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Biodiesel: Fuel for the Future (A Brief Review)

Article in International Journal of Energy and Engineering · December 2012

DOI: 10.5923/j.ijee.20120205.06

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International Journal of Energy Engineering 2012, 2(5): 223-231
DOI: 10.5923/j.ijee.20120205.06

Biodiesel: Fuel for the Future (A Brief Review)

Owolabi R.U.1 , Adejumo A.L.2 , Aderibigbe A.F.3

1
Fountain University, Industrial and Environmental Chemistry Department, Osogbo, Nigeria
2
Osun State University, Chemical sciences Dept., Osogbo, Nigeria
3
University of Science and Technology,Chemical Sciences Dept. Okiti-Pupa Ondo State,Nigeria

Abstract Several attempts have been made by researchers across the globe to counter the effects of the growing
informat ion related to the finite nature of the present fossil fuel reserve and the associated hazards. Biofuel has gained global
popularity in this respect as a biomass based fuel that have been tipped as a timely candidate. This review strictly focuses on
biodiesel of all b io mass derived biofuel.The major feedstock and their supply lines in a b id to create a balance between food
and energy was considered. Various catalyst used including biocatalyst for the simp le trans-esterification react ion of the
feedstock (Vegetable/Used Oil; Edible/Inedib le Oil and Alcohol) were analyzed. In fluence of the feedstock mo lar rat io,
temperature and t ime of the reaction on the conversion/yield and product purity and quality were equally reviewed. The
thermo-kinetics of the biodiesel production, fuel properties of biodiesel and the trials subjected to biodiesel in terms of
workab ility were considered for review in th is paper.
Keywords Catalyst, Biocatalyst, Trans-esterificat ion, Molar Rat io, Thermo -kinetics, Biodiesel

produced as a fuel on industrial scale. The functionality of

1. Introduction biodiesel as a possible and likely candidate to replace fossil
fuels as primary energy source for machineries and vehicular
Liquid fuel is a very precious resource used abundantly flow remains a driving force fo r scientists to keep
and somehow indiscriminately by modern man. The primary researching into the world of b iodiesel. Though, numerous
source of liquid fuel is currently crude oil which is becoming popular articles and scientific papers have cautioned against
hard er and mo re expens ive to reco ver as convent ion al the global drive towards a biofuel econo my generally,
reserves are depleted and as foreign suppliers increase the highlighting the potential impacts on food security. Since
price for their declining reserves[1].The drastic ju mp in o il vegetable oils which are the major feed stock for b iodiesel
prices between 1973 and 1979 started the agitation that made are widely grown and used for food and animal feed, hence
many govern ments to adopt policies to develop alternative there is the current debate “Food or Fuel?” Nonetheless,
energy sources. W ith th e wide majo rity o f at mospheric lengthy list of academia have worked on surplus and yet
scientist now agreeing that global warming is already well inedible o il as major feedstock for biodiesel. Ku mar et al.[4]
underway ,there are now mo re strident calls to replace crude discussed the importance of non-edible oil Jatropha curcus in
oil as our liquid fuel source in order to reduce the build-up of biodiesel production. Shah et al.[5] produced biodiesel fro m
greenhouse gases in the environ ment[1].Thus an additional jatropha by enzy me in a solvent free system. Attempts have
emphasis is being placed on the develop ment, production also been made to produce biodiesel fro m non-edible sources
and the use of alternative fuel considered being friendlier to like used frying oil, greases, tallow and lard[6-9]. Soap nut
the env iron ment th an fossil fuel.. In the rev iew o f[2], which is reported to be wildly gro wn in forest areas in Nepal
necessity to strict ly limit the g lobal warming was high ly in the elevation of 300-1900m[10] have also been presented
emphasized of wh ich accelerated release of fossil entombed as a suitable feedstock for biodiesel production[11].
C O 2 h a s b e en g en e r a l l y a c c ep t ed as a ma j o r Co mpared to petroleu m-based diesel, the high cost of
cont ribut or[3].Generally , b io -sou rced fuels are t ermed biodiesel is a major barrier to its co mmercializat ion. It costs
biofu el examp les of wh ich are b io methanol, b ioethano l, approximately one and a half times that of petroleu m- based
biobutanol, bio methane, b iohydrogen, b iod iesel etc. This diesel depending on feedstock oils[12-13], nevertheless,
paper centers on b iodiesel not on ly because its exh ibits numerous literatures[14-18] revealed the importance of
d efined ch emical and p hys ical p rop ert ies to meet t he biodiesel especially with respect to the future energy needs.
demands of engine application but because it is presently In this review article, we examine various sources of
biodiesel; edible and inedible oil , v irgin oil and used oil, that
* Corresponding author:
is gaining increasing importance, thermo-kinetics studies
[email protected] (Owol abi R.U.)
Published online at http://journal.sapub.org/ijee
and catalysis of biodiesel processing, fuel properties other
Copyright © 2012 Scientific & Academic Publishing. All Rights Reserved process parameters, and its chances as future fuel.
224 Owolabi R.U. et al.: Biodiesel: Fuel for the Future (A Brief Review)

2. History of Biodiesel fatty acid methyl esters increase the cloud point, cetane
number, and imp rove stability whereas mo re
Dr. Rudolf Diesel actually invented the diesel engine to polyunsaturation reduce the cloud point, cetane number, and
run on a myriad of fuels including coal dust suspended in stability[28-30], the details of wh ich will be treated in the
water, heavy mineral o il, and, vegetable oil. Dr. Diesel’s first latter part of this review .The presence of free fatty acids and
engine experiments were catastrophic failures. But by the water in the feedstock result in the production of soap in the
time he showed his engine at the World Exh ibition in Paris in presence of alkali catalyst. Thus, additional steps to remove
1900, his engine was running on 100% peanut oil. Dr. Diesel any water and either the free fatty acids or soap from the
was visionary. In 1911 he stated “The diesel engine can be reaction mixture are required. Ho wever, the tools of
fed with vegetable oils and would help considerably in the biotechnology could be utilized to modify the fatty acid
development of agricu lture of the countries which use it.” In profile of soybean for performance enhancement, which may
1912, Diesel said, “The use of vegetable oils for engine fuels increase the attractiveness of biodiesel derived fro m this
may seem insignificant today. But such oils may become in commodity crop[32]. There is still so me level of
course of time as important as petroleum and the coal tar disagreement in the literature over the suitability of animal
products of the present time.” No doubt,this statement has fats as feedstock for biodiesel. Animal fats are solid but oil is
come to stay.Since Dr. Diesel’s untimely death in 1913, his liquid at roo m temperature. Thus animal fats cannot be used
engine has been modified to run on the polluting petroleum as fuel in its original form.In the report of Mohd
fuel we now know as “diesel.” Nevertheless, his ideas on Gadaffi[24],Fangrui Ma and Milford A. Hanna[35]
agriculture and h is invention provided the foundation for a submitted that animal fats contains more saturated fatty acid
society fuelled with clean, renewab le, locally grown fuel. than vegetable oil and thus several problem will occur such
Today throughout the world, countries are returning to using as carbon deposits in the engine, engine durability and
this form of fuel due to its renewable source and reduction in lubricating oil contamination because of incompatibility
pollution[19]. with the engine.
3. Feedstocks for Biodiesel
The major feedstock for biodiesel is fat or o il fro m animal Table 2. Selected Restaurants in the City of Gainesville (U.S.A) to
Determine Supply Lines for Waste Cooking Oil
and plant respectively. Tables below show various oil used
for biodiesel production. Volume of Amount
Waste Oil Paid For
Years in
Table 1. Production of biodiesel in Different countries Restaurant Disposed Disposal
Business
Per Month Per Month
S/N Country Sources of Biodiesel In Gallons in Dollars
Soya Bean (Mustard is under Miraku 1 117lbs Free
1. USA
study) 1year 2
Sandy's Place 80 Free
2. Brazil Soya Bean months
Rape seed oil(>80) and Las Magarita 5 100 120
3. Europe Moraghot 2.5 160lbs Free
Sunflower oil
Boston
4. Spain Linseed and Olive oil 8 100 150
Market
5. France Sunflower oil JP Gators 20 50lbs Free
6. Italy Sunflower oil Napolatano 12 300lbs <10
Calypso Bar
7. Ireland Animal fat. Beef tallow 1.5 72-80 Free
&Grill
8. Indonesia Palm oil EI Toro 14 600lbs 40
Mildred's
9. Malaysia Palm oil 8.5 30 Free
Café
Animal fat, Beef tallow and Chik-Fil-A 24 1052lbs Free
10. Australia
rapeseed Kotobuki 14 600lbs Free
11. China Guang pi Ballyhoo Bar 511-550 per
3 3400lbs
&Grill year.
12. Germany Rapeseed oil
Porter's 4 20 80
13. Canada Vegetables oil/Animal fat Clara's 1 420 150
14. India Jatropha 10
Hot Wok 100 230
months
15. Ghana Palm oil, Palm nut,Coconut oil Mr. Han’s
Source:[20 ,74] Restaurant 17 140 60
&Night Club
Fatty acid composition usually obtained by gas Miya Sushi 8 12 100
chromatography is the majo r indicator of the properties of Timber Creek
12 560 130
biodiesel[27]. Such composition of o il has an important ro le Steakhouse
in the performance of biodiesel in d iesel engines. Saturation Source:[21]
 International Journal of Energy Engineering 2012, 2(5): 223-231 225

Table 3. Fatty Acid Composition of Selected Oil

Compo Jatropha Roselle Coconut WCO Pawpaw P/O RSO Canola SoyaBean
nent [23] [23] [23] [22] [31] [26] [25] [26] [20]

C8:0 3.35

C10:0 3.32

C12:0 32.72

C14:0 18.38 0.41 0.2 1.0 1.0

C16:0 13.77 18.15 13.13 8.22 13.9 42.8 6.1 5.5 2.3-11

C16.1 0.89 0.2 1.1

C18:0 6.77 4.09 3.60 5.61 4.9 4.5 2.3 2.2 2.4-6

C18:1 41.68 33.31 12.88 48.8 76. 40.5 56.0 55 22-30.8

C18:2 35.55 38.18 4.35 10.9 3 10.1 24.2 24 49-53

C18:3 2.09 2.68 0.2 0.2 6.5 8.8 2-10.5

C20:0 0.56 4 0.3 0.7

C20:1 0.97 0.3 0.3 1,4

C22:1 0.4

C22:2 0.5

C24:0 0.3

Others 20.8

MMW
889 882
g/mol
WCO: Waste Cooking Oil, RSO: Rape Seed Oil, P/O: Palm Oil, MMW: MEAN Molecular Weight

In all, contained in the article o f Srivathsan[61] is that the cracked to reduce viscosity and improve cetane number. The
direct usage of vegetable oils as biodiesel is possible by products of cracking include alkanes, alkenes, and
blending it with conventional diesel fuels in a suitable ratio carboxy lic acids. Soyabean oil, cottonseed oil, rapeseed oil
and these blends are stable for short term usage. The and other oils are successfully cracked with appropriate
blending process is simp le which involves mixing alone and catalysts to get biodiesel[62]. By using this technique good
hence the equipment cost is low. But d irect usage of these flow characteristics were achieved due to reduction in
triglyceric esters (oils) is unsatisfactory and impractical for viscosity. We have equally considered in this review that a
long term usages in the available diesel engines due to high lot of plant derived oil especially the inedible ones are yet to
viscosity, acid contamination, and free fatty acid formation be considered as equal candiadate for biodiesel
resulting in gu m format ion by o xidation and poly merization synthesis.The few ones already considered were not
and carbon deposition. Hence vegetables oils are processed subjected to full pre-treat ment before use.All oils contains
so as to acquire properties (v iscosity and volatility) similar to certain percent of gum which are expected to be removed
that of fossil fuels and the processed fuel can be directly used irrespective of how little they may be.Gu m free o il will
in the d iesel engines. Three processing techniques are main ly synthesize biodiesel o f improved cloud point an pour point.
used to convert vegetable oils to fuel form[62] namely,
pyrolysis, micro-emulsificat ion and trans-esterification.
Pyrolysis refers to chemical change caused by application of 4. Synthesis of Biodiesel
heat to get simp ler co mpounds from a co mplex co mpound.
The process is also known as cracking. Vegetable oils can be Biodiesel are produced through a simp le technology called
226 Owolabi R.U. et al.: Biodiesel: Fuel for the Future (A Brief Review)

trans-esterificat ion reaction. Degummed oil free of all forms trans-esterificat ion reaction has at least 3 main reactions as
of impu rit ies is reacted with a reasonable alcohol (ethanol, shown in the equations stated below[37];
methanol, butanol etc.)[29].Chemically, the react ion can be (1)
represented as; (2)
(3)
CH2 OCOR CH2 OH RCOOR
Frequency factor, which is a measure of collisions
between reactants, is always high for the forward reactions;
CAT ALYST
this indicates that the reverse reaction is less favoured.
CH2 OCOR + 3ROH CH2 0H + RCOOR Activation energy for the reverse reaction is higher than that
for the forward react ion, which again should confirm the low
possibility o f reverse reactions. So me of the few kinetics
CH2 OCOR CH2 OH RCOOR
studies that have been performed in recent times include
esterification of free fatty acids in sunflower oil and oleic
FAT /OIL ALCOHOL FATTY ACID EST ERS GLYCEROL
acid[38-39]. Trans-esterificat ion kinetics of soybean oil with
five d ifferent catalysts have also been studied[40].Similarly,
Several other side reaction occurs which if uncontrolled Divya and Tyagi[20] reported the study carried out by
hampers conversion, product yield and quality[20]. Usually Ko mers et al;[41] where kinetics and mechanism o f KOH
3 parameters have effect on the trans-esterification, catalyzed methanolysis of rapeseed oil for b iodiesel
namely[33]; production was investigated. The first sequence of the
• temperature (T), reaction reaction expressed the methanolysis of rapeseed oil to
• time (t) and biodiesel wh ile the second sequence described the always
• ratio of oil to alcohol. present side reaction separation of glycerides and biodiesel
The reaction temperature plays an important role on the by KOH. The proposed chemical model was described by a
quality of the products. Kapilakarn K and .Peugtong[33] system of differential kinet ic equations which were solved
reported that normally, the range of the temperature used in numerically by two independent computing
the process is between. 50 0 C – 65 o C. The temperature methods.Nonetheless,this aspect is yet to be fully exp loited
which is higher than the normal boiling point of methanol by researchers.Highly limited art icles on elementary steps of
(68 o C) causes more vaporization o f methanol (loss). On the the trans-esterification react ion and kinetic modeling are
other hand, the temperature wh ich is lower than 50 o C causes available in open literatures.
higher viscosity of biodiesel[34].The rat io of methanol to oil
also affects the reaction, the higher mo lar rat io, the h igher
conversion of alcohol. The rat ios, normally used, are 6. Catalysis of Trans-esterification
between 5:1 to 10:1[35]. However using too high excess
methanol can obstruct glycerin separation[36]. Divya,B and In the study carried out by Hossain and Boyce[47] inspite
Tyagi,V.K[20] investigated the conversion rate into of higher yield, using NaOH as catalyst during biodiesel
biodiesel using beef tallo w, sunflower , and soybean feed synthesis from waste sunflower cooking oil causes more
stocks. For beef tallow, reaction rate was very slow during emu lsion than KOH and makes comp licated to separate
the first minute due to the mixing and dispersion of methanol biodiesel fro m g lycerin. For th is reason, KOH has been
into beef tallow, the reaction proceeded very fast for the next screened as a catalyst whose effect in terms of concentration
five minutes. An appro ximate yield of 80 % was observed can be studied with respect to biodiesel production. The
after 1 minute for soybean and sunflower oils at methanol to solution of alkaline catalyst in methanol was recommended
oil rat io of 6:1. After 1 hour, the conversions were almost the to be prepared freshly in order to avoid the mo isture
same (93%-98%).The effect of reaction time fo r palm oil at absorbance and to maintain the catalytic activity[43-44]. In
40:1 methanol: o il with 5% H2 SO4 (v/v) at 95 ℃ for 9 hours the article of Twar et al;[63], the essence of the titration
and obtained a maximu m yield of 97 %[42]. process to get the number of gram of NaOH that will be used
However,further efforts is required to demonstrate the per liter of oil in the trans-esterificat ion process was stated.
reactor ideal enough for biodiesel synthesis and its design This will give a rough guide on the amount of catalyst that
and fabrication. will give an optimu m yield. The experimental details goes
thus; Dissolve 1 gram of NaOH in 1 liter of distilled water
solution (0.1% NaOH). Phenolphthalein solution was used to
5. Thermo-Kinetics of get the end point. In a smaller beaker, 1ml of oil was
Trans-Esterification dissolved in 10ml of pure isopropyl alcohol. The beaker was
warmed gently by standing it in some hot water, stir until all
The feasibility of a reaction is determined fro m the the oil d issolves in the alcohol and the mixture turns clear. 2
thermodynamic parameters. Since both reactants and drops of phenolphthalein solution was added. Using a burette,
products are liquids, entropy change will tend to zero, hence 0.1% NaOH solution was added drop by drop to the oil
equilibriu m constant will be low[20]. Kinetics of alcohol phenolphthalein solution, stirring all the time, until
 International Journal of Energy Engineering 2012, 2(5): 223-231 227

the solution stays pink for 10 seconds. The number of mls of 7. Biodiesel Fuel Properties
0.1% NaOH solution used added to 5.0 will give the number
of NaOH to be used per liter of oil[63]. The fuel properties of b iodiesel are d iscussed below;
Leung and Gau[26] reported that the conversion of waste • Specific Gravity, Density and API (America Petroleu m
cooking oil using sodium hydro xide catalysts was Institute) gravity: Density is the mass of unit volume of a
approximately 86%. Zheng et al.[45] showed that methyl material at a specific temperature. A more useful unit used
ester conversion of waste cooking oil in acid cataly zed by the petroleum industry is specific grav ity, wh ich is the
transesterifications can reach up to 99%. This process was ratio of the weight of a given volume of a material to the
carried out using a very high methanol to oil ratio of 250:1. weight of the same volu me of water measured at the same
In an attempt to reduce the problems with separation and temperature. Specific grav ity is used to calculate the mass of
soap format ion associated with biodiesel production, some oils. The API (A merican Petro leu m Institute) gravity is
non-enzymatic heterogeneous catalysts have been another way to express the relative masses of oils. The API
investigated. ZrO2 , ZnO, SO4 2-/SnO2 ,SO42-/ZrO2 , zeolite, gravity could be calculated mathematically using the
and KNO3 /ZrO2 are some solid catalysts that were studied in equation:
the trans-esterificat ion of palm and coconut oil[46]. The
reaction was carried out at 200 ℃, 50 bar, 3 wt% catalysts,
and a 6:1 mo lar ratio of methanol to oil. A ll the solid
catalysts exhibited some activity for both palm and coconut A low API gravity indicates heavier oil, while a higher
oil. The sulfonated metal catalysts gave the highest fatty acid API gravity means a lighter crude or product. Specific
methyl ester yields overall. ZrO2 gave 86.3 % yield for gravities of crude oils roughly range fro m 0.82 fo r lighter
coconut oil and 90.3 % yield for palm oil. Crudes to over 1.0 for heavier o il.
Bio-catalyzed trans-esterification as new biochemical • Flash Point: This is the minimu m temperature at wh ich
routes to biodiesel production, are similarly gradually the vapour fro m oil sample will give a mo mentary flash on
gaining attention as reported by Palligarnai and Michael application of a standard flame under specific test conditions.
Briggs[48] and[49-53]. Most of the art icles published have This is used to predict the possible fire hazard during
used a variety of substrates such as rice bran o il, canola, transportation, storage and handling.
sunflower oil, soybean oil, olive oil, and castor oil. Several • Pour Point, Cloud Point: The pour point of a crude oil or
lipases fro m microbial strains, including Pseudomonas product is the lowest temperature at wh ich oil is observed to
fluorescens[54-55], Pseudomonas cepacia[56], Rh izo mucor flow under the conditions of the test. Handling and
miehei[55], Rhizopus oryzae[57], Candida rugosa[58], transporting oils and heavy fuels is difficult at temperatures
Thermo myces lanuginosus[59], and Candida antarctica[60], below their pour points .Often, chemical additives known as
have been reported to have trans-esterification activity. As pour point depressants are used to improve the flow
shown in table 4, Ojolo et al. [75],explained that the catalyst properties of the fuel. The temperature at wh ich wax crystals
concentration increase influences the ester yield in a positive begin to form on the surface of the biodiesel is the cloud
manner up to 0.80% NaOH for jatropha oil after that it point.
decreases. • Aniline Point, Diesel Index: Aniline Point is the
What seems to be left out is the technology for the minimu m temperature at which equal volu mes of anhydrous
eventual separation of the lye catalyst fro m the aniline and oil mix together. A low aniline point indicates
glycerol.Most researchers are silent about it probably low diesel index. Diesel index is a measure of ignition
because of their wide availability and low cost. quality of a fuel. Aniline point can also predict the amount of
Table 4. Yield % of Biodiesel with Varying Amount of Catalyst carbon present in the oil as given by the equation
Meth RXN RXN Biodies Glyceri
S Cat. Oil
anol Time Te mp. el ne
1 100 Where = Refract ive index at 20 ℃ and
1.2g 20g 1hr 650 C 87.20% 30.80%
. g
Density at 20 ℃.
2 100
1.0g 20g 1hr 650 C 92.40% 27.35% • Viscosity: This is the resistance to flow of oil. Ease of
. g
3 100 starting depends on viscosity. Glycerin contamination may
0.8g 20g 1hr 650 C 95.33% 24.22%
. g cause biodiesel viscosity to increase[20].Production of
4 100 biodiesel with much reduced viscosity and cloud point can
0.6g 20g 1hr 650 C 74.45% 45.37%
. g
be found in the patent of Nourreddini[68]. Tables 4-5 shows
Source: [75] the fuel properties of biodiesel fro m various sources.
S: Sample , Cat: Catalyst , RXN: Reaction
228 Owolabi R.U. et al.: Biodiesel: Fuel for the Future (A Brief Review)

Table 5. Fuel Properties of Biodiesel from various sources

1 2 3 5 8
Fuel (Petroleu (PKO 4 6 7 Biodiese
Canola WCO 9
Propert m Biodies Rapeseed Jathropha Soyabean l MilkB
Biodiesel Biodiesel
y diesel) el Biodiesel Biodiesel Biodiesel Standard ush
Specific
0.853 0.883 0.876 0.878 0.880 0.885 0.858 0.875-0.9
Gravity 0.885
Flash
74 167 124 177 170 178 100
Point 0 C 160
Pour
–16 2 –2 –1 7
Point0 C
Cloud
–12 6 –10 –6 1 10
Point 0 C
Aniline
4
Point 0 C
API
33.42
Gravity
Heat of
Combus
10854.06
tion
Cal/g
Viscosit
y@ 4.82
2.847 4.839 6.170 4.892 5.65 cSt 4.5 1.89 5.00
400 C (cst)
mm2 /s
Cetane
50 45 10.96 49
Index 57
Diesel
1.337
Index
PH 7.43
1-4
[64]; 5[65 and 66]; 7 [21] ; 8 DIN V51606 (Germany)[67] ; 9 [73]

Table 6. Heat of a Combustion and Specific gravity of other vegetable In recent years, trials on automobiles using biodiesel have
biodiesel fuel been conducted by several institutions in India which have
Heat of Specific confirmed that biodiesel can reduce wear and tear of engines
Fuel Type and reduce oil pollution significantly[71]. At the University
Combustion kj/kg Gravity
Diesel Fuel 43350 0.815 of Ilorin , Kwara State, Nigeria, biodesel obtained fro m
Sun Flower Biodiesel 40579 0.878 jatropha seed oil was used to test run a fossil diesel generator
Cotton Seed Biodiesel 40580 0.874 for hours[72].
Soya Bean Biodiesel 39760 0.872
Rape Seed Biodiesel 37620 0.914
Pawpaw Seed biodiesel
WCO
45342
45479
0.867
0.858 10. Conclusions and Future Prospects
Source:[21]. Energy is an essential factor in industrial growth and in
provision of required services that improve the quality of life
of mankind. Biodiesel, of the family of b iofuel, has been
8. The Energy Balance of Biodiesel described in this review as a fuel with necessary potentials to
The net energy balance of various ethanol and biodiesel replace fossil diesel in future. The trials b iodiesel and its
feedstock has been a center of debate within scientific and blend have undergone is a confirmatory test to all advantages
policy circles. The energy balance denotes to “a comparison including environ mental benefits accrued to it thereby plays
of the energy stored in a fuel to the energy required to grow, a vital ro le in meet ing future fuel requirements. The
process and distribute that fuel”[69]. According to most of availability of major feedstock namely oil fro m bio-sources
the sources, biodiesel provides a positive energy balance: for and simp licity of the trans-esterifcation technology that
every unit of energy needed to produce biodiesel, 2.5 to 3.2 ensures its conversion to biodiesel are added advantage in
units of energy are gained. Evidence suggests that virgin o il terms of the future needs of biodiesel. The use of inedible oil
fro m sources other than Soya may have even higher energy and waste frying/cooking oil has equally assisted in
content. Overall, biodiesel is said to have the highest energy establishing a balance between energy and food
yield than any liquid fuel[70]. security.However, serious efforts have to be intensified on
design of large scale bio-refineries for future biodiesel
production.
9. Field Trials of Biodiesel
 International Journal of Energy Engineering 2012, 2(5): 223-231 229

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