nutrients

Communication
Defining Nutritional and Functional Niches of Legumes: A Call
for Clarity to Distinguish a Future Role for Pulses in the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans
Chelsea Didinger 1 and Henry J. Thompson 2, *

1 Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA;
[email protected]
2 Cancer Prevention Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +970-491-7748

Abstract: Legume food crops can contribute to the solution of diet-related public health challenges.
The rich diversity of the botanical family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) allows legumes to fill numerous
nutritional niches. Pulses (i.e., a subgroup of legumes including chickpeas, cowpeas, dry beans, dry
peas, and lentils) are a nutrient-dense food that could play a key role in eliminating the dramatic
underconsumption of dietary fiber and potassium, two dietary components of public health concern,
all while maintaining a caloric intake that promotes a healthy weight status. However, incorrect use
of terminology—in the commercial and scientific literature as well as in publications and materials
prepared for the consuming public—creates confusion and represents a barrier to dissemination



of clear dietary guideline messaging. The use of accurate terminology and a simple classification


scheme can promote public health through differentiation among types of legumes, better informing
Citation: Didinger, C.; Thompson,
the development and implementation of nutritional policies and allowing health care professionals
H.J. Defining Nutritional and
and the public to capitalize on the health benefits associated with different legumes. Although
Functional Niches of Legumes: A Call
inconsistent grouping of legumes exists across countries, the recently released 2020–2025 Dietary
for Clarity to Distinguish a Future
Guidelines for Americans (DGA) were chosen to illustrate potential challenges faced and areas for
Role for Pulses in the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans. Nutrients
clarification. In the 2020–2025 DGA, pulses are included in two food groups: the protein food group
2021, 13, 1100. https://doi.org/ and ‘beans, peas, lentils’ vegetable subgroup. To evaluate the potential of pulses to contribute to
10.3390/nu13041100 intake of key dietary components within calorie recommendations, we compared 100 kilocalorie
edible portions of pulses versus other foods. These comparisons demonstrate the unique nutritional
Academic Editor: Bahram profile of pulses and the opportunity afforded by this type of legume to address public health
H. Arjmandi concerns, which can be greatly advanced by reducing confusion through global harmonization
of terminology.
Received: 22 February 2021
Accepted: 25 March 2021 Keywords: legumes; pulses; dietary fiber; Dietary Guidelines for Americans; oilseed legumes;
Published: 27 March 2021
nutrition; beans; peas; lentils

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
1. Introduction
iations.
There are many edible legumes, at least 50, that have been identified at the level of
genus-species in the botanical family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and that are consumed by
various populations around the world [1]. Advocacy for members of the Fabaceae food
grouping—particularly at the levels of genus, species, and cultivar within species—has
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
contributed to artificial distinctions that have been used to focus attention on specific
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
entities (e.g., dry beans versus pulses when in fact dry beans are a type of pulse). Over an
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
extended period, this practice has contributed to a confused body of terminology. To begin
conditions of the Creative Commons
to rectify this situation, we adopted the following approach: (1) use an internationally
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// accepted classification system from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as a
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ basis for terminology [2]; (2) concentrate on predominant legume crops consumed by the
4.0/). global population as a whole [3]; and (3) use the United States as an example to illustrate

Nutrients 2021, 13, 1100. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13041100 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients

Nutrients 2021, 13, 1100 2 of 10

the value of accurate and consistent use of terminology [4]. There is a strong rationale to
encourage consumption of whole foods, which are positively associated with numerous
health benefits, such as weight maintenance and a healthy gut microbiome [5,6]. Thus, we
focus on legumes as whole foods, not as the ingredients into which they can be fractionated
(e.g., pea protein powder).

2. Defining ‘Legume’
Although the words legume, bean, and pulse are often used interchangeably, there are
clear distinctions among them. In resources from the International Year of Pulses (2016),
FAO states:
Pulses are annual leguminous crops yielding between one and 12 grains or seeds
of variable size, shape and color within a pod, used for both food and feed. The
term ‘pulses’ is limited to crops harvested solely for dry grain, thereby excluding
crops harvested green for food, which are classified as vegetable crops, as well as
those crops used mainly for oil extraction and leguminous crops that are used
exclusively for sowing purposes [2].
Herein, FAO clarifies three main points: (1) pulses (e.g., chickpeas, cowpeas, dry
beans, dry peas, and lentils) are a subgroup of legume; (2) the developmental stage at
which legumes are harvested can impact classification (i.e., vegetable versus pulse); and
(3) oilseed legumes are a separate category. However, even common, reputable sources
like national dietary guidelines do not always have definitions that align with that of FAO,
creating a potential source of confusion for professionals and the public alike.

Classification Scheme
Broadly, from the vantage point of production or consumption data, there are two
categories of legumes that are eaten by people: oilseed legumes and non-oilseed legumes.
Whereas oilseed legumes are higher in lipid, non-oilseed legumes are lower in fat and richer
in fiber, per 100 kilocalorie (kcal) edible portion. The next level of distinction is within
non-oilseed legumes and relates to whether they are harvested and consumed before or
after the seeds within the pod have dried: (1) pulses are the dried, mature seeds of the pods
and are sometimes called grain legumes; and (2) undried legumes are harvested before
drying (i.e., green) and may be consumed with or without their pods, as is often the case
for sugar snap peas and green peas, respectively (Figure 1) [3]. Overall, from a nutrient
composition perspective, the profile of 100 kcal edible portions of undried legumes and
pulses is similar, with comparable amounts of dietary fiber and protein. For example, green
pea is the physiologically mature, undried seed with very similar nutrient composition to
dry pea. However, because pulses are dried seeds, they: (1) have a longer shelf-life than
their undried counterparts (unless the undried legumes are preserved through processes
such as canning or freezing); and (2) should be heat treated (e.g., soaked and boiled) before
eating to prevent or reduce any negative effects of so-called ‘anti-nutrients’ like lectins.
Nutrients 2021,
Nutrients 2021, 13,
13, 1100
x FOR PEER REVIEW 33ofof109

Figure 1. Commonly consumed types of legumes. After separating legumes into oilseed and non-oilseed legumes, non-
oilseed legumes can be further divided into two categories: undried legumes and pulses. Pulses are the dried, edible seeds
of grain1.legumes
Figure that consumed
Commonly are then cooked
typesbefore being consumed.
of legumes. After separating legumes into oilseed and non-oilseed legumes, non-
oilseed legumes can be further divided into two categories: undried legumes and pulses. Pulses are the dried, edible seeds
The world
of grain legumes that are then cooked primarily
before being consumes nine types of legume crops as whole foods: five of
consumed.
these are pulses (chickpeas, cowpeas, dry beans, dry peas, and lentils) and two are undried
legumes
The (snap
worldbeans and snap
primarily peas) (Figure
consumes 1). In of
nine types addition
legumeto crops
these seven major
as whole non-oilseed
foods: five of
legume
these arecrop types,
pulses there are cowpeas,
(chickpeas, two oilseed legumes
dry beans, consumed
dry peas, when the physiologically
and lentils) and two are
mature seed
undried is harvested
legumes (peanuts
(snap beans and soybeans).
and snap peas) (Figure 1). In addition to these seven major
non-oilseed legume crop types, there are two oilseed legumes consumed when the phys-
3. Are All Legumes Created Equal?
iologically mature seed is harvested (peanuts and soybeans).
The nutritional profile of legumes can vary substantially and differentiating between
3. Are Allof
the types legumesCreated
Legumes is essential to inform clear dietary messaging to benefit public health.
Equal?
Currently, chronic disease causes about 70% of mortalities worldwide [7]. Yet, much of
The nutritional profile of legumes can vary substantially and differentiating between
chronic disease could be prevented by reversing major risk factors, of which unhealthy
the types of legumes is essential to inform clear dietary messaging to benefit public health.
Nutrients 2021, 13, 1100 4 of 10

diet is paramount. Overconsumption of calories and underconsumption of key benefi-

cial dietary components like dietary fiber correlate with the dramatic increases in over-
weight/obesity and associated chronic diseases [8,9], whereas fiber intake positively corre-
lates with healthy weight maintenance and lower risk for chronic diseases such as certain
types of cancer (e.g., colorectal cancer) [10]. However, less than 90% of Americans consume
adequate amounts of dietary fiber (defined by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA)
as 14 g fiber per 1000 kcal consumed) and many achieve only 50% of the recommended
intake [4]. Dietary fiber and potassium are classified as two of only four main dietary
components of public health concern in the DGA. Importantly, pulses are a rich source of
both and could readily remediate inadequate intake. Ultimately, delineating distinctions
among the different types of legumes can help inform development of important resources
and policies that impact public health and eating patterns, such as the DGA, which inform
all national feeding programs, like the National School Lunch Program.
To draw comparisons across all food groups and evaluate the potential of pulses to
contribute to adequate nutrient intake within calorie recommendations, we compared
100 kcal edible portions. Notably, unlike serving size measurements that vary between
food groups in the DGA (e.g., cup measurements in the vegetable group and ounces for
protein foods), 100 kcal portions facilitate comparisons across food groups and are thus
used throughout this paper. Information in the following tables is from the United States
Department of Agriculture FoodData Central [11]. Entries at the top of the search results
were selected that: (1) were prepared in similar ways to allow for valid comparisons (e.g.,
cooked and prepared without added oil, which would falsely represent lipid content); and
(2) had minimal or no missing values.
The three main categories of legumes (i.e., oilseed legumes and the two groups that
comprise non-oilseed legumes, pulses and undried legumes) have different lipid and fiber
composition (Table 1). For example, 100 kcal of cooked dry peas provides over 7.0 g of
dietary fiber. This contrasts starkly with 100 kcal of unroasted peanuts, which provides
nearly five times less dietary fiber and 30 times more fat. Compared to pulses, 100 kcal of
boiled soybeans has more protein but also higher lipid and lower fiber content. Edamame
and pulses have similar protein amounts on a 100 kcal basis, but again pulses are lower in
fat and have approximately double the fiber, depending on the type of pulse. Clearly, the
low lipid content and high, approximately 1-to-1 protein-to-fiber ratio differentiates pulses
from their oilseed legume counter-parts. Furthermore, examination of the nutritional
profile of non-oilseed legumes (i.e., undried legumes and pulses, like green pea versus dry
pea) reveals strong overlap. Similar to pulses, a 100 kcal portion of snap beans or snap
peas is low in fat and rich in dietary fiber. However, pulses have the added benefits of
storing well for long periods of time and delivering the same amount of dietary fiber in a
smaller portion size (e.g., 1/2-cup cooked dry peas versus 2.5-cups sugar snap peas) and
often at a more accessible price point. Accordingly, pulses are particularly well-positioned
to reverse the dramatic underconsumption of dietary fiber by much of the population,
regardless of socioeconomic class. These are critical distinctions to make when designing
policies like the DGA. Moreover, pulses eaten as whole foods may promote gut health and
mitigate obesity when they replace other more caloric foods or lipid-rich legumes, and
pulse consumption has been associated with a myriad of health benefits, including healthy
weight maintenance and a reduced risk for cardiovascular disease and several types of
cancer [5,6].
Nutrients 2021, 13, 1100 5 of 10

Table 1. Nutritional analysis of 100 kilocalorie portions of the predominant pulses, undried legumes, and oilseed legumes.

Chickpea Cowpea Dry Bean Snap Bean Dry Pea Green Pea Snap Pea Lentil Peanut Soybean Edamame

~1/3 ~1/2 ~1/2–1/3 ~3 ~1/2 ~1 ~2.5 ~1/2 ~2 ~1/3 ~1/2

Approximate Amount
cup cup cup cups cup cup cups cup Tbs cup cup

Protein (g) 5.4 6.7 6.7 5.4 7.2 6.4 5.7 7.8 4.6 10.6 7.8
Total Lipid (g) 1.6 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.3 8.7 5.2 2.8
Carbohydrate (g) 16.7 17.9 18.0 22.5 17.7 18.6 17.2 17.4 2.8 4.9 11.1
Dietary Fiber (g) 4.6 5.6 6.6 9.1 7.2 6.5 5.9 6.8 1.5 3.5 3.4
Folate (µg) 104.9 179.3 112.9 94.3 56.0 75.0 MV 156.0 42.3 31.4 MV

Iron (mg) 1.8 2.2 1.6 1.9 1.1 1.8 5.7 2.9 0.8 3.0 1.9

Potassium (mg) 177.4 239.7 268.9 417.1 312.1 322.6 MV 318.1 124.3 299.4 365.6

Calcium (mg) 29.9 20.7 20.5 125.7 12.1 32.1 107.3 16.4 16.2 59.3 66.4

Choline (mg) 26.1 27.8 24.7 48.3 28.3 35.4 MV 28.2 9.3 MV MV

Magnesium (mg) 29.3 45.7 53.0 51.4 31.0 46.4 MV 31.0 29.6 50.0 MV

Vitamin A, RAE (µg) 0.6 0.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 47.6 MV 0.0 0.0 0.0 MV

Vitamin C (mg) 0.8 0.3 0.0 27.7 0.3 16.9 MV 1.3 0.0 1.0 MV

Vitamin E (mg) 0.2 0.2 0.7 1.3 0.0 0.2 MV 0.1 1.5 0.2 MV

FDC ID 173757 175252 173735 169321 175257 170420 1130377 172421 1100536 174299 1132630

Information in the table is from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) FoodData Central (FDC), https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/
(accessed on 6 January 2021) [11]. The nutrition information for 100 kilocalorie portions are provided and FDC ID numbers are listed in the
table. Dietary fiber, which USDA classifies as a dietary component of public health concern, is highlighted in green and lipid content is
highlighted in blue. MV: Missing value in the database. All pulses and soybean were boiled and peanut is unroasted.

4. The United States Dietary Guidelines as a Case in Point

In the recently released 2020–2025 DGA, what was termed the vegetable subgroup
‘legumes (beans and peas)’ in the previous DGA was changed to the ‘beans, peas, lentils’
vegetable subgroup [4]. This acknowledgement that beans, peas, and lentils, which the
DGA recognizes as ‘pulses’ for the first time, have different nutritional properties than
other legumes represents progress. However, the message becomes increasingly muddled:
(1) edamame (an oilseed legume) is grouped with beans, peas, and lentils; (2) chickpeas
are sometimes classified as peas (rather than a distinct type of pulse); (3) green beans (i.e.,
snap bean) are grouped with other vegetables; (4) green peas are separated and grouped
with starchy vegetables; and (5) the beans, peas, and lentils subgroup is part of both
vegetables and protein foods. Points one through four represent application of a confusing
classification scheme that does not necessarily relay differences in nutritional composition.
For instance, as is evident in Table 1, the nutritional profile of dry peas and green peas
is strikingly similar per 100 kcal edible portion, yet the two are divided into different
vegetable subgroups.
Arguably, as the guiding nutritional recommendations for the U.S., the DGA should
achieve a level of clarity interpretable by health professionals as well as the consumer, yet
the counterintuitive groupings of pulses and other legumes is likely confusing. Approxi-
mately two-thirds of Americans are overweight or obese, and clarity in dietary guidelines
can play a critical role in improving the health of the nation. The DGA proclaim fiber a
dietary component of public health concern, stating that, “More than 90 percent of women
and 97 percent of men do not meet recommended intakes for dietary fiber” [4]. To mitigate
this underconsumption and achieve adequate intake, eating patterns rich in fruits, vegeta-
bles, and whole grains have been heavily promoted. However, pulses are one of the richest,
most economical sources of fiber, while simultaneously being low-fat and an excellent
source of potassium, a second dietary component of public health concern. To readily
increase fiber intake without exceeding caloric recommendations, the important role of
pulses in the diet should be highlighted to both nutrition professionals and consumers. Yet,
Nutrients 2021, 13, 1100 6 of 10

this requires clear dietary groupings and recommendations, which stem from appropriate
use of terminology and classification.
One way to make comparisons between foods and design eating patterns that support
reaching or maintaining a healthful weight is to compare 100 kcal portions. Using this
approach, dry bean is compared to other foods in the vegetable, protein, and grain food
groups in Tables 2–4, respectively. Dry bean was selected as a representative pulse because
it accounts for the majority of pulse production worldwide [12]. Table 2 demonstrates that
vegetables are naturally low in fat and are often high in fiber, depending on the subgroup
(e.g., not starchy vegetables). However, pulses are nutritionally distinct from the other
four vegetable subgroups (starchy, red and orange, dark-green, and other; see Table 2
caption) because they are a consistently rich source of protein and fiber, in about a 1-to-1
protein-to-fiber ratio. It is also important to consider serving size. A 1/2 cup of cooked
pulses provides about 7 g of both protein and fiber. In contrast, it requires approximately
2 cups of cooked broccoli, which is already higher in protein and fiber than the other
vegetables listed in the table, to obtain these levels of protein and fiber. Additionally, it
requires 5 cups of raw cucumber to get about 4 g of protein and 3 g of fiber, which far
exceeds the amounts eaten in a normal sitting yet is still not equivalent to higher levels
seen in a serving size of pulses. Yet, other vegetable subgroups may have higher amounts
of certain other dietary components than dry bean and other pulses. Whereas vitamin A
and C are lacking in dry bean, they are present in high levels in vegetables such as carrots
and broccoli, respectively.

Table 2. Nutritional analysis of 100 kilocalorie portions of dry bean versus other vegetable subgroups.

Dry Bean Cassava Potato Carrots Broccoli Cucumber

Approximate Amount ~1/2–1/3 cup ~1/3 cup ~2/3 cup ~1.75 cups ~ 2 cups ~5 cups

Protein (g) 6.7 2.7 2.7 2.2 8.4 4.3

Total Lipid (g) 0.4 0.7 0.1 0.5 1.1 0.7
Carbohydrate (g) 18.0 22.6 22.7 23.5 19.7 24.2
Dietary Fiber (g) 6.6 0.7 2.4 8.6 7.7 3.3
Folate (µg) 112.9 MV 30.1 40.0 160.0 46.7

Iron (mg) 1.6 0.2 1.2 1.0 2.2 1.9

Potassium (mg) 268.9 252.7 573.1 671.4 937.1 980.0

Calcium (mg) 20.5 13.0 16.1 85.7 140.0 106.7

Choline (mg) 24.7 MV 15.8 25.1 55.4 40.0

Magnesium (mg) 53.0 MV 30.1 28.6 62.9 86.7

Vitamin A, RAE (µg) 0.0 MV 1.1 2434.3 88.6 33.3

Vitamin C (mg) 0.0 16.0 10.3 10.3 224.9 18.7

Vitamin E (mg) 0.7 MV 0.0 2.9 2.3 0.2

FDC ID 173735 372909 1102892 170394 1103172 1103352

All five vegetable subgroups in the DGA are represented: (1) beans, peas, lentils by cooked dry bean; (2) starchy by cas-sava and potatoes;
(3) red & orange by carrots; (4) dark-green by broccoli; and (5) other by cucumber. Dietary fiber, which USDA classifies as a dietary
component of public health concern, is highlighted in green and lipid content is highlighted in blue. MV: Missing value in the database. To
make for valid comparisons, all vegetable selections are prepared without added fat (e.g., oil) and are cooked, except for cucumber which is
shown raw to represent how it is normally eaten. Information from USDA FDC [11].
Nutrients 2021, 13, 1100 7 of 10

Table 3. Nutritional analysis of 100 kilocalorie portions of dry bean versus other protein foods.

Chicken Breast, 80/20 Ground Hard-Boiled Almonds,

Dry Bean Salmon Tofu
Skin not Eaten Beef Egg Unroasted

~1/2–1/3
Approximate Amount ~2–oz. ~1.3–oz. ~1.25 eggs ~2–oz. ~2 Tbs ~3.5–oz.
cup

Protein (g) 6.7 16.8 8.1 8.1 16.1 3.7 10.0

Total Lipid (g) 0.4 3.1 5.6 6.8 3.5 8.6 5.6
Carbohydrate (g) 18.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.1 3.7 2.5
Dietary Fiber (g) 6.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.2 2.6
Folate (µg) 112.9 4.0 3.1 28.4 3.1 7.6 MV

Iron (mg) 1.6 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.6 1.8

Potassium (mg) 268.9 200.0 95.6 81.3 288.8 126.6 156.4

Calcium (mg) 20.5 4.0 7.6 32.3 5.6 46.5 187.2

Choline (mg) 24.7 43.0 25.4 189.7 74.5 9.0 MV

Magnesium (mg) 53.0 15.9 6.3 6.5 21.3 46.6 MV

Vitamin A, RAE (µg) 0.0 5.1 0.9 96.1 25.0 0.0 0.0

Vitamin C (mg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0

Vitamin E (mg) 0.7 0.6 0.0 0.7 0.3 4.4 MV

FDC ID 173735 1098457 171797 173424 1098965 1100508 1219633

All subgroups of protein foods in the DGA are represented: (1) beans, peas, lentils by cooked dry bean; (2) meats, poultry, eggs by chicken
breast, ground beef, and hard-boiled eggs; (3) seafood by salmon; and (4) nuts, seeds, soy products by almonds and tofu. Dietary fiber,
which USDA classifies as a dietary component of public health concern, is highlighted in green and lipid content is highlighted in blue. MV:
Missing value in the database. No fat (e.g., oil) was added when preparing these foods. Information from USDA FDC [11].

Table 4. Nutritional analysis of 100 kilocalorie portions of dry bean versus common grains.

Dry Bean Rice, Brown Rice, White Whole Wheat Pasta Corn Tortilla Corn Grits Quinoa

~1/2–1/3 ~0.4 ~1/2 ~2/3 ~2/3 ~1/2

Approximate Amount ~2 small tortillas
cup cup cup cup cup cup

Protein (g) 6.7 2.2 2.1 4.0 2.2 1.9 3.7

Total Lipid (g) 0.4 0.8 0.2 1.1 1.1 0.6 1.6
Carbohydrate (g) 18.0 20.0 21.7 20.2 20.0 21.4 17.8
Dietary Fiber (g) 6.6 1.3 0.3 2.6 2.2 1.1 2.3
Folate (µg) 112.9 7.4 45.0 14.1 MV 41.5 35.0

Iron (mg) 1.6 0.5 0.9 1.2 0.8 0.9 1.2

Potassium (mg) 268.9 70.5 27.1 64.4 MV 33.8 143.3

Calcium (mg) 20.5 2.5 7.8 8.7 89.0 1.5 14.2

Choline (mg) 24.7 7.5 1.6 4.4 MV 3.7 19.2

Magnesium (mg) 53.0 32.0 9.3 36.2 MV 7.7 53.3

Vitamin A, RAE (µg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 MV 0.0 0.0

Vitamin C (mg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Vitamin E (mg) 0.7 0.1 0.0 0.2 MV 0.0 0.5

FDC ID 173735 1101631 1101625 168910 468846 171672 168917

Values are from cooked dry bean and grains, with no fat (e.g., oil) added during preparation. Dietary fiber, which USDA classifies as a
dietary component of public health concern, is highlighted in green and lipid content is highlighted in blue. MV: Missing value in the
database. Information from USDA FDC [11].
Nutrients 2021, 13, 1100 8 of 10

Pulses are also dramatically different from animal protein foods (see Table 3), which
contain no fiber. The animal proteins listed in Table 3 contain more protein per 100 kcal
portion than pulses. However, fiber is a dietary component of public health concern,
protein is adequately consumed in the average American diet [4], reinforcing the need to
make clear distinctions between foods and highlight those that are high in fiber. Other
plant-based protein sources, such as nuts and soy products, contain fiber but have lower
amounts than pulses and higher lipid content per 100 kcal portion. Indeed, although all
protein sources shown in the table were prepared without added fat (e.g., oil), they are
still naturally higher in lipid than pulses, again demonstrating the potential of pulses to
meet dietary fiber recommendations within caloric limits. For example, 100 kcal of dry
bean contains nearly 7 g of fiber, but almonds and tofu only contain about 2 to 3 g. The
affordable price point of pulses can make them an accessible way for individuals from
diverse socioeconomic classes to meet nutrition recommendations of dietary components
such as fiber, protein, and potassium. Although the protein quality of plant-based foods is
lower than animal sources due to limiting amino acids and lower bioavailability, healthy
adults on a good quality diet that contains variety can achieve adequate protein intake
even if animal proteins are excluded or minimally incorporated [13].
Overall, Tables 2 and 3 demonstrate that pulses are distinct from other vegetable
and protein foods. Pulses were also compared to cereal grains (Table 4), consumption of
which has regularly been promoted as a strategy to increase consumption of dietary fiber.
Pulses are consistently higher in protein than these grains, including quinoa which is often
promoted as a source of protein. Importantly, pulses are also consist-ently about 2–3 times
higher in fiber than whole grains [14,15]. For example, 100 kcal of dry bean has nearly 7 g
of fiber, whereas brown rice and whole wheat pasta have approximately 1.3 and 2.6 g of
fiber per 100 kcal, respectively. This dif-ference is even more dramatic when comparing to
a refined grain like white rice, with 100 kcal of white rice having only about 0.3 g of fiber.
Pulses can also provide more of nutrients such as potassium and iron than grains.

5. Distinction among Legumes Moving Forward

Legumes can play a key role in healthful eating patterns around the world. Even
beyond their central role in many plant-based diets, they can help meet nutritional needs
in diets that include high amounts of animal protein by providing a rich source of dietary
components like potassium and fiber. To best promote public health requires distinction
among the various types of legumes and that a common vocabulary exist. Globally, there
are discrepancies in the grouping and definition of legumes. While many countries consider
them protein foods, some also group them as vegetables or even as a separate group [16].
For example, the United Kingdom Eatwell Guide groups undried legumes (e.g., runner
beans and garden peas) with pulses and counts pulses as both protein and vegetables [17]
but states that regardless of how much a consumer eats, “beans and pulses count as a
maximum of 1 portion a day” of the vegetable group [18]. Conversely, Canada’s food guide
groups beans, peas, and lentils with protein foods, with peas including chickpeas and dry
peas [19].
Inconsistencies are also apparent in the 2020–2025 DGA. Although the DGA are
“designed for policymakers and nutrition and health professionals to help all individuals
and their families consume a healthy, nutritionally adequate diet” [4], we are witnessing
rising rates of chronic disease and losing the battle against the obesity epidemic. The
recently released DGA specify only four dietary components of public concern, attributing
underconsumption to inadequate intake of nutrient-dense foods. Pulses are an excellent
source of two of these dietary components, dietary fiber and potassium. Indeed, pulses
seem like an obvious solution to eliminate the fiber gap, increase potassium intake, and
contribute to the reversal of the trends of increasing obesity and chronic disease rates,
all while not over-consuming calories. Moreover, they contain other health-promoting
compounds, such as polyphenols with antioxidant properties [20].
Nutrients 2021, 13, 1100 9 of 10

The unclear grouping of pulses with various food groups and other legumes that
have dramatically different nutritional profiles may contribute to the current health crisis
by being a source of confusion to health care professionals, dietitians, and the public. In
a recent study by Winham and colleagues (2018), Registered Dietitians (RDs) showed
gaps in knowledge that reflect this conflicting messaging [21]. For example, 29% of the
RDs did not know what ‘legume’ meant, and more than two-thirds were unable to define
‘pulse’. It would advantageous for the DGA to make distinctions among the different
types of legumes, clearly highlighting the nutritional differences between oilseed legumes,
undried legumes (e.g., snap beans or snap peas), and pulses (e.g., chickpeas, cowpeas, dry
beans, dry peas, and lentils) such that nutrition and health care professionals can make
appropriate recommendations to advance the health of their clients and the general public.
With the current lack of clarity, incorporation of pulses into eating patterns across the
lifespan may be diminished not because consumers are unwilling to eat pulses but because
the DGA and health care professionals fail to give clear, specific guidance [22]. Distinction
among different legumes and consistent use of terminology is essential to avoid public
confusion, promote directed research (e.g., on food consumption patterns via pulse-specific
food frequency questionnaires), and allow us to capitalize on the benefits that unique
subgroups of legumes—such as pulses—have to offer.

Author Contributions: Writing—Original Draft Preparation, C.D.; Writing—Review and Editing,

C.D. and H.J.T.; Writing—Final Review and Approval, C.D. and H.J.T. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported in part by USDA-NIFA: 2020-05206.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Publicly available datasets were analyzed for the tables presented in
this communication. This data can be found at the USDA FDC: https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/ (accessed
on 6 January 2021).
Acknowledgments: The authors thank Karen Cichy, Becky Garrison, and Evy Jaconis for critical
feedback on the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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