives. Being behind a barrier during the irradiation reduces it even further. The combination of
a distance and protective barrier must be sufficient to ensure the radiation safety of the operator and the
general public alike.

(Item 4 - Film handling and processing)

The value of the images produced by all of these examination methods depends not only upon the use of
proper techniques but also upon good film processing. Sight processing must never be used. The films
produced by cephalometric and panoramic units should be processed with all the care and attention to detail
of medical film processing. The testing and replenishment of solutions must be routine, the temperature must
be controlled, and the development and fixing periods accurately timed.
Where possible, automatic processing should be used. The small films used in intraoral radiography are best
processed in relatively inexpensive automatic processors, using solutions and procedures recommended by
the film manufacturer. Where hand processing is used, recommended time and temperatures must be
followed. Routine testing and replacement of solutions is mandatory. Loading and processing techniques
must exclude visible light.

(Item 7- Provision of a protective apron)

The provision of a protective apron not only reduces the inevitable exposure of the patient, but also provides
desirable reassurance and comfort.

(Item 9- Mechanical condition of the unit)

With use and passage of time, the mechanical and electrical condition of a unit will deteriorate to the point
where images are blurred and unsatisfactory, and where a possible electrical hazard may exist. The operator
must be on the lookout for this, and arrange for a service visit when indicated.

(Item 10 - Image quality)

It is the responsibility of the owner/operator to choose operating conditions, settings and techniques that will
produce a useful image with minimum exposure to the patient.

(Item 11 - Personnel doses)

If the biannual examination by an expert (as required by Item 12) is carried out and the other conditions are
met, this condition will also be met. (But see Item 12 below).

(Item 12 - Periodic inspection)

This inspection of the unit and its environment is to ensure that it meets international standards. It will check
whether, at that time, the Conditions of the License are being met. It is the responsibility of the owner to
correct any deficiencies reported by the inspector. Between inspections, any change that occurs in the unit, its
environs, or its operation, that could affect its safe operation, must be reported to the Ministry.

Conditions, which are specific to unit types.

8.6.1. Cephalometric units

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 These are essentially similar to medical radiographic units, but designed to produce radiographs of the
mandibular and maxilliary areas and the tempero-mandibular joint. Since the x-ray beam axis is fixed and
horizontal and limited to a 20 x 30 cm maximum area at the patient, the potential hazard to the operator is
leakage from the x-ray tube housing and scatter from the patient. Radiographic parameters must be chosen
to yield optimally useful images with minimal patient exposures. If, during the course of operation, any
deviation from the Conditions of Items 5 or 6 (beam size and alignment) is suspected, the unit must be taken
out of service until the problem is rectified.

8.6.2. Intraoral units

While the possible beam orientation may be anywhere within an angle of 270 degrees, the FSD is short (15 -
40 cm) and the beam area at the patient's skin is small (max 50 sq cm). The low kVp and mAs per exposure
should limit the entrance skin exposure to less than 4 mSv, and so the amount of leakage and scattered
radiation is small. The operator must ensure that the collimating applicator (cone) remains rigidly fixed to the
tubehead,is open-ended (Item 5), and restricts the useful beam as described in Item 6. The most sensitive
film that will produce a useful image should be used with the unit.

8.6.3. Panoramic units

In the operation of these units, the x-ray beam is collimated to a narrow slit, and scanned around the patient
over a period of a few seconds. The principal hazard to the operator is leakage from the tube head, with very
little scatter from the patient. Although the operation of the unit is checked biannually, the operator is
responsible for using kVp and mA settings as recommended by the manufacturer (Item 2(a)), that the timing
of the exposure is correct (Item 2(b)), that the cassette carrier is properly interlocked (Item 8(b)), and that the
motions, brakes and stops are operating correctly (Item 9).

9. RADIATION PROTECTION IN VETERINARY X-RAY INSTALLATIONS

[The numbers in brackets refer to the items in the License Conditions]

The exposure of the animal patients must be kept as low as reasonably achievable [8]. This can be done by
the use of the same principles that apply in human radiography. That is, the x-ray equipment must be kept in
good condition [2(a), 3,9], the x-ray technique factors must be optimal for the examination [10], beam
limitation must be adjusted for the size of the animal and for the structures under examination [5,6], the
animal must be properly restrained [7], and film and processing must be chosen to yield the best possible
image [4]. For details, see the section on medical radiography.

This said, the conditions under which veterinary x-ray examinations are undertaken must be such as to
minimize the x-ray exposure of the veterinary staff [11]. This implies that, in addition to the limitations
mentioned above, the license conditions for veterinary x-ray equipment must be met, and the equipment and
examination procedures checked routinely by a qualified expert in radiation protection [12].

In summary, unless the animal must be restrained manually, no person shall be within 2 m of the x-ray tube
or the patient during the exposure [1]. If restraining must be done manually, the person holding the animal [7]
must wear a protective apron and gloves.

License Conditions for VETERINARY X-Ray Equipment

1. The operator must keep a distance of at least two meters from the x-ray tube during radiography.
2. a) Radiography must be done with calibrated equipment using an acceptable technique.
b) The irradiation times and kilovoltage must be accurate.
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 c) Exposure duration shall be controlled by a preset timing mechanism that requires positive action by
the operator to continue exposure.
3. Leakage radiation must be less than 1 mSv/hr at one meter (100 mR in one hour at one meter) from
the tube.
4. Manufacturer recommendations for film processing must be followed to ensure optimum film
processing. If a darkroom is used it must be well designed.
5. Beam limiting device must collimate x-rays well.
6. The x-ray tube housing must be equipped with a beam-limiting device that enables adjustment of the
size of the x-ray field.
7. The animal being x-rayed should be restrained by mechanical means where practicable. If an animal
is required to be restrained by hand, the person providing restraint must wear a protective apron and
gloves.
8. Radiography should be performed in a manner that minimizes the dosage given t o the animal, thus
maximizing both the animal and operator safety.
9. The x-ray tube must be securely fixed and correctly aligned within the x-ray tube housing. The x-ray
source assembly must maintain its required position without excessive drift or vibration during
operation.
10. Image quality must be of an acceptable standard.
11. a) Operator and personnel doses should fall within the annual recommended dose limits stated in
International Regulations.
b) To minimize dosage the radiographic cassette must never be held by hand.
12. Radiation protection inspection will be done biannually to verify that:
a) The veterinary x-ray equipment functions properly.
b) Equipment is installed in a safe environment and is used in a way that provides maximum radiation
safety for patients and operators.

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10. RADIATION PROTECTION IN SECURITY X-RAY SYSTEMS
10.1. X-RAY EQUIPMENT FOR CARRY-ON BAGGAGE INSPECTION

The design of the equipment is such that the x-ray tube, the x-ray beam and the baggage under examination
are all enclosed within a radiation absorbing enclosure. The effectiveness of this radiation enclosure is
measured during initial acceptance testing, and the unit is not put into routine use unless it meets regulatory
standards. In particular, the leakage radiation levels at the positions occupied by the operating staff (guides
and monitor viewer) and by passengers as they pass through the area is measured and recorded. In addition,
the radiation exposure to the hand-baggage is recorded.

The licensing conditions require that the integrity of this enclosure must be maintained, and that the
equipment be routinely examined to ensure that this is so. It is the responsibility of the operator to observe
any apparent changes in the radiation-proof enclosure, and to take the unit out of service if its integrity is
thought to be compromised. In particular, wear and tear of the hanging lead-rubber drapes can cause
openings through which radiation can escape. These drapes must be closely monitored and replaced at
regular intervals.

Since the usefulness of the equipment depends upon the quality of the images displayed, the operator
must report any serious image deterioration with the passage of time. X-ray tubes and imaging systems have
a service lifetime, and require replacement at intervals.

If these simple recommendations are followed, the operation of this type of equipment should pose no
radiation hazard to the operators or to the general public.

When properly set up and calibrated, the x-ray exposure to baggage undergoing a single examination
should have negligible effect on exposed or unexposed photographic film. Digital cameras should be
examined separately, since the stored images can be affected by x-ray exposure.

Department of Health – Bermuda License Conditions for BAGGAGE X-ray equipment

1. a) Operators the x-ray inspection system must be more than 0.5 meters away from the access
openings of the irradiation chamber while the x-ray beam is on.
b) Members of the general public, excluding authorized staff and individuals whose baggage is to
be checked, must be more than 2 meters away from the x-ray inspection system.
2. Equipment must be well calibrated and maintained.
3. Leakage radiation must be less than 100 mR in one hour at one meter from the tube
4. Image display must be positioned away from radiation.
5. Radiation beam must be well collimated to the baggage inspected.
6. Leakage radiation should be minimized in all directions.
7. Proper shielding must be provided for the protection of operators and the public.
8. The radiation dose to the member of the public whose baggage is being checked must be within
the recommended limits in this handbook.
9. The X-ray equipment must be mechanically sound and stable.
10. Image quality must be of an acceptable standard.
11. Operator and personnel doses should fall within the annual recommended dose limits stated in
this handbook.
12. Radiation protection inspection will be done biannually to verify that:
a) The inspection x-ray equipment functions properly.
b) Equipment is installed in a safe environment and is used in a way that provides maximum
radiation safety for public and operators.

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10.2. RADIATION PROTECTION IN X-RAY USE FOR AIR CARGO BAGGAGE INSPECTIONS

The design of the equipment is similar as above. In particular, the leakage radiation levels at the positions
occupied by the operating staff is measured and recorded. In addition, the radiation exposure to the air cargo
packages is recorded.

The licensing conditions require that the integrity of this enclosure must be maintained, and that the
equipment be routinely examined to ensure that this is so. It is the responsibility of the operator to observe
any apparent changes in the radiation-proof enclosure, and to take the unit out of service if its integrity is
compromised.

Since the usefulness of the equipment depends upon the quality of the images displayed, the operator
must report any serious image deterioration with the passage of time. X-ray tubes and imaging systems have
a service lifetime, and require replacement at intervals.

If these simple recommendations and licence conditions similar as above are followed, the operation of this
type of equipment should pose no radiation hazard to the operators or to the general public.

10.3. RADIATION PROTECTION IN X-RAY EQUIPMENT FOR POLICE INSPECTIONS

This is an unusual type of unit, in that it is used rarely, must be portable, and must produce an x-ray
beam capable of penetrating metallic objects. Its principal function is inspecting suspected explosive devices.

Because of the need for portability, the leakage through the x-ray tube enclosure does not conform to the
standards that apply to medical and dental x-ray units. Further, the likely conditions of use (ie. emergency) will
usually preclude the use of protective radiation barriers.

Thus the protective measures that must be taken involve distance and location. After all the preparations
for exposure are complete, all personnel should move as far away as is practical and be behind barriers if
possible. The operator should be as far back as possible in a direction opposite to that of the emergent x-ray
beam, since this is the direction of minimum leakage.

Personnel training and routine testing of the unit should involve as few people as possible, and should
take place in a remote location.

11. RADIATION PROTECTION IN NUCLEAR APPLICATIONS IN

MEDICINE
There are many applications of nuclear technology in the medical field, ranging from diagnostics, to
treatment, to disease management. Many of these use radionuclides produced from either reactors or
cyclotrons; such as123I for thyroid studies, 111In for brain studies, 67Ga for tumour studies, 99mTc for heart
studies, 201Tl for myocardial studies. Transportation of material from the producing sites to the hospitals, and
transportation of their residues on to disposal facilities is vital to the success of nuclear medicine.

11.1. RADIATION PROTECTION IN DIAGNOSTIC USE OF RADIOISOTOPES

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 There are two distinct methods used in diagnostics. The first is to use the isotope as an in vivo tracer.
Here, a carefully chosen radionuclide (commonly known as a radiopharmaceutical) is administered to a
patient through inhalation, injection, or ingestion, to trace a specific physiological phenomenon. Detection is
accomplished with special detectors such as a gamma camera placed outside the body. The
radiopharmaceutical can be selected to seek out only desired tissues or organs. There are hundreds of
radiopharmaceuticals used in this way. As an example, recurrent prostate cancer is being identified using a
111In-labelled antibody.

The second method is to use an in vitro technique. For example, blood can be taken from the body and
studied using nuclear methods to assess exposures to infection by evaluating antibodies. It can also be used
to provide detection of tumours by studying some two dozen-tumour markers.

11.2. RADIATION PROTECTION IN THERAPEUTICAL USE OF RADIOISOTOPES

Radiation is widely used for the treatment of diseases such as hypothyroidism and cancer. The
radiation is used to destroy the cancerous cells. A typical radionuclide used for this is 60Co. In addition to
teletherapy, where the radiation source has no physical contact with the tumour, the radiation source may be
placed in immediate contact with the tumour, as in brachytherapy. Radiolabelled monoclonal antibodies may
also be used to attach themselves to the specific tissue or cancer cell requiring treatment.

In addition to the sterilisation of medical equipment discussed earlier, nuclear medicine is also being
used to reduce pain. Radiotherapy is administered to patients to palliate the pain, replacing pain-killing drugs,
which eventually lose their effectiveness. For example, physicians can administer a bone-seeking compound
labelled with a high-LET radiation emitter, and the level of pain can be quickly lowered or totally eliminated. A
new method involves use of 153Sm lexidronam, which is a therapeutic radiopharmaceutical used for the relief
of pain in patients with confirmed osteoblastic metastatic skeletal lesions.

12. RADIATION PROTECTION IN NUCLEAR APPLICATIONS IN

INDUSTRY
Radioisotopes used in Bermuda fall into two categories - sealed sources and radioactive materials in liquid
and gaseous form.

Sealed sources are either emitters of high-speed electrons (beta rays) or of high-energy electromagnetic
radiation (gamma rays, which are similar to x-rays). Generally, they are used as sources for industrial
radiography or as level gauges. Radiographic sources (usually high activities of cobalt- 60 or cesium-137) are
normally encased in protective housings, and pose a hazard only when they are removed, by remote control,
to provide a source for radiography.

Very strong safeguards apply to ensure that operating personnel are sufficiently far from the exposed source,
or protected by adequate barriers, to make the procedure safe. Periodic checks ensure that the storage
container provides adequate shielding, and that no radioactive leakage occurs.

When used as a level gauge, the source emits a narrow beam of radiation from a protective enclosure which,
after passing through the material under study, impinges upon a detector. In this application, the radiation
hazard arises only from leakage radiation from the source container and from radiation scattered from the
material. Since the apparatus is designed to protect against these hazards, the only problem arises when the
integrity of the source container is breached.

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Both of these applications involve long-lived radioisotopes to eliminate the necessity of frequent source
replacement as the radioactivity decays. The source activities are a few curies (thousands of
megabequerals).

The other application of radioactive materials involves their use in research and medicine. Chemicals, in
which the ordinary stable atoms have been replaced with their unstable radioactive isotopes, are used to
follow chemical or metabolic processes. While the stable and the unstable atoms behave identically in
chemical reactions, the radioactive atoms alone emit penetrating radiation. Since this can be detected
remotely by sensitive instruments, the process involved can be followed and understood.

Generally, these applications use radioisotopes with relatively short half-lives in activities of microcuries, or at
most, millicuries. As a consequence, their use poses a very small external radiation hazard.

The principal safety problem is the possibility of ingestion into the body, where the emitted radiation can bring
about cellular or genetic change.

12.1. RADIATION PROTECTION IN THE USE OF SEALED HIGH- ACTIVITY SOURCES

12.1.1. Level detection

The most active radioisotope sources used in Bermuda are those used in level detection in the Tynes
Bay incinerator facility. These are multi-Curie sources (two sources of Cs-137 of 4.7 GBq each) of Cesium-
137. They are enclosed in heavy lead protective containers, from which a pencil beam of radiation is
permitted to emerge. This beam crosses a space and impinges upon a detector, which is backed up by a
thick absorptive shield. In the absence of any material in the intervening space, the signal from the detector is
at a maximum, and the only radiation present is the leakage from the source enclosure and that transmitted
through the backup shield. These are both designed to keep the radiation level at acceptable values.
If the level of material in the space between the source and detector is sufficient to intercept the radiation
beam, the signal from the detector to the control system is reduced, indicating that this level has been
reached. The radiation level in the region is increased slightly by scatter from the material in the beam. The
design of the facility is such to protect against this increased amount of radiation. A survey meter is available
at the facility to allow for measurements of the radiation levels on a monthly basis, in conformity with the
Conditions of Licence. Wearing monitor badges is mandatory.

In the level detector for soft drink cans used at Barritts, the radioactive isotope used is Americium-241 of
3.7 GBq (100-mCi) activity, which in decaying emits mono-energetic x-rays of about 60 keV. A narrow beam
of these x-rays, impinging upon a detector, determines whether the level of fluid in a can passing on the
assembly line meets a present standard. The detector triggers a rejection system if the level does not meet
the standard.

Both of these detection systems are designed to keep the leakage, transmitted and scattered radiation
down to internationally accepted levels. They are subject to routine biannual inspections, which includes a
radiation survey and an examination of all pertinent records. It is, however, the responsibility of the licencee to
ensure that personnel are aware of the potential hazard, and report immediately anything unusual in the
operation of the system.

12.1.2. Gamma radiography

A defect in a weld between two sections of pipeline or some other flaw in a casting or metal component could
have catastrophic consequences when the pipeline or object is put to use. Radiography reveals such
imperfections using the unique properties of ionizing radiation to penetrate these important components
without damaging them. The radiographer produces a radiograph, which is a permanent photographic record
of the non-destructive test (NDT). The procedure is also called quality assurance (QA) testing.
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Gamma radiography uses gamma radiation. The necessary equipment is highly portable and ideally suited to
the sometimes remote and often difficult working conditions on construction sites. Iridium-192 is ideal for
radiography but other radionuclides can be used depending on the characteristics of the object material.
Radionuclide Gamma energies (MeV) Optimum steel thickness (mm)
Cobalt-60 High (1.17 and 1.33) 50-150
Caesium-137 High (0.662) 50-100
Iridium-192 Medium (0.2-1.4) 10-70
Ytterbium-169 Low (0.008-0.31) 2.5-15
Thulium-170 Low (0.08) 2.5-12.5

The activity of the source determines how much radiation is available. Too much adds fog to the film,
darkening it overall and reducing the likelihood of identifying the flaw. It also requires safety precautions over
a wider area. A low activity source requires longer exposure times to allow sufficient radiation to reach the
film to create the images. The longer exposures extend the duration of the work and require the safety
precautions to be enforced for longer times.
Radiographic sealed sources are specially formed stainless steel capsules, containing a high activity. Their
gamma emissions are continuous and to be transported the sources need to be housed in special portable
containers. They totally surround the source with shielding such as lead or, more effectively, uranium.

Occasionally, high-activity sources of Cobalt-60, cesium-137 or Iridium-192 are brought into Bermuda, usually
by oil companies, in portable industrial radiography equipment, which may take one of three forms.

Useful radiation may be available by:

(1) Removing part of the shielding.

(2) Moving the source within the container to a deliberately thin part of the shielding.
(3) Removing the source completely from the container.

The first two types direct a collimated beam from the container when the unit is activated. The
mechanism may be manual or remotely activated, with the operator taking a position opposite to the beam
direction.

The third type is the most common, and consists of a shielding container to house the source in the `safe'
position, and a mechanism to move the source from the container to the `radiography' position and back
again. The site is first prepared by placing a special type of radiographic film on one side of the object to be
radiographed, after which the source is moved to the other side. (Typically, the film is placed on the outside of
a pipe, and the source is inserted inside it). Although a limited degree of beam collimation may be used,
conditions rarely permit protective shielding of the source during such a procedure. Thus, the area around
must be blocked off to ensure that nobody comes within a distance where the radiation level is hazardous. A
survey meter must always be available when the source is moved, and a trained person must always be
present, since these sources can present a considerable radiation hazard.

Radiation surveys and wipe tests of the source container must be done on a routine basis. It is vitally
important that maintenance procedures on these units be carried out and that records be kept to show that
this has been done. It is the responsibility of the Bermuda Organization that contracts these services to
establish that this has been done.
Because of the environments in which they are used, dirt can get into the operating mechanism, resulting
in failure and the presence of a radiation hazard. It is important that the operator be trained to recognize the
incidence of such a situation, and to know how to deal with it. It is for this reason that an accredited individual
brings with him/her an operating radiation survey meter, and that this person be present whenever a
radiographic exposure is undertaken.
Contact with a highly active source for a few seconds could cause a tissue injury, which would not become
apparent for several weeks. The most widely used equipment is now of the third type. It is called the

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projection container or crank-out camera. The design ensures that exposing the source from a distance can
nearly always protect the radiographer.
Radiographic equipment which displays a statement that it meets ISO 3999 - Apparatus for gamma
radiography (ISO/TC 85.SC2 N 78) - specifications has been manufactured to the highest possible standard
and is least likely to cause problems. To ensure that the container continues to meet the standard it should
be kept clean so that the trefoil-warning symbol and the word “Radioactive” stay readable. The lock, which
secures the source, should be maintained.
The activity of any new source that is installed must not exceed the container’s rating, for example 4 TBq
Iridium-192, specified on the container. Compliance will ensure that the following dose rate limits (for a Class
P, portable container) are not exceeded:
• 2000 µSv/hr (200 mR/hr) on any external surface of a container
• 500 µSv/hr (50 mR/hr) at 50 mm from any external surface of a container
• 20 µSv/hr (2 mR/hr) at 1 m from any external surface of a container.
Details of the installed source should include the name of the radionuclide, its activity on a specified date, and
its serial number which should be shown on a tag on the outside of the container.
The transport index is the maximum dose rate at 1 m from the container’s surface measured in µSv/hr divided
by 10. For example, if 12 µSv/hr is the maximum measured dose rate at 1 m from a container, its transport
index would be 1.2.

Leakage tests should be carried out at the intervals required by the regulatory body or recommended by the
source manufacturer or following any incident in which the source might have been damaged. Simply wiping
any surface that has been in contact with the source and assessing whether there is any radioactive
substance on the wipe can carry them out. Wipes should only be manipulated using tweezers or tongs.
Sensitive radiation detectors are needed to measure accurately how much radioactive substance is on a wipe
but gross contamination will produce a dose rate.

Exposure containers only have sufficient shielding to enable them to be carried for short time periods and to
be transported. The dose rates accessible outside the store should be as low as reasonably practicable: less
than 7.5 µSv/hr or, preferably, less than 2.5 µSv/hr.
A lock should be kept on the door to prevent unauthorized people entering the area of higher dose rates or
tampering with the container. The key should be kept in a safe place.
A record should be kept showing where each source is at all times. A check should be made to see that they
are still safely stored on days when the source and container are not used.

When a radiographic source is exposed it will produce dose rates greater than 7.5 µSv/hr over a very large
area. The maximum size of the area can be calculated if the radionuclide and its activity are known.
The measured annual cumulative dose to the whole body should not be allowed to exceed the limit.
The radiographer must remain alert at all times when using a radioactive source. If the normal procedure for
producing radiographs is disrupted or the equipment begins to malfunction the radiographer should retreat to
obtain assistance and consider further actions. Contingency plans should be made in advance on the basis of
the critical assessment the radiographer has made of such situations. Practising the contingency plans will
indicate whether any special equipment will be needed to deal with the foreseeable incidents.

Any incident, which may have resulted in an excessive dose to a person, or any high dose reported on a
dosimeter should be investigated. It is important to determine whether the suspected or reported dose was
received and whether some part of the body has received a much higher dose which might result in localized
tissue injury.

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If a radioactive source is lost, even within its container, it should be found as quickly as possible. Radiation
monitoring instruments will be needed to help locate the source. High sensitivity instruments can help to
detect radiation from distant or shielded sources. Low sensitivity instruments are needed close to unshielded
sources. Do not search “blindly” for a source in an area where the dose rate exceeds the range of the
available instruments. Move away until the instrument is again able to indicate the dose rate and calculate the
distance to the source. Similar measurements from other directions may help to pinpoint the source.
When a radiographic source no longer has a useful purpose it should be properly disposed of. This might be
achieved by returning it to its country of origin or placing it in the care of an authorized receiver.

12.2. NUCLEAR REACTORS

A number of ocean-going vessels have been powered by nuclear reactors. These have included
merchant vessels, ice breakers and many surface and submarine naval ships.

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