Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture

from ancient to modern times.

Art Forms
Indian Dance
Dance is a musical art in which an individual expresses its emotion with rhythm, usually with a set of steps.
The earliest reference of dance is encountered in the Rig–Veda in a description of the dawn: beauty is revealed like dancer removing the garment of darkness. Here
Ushas (dawn, a Vedic deity) is compared to a danseuse. Another reference, nrtyamano amrta, from the Rig-Veda refers to dancing gods.
The richly layered symbolism of the dance recalls the over 5,000-year history of efficacy and creativity in the arts, philosophy, and literature.
Despite India’s vastness, diverse natural resources, frequent invasions, and external influences, Indian dance has retained its identity in the cultural realm of Indian
psyche.
Natya Shastra composed by Bharat Muni in 1st century AD is considered by many as the Fifth Veda. This treatise talks about Dance in depth detail.
The discovery of the bronze statue of a dancing girl testifies to the fact that dance was performed in the Harappan Culture.

Dancing girl of the Harappan Culture

In traditional Indian culture, dance functioned as expression of religious ideas.The Figure of lord shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and destruction of
cosmic cycle.

Natya Shashtra is the primary source which mentions following aspects of dance:
dance is divided into two types: Tandava and Lasya
Tandava - performed with higher power and strength
Lasya - gentler dance than Tandava
Human Emotions are classified into 9 types
Shringar (Love)
Veer (Vigour)
Rudra (Anger)
Bhaya (Fear)
Ghrana (Disgust)
Hasya (Comic)
Karun (Pathetic)
Vishmaya (Wonder)
Shaant (Peace)
Dance has three aspect namely:
Natya - Highlight dramatic elements. Missing this part in most of the dance forms today.
Nritya - Expressional, performed to convey the meaning of a theme or some idea.
Nritta - Pure dance, does not involve any mood (bhava), nor convey any meaning.
Dance gradually divided into two:
Classical Dance - Mainly performed in temples for religious purposes & royal courts for entertainment.
Folk Dance - simple expressions of delight performed to mark the change of seasons, the birth of a child, weddings, and festivals & many other occasions
of lives & traditions of diverse Indian communities.
Sangeet Natak (the apex body in the field of performing arts in the country, under Ministry of Culture) recognises 9 classical dance forms in India. These are:
Bharatnatyam
Katthak
Kuchipudi
Manipuri
Mohiniyattam
Odissi
Kathakali
Sattriya
Chhau

Classical Dance
Bharatnatyam
About:
200 Years old dance form originated in Tamil Nadu.
The oldest surviving classical dance form of India.
Bharat Muni’s Natyashastra and Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara talk about this dance form.
It is believed that Bharatnatyam was revealed by Lord Brahma to Bharata.
Bharatanatyam was originally performed exclusively by female temple dancers and was not brought to the stage for public performance until about
1930.
Contributors of this art:
E. Krishnan Iyer - Raised the social status of Bharatnatyam & popularized it.
Rukmini Devi Arundale - Most important revivalist of Bharatnatyam from its original form 'Sadhir' style.
History:
Visual Evidence:
Various paintings & sculptures at many historical places.
One of the five great epics of Tamil Literature, ‘Silappadikaaram by Ilango Adigal’ (~2nd century CE): direct reference is found about
bharatnatyam.
The Shiva temple of Kanchipuram - manifests the development of this dance form by around the mid-first millennium CE.
The eastern gopuram of the 12th century Thillai Natarajar Temple, Chidambaram, of Tamil Nadu - Its sculptures depicting 108 poses of
Bharatanatyam, referred as karanas in ‘Natya Shastra’, that are intricately carved in small rectangular panels.

Cave 1 of Karnataka’s Badami cave temples (7th c.) - 5 feet tall sculpture of Lord Shiva is depicted as Nataraja doing Tandava dance. The 18
arms of the Shiva sculpture expresses mudras or hand gestures that are part of Bharatanatyam.

This particular dance form was kept alive by Devadasi, who were young girls ‘gifted’ by their parents to the temples and who were married to the
gods.

Features of Bharatanatyam:
Known as Ekaharya - one dancer takes on many roles in a single performance.
The repertoire of Bharatnatyam:
Invocation Song - In the beginning.
Alarippu - Next dance item, meaning – to adorn with flowers.
Jatisvaram - short pure dance piece performed to the accompaniment of musical notes of any raga of Carnatic music, Jatiswaram has no
sahitya or words, but is composed of adavus which are pure dance sequences – nritta. They form the basis of training in Bharatnatyam
dance.
Shabdam - The accompanying song is generally in adoration of the Supreme Being.
varnam - a number of abhinaya items expressing a variety of moods are performed.
Tillana - A Bharatnatyam performance ends with a Tillana which has its origin in the tarana of Hindustani music.
The performance ends with a Mangalam invoking the blessings of the Gods.
Accompanying orchestra - vocalist, a Mridangam player, violinist or veena player, a flautist and a cymbal player. The person who conducts the dance
recitation is the Nattuvanar.

Famous exponents:
The four Nattuvanars namely Ponaiyah, Vadivelu, Sivanandam and Chinnaiya - renowned as Tanjore Bandhu and who thrived in the Durbar of
Maratha ruler, Sarfoji-II from 1798 to 1832 shaped up the modern-day Bharatanatyam.
Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai - dance guru from the village of Pandanallur, predominantly known for his style referred as the Pandanallur school of
Bharatanatyam.
Rukmini Devi - one of the leading proponents of the classical dance revival movement.
Bala Saraswati was one of the foremost exponents of this dance form in the last century.
Chhau
Ab out:
A semi-classical Indian dance with martial, trib al and folk tradition.
Origin: Eastern India
Found in three styles, namely:
Purulia Chhau of Bengal
Seraikella Chhau of Jharkhand
Mayurb hanj Chhau of Odisha
Stories enacted in this dance are from Ramayana, Mahab harata, Puranas & other Indian literature.

Fig: Chhau performance

Dancers impersonate god, animal, b ird, hunter, rainb ow, night, or flower.
They perform a series of vignettes at the annual Chaitra Parva festival in April.
Chhau of Mayurbhanj (Orissa), the actors do not wear masks, but through deliberately stiff and immobile faces they give the illusion of a mask. The
style of their dance is vigorous and acrobatic.
The Chhau mask of Purulia is registered under Geographical Indications.
Chhau is taught to male dancers from families of traditional artists or from local communities.
The dancer’s face being expressionless, the chhau dancer’s body communicates the total emotional and psychological tensions of a character.
The dancer is mute; no song is sung. Only instrumental music accompanies him, traditional folk music, played on the reed pipes mohuri and
shehnai.
Chhau dance was inscribed in the UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2010.

Kuchipudi
History & Evolution:
Origin: Andhra Pradesh
Siddhendra Yogi, a poet, conceived the present Kuchipudi style in 17th century.
He first developed a unique style based on Natyashastra, Bharatmuni & Nandikeshwara's Abhinaya Darpana.
It is said that Siddhendra Yogi had a dream in which Lord Krishna asked him to compose a dance-drama based on the myth of the bringing
of paarijaata flower for Sathya bhaama, the most beloved queen of Krishna.
It also had its roots in Yakshagana.
Kuchipudi largely developed as a Hindu god Krishna-oriented Vaishnavism tradition, and it is most closely related to Bhagavata Mela.

Features:
known for its impressive, quick footwork, dramatic characterization, expressive eye movements and spirited narrative.
Combination of Tandava (the majestic, masculine) & Lasya (lyrical graceful and feminine energy).
Execution on a brass plate and moving the plate to the accompaniment of Carnatic music.
The Kuchipudi dancers wear light make-up and ornaments like the Rakudi (head ornament), Chandra Vanki (arm band), Adda Bhasa and Kasina
Sara (necklace).
The ornaments are made of light wood called Boorugu.
A Kuchipudi recital is usually concluded with tarangam. Excerpts of Narayana Teertha’s Krishna-leela-tarangini are sung with this number. In this the
dancer usually stands on a brass plate locking the feet in shakatavadanam paada and moves the plate rhythmically with great dexterity.
Instruments used: Mridangam, cymbals, veena, fluteand the tambura.
Several regional styles (banis) - because of the uniqueness and creativity of gurus (teachers). This openness and flexibility has been a historic
tradition in Indian dance culture, and is traceable to early times in Kuchipudi as the Margi and Desi styles in the text Nrittaratnavali of Jaya Senapati.
Includes a Sutradhara or Nattuvanar - the conductor of the entire performance. He recites the musical syllables and uses cymbals to produce
rhythmic beat. The story or spiritual message is sung either by the conductor or another vocalist or sometimes by the actor-dancers.

Format:
Repertoire includes following:
Nritta’ (Nirutham), ‘Nritya’ (Niruthiyam) and ‘Natya’ (Natyam) mentioned in ‘Natya Shastra.
Begins with an invocation.
each costumed actor is introduced, their role stated, and they then perform a short preliminary dance set to music (dharavu).
Then, the performance presents pure dance (Nritta).
Then, expressive part of the performance (Nritya), where rhythmic hand gestures help convey the story.

Famous Exponents:
Indrani Bajpai (Indrani Rahman)
Yamini Krishnamurti
Vempati Chinna Satyam
internationally famed dancing couple, Raja and Radha Reddy, their daughter Yamini Reddy;
Kaushalya Reddy;
Bhavana Reddy, daughter of Raja and Kaushalya Reddy;
Lakshmi Narayn Shastri; and Swapana Sundari among others.

Kathak
About:
One of the main genres of ancient Indian classical dance.
Traditionally regarded to have originated from the travelling bards of North India referred as Kathakars or storytellers.

History & Evolution:

Roots trace back to Natya Shashtra - a sanskrit hindu text on performing arts.
Bharhut, village of Satna Dist.(MP) - The 2nd century BC panels found there illustrates sculptures of dancers in different vertical poses with arm
positions that resemble Kathak steps, many of which reflect the ‘pataka hasta’ Mudra.
with coming of Mughals, this dance form went through transition from temple courtyard to palace durbar & led to changes in presentation.
In both Hindu and Muslim courts, Kathak became highly stylised and came to be regarded as a sophisticated form of entertainment.
Wajid Ali Shah, the last nawab of oudh, patronised Kathak in 19th century.He established the Lucknow gharana with its strong accent on bhava,
expression.
The Jaipur gharana known for its layakari or rhythmic virtuosity.
Raigarh Gharana patronised by Maharaja Chakradhar Singh.
Benaras gharana are other prominent schools of Kathak dance.

Features:
Kathak also builds its pure dance sequences by combining units of movement. The cadences are called differently by the names tukra, tora, and
parana– all indicative of the nature of rhythmic patterns used.
Being the only classical dance of India having links with Muslim culture, it represents a unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in art.
Kathak is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North Indian music. (Odissi dance uses Odissi music which is blend of
Hindustani and Carnatic)
two types of Hindu costumes for female dancers - 1. Sari with choli or blouse, scarf or urhni worn in some places. 2. a long-embroidered skirt with a
contrasting choli and a transparent urhni.
Instruments used: tabla, a manjira that is hand cymbals and sarangi or harmonium are also used most often.
Famous Exponents:
Bhanuji of the Jaipur Gharana,
Janaki Prasad of the Benaras Gharana;
Ishwari Prasad,
Pandit Birju Maharaj of the Lucknow Gharana; and
Raja Chakradhar Singh of the Raigarh Gharana.

Kathakali
About:
Origin: Kerala
Basic features & components trace back to Natya Shashtra.
its textual sanction - Derived from Balarama Bharatam and Hastalakshana Deepika
Dance-drama art form called ‘Krishnanattam’ and Ramanattam based on Mahabharata and Ramayana are precursor of ‘Kathakali’.

Features:
blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories, mostly adapted from the Indian epics.
combines four aspects of abhinaya – Angika, Aharya,Vachika, Satvikaand the Nritta, Nritya and Natya are combined perfectly.
The dancer expresses himself through codified hastamudras and facial expressions, closely following the verses (padams)that are sung.

Many Malayalam writers have also contributed to the vast repertoire of Kathakali literature.
The characters in a Kathakali performance are broadly divided into satvika, rajasika and tamasika.
Kalasams are pure dance sequences where the actor is at great liberty to express him and display his skills. The leaps, quick turns, jumps and the
rhythmic co-ordination make kalasams, a joy to watch.

Kathakali is a visual art where aharya, costume and make-up are suited to the characters, as per the tenets laid down in the Natya Shastra.
Songs: Kathakali music follows the traditional sopana sangeetof Kerala. It is said to be the ritual singing of the Ashtapadis on the flight of steps
leading to the sanctum sanctorum. Now, Kathakali music also uses Carnatic ragas-the raga and talaconforming to the bhava, rasa and dance
patterns (nritta and natya).
The orchestra which is also used in other traditional performing arts of Kerala, normally comprises the Chenda, Maddalam, Chengila, Ilathalam,
Idakka and Shankhu.

Major Exponents:
Kavungal Chathunni Panicker - a scion of the famous Kavungal family associated with ‘Kathakali’ for six generations.
Kalamandalam Gopi, a renowned name in ‘Kathakali’ with a career of over 30 years, is one of the most eminent representatives of the
Kalluvazhi School of Kerala.
Kalamandalam Krishna Prasad, Kalamandalam Vasu Pisharody, Kalamandalam Kesavan Namboodiri and Kalanilayam Balakrishnan,
Kottakal Sivaraman, Rita Ganguly etc.
Mohiniyattam
About:
Origin: Kerala
The dance is performed by women in honor of the Hindu god Vishnu in his incarnation as the enchantress Mohini.
Mohiniattam is exclusively danced by women. It is also softer than the very vigorous Kathakali.
The dance projects the essence of feminine grace.
It is also noted for the Shringara (erotic) depictions of divine love. Traditionally, the dance was performed solo, but in the 21st century it may also be
performed in groups.

History:
Some scholars trace Mohiniattam to the second or third century A.D. (to the era of the great Tamil epic, Silappadikaaram), whereas others maintain
that it was created in the middle of the eighteenth century in the court of Maharaja Svati Tirunal of Travancore.
It is also believed that the dance form acquired its affinity with the Bharata Natyam technique and Karnatak Music and thereby its repertoire, in Swati
Tirunal’s court.
In the beginning of the 20th Century, like all the other traditional arts, Mohiniattam also went into oblivion due to the policies of the British. However,
due to the policies of the state and central government, the classical dance form has seen a revival.

Features:
characterized by graceful, swaying body movements with no abrupt jerks or sudden leaps. It belongs to the Lasya style which is feminine, tender and
graceful.

Most characteristic element - circular or spiral movement of all the limbs of the body.This gives it a swaying effect which resembles the movement of
a pendulum and thus it is called aandolika.
Movements have been borrowed from Nangiar Koothu and female folk dances Kaikottikali and the Tiruvatirakali.
The footwork is not terse and is rendered softly. Importance is given to the hand gestures and Mukhabhinaya with subtle facial expressions.
Mohiniyattam lays emphasis on acting. The dancer identifies herself with the character and sentiments existing in the compositions like the Padams
and Pada Varnams which give ample opportunity for facial expressions.
The hand gestures, 24 in number, are mainly adopted from Hastalakshana Deepika, a text followed by Kathakali. Few are also borrowed from Natya
Shastra, Abhinaya Darpana and Balarambharatam
Vocal music is in Manipravala that is a mix of Sanskrit and Malayalam language while the music style is Carnatic.
Instruments used: Kuzhitalam or cymbals; Veena; Idakka, an hourglass-shaped drum; Mridangam, a barrel-shaped drum with two heads; and flute.
Exponents from 20th century:
Vallathol Narayana Menon
Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma,
Thankamony,
Krishna Panicker and
Mukundraja.
Present day exponents include Sunanda Nair;
Smitha Rajan, granddaughter of Kalyanikutty Amma;
Radha Dutta;
Vijayalakshmi;
Gopika Varma and Jayaprabha Menon among others.

Manipuri
About:
noted for themes based on Vaishnavism and spectacular execution of ‘Ras Lila’dance dramas based on love between Radha and Krishna.
Other themes included in this art form associate with Shaktism, Shaivism and on the sylvan deities called Umang Lai during Manipuri festival ‘Lai
Haraoba’.
Origin: Manipur

History:
Lai Haraoba is one of the main festivals still performed in Manipur which has its roots in the pre-Vaishnavite period.
Lai Haraoba is the earliest form of dance which forms the basis of all stylised dances in Manipur.

Lai Haraoba is the merrymaking of the gods; it is performed as a ceremonial offering of song and dance. The principal performers are the
maibasand maibis (priests and priestesses) who re-enact the theme of the creation of the world.( The festival is usually celebrated by the Meitei
community and is also referred to as the ‘Festivity of the Gods’.)
With he arrival of Vaishnavism in the 15th century A.D., new compositions based on episodes from the life of Radha and Krishna were gradually
introduced.
It was in the reign of King Bhagyachandra that the popularRasleela dances of Manipur originated. Under successive rulers, new leelas, and rhythmic
and melodic compositions were introduced.

Features:
central theme: love stories of Krishna and Radha.
All the technical elements mentioned in the Sangeet Shastras are found in Rasleelas such as Nritta (pure dance), Nritya (interpretative dance) and
Natya (theme expressed through 4 kinds of abhinaya), two distinct divisions of tandava and lasya, the prabandhas (musical compositions).
The songs are sung in Brajaboli, old Bengali,meitheli Sanskrit, Braj and now in Manipuri language written by devotional poets like Chandidas,
Vidyapati, Gyandas, Jaydev and others.
Two classifications of the Manipuri dance:
Jagoi: Predominant in Ras Leela, this steam highlights the Lasya element described in Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra.
Cholam: It represents the Tandava form of classical dance.
Manipuri dances are performed thrice in autumn from August to November and once in spring sometime around March-April, all on full moon nights.
A crown decorated with peacock feather adorns the dancer’s head, which portrays the character of Lord Krishna. The costume of female dancers
resembles that of a Manipuri bride, referred as Potloi costumes.
Musical Instruments used: Pung that is a barrel drum, cymbals or kartals, harmonium, flute, pena and sembong.
Famous Exponents:Guru Bipin Singh, his disciple Darshana Jhaveri and her sisters Nayana, Ranjana and Suverna, Charu Mathur and Devyani
Chalia among others.

Odissi
About:
Origin: Odisha
Theoretical base trace back to ‘Natya Shastra’ of Bharatamuni.

History & Evolution:

The Natya Shastra mentions many regional varieties, such as the south-eastern style known as the Odhra Magadha which can be identified as the
earliest precursor of present-day Odisha.
Odra-Magadhi style of dance, which many scholars consider a precursor of twentieth-century Odissi.
caves and temples in Puri, Konark and Bhubaneswar bear carvings that are historical manifestations of ancient art forms like music and dance.
Udayagiri, the largest Buddhist complex in Odisha depicts carvings of musicians and dance believed to be of the Odissi dance form.
Reference of music and dance are also found in Udayagiri’s Hathigumpha Inscriptions that were inscribed by Kharavela.
Odissi is a highly stylised dance and to some extent is based on the classical Natya Shastraand the Abhinaya Darpana.

Slient Features:
themes from Vaishnavism and others associated with Hindu gods and goddesses like Shiva, Surya and Shakti.
based on themes of Gita Govinda of Jayadeva.
Its performance collection includes an invocation, nrita, nritya, natya, and moksha.
Odissi closely follows the tenets laid down by the Natya Shastra. Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements are used to suggest a
certain feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasas.
The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowk and the Tribhanga.
Angika Abhinaya
Chowka
Tribhangi
Hasta Mudra
Repertoire:
Mangalacharan - the dancer slowly enters the stage with flowers in her hands and makes an offering to mother earth.
followed by an invocation to the deity of the dancer’s choice. Generally, Ganesha is called upon to grant an auspicious beginning. The item
ends with a nritta sequence with salutations to God, the Guru and the audience.
Batu - next item, basic concepts of the Odissi nritta technique are highlighted bringing out the duality of the masculine and the feminine
through the basic stance of the chauk and tribhanga. This is danced in praise of Batukeshwar Bhairav or Shiva.
Pallavi - flowering and ornamentation of music and movements in Pallavi. A musical composition in a particular raga is visually represented
by the dancer with slow and subtle movements, building up into complex patterns highlighting rhythmic variations within the tala.
For centuries Maharis /Devadasiswere the chief repositories of this dance. However, they were employed in the royal courts. This led to
general decline in the quality of the art form.
Gotipuas, a class of boys were trained in the art, they danced in the temples and also for general entertainment.
Instruments: pakhawaj(Drums) player (usually the Guru himself), a singer, a flutist, a sitar or violin player and a manjira player(Cymbals),
accompanied by hindustani classical music.
Costumes: Sambalpuri saree and Bomkai saree with Odiya silver jewellery.
Famous Exponents:
The Odissi maestros who revived the art form in the late 1940s include Kelucharan Mohapatra, Raghunath Dutta, Deba Prasad Das, Pankaj
Charan Das, Gangadhar Pradhan. Other famous personalities include Jhelum Paranjape, Mayadhar Raut, and Leana Citaristi.
 Sattriya
About:
devotional in nature as they were intended for propagation of neo-Vaishnavism.
Introduced in Assam by the great Vaishnava saint and reformer of Assam, Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankaradeva in the 15th century A.D.

History & Evolution:

the Sattriya dance has been left untouched in this regard and has been the same since its birth.
Under the patronage of Sankardeva, the social and religious group known as the ‘Sattras’ (Vaishnava maths or monasteries) formulated this dance
to celebrate their beliefs which were embedded in Hinduism and its various teachings.
influences from folk dance forms like Ojapali, Devadasi, Bihu and Bodos etc.

Features:
governed by strictly laid down principles in respect of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music etc & includes Nritta, Nritya and Natya components.
2 categories; Paurashik Bhangi, which is the masculine style and ‘Stri Bhangi’, which is the feminine style.
primarily on the stories of Krishna-Radha relations, or sometimes on the stories of Ram-Sita.
genre of dance drama that tells mythical and religious stories through hand and face expressions.
The basic dance unit and exercise of a Sattriya is called a Mati Akhara, equal 64 just like in Natya Shastra.
The Akharas are subdivided into Ora, Saata, Jhalak, Sitika, Pak, Jap, Lon and Khar.
Traditionally, Sattriyawas performed only by bhokots (male monks) in monasteries as a part of their daily rituals or to mark special festivals on
mythological themes. Today, in addition to this practice, Sattriya is also performed on stage by men and women who are not members of the sattras,
on themes not merely mythological.
Instruments: Khol (drum), Bahi (flute), Violin, Tanpura, Harmonium and Shankha (Conch Shell). The songs are composition of shankaradeva known
as ‘Borgeets.Non traditional music instruments like Mridangam and Pakhwaj were a part of the music of Rojaghoria Chali Dance. In present time,
violin is also commonly used in the music of Sattriya Dance.
Costume: The costume of Sattriya dance is primarily of two types: the male costume comprising the dhoti and chadar and the paguri ( turban) and
the female costume comprising the ghuri, chadar and kanchi (waist cloth).
Pat Silk saree (also spelled paat) is the most popular kind of saree used in this dance, which represents the locality through its various colorful
motifs and designs.
Exponents:
Guru Jatin Goswami, Guru Ghanakanta Bora, Manik Barbayan and Bhabananda Barbayan, Late Moniram Dutta & many more.

Folk Dance
State-wise folk dance map:

Some of the famous folk dances of India across various states are mentioned below:

State Folk dances

Andhra Pradesh Bhamakalpam and Kolattam
Arunachal Pradesh Wancho
Assam Bihu, Naga dance
Bihar Jata-jatin
Chhattisgarh Gaur Maria, Kapalik
Gujarat Garba, Dandiya Raas and Bhavai
Goa Tarangamel, Koli
Haryana Jhumar, Phag
Himachal Pradesh Jhora, Dhaman
Jammu & Kashmir Kud Dandi Nach
Jharkhand Agni, Jhumar
Karnataka Yakshagana, Karga
Kerala Ottam Thullal
Maharashtra Lavani, Koli
Madhya Pradesh Jawara, Matki
Manipur Thang Ta, Lai Haraoba, Pung Cholom
Meghalaya Nongkrem
Mizoram Zangtalam, Chailam
Nagaland Bamboo Dance, Rangma
Odisha Savari, Ghumara
Punjab Bhangra, Giddha
Rajasthan Ghumar, Kalbelia
Tamil Nadu Kumi, Kolattam, Kavadi
UP Nautanki, Raslila
Uttarakhand Garhwali, Kumayuni

Modern Dance
About:
Modern Indian dance has an interesting history where Uday Shankar has been credited as the Father of Modern Indian
dance.
He broke away from the traditional forms by not differentiating between Nirtta and Abhinaya.
Contemporary dance forms have in fact, been most propounded by cinema along with the advent of various
contemporary dance schools and academies.
The growth of cinema, globalization and westernization has led to a fusion of contemporary and ancient dance forms in
India. There is also a general increase in Indians adopting other non-Indian dance forms such as- ballet, freestyle dance,
Polka Ten Step etc.

Is the survival of Indian classical dance and folk dance traditions threatened by the rise of non-Indian dance forms in India?
Some have opined that the growing westernization poses an existential threat to ancient dance forms of India as it begins to lose
appeal amongst the masses. However, such fears are unfounded since, the popularity of the classical dance forms continue to
grow and this popularity growth is experiences in other countries as well. Ex: A 50-year-old theatre artiste Ileana Citaristi who, in
1979, flew down to India with her parents from Bergamo, Italy, to learn the various Indian dance forms. Only 11 years old then, Citaristi
fell so in love with Indian classical dance forms, especially Odissi, that she never took the flight back home.

Threats that Indian classical dance form actually faces:

Despite all this, however, classical dance forms in India face two major hurdles. First and foremost is the paucity of time and
depreciating attention spans of the audience. With increasing dependence on technology and lives becoming fast-paced
The second hurdle is funding. Organizers say for any classical concert to reach a huge audience, one need to scale up
investment.
The challenges related to funding should be addressed by the government and other relevant stakeholders to ensure that Indian
classical dance traditions are not threatened. Perhaps, most importantly, care should be taken to ensure that folk dance
traditions in India are supported through appropriate measures by the stakeholders involved to ensure its survival.

Indian Music
About
Sangeet’ ‘ is formed by the combination of two words sam+geet. ‘Sam’ means complete in all respect or proper while ‘geet’
means to sing. It involves Instrumental music & dance as well apart from singing.
Pt. Sarangadeva endorse this statement, thus ‘geetam vadyam tatha nrittam trayam sangeetamuchyate.

Classical Music
About
It is believed that Indian classical music has its origins in the religious observances of the Aryan people who arrived in
India some 3,000 years ago.
The Aryans brought with them their sacred texts known as the Vedas, meaning ‘knowledge’ forming the core of ancient
Hindu scriptures with their worship rituals largely centering on the highly structured and organised recitation of these
verses.
Thus, the roots of Indian classical music can be traced back to its origin in the recital of Vedic hymns of the Hindu
temples.
There are four main Vedas, of which the one known as Samaveda is the most relevant – as the texts contained in it were
clearly meant to be sung whilst also acting as treatises about music, dance and theatre.
The seven swars of music – Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni represent different scriptural deities: SA – Agni, RE – Brahma,
GA – Saraswati, MA – Shiva, PA – Vishnu, DHA – Ganesha, NI – Surya
Ancient musical treatises show that by 300 BC, there was already a marked difference in classification for what was
known as marga Sangeet (music of the gods) and Desi Sangeet (music of the people).
The latter formed the basis for what evolved as folk music, varying region by region, but the former remained the sole
domain of those who were considered adequately trained by a master
The earliest treatise on music, drama and dance is Bharata’s Natyashastra.

Svara: The basic scale (grama) of India music is heptatonic and it has seven notes. It has seven notes or svara- saa, re/ri, ga,
ma, pa, dha, ni which Indian musicians collectively designate as saptakor saptaka.

Sruti: A shruti is the smallest gradation of pitch available, while a swara is the selected pitches from which the musician
constructs the scales, melodies and ragas. The Natya Shastra identifies and discusses twenty two shruti and seven swara per
octave.

Raga: It is a collection of pitches, kind of like a scale or mode in Western music. Each raga is defined, however, not only by the
pitches themselves, but also by specific formulas for using them. It has been named and classified in Matanga’s Brihaddesi.

Tala: The word ‘Tala’ finds its derivation from the Sanskrit root ‘tal’, meaning the base or pivot upon which a thing rests. In
Sangeet Ratnakar, defining ’Tala’ Pt. Sarangadeva says, ‘Tala’ has been derived from the Sanskrit root ‘tal’, which is the base
upon which an object is fixed. In the same way, ‘Tala’ is the base upon which vocal, instrumental music and dance is
established.
Hindustani Music
About: It is believed by many that Hindustani music started to take a distinctive form since the medieval period. Many credit
Amir Khusro for this evolution. However, this remains contested. The forms of Hindustani classical music were designed
primarily for vocal performance, and many instruments were designed and evaluated according to how well they emulate the
human voice. Hindustani classical music was used extensively during the Bhakthi movement to preach the gospel of love
and devotion by various reformers in the country. Ex: Kirtans of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Abhangs of Eknath, Jnanesvar and
Tukaram etc.

Features:
The six primary ragas in Hindustani classic are- Bhairava, Kausika, Hindola, dipak, sriraga and Megh
Ragas in Hindustani classic music used to strictly observe the time theory. Ex: Bhairavi at dawn, Megh in the morning
Ragas in Hindustani music are also associated with feelings and moods. Ex: Bhairavi with awe and fear, Kausika with
joy
It has a highly formalized grammar, dictated by textual as well as oral tradition.
Hindustani music places more emphasis on improvisation and exploring all aspects of a raga
Slow and sometimes even leisurely introductory section (alap) followed by solfege and fast section with fast melodic
phrases and rhythmic play.
There is significant emphasis on space between the notes
Hindustani classical music has been influenced considerably by Persian traditions
Musical instruments used in Hindustani are Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor, Flute and violin.
Main styles in Hindustani music– Dhrupad, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturanga, Tarana, Sargam, Thumri and Ragasagar, Hori
and Dhamar.

Major Hindustani musical compositions and their features

Dhrupad:
It is ancient form, probably developing from the Prabandha
Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior and Emperor Akbar played a significant part in the growth and development of
Dhrupad
Other personalities who contributed to the development of Dhrupad are: Tansen, Baiju bawra, Swami Haridas
The lyrics are generally in Braj Basha and involve veera and sringar rasas
Some of the major gharanas of Dhrupad are– dagarvani gharana, bishnupur gharana, darbhanga gharana, mallik
gharana, etc.

What is a Gharana?
A system of social organization in the Indian subcontinent, linking musicians or dancers by lineage or apprenticeship,
and more importantly by adherence to a particular musical style.

Khayal:
The term Khayal has Persian origins and means ‘idea or imagination’
Its origin is attributed to Amir Khusro and Sultan Mohammed Sharqui
Khayal is a delicate and romantic composition
It provides more freedom in structure and composition
Some of the major gharanas associated with this style include: Gwalior, Kirana, Patiala, Agra, and Jaipur Gharana
It is usually accompanied by a tabla(pair of drums) and a tambura (lute) in a variety of talas (metric cycles).

Thumri:
It is a light form based on the romantic-religious literature inspired by the Bhakthi movement
It became famous under the patronage of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah
It employs folk scales and text of the songs is of primary importance
Themes from the lives of Lord Krishna and Radha are common
Lyrics are primarily in Braj basha
Main gharanas of this style are: Benaras, Lucknow and Patiala.

Tappa:
It is believed to have been developed from the songs of camel drivers
It is noted for its quick turns of phrase
Poetry full of expressions of love and physical intimacy is the salient feature of Tappa.
It was developed as a form of classical music by Mian Gulam Nabi Shori or Shori Mian, who was a court singer for
the Nawab of Awadh, Asaf-Ud-Dowlah.
Tappa employs Ragas like Khamaj, Jhinjhoti, Kafi, Tilang, Bhairavi, Des, which conveys affection and light tempers or
sadness, with its vigorous Taan and irregular musical tones of voice.
The lyrics in Tappa are very short and not as richly controlled as in Khayal or thumri.
This style of Tappa singing is a specialty of Gwalior gharana, with its beautification with geetkari, khatka, mukri and
harkat.

Ghazal:
It is a product of Persian influence
It is composed of independent couplets
Though love theme is predominant, it also has the element of Sufi
The traditional Ghazals are similar to the Hindustani classical music forms such as “Dadra” and “Thumri”.
The Golconda and Bijapur rulers encouraged this tradition of Urdu.
Some important patrons of Ghazal and Urdu were Nusrati, Wajhi, Hashmi, Mohammad Quli Qutab Shah and
Wali Dakhini.
Then there are some Ghazal forms that are similar to Qawwali.
India has produced some of the exceptional talents in the field of Ghazal singing like Begum Akhtar, Jagjit Singh and
Pankaj Udhas.

Carnatic Music
About:

The origins of South Indian music are traced to prehistoric times. Musical instruments form a favorite subject for
sculptors, painters and the authors of ancient Tamil and Sanskrit texts.

Carnatic music owes its name to the Sanskrit term Karnātaka Sangītam which denotes “traditional” or “codified” music. The
corresponding Tamil concept is known as Tamil Isai. These terms are used by scholars upholding the “classical” credentials
and establish the “scientific” moorings of traditional music. Besides Sanskrit and Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam
have long been used for song lyrics.

Purandara Dāsa (1484-1564), a prolific poet-composer and mystic of Vijayanagar, introduced a music course that is
followed to the present day. Since the 17th century, hundreds of rāga-s (melody types) has been distributed among the 72
melakarta rāgas (scales).

The origins of South Indian music are traced to prehistoric times. Musical instruments form a favorite subject for sculptors,
painters and the authors of ancient Tamil and Sanskrit texts.

Carnatic music owes its name to the Sanskrit term Karnātaka Sangītam which denotes “traditional” or “codified” music. The
corresponding Tamil concept is known as Tamil Isai. These terms are used by scholars upholding the “classical” credentials
and establish the “scientific” moorings of traditional music. Besides Sanskrit and Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam
have long been used for song lyrics.

Purandara Dāsa (1484-1564), a prolific poet-composer and mystic of Vijayanagar, introduced a music course that is
followed to the present day. Since the 17th century, hundreds of rāga-s (melody types) has been distributed among the 72
melakarta rāgas (scales).

Venkatamakhi is regarded as the grand theorist of Carnatic music. In 17th century AD, he developed “Melakarta”, for
classifying south Indian ragas. There are 72 Melakartas presently.

The birth of the Musical Trinity – Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri – at Tiruvarur between the years 1750
to 1850 A.D. ushered in an era of dynamic development in Carnatic music.

Some of the salient features of this form of classical music are:

It is an indigenously developed style of classical music
The Melakarta scheme is a highly comprehensive and systematic formula which includes within its fold all the modes used in
ancient as well as modern systems of music of the different parts of the world.
It is strongly kriti-based
Unity of raga, tala and shruti in every piece
The system gives equal importance to melody and rhythm.
Mixing the three degrees of speeds
Fewer instruments are used in Karnatak than in northern Indian music, and there are no exclusively instrumental forms.
There is an even balance between re-creativity (soulful interpretation of the compositions of great masters) and creativity (on
the spot improvisations).
Some of the important Carnatic music compositions are- Gitam, suladi, svarajati, Jatisvaram, varnam, kritanam, kriti, pada,
javali, pallavi etc

Some of the most important Carnatic compositions are:

Gitam
It is the simplest type of composition
It is very simple in construction, with an easy and melodious flow of music.
It is sung without repetition from the beginning to the end.
The theme of the song is usually devotional, though there are a few gitas in praise of musical luminaries and Acharyas.
Gitas have been composed in Sanskrit, Kannada and Bhandira bhasha.

Suladi
It is very much like Gitam in musical structure and composition
The Suladi is a talamalika, the sections being in different talas.
The sahitya syllables are fewer than in the gitas and there is a profusion of vowel extensions.
The theme is devotional.
Suladis are composed in different tempos vilambita, madhya and druta.
Purandaradasa has composed many Suladis.

Svarajati
More complicated than the gitas
It consists of three sections, called Pallavi, Anupallavi and Charanam.
The theme is devotional, heroic or amorous.
Syama Sastri, one among the Musical Trinity, was famous for the use of svarajati

Jatisvaram
It is noted for its rhythmical excellence
This is a musical form belonging to the realm of dance music. In some Jatisvaram, the Pallavi and Anupallavi are sung to
jatis and the Charanas are sung to a mixture of svaras and jatis.

Varnam
It is a complete composed piece, designed to show the characteristic phrases and melodic movements of a raga and is
usually performed at the beginning of a concert

Kritanam
Clothed in simple music, the kirtanam abounds in Bhakti bhava. It is suited for congregational singing as well as individual
presentation.

Kriti
It is a highly evolved musical form. Kritis form the mental backbone of any typical Carnatic music concert and is the longer
format of Carnatic song.

Pada
Padas are scholarly compositions in Telugu and Tamil. Though they are composed mainly as dance forms, they are also
sung in concerts, on account of their musical excellence and aesthetic appeal.

Javali
It is a composition belonging to the sphere of light classical music. They are songs which are sensuous in concept and spirit.
Javalis are composed in Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. This form resembles the Thumris of Hindustani Music.

Tillana
It is mainly a dance form, but on account of its brisk and attractive music, it sometimes finds a place in music concerts as a
conclusion piece. It usually begins with jatis.

Pallavi
This is the most important branch of creative music. It is in this branch of manodharma sangeeta, that the musician has
ample opportunities of displaying his or her creative talents, imaginative skill, and musical intelligence.

Tanam
It is one of the methods of raga improvisation (manodharma) in the Carnatic classical music tradition, suited mainly for
vocal, violin and veena. Tanam is the second part of a Raagam Taanam Pallavi, and comes immediately after the raga is
sung but before the pallavi is about to begin.
 Folk Music Tradition
About: Folk music is the music of the common people, as opposed to the established classical music. Its name is derived from
the German volk, which means ‘people. ‘Folk music began as a traditional genre, associated with the folklore of the region.

General Characteristics of Folk Music

Most of the compositions cannot be traced to any one particular source.

Numerous influences acted on a song, including creativity, forgetfulness, previously learned songs, and stylistic
expectations. As a result, it might become shorter or more like new styles of prevalent music.
The knowledge was transmitted orally rather than through any written sources.
An important aspect of traditional folk music is that its survival is based on acceptance by a community.
Each performance of a song may be unique in different regions

Modern Music
Evolution of Modern Music
In 1834, Captain A. N. Willard 1834 published an important treatise on Indian music, based on observation of
contemporary performances.
British contribution towards Indian classical music includes work like Musical Modes of India by Sir Wilson Jones.
In 1901 Gandharva Mahavidyalaya was set up in Lahore to reduce the influence of gharanas over Indian classical music
and to expand its base.
An All-India music academy was established in 1919 for research, study, and further development in the field of music.
It started in the 1950s due to the efforts of Pt. Ravi Shankar, when Indian classical music became international.
Various Indian musicians have since made journeys to the west such as Ali Akbar Khan, Amjad Ali Khan, Nikhil Banerjee,
Zakir Hussain, etc.

Globalization of Indian Music

Pt. Ravi Shankar’s association with George Harrison of The Beatles helped in popularising Indian music in the west. The Beatles
included sitar (and tabla) in some of their songs, for example the sitar melody in Norwegian Wood. Indian music was further
propagated due to the globalization of the Indian film industry in the 20th century.

Some of the Modern Developments in Music

Owing to the developments and evolution of music various institutions have provided patronage in order for music to flourish. These
include:
Gandharva Mahavidyalaya
It was set up in 1901 by VD Paluskar for the spread of Indian classical music and dance among future generations. It was relocated
from Mumbai to Lahore in 1915 and has since focused on Hindustani and Classical forms of music.

Prayag Sangeet Samiti

It was set up in Prayagraj in 1926 for training in Hindustani Classical music.

Sangeet Natak Akademi

It was set up in 1952 as the first national academy for performing arts. It focuses on the development of dance, drama, music as well
as the promotion of the intangible heritage of India.

Marris College of Music

It was set up in 1926 by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande to promote the spread on Indian classical music.

SPIC MACAY
It was established as a musical community in 1977 by Kiran Seth. It was started as a platform to showcase Indian tradition and
culture to the masses.

Advantages of Globalization of Modern Music

Global recognition to Indian classical music traditions
Increased opportunities for traditional artists
Enrichment of traditional music

Disadvantages
Disadvantages of Globalization of Modern Music
Greater westernization of music has led to neglect of traditional Indian music
Decreased availability of resources to traditional artists due to poor marketing, etc
Increased threat to the livelihood of local artists
Preference for modern western music in popular entertainment channels.

Conclusion
Although modernization of music is an essential part of the globalized world, care must also be taken so that classical artists and
traditional Indian music is not lost. Adequate livelihood opportunities should be created for traditional artists, in order to carry forward
their art for future generations.

Painting
About:
Indian painting like other art forms has a rich history and diversity. The earliest known Indian paintings can be dated to pre-
historic times such as found in places like Bhimbetka rock shelters (Madhya Pradesh)
Indian paintings can be broadly classified as murals, miniatures and paintings on cloth.

Pre-Historic Painting
About:
The term ‘Prehistory’ refers to the distant past when there was no paper or language or the written word, and hence no
books or written documents. Painting and drawing were the oldest art forms practised by human beings to express
themselves, using the cave walls as their canvas.

Prehistoric paintings have been found in many parts of the world, by the Upper Palaeolithic times we see a proliferation
of artistic activities. Around the world the walls of many caves of this time are full of finely carved and painted pictures of
animals which the cave-dwellers hunted.

The subjects of their drawings were human figures, human activities, geometric designs and symbols. In India the earliest
paintings have been reported from the Upper Palaeolithic times.

Significance of these paintings: These prehistoric paintings help us to understand about early human beings, their
lifestyle, their food habits, their daily activities and, above all, they help us understand their mind—the way they thought.

Discovery of pre-historic rock paintings in India

The first discovery of rock paintings was made in India in 1867–68 by an archaeologist, Archibold Carlleyle, twelve years
before the discovery of Altamira in Spain. Cockburn, Anderson, Mitra and Ghosh were the early archaeologists who
discovered a large number of sites in the Indian sub-continent.
Remnants of rock paintings have been found on the walls of the caves situated in several districts of Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Bihar.
Some paintings have been reported from the Kumaon hills in Uttarakhand also. The rock shelters on banks of the River
Suyal at Lakhudiyar, about twenty kilometres on the Almora– Barechina road, bear these prehistoric paintings.
Lakhudiyar literally means one lakh caves.
The paintings here can be divided into three categories: man, animal and geometric patterns in white, black and red
ochre.
Humans are represented in stick-like forms. A long-snouted animal, a fox and a multiple legged lizard are the main animal
motifs. Wavy lines, rectangle-filled geometric designs, and groups of dots can also be seen here.
One of the interesting scenes depicted here is of hand-linked dancing human figures.
The granite rocks of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh provided suitable canvases to the Neolithic man for his paintings.
There are several such sites but more famous among them are Kupgallu, Piklihal and Tekkalkota

Figure: Hand-linked dancing figure, Uttarakhand

Evolution of pre-historic paintings

Upper Paleolithic period:

The paintings of the Upper Palaeolithic phase are linear representations, in green and dark red, of huge animal
figures, such as bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars besides stick-like human figures.
Most paintings consist of geometrical patterns.
The green paintings are of dancers and the red ones of hunters.
The richest paintings from this time period is reported from the Vindhya ranges of Madhya Pradesh and their
Kaimurean extensions into Uttar Pradesh.
These hill ranges are full of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic remains. Among these the largest and most spectacular
rock-shelter is located in the Vindhya hills at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.

Figure: Bhimbetka caves, MP

The caves of Bhimbetka were discovered in 1957–58 by eminent archaeologist S. Wakankar.
The themes of paintings found here are of great variety, ranging from mundane events of daily life in those times to
sacred and royal images.

Mesolithic paintings
The largest pre-historic paintings discovered in India belongs to this period.
During this period the themes multiply but the paintings are smaller in size. Hunting scenes predominate.
The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows and bows.
In some paintings these primitive men are shown with traps and snares probably to catch animals.
The hunters are shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments also.
In some paintings, men have been adorned with elaborate head-dresses, and sometimes painted with head masks also.
Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer, antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros, fish, frog, lizard, squirrel and at times birds are
also depicted.
Animals were painted in their naturalistic style, while human beings were depicted in a stylistic manner.

Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka and Adamagarh in Madhya Pradesh, SanganaKallu in Karnataka are prominent
Mesolithic sites where paintings are found.

Chalcolithic painting
The paintings of this period reveal the association, contact, and mutual exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of
this area with settled agricultural communities of the Malwa plains.
Many a time Chalcolithic ceramics and rock paintings bear common motifs. Ex: Cross-hatched squares, lattices, pottery
and metal tools are also shown.
To be noted here is that vividness and vitality of the earlier periods disappear from these paintings.
The artists belonging to this period used many colours, including various shades of white, yellow, orange, red ochre,
purple, brown, green and black.
They got red from haematite (known as geru in India). The green came from a green variety of a stone called chalcedony.
White might have been made out of limestone.
The primitive artists seem to possess an intrinsic passion for storytelling. These pictures depict, in a dramatic way, both
men and animals engaged in the struggle for survival
The paintings of individual animals show the mastery of skill of the primitive artist in drawing these forms. Both, proportion
and tonal effect have been realistically maintained in them.
Mural Paintings & Cave Paintings
A mural is a large picture painted or affixed directly on a wall or ceiling. The existence of mural paintings in India dates back to 2nd
century BC to 8-10th century AD. Some of the places where this painting is found include- Ajanta, Bagh, Sittanavasal, Armamalai
cave, Ravan Chhaya rock-shelter and Kailashnath temple in Ellora caves. Majority of the themes in these paintings relates to religion-
Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.

The mural and cave paintings found in some of the above places are discussed from the perspective of the UPSC exams below:

Ajanta paintings

Ajanta is the only surviving example of painting of the first century BCE and the fifth century CE
The subject matter of these paintings is almost exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative patterns on the ceilings and the pillars.
They are mostly associated with the Jataka, collection of stories, recording the previous births of the Lord Buddha.
Notable specimens
The earliest paintings at Ajanta are in cave No. IX and X of which the only surviving one is a group on the left wall of cave X. This
portrays a king with attendants in front of a tree decked with flags. The King has come to the sacred Bodhi tree for fulfilling some vow
connected with the prince who is attending close to the king.
The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani from cave I is one of the masterpieces of Ajanta Painting executed in the late 6th century CE.
This beautifully ornamented figure is more than life size and is shown stopping slightly and holding in his right hand a lotus flower.

Figure: Padmapani painting in Ajanta cave

In cave No. XVII painted probably in circa 6th century CE is a painting representing Buddha’s visit to the door of Yashodhara’s abode
in the city of Kapilavastu while she herself has come out with her son Rahula to meet the Great King.
A beautiful depiction of a feminine beauty is the painting of Maya Devi, the mother of the Buddha.
Along-side these Buddhist paintings there are also a few Brahmanical figures of iconographic interest: Indra, a Hindu divinity, is
depicted flying amid clouds together with celestial nymphs holding musical instruments.
An example of ceiling decoration is from cave No. XVII and belongs to circa 6th century A.D. The pink elephant is from the same
decorative painting ‘and can be seen in detail.

Figure: Pink elephant painting, Ajanta caves

Bagh and Badami Cave paintings

The paintings from Bagh caves in Madhya Pradesh correspond to those paintings of Ajanta in cave No. I and II.
Stylistically both belong to the same form, but Bagh figures are more tightly modeled, and are stronger in outline.
They are earthlier and human than those at Ajanta.
The earliest Brahmanical paintings so far known, are the fragments found in Badami caves, in cave No.III belonging to circa 6th
century A.D.
The painting of Siva and Parvati is found somewhat well preserved.
Though the technique follows that of Ajanta and Bagh, the modeling is much more sensitive in texture and expression and the outline
soft and elastic.
The paintings of Ajanta, Bagh and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and the Deccan at its best.
Sittanavasal and other centres of paintings show the extent of its penetration in the South.
The paintings of Sittanavasal are intimately connected with Jain themes and symbolism, but enjoy the same norm and technique as
that of Ajanta.
The contours of these paintings are firmly drawn dark on a light red ground.
On the ceiling of the Verandah is painted a large decorative scene of great beauty, a lotus pool with birds, elephants, buffaloes and a
young man plucking flowers.

Figure: Shiva and Parvati painting at Bagh caves

Ellora

A number of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples were excavated from Ellora between the 8th and 10th centuries A.D. from the living
rock.
Located nearly 100 Kms away from Ajanta caves in the Sahyadri ranges of Maharashtra, it is a group of 34 caves – 17 Brahmanical,
12 Buddhist and 5 Jain.
These set of caves were developed during the period between 5th and 11th centuries CE by various guilds from Vidarbha,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
The most impressive of these, the Kailashnath Temple is a free standing structure which is in fact a monolith which has several
fragments of painting on the ceiling of the different parts of this temple. It was developed under the patronage of Rashtrakuta king
Krishna I and is dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Figure: Mural painting in cave no 32 at Ellora

Other notable specimens are:

Cave No. 10 is a Buddhist Chaitya cave known as Vishwakarma Cave or carpenter’s cave wherein Buddha is seated in Vyakhyana
Mudra here and Bodhi tree is carved at his back.
Cave No. 14 is themed “Raavankikhai”.
Cave No. 15 is Dashavatara Temple.
Two famous Jain caves are Indra Sabha (Cave 32) and Jagannath Sabha (Cave 33).

Badami cave paintings

Badami was the capital of the early Chalukyan dynasty which ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE.
The inscription in Cave No.4 mentions the date 578–579 CE, describes the beauty of the cave and includes the dedication of the
image of Vishnu.
Paintings in this cave depict palace scenes. One shows Kirtivarman, the son of Pulakesin I and the elder brother of Mangalesha,
seated inside the palace with his wife and feudatories watching a dance scene.
The paintings found here are stylistically similar to the ones found in Ajanta
The sinuously drawn lines, fluid forms and compact composition exemplify the proficiency and maturity the artists had achieved in the
sixth century CE.

Figure: Painting found in Badami cave

Evolution of mural painting under various empires

Chola Kings

The Pallava kings who succeeded the Chalukya kings in parts of South India, were great patrons of arts
Mahendravarman I with numerous titles such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), Chaityakari
(temple builder), which show his interest in art activities
The paintings in temples were done at his initiative, though only fragments remain.
The Panamalai figure of a female divinity is drawn gracefully.
Paintings at the Kanchipuram temple were patronized by the Pallava king, Rajasimha.
Faces are round and large. Lines are rhythmic with increased ornamentation when compared with the paintings of earlier periods.
Depiction of torso still remains like the earlier sculptural tradition but is elongated.
When the Pandyas came to power, they too patronized art. Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanvasal are some of the
surviving examples. Here, on the pillars of the veranda are seen dancing figures of celestial nymphs
The contours of figures are firmly drawn and painted in vermilion red on a lighter background. The body is rendered in yellow with
subtle modeling. Supple limbs, expression on the faces of dancers, rhythm in their swaying movement, all speak of the artists’ skill in
creative imagination in visualizing the forms in the architectural context.
The paintings were executed on the walls of the narrow passage surrounding the shrine in Brihadeshwara temple
The paintings show narrations and aspects related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a
portrait of the patron Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, etc.

Vijayanagara Murals

The paintings at Tiruparakunram, near Trichy, done in the fourteenth century represent the early phase of the Vijayanagara style.
In Hampi, the Virupaksha temple has paintings on the ceiling of its mandapa narrating events from dynastic history and episodes
from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Among the important panels are the ones which show Vidyaranya, the spiritual teacher of Bukkaraya Harsha, being carried in a
palanquin in a procession and the incarnations of Vishnu.
In Lepakshi, near Hindupur, in present Andhra Pradesh, there are examples of Vijayanagara paintings on the walls of the Shiva
temple
In keeping with the tradition, the Vijayanagara painters evolved a pictorial language wherein the faces are shown in profile and
figures and objects two-dimensionally.
Lines become still but fluid, compositions appear in rectilinear compartments.

Figure: Painting at Lepakshi, AP

These stylistic conventions of the preceding centuries were adopted by artists in various centres in South India as can be seen in the
paintings of the Nayaka Period.
Paintings of the Nayaka dynasty in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are seen in Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam and
Tiruvarur in Tamil Nadu. In Thiruparakunram, paintings are found of two different periods—of the fourteenth and the seventeenth
century. Early paintings depict scenes from the life of Vardhaman Mahavira
The Nayaka paintings depict episodes from the Mahabharata and the Ramayana and also scenes from Krishna-leela
In Chidambaram, there are panels of paintings narrating stories related to Shiva and Vishnu— Shiva as Bhikshatana Murti, Vishnu
as Mohini, etc
The examples cited above suggest that Nayaka paintings were more or less an extension of the Vijayanagara style with minor
regional modifications and incorporations. The painting of Nataraja at Tiruvalanjuli is a good example.

Figure: Nayaka painting at Chidambaram temple

Kerala murals

Kerala painters (during the period from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century) evolved a pictorial language and technique of their
own while discriminately adopting certain stylistic elements from Nayaka and Vijayanagara schools
The painters evolved a language taking cues from contemporary traditions, like Kathakali and kalam ezhuthu (ritual floor painting of
Kerala), using vibrant and luminous colours, representing human figures in three-dimensionality
The artist seems to have also derived sources from oral traditions and local versions of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata for
painted narration.
More than sixty sites have been found with mural paintings which include three palaces—Dutch palace in Kochi, Krishnapuram
palace in Kayamkulam and Padmanabhapuram palace
Among the sites where one can see the mature phase of Kerala’s mural painting tradition are Pundareekapuram Krishna temple,
Panayanarkavu, Thirukodithanam, Triprayar Sri Rama temple and Trissur Vadakkunathan temple

Figure: An example of Kerala mural painting

Miniature Paintings
About:
With the introduction of paper in 12th century in India, illustrations on paper manuscript of larger format than the narrow
palm leaf began to come into vogue. The tradition of Indian miniature painting can be traced from the 9th-10th century in
the Buddhist Pala period palm leaf manuscript of eastern India and in the western India in the Jaina palm leaf manuscript.

The full flowering of miniature painting began when India came into direct contact with the civilization of Islam. With
Mughal Empire, (1526-1757 AD) the studios were established at the Imperial court and Indian painting began a new
phase in its evolution. It was from there that illustrated manuscripts, album miniatures, portraits, celebratory or genre
scenes and various other paintings made their way allover India. Indian miniature painting was subjected to a strong
initial Persian influence, but it was short lived since the Indian artists soon recovered their own independence and
originality.

Pala School:
The earliest examples of miniature painting in India exist in the form of illustrations to the religious texts on Buddhism
executed under the Palas of the eastern India and the Jain texts executed in western India during the 11th-12th centuries
A.D.
A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to the Buddhist themes were written and illustrated with the images
of Buddhist deities at centres such as- Nalanda, Odantapuri,Vikramsila and Somarupa
Students and pilgrims from all over South-East Asia gathered there for education and religious instruction. They took
back to their countries examples of Pala Buddhist art, in the form of bronzes and manuscripts which helped to carry the
Pala style to Nepal, Tibet, Burma, Sri Lanka and Java etc.
The surviving examples of the Pala illustrated manuscripts mostly belong to the Vajrayana School of Buddhism.
Pala painting shows a naturalistic style and is characterised by sinuous lines and subdued tones of colour.
One of the finest examples is the manuscript of the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita, or the perfection of Wisdom written in
eight thousand lines, housed in Oxford, England.
The Pala art came to a sudden end after the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries at the hands of Muslim invaders in
the first half of the 13th century. Some of the monks and artists escaped and fled to Nepal, which helped in reinforcing the
existing art traditions there.
Colors were used in this form of painting which had symbolic meanings.

Figure: An example of miniature painting from Pala School of art

Mughal Paintings:
The origin of the Mughal School of Painting is considered to be a landmark in the history of painting in India.
With the establishment of the Mughal empire, the Mughal School of painting originated in the reign of Akbar in 1560 CE
who was keenly interested in the art of painting and architecture.
In the beginning of his rule a studio of painting was established under the supervision of two Persian masters, Mir Sayyed
Ali and Abdul Samad Khan, who were originally employed by his father Humayun.
A large number of Indian artists from all over India were recruited to work under the Persian masters.
The Mughal style evolved as a result of a happy synthesis of the indigenous Indian style of painting and the Safavid school
of Persian painting.
It is marked by supple naturalism based on close observation of nature and fine and delicate drawing and is primarily
aristocratic and secular.
An illustrated manuscript of theTuti-nama in the Cleveland Museum of Art (USA) appears to be the first work of the
Mughal School.
The style of painting in this manuscript shows the Mughal style in its formative stage. Shortly after that, between 1564-69
CE was completed a very ambitious project in the form of Hamza-namaillustrations on cloth, originally consisting of 1400
leaves in seventeen volumes.

Figure: A Hamza – nama illustration

Some of the famous painters in Akbar’s court other than the two Persian masters already mentioned are Dasvanth,
Miskina, Nanha, Kanha, Basawan, Manohar, Doulat, Mansur, Kesu, Bhim Gujarati, etc.
Jahangir had great fascination for nature and took delight in the portraiture of birds, animals and flowers.
Some important manuscripts illustrated during his period are, an animal fable book called Ayar-i-Danish, the Anwar-i-
sunavli, another fable book.
The famous painters of Jahangir are Aqa Riza, Abul Hasan, Mansur, Bishan Das, Manohar, Goverdhan, Balchand,
Daulat, Mukhlis, Bhim and Inayat.
The portrait of Jahangir illustrated is a typical example of miniature executed during the period of Jahangir.

Figure: The Portrait of Jahangir

A series of the Razm-namadated 1616 CE, a series of the Rasikapriya (1610-1615) and a series of the Ramayana of
circa 1610 CE are some other notable examples of the Mughal School.
Apart from portraiture, other paintings showing groups of ascetics and mystics and a number of illustrated manuscripts
were also executed during his period; some noteworthy examples of such manuscripts are the Gulistanand the Bustan of
Sadi, copied for the emperor in the first and second years of his reign and the Shah Jahan Nama.
Aurangzeb was a puritan and painting declined during his period and lost much of its earlier quality. A large number of
court painters migrated to the provincial courts.
During the period of Bahadur Shah, there was a revival of the Mughal painting after the neglect shown by Aurangzeb.
After 1712 CE, the Mughal painting again started deteriorating under the later Mughals.

Rajasthani School of Painting

About:
The Rajasthani School of painting is deeply rooted in the Indian traditions, taking inspiration from Indian epics, religious
texts like the Puranas, love poems in Sanskrit and other Indian languages, Indian folk-lore and works on musical themes.

This school of painting had influence in Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh in the present time, such as Mewar,
Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur (Marwar), Malwa, Sirohi and other such principalities largely between
the sixteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

Salient features of Rajasthani paintings

This style of painting is deeply rooted in Indian traditions

The cults of Vaishnavism, Saivism and Saktiexercised tremendous influence on the pictorial art of this school
Various cults of Krishna provided a very rich field to the painter who with his artistic skill and devotion made a significant
contribution to the development of Indian painting.
The Rajasthani School of painting is marked by bold drawing, strong and contrasting colors.
The treatment of figures is flat without any attempt to show perspective in a naturalistic manner.
Sometimes the surface of the painting is divided into several compartments of different colours in order to separate one
scene from another.
Mughal influence is seen in the refining of drawing and some element of naturalism introduced in figures and trees.
Apart from depicting stories from the Ramayana and the royal lifestyle of kings and queens were also depicted
They also portrayed social values and the changes introduced by kings for the betterment of society. The background of
the paintings formed a special feature of the Rajasthani School.
Paper, ivory and silk was used as their canvas in this school of painting.

Bundi school of painting

This style of painting is dated back to 1625 AD

A painting showing Bhairavi Ragini, in the Allahabad Museum is one of the earliest examples of Bundi painting.
Themes from the life of Krishna is a major theme in this school of painting
Example for the above is, Rasikapriya of the late 17th century, which has a scene which represents Krishna trying to
collect butter from a Gopi, but finding that the pot contains a piece of cloth and some other objects and no butter he
rea1ises that he has been duped by the Gopi. In the background are trees and in the foreground is a river indicated with
wavy lines. In the river are seen flowers and a pair of aquatic birds. The painting has a border in brilliant red colour.

The salient characteristic of this school of painting is the rich and glowing colours, the rising sun in golden colour,
crimson-red horizon, overlapping and semi-naturalistic trees
The Mughal influence is visible in the refined drawing of the faces and an element of naturalism in the treatment of the
trees. The text is written in black against yellow background on the top.

Malwa School of painting:

It flourished between 1600 and 1700 CE and is most representative of the Hindu Rajput courts. Unlike the specificity of
Rajasthani schools that emerged and flourished in precise territorial kingdoms and courts of their respective kings,
Malwa School defies a precise centre for its origin and instead suggests a vast territory of Central India. This
conservative style disappeared after the close of the 17th century.

Salient features of this form of painting

Malwa paintings show a fondness for rigorously flat compositions, black and chocolate-brown backgrounds, figures
shown against a solid colour patch, and architecture painted in lively colour.
The school’s most appealing features are a primitive charm and a simple childlike vision.
The earliest work in this style is an illustrated version of the Rasikapriyā(1634), followed by a series illustrating a Sanskrit
poem called the Amaru Śataka (1652).
There are also illustrations of the musical modes (Ragamala), the Bhagavata-Puraṇa, and other Hindu devotional and
literary works.

Figure: Ravana begging sita for Alms, Malwa, Rajasthan School of painting

Mewar school of painting

Mewar painting is one of the most important schools of Indian miniature painting of the 17th and 18th centuries. It is a
school in the Rajasthani style and was developed in the Hindu principality of Mewar (in Rajasthan state).

Salient features of this school of painting

The works of the school are characterized by simple bright colour and direct emotional appeal.
The earliest example of Mewar painting is a series of the Ragamalapainted in 1605 CE at Chawand, a small place near
Udaipur, by Misardi.
Most of the paintings of this series are in the collection of Shri Gopi Krishna Kanoria.
The expressive and vigorous style continued with some variations through 1680 in the region, after which time Mughal
influence became more apparent.
An increasing number of paintings were concerned with portraiture and the life of the ruler, though religious themes were
popular.

Figure: A painting depicted in the style of Mewar School of painting

Pahari Style of Painting
About:
The Pahari region comprises the present State of Himachal Pradesh, some adjoining areas of the Punjab, the area of
Union Territory of Jammu in the Jammu and Kashmir State and Garhwal in Uttar Pradesh. The whole of this area was
divided into small States ruled by the Rajput princes and were often engaged in welfare. These States were centres of
great artistic activity from the latter half of the 17th to nearly the middle of the 19th century.

This school of painting is primarily characterized by a coarsely flamboyant style which blossomed into the most exquisite
and sophisticated style of Indian painting.

Basohli School:
This school of Pahari painting received patronage from Raja Kripal Pal
Famous paintings belonging to this school:
An artist named Devidasa executed miniatures in the form of the Rasamanjari illustrations in 1694 A.D.
An illustration from a series of Gita Govinda painted by artist Manaku in 1730 A.D is another famous example of this
school of painting
What can be gathered from the above paintings?
There is a change in the facial type which becomes a little heavier and also in the tree forms which assume a somewhat
naturalistic character, which may be due to the influence of the Mughal painting.
There is the use of strong and contrasting colours, monochrome background, large eyes, bold drawing, use of beetles
wings for showing diamonds in ornaments, narrow sky and the red border are observable in this miniature.

Figure: Devi rides on a Chariot, Basohli, and Pahari School of Painting

Kangra School
The name Kangra style is given to this group of painting for the reason that they are identical in style to the portraits of
Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra. Paintings of the Kangra style are attributed mainly to the Nainsukh family.

Some of the Pahari painters found patronage in the Punjab under Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Sikh nobility in the
beginning of the 19th century and executed portraits and other miniatures in a modified version of the Kangra style which
continued till the middle of the 19th century.

Salient features of this school of art:

The delicacy of drawing and quality of naturalism are the stand-out features of this school of art
The Kangra style is by far the most poetic and lyrical of Indian styles marked with serene beauty and delicacy of
execution.
Distinctive is the delineation of the female face, with a straight nose in line with the forehead, which came in vogue
around the 1790s, is the most distinctive feature of this style.
Most popular themes that were painted were the Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda, Nala Damayanti, Bihari Satsai,
Ragamala and Baramasa.

Deccani School of Painting

About:
Early centres of painting in the Deccan, during the 16th and 17th centuries were Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. In
the Deccan, painting continued to develop independently of the Mughal style in the beginning. However, later in the 17th
and 18th centuries it was increasingly influenced by the Mughal style.

Some of the features of this school of painting are:

Its unique sensuality and intense colours have a strong affinity to regional aesthetics.
The school preferred dense composition and attempted to create an aura of romance, which invariably expressed itself
in an idiom that was eloquently natural and vivid.
A style of painting characterised by bold drawing, techniques of shading and the use of pure and brilliant colours
flourished at Tanjore in South India during the late 18th and 19th centuries.
Gold colour has been lavishly used in painting
Deccani costumes were richly depicted in this school of art.

Sub-schools in the Deccani school of painting

Ahmednagar

The earliest examples of the Ahmednagar painting are contained in a volume of poems written in praise of Hussain Nizam
Shah I of Ahmednagar (1553-1565) and his queen.
This manuscript known as the ‘Tarif-in-Hussain Shahiand assigned to a period 1565-69 is preserved in the Bharat ltihas
Samshodaka Mandala, Poona.
Some other fine examples of the Ahmednagar painting are the “Hindola Raga” of about 1590 A.D. and portraits of Burhan
Nizam Shah II of Ahmednagar (1591-96 A.D.) and of Malik Amber of about 1605 A.D. existing in the National Museum, New
Delhi and other museums.

Bijapur

In Bijapur, painting was patronized by Ali Adil Shah I and his successor Ibrahim II
An encyclopedia known as the Najum-al-ulum (Stars of Sciences), preserved in the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, was
illustrated in 1570 A.D. in the reign of Ali Adil Shah I. This manuscript contains 876 miniatures
The ladies appearing in the illustrations are tall and slender and are wearing the South Indian dress.
The rich colour scheme, the palm trees, animals and men and women all belong, to the Deccani tradition. The profuse use of
gold colour, some flowering plants and arabesques on the top of the throne are derived from the Persian tradition.

Figure: Prince of Bijapur, Deccani School of painting

Golconda

The earliest paintings identified as Golconda work are a group of five charming paintings of about 1590 A.D. in the British
Museum, London, painted in the period of Muhammad Quli Quta Shah (1580-1611) Golconda.
They show dancing girls entertaining the company.
Other outstanding examples of the Golconda painting are “Lady with the Myna bird”, about 1605 A.D.
This school of painting absorbed influences of the northern tradition of the pre-Mughal painting which was flourishing in Malwa,
and of the southern tradition of the Vijayanagar murals as evident in the treatment of female types and costumes. Influence of
the Persian painting is also observed in the treatment of the horizon gold sky and landscape. The colours are rich and brilliant
and are different from those of the northern painting.

Figure: A painting in the Golconda style

Hyderabad

Painting in Hyderabad started with the foundation of the Asafjhi dynasty by Mir Qamruddin Khan
The style of the painting is decorative.
Typical characteristics of the Hyderabad painting like the rich colours, the Deccani facial types and costumes can be observed
in the miniature. It belongs to the third quarter of the 18th century.

Tanjore
A style of painting characterised by bold drawing, techniques of shading and the use of pure and brilliant colours flourished at
Tanjore in South India during the late 18th and 19th centuries
The dense composition, surface richness and vibrant colors of Indian Thanjavur Paintings distinguish them from the other types
of paintings.
Then, there are embellishments of semi-precious stones, pearls and glass pieces that further add to their appeal. The relief
work gives them a three dimensional effect. Tanjore Painting of India originated during the 16th century
Maratha princes, Nayakas, Rajus communities of Tanjore and Trichi and Naidus of Madurai also patronized Indian Thanjavur
Paintings from 16th to 18th century.
Most of these paintings revolve around the theme of Hindu Gods and Goddesses, along with saints.
The main figure is always painted at the center of the painting. Since Tanjore paintings are mainly done on solid wood planks,
they are locally known as ‘Palagai Padam’ (palagai meaning wooden plank and padam meaning picture).

Figure: An example of Tanjore School of painting

Folk Paintings
About:
Our country has always been a repository of indigenous knowledge, which has been transferred from one generation to another.
Artists in each generation have created the best of works out of available material and technology. These art works are famously
referred to as the Folk arts. These art forms have existed from time immemorial. In this section, we will look into some of the famous
folk art work related to paintings.

Madhubani Paintings or Mithila Paintings:

It derives its name from Mithila, the ancient Videha and birthplace of Sita
It is presumed that for centuries, women living in this region have painted figures and designs on the walls of their
mud houses for ceremonial occasions, particularly, weddings.
People of this area see the origin of this art form at the time of Princess Sita getting married to Lord Rama.
These paintings, characterised by bright colours, are largely painted in three areas of the house— central or outer
courtyards, eastern part of the house, which is the dwelling place of Kuladevi, usually, Kali, and a room in the
southern part of the house, which houses the most significant images.
Various armed gods and animals or images of women at work like carrying water pots or winnowing grain, etc., are
vividly portrayed in the outer central courtyard.
The inner verandah, where the family shrine— devasthana or gosain ghar is located, griha devatas and kula
devatas are painted
In the recent past, many paintings are done on fabric, paper, pots, etc., for commercial purposes.
The most extraordinary and colourful painting, however, is done in the part of the house known as the kohbar ghar
or inner room, where magnificent representations of kohbar, a lotus with a stalk in full bloom having metaphoric and
tantric connotation along with images of gods and goddesses are painted on freshly plastered walls of the room.
Mithila artists do not like empty spaces. They fill in the entire space decoratively with elements from nature like
birds, flowers, animals, fish, snakes, the Sun and the moon, which often have symbolic intent, signifying love,
passion, fertility, eternity, well-being and prosperity
Women paint with bamboo twigs to which some cotton swab, rice straw or fibre is attached. In earlier days, they
made colour from mineral stones and organic things, such as phalsa and kusum flowers, bilwa leaves, kajal,
turmeric, etc.

Figure: An example of Mithila painting

Pattachitra
The state of Odisha is famous for this form of folk painting. Some of the features of this form of painting are:
Pattachitra is a picture painted on a piece of cloth.
This form of art is closely related to the cult of Shri Jagannath and the temple traditions in Puri.
It is believed to have originated as early as the 12th century
Some of the popular themes represented through this art form are Thia Badhia– depiction of the temple of
Jagannath; Krishna Lila – enactment of Jagannath as Lord Krishna displaying his powers as a child; Dasabatara
Patti – the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu; Panchamukhi – depiction of Lord Ganesh as a five-headed deity. More
than anything, the themes are clearly the essence of the art form, conceptualizing the meaning of the paintings.
Most of the materials used in this painting are natural substances
It is a disciplined form of art with a set of rules and restrictions. A floral border is a must around the paintings, and
so is the use of natural colors.
The paintings are executed primarily in profile with elongated eyes, as well.
With the use of such prominent solid shades, the paintings end up depicting stark emotional expressions with great
detail.
Over the years the art form has evolved and has experienced discernible changes. The Chitrakars have painted on
palm leaves and Tussar silk and have also created wall hangings and showpieces.

Kalighat Painting:
It originated in the 19th century in West Bengal, India, in the vicinity of Kalighat Kali Temple, Kalighat, Calcutta
From the depiction of Hindu gods, god, and other mythological characters, the Kalighat paintings developed to
reflect a variety of subjects, including many depictions of everyday life
Paintings on the life of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is also quite common in this form of painting
Contemporary events like crime were also the subject of many paintings.
The artists also chose to portray secular themes and personalities and in the process played a role in the
Independence movement. They painted historic characters like Rani Lakshmibai, and Duldul the famous horse of
Imam Hussain of Karbala.
The use of water colours on mill paper, with brushes made of calf and squirrel hair is characteristic of this school of
painting.
These simple paintings and drawings, which could easily be reproduced by lithography influenced even modern
artists like the late Jamini Roy.

Figure: An example of Kalighat painting

Kalamkari
Kalamkari is a type of hand-painted or block-printed cotton textile produced in Isfahan, Iran, and in the Indian state
of Andhra Pradesh.
Only natural dyes are used in Kalamkari, which involves twenty-three steps
To create design contours, artists use a bamboo or date palm stickpointed at one end with a bundle of fine hair
attached to this pointed end to serve as the brush or pen
There are two distinctive styles of Kalamkari art in India – Srikalahasti styleand the Machilipatnam style.
This style flourished in temples centered on creating unique religious identities, appearing on scrolls, temple
hangings, chariot banners as well as depictions of deities and scenes taken from the Hindu epics (e.g. Ramayana,
Mahabharata and Purana).
The style owes its present status to Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay who popularized the art as the first chairperson of
the All India Handicrafts Board.

Figure: An example of Kalamkari painting

Warli
The Warli community inhabit the west coast of Northern Maharashtra around the north Sahyadri range
Married women play a central role in creating their most important painting called Chowk to mark special
occasions.
Closely associated with the rituals of marriage, fertility, harvest and new season of sowing, Chowk is dominated by
the figure of mother goddess, Palaghat, who is chiefly worshipped as the goddess of fertility and represents the
corn goddess, Kansari.
The cord goddess is enclosed in a small square frame decorated with ‘pointed’ chevrons along the outer edges
that symbolize Hariyali Deva, i.e., the God of Plants.
The central motif of Palaghat is surrounded by scenes of everyday life, portraying acts of hunting, fishing, farming,
dancing, mythological stories of animals
These paintings are traditionally painted with rice flour on earth coloured walls of their homes.
A very basic graphic vocabulary like a circle, a triangle and a square are used in these rudimentary wall paintings
which are monosyllabic in nature.
The circle and the triangle come from their observation of nature.The circle represents the sun and the moon, while
the triangle depicts mountains and conical trees.

Figure: An example of Warli painting

 Modern Indian Paintings
Many consider that the modern period in Indian art began around 1857. The National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi covers its
collection from about this period. In the west, the modern period starts conveniently with the Impressionists. However, when we talk of
modern Indian Art, we generally start with the Bengal School of Painting.

The essential characteristics of the modern or contemporary art are a certain freedom from invention, the acceptance of an eclectic
approach which has placed artistic expression in the international perspective as against the regional, a positive elevation of
technique which has become both proliferous and supreme, and the emergence of the artist as a distinct individual.

Evolution of modern painting in India

Towards the close of the nineteenth century, Indian painting, as an extension of the Indian miniature painting was decreasing, only
some minor artistic expression in the intervening period by way of the ‘Bazar’ and ‘Company’ styles of painting were alive along with
some folk arts across the country
Then followed the newly ushered Western concept of naturalism, the foremost exponent of which was Raja Ravi Verma.
An attempt to stem this cultural morass was made by Abanindranath Tagore under whose inspired leadership came into being a new
school of painting which was distinctly nostalgic and romantic to start with. It held its way for well over three decades as the Bengal
School of Painting, also called the Renaissance School or the Revivalist School
The period at the end of the Second World War released unprecedented and altogether new forces and situations, political as well
as cultural, which confronted the artist.
The period significantly coincided with the independence of the country. With freedom also came unprecedented opportunity. The
artist was set upon a general course of modernization and confrontation with the big, wide world, especially with the Western World,
with far-reaching consequences. The artists absorbed this change necessitated by the situation and the thirst to modernize (to adopt
the ideas such as impressionism, expressionism or post-expressionism in the realm of arts)
A major characteristic of contemporary Indian Painting is that the technique and method have acquired a new significance. Form
came to be regarded as separate entity and with its increasing emphasis it subordinated the content in a work of art.
With the rise of individualism as the predominant artist ideologically, there is the new problem of the lack of a real rapport of the artist
with the people.
More on Bengal school of art

The Bengal School of Art commonly referred as Bengal School, was an art movement and a style of Indian painting that originated in
Bengal, and flourished throughout the Indian subcontinent, during the British Raj in the early 20th century.

Emergence of Bengal school of Art:

During the British Raj, when the British crown ruled the Indian subcontinent, traditional Indian painting styles had fallen out of
popularity, largely because they did not appeal to the tastes of British collectors.
In addition to the European painting techniques and subjects that were taught in artistic academies, Company Paintings were widely
promoted, which catered to British sensibilities.
Company Paintings presented Indian subjects of indigenous plant life or traditional garb and rituals, through both the European gaze
and conventions of painting.
Rather than celebrating Indian cultural traditions, it simplified them into exotica.
The Bengal School arose to counteract such imagery, by turning to Mughal influences, and Rajasthani and Pahari styles that
presented elegant scenes of distinctly Indian traditions and daily life.
The Main features of Bengal School of Painting:

Based on Indian Traditions: The Bengal School is fully based on the Indian traditional style as the subject matter of this school is
based on Indian culture.
The paintings based on Indian theme like ‘Mahakali, ‘Shiva Parwati’Krishna and Gopis etc. prove the Bengal School’s Indian
mentality.
Influence of Ajanta Paintings: Bengal school is influenced from Ajanta Art. The qualities of Ajanta Art like rhythm, grace, harmony etc.
are visible in Bengal School.
Linear Delicacy: The lines of Bengal School resemble the Ajanta Paintings. Lines are delicate and rhythmic.
Softness and Rhythm in Figures: The figures of Bengal School give soft effect and no hardness is there. They are graceful and have
delicacy. They are rhythmic and provide pleasant experience to eyes.
Beautiful Colour Scheme: The colours of Bengal School are very attractive. Wash technique is used and colours are not bright and
gaudy at all.
Influence of Mughal and Rajasthani Schools: Mughal and Rajasthani Schools’ influence can also be seen at some places.
Light and Shade: The softness in the paintings of Bengal School is due to its quality of brilliant light and shade.
Impressive and Indian Subject Matter: The subject matter of Bengal School is very impressive and Indian in character. Themes used
are historical, religious, literary etc.

Personalities Associated to Paintings

Contribution of Abanindranath Tagore:

Abanindranath Tagore was the principal artist and creator of the ‘Indian Society of Oriental Art’ and the first major exponent of
swadeshi values in Indian art.
He was the foundational and most critically important figure of the Bengal school of art, which led to the development of modernity in
Indian painting.
Abanindranath enjoyed the support of British administrator and principal of the Calcutta School of Art, B. Havell.
Both Abanindranath and Havell were critical of colonial Art Schools and the manner in which European taste in art was being
imposed on Indians.
They firmly believed in creating a new type of painting thatwas Indian not only in subject matter but also in style.
The orientation in the artistic outlook of Abanindranath created a new awakening in India and brought about a revival of the Indian Art.
He sought to modernize Mughal and Rajput styles in order to counter the influence of Western models of art, as taught in Art Schools
under the British Raj and developed the Bengal school of art.
Such was the success of Tagore’s work that it was eventually accepted and promoted as a national Indian style within British colonial
art institutions.
Moving away from oil painting Abanindranath looked to ancient murals and medieval Indian miniatures for inspiration both for subject
matter as well as indigenous material such as tempera.
The philosophy of a Pan-Indian art that he developed found many enthusiastic followers and this came to be known as the Bengal
School
It was taken up by many of his students and others who formed the nationalist art movement often called the Bengal School, even
though the style and philosophy spread well beyond the borders of Bengal.
They sought to develop an indigenous yet modern style in art as a response to the call for ‘Swadeshi’ to express Indian themes in a
pictorial language that deliberately turned away from western styles such as those practiced by Raja Ravi Varma.
In his rejection of the colonial aesthetic, Abanindranath turned to Asia, most notably Japan in an effort to imbibe and propose a pan-
Asian aesthetic that stood independent of the western one.
Japanese stalwarts like Okakura Kakuzo left a lasting impression, as the Bengal school artists learnt the wash technique from them,
innovating and modifying it to better suit their own needs.

Contribution of Rabindranath Tagore:

Though Rabindranath Tagore started his sporadic attempts at painting in the 1920s, it was in the next decade that he appeared as a
major painter in India.
His poetry and prose display a continuation of Bengali and Indian traditions, but his paintings are original works of an individual who
have a very high sense of imagination and fancy.
They might also be related to his profound knowledge of contemporary western art.
To promote art, he opened up his house to young artists, and started the, ’vichitra club’.
He also created the, ’kala Bhavan’ at Visva Bharat University in 1919.

Pottery
Introduction

Evidence of pottery has been found in the early settlements of Mehargarhfrom the Indus Valley Civilization. Today, it is a cultural art that
is still practiced extensively in India. Pottery plays an important role in studying culture and reconstructing the past.
Historically with distinct culture, the style of pottery changed. It reflects the social, economic and environmental conditions a culture
thrived in, which helps the archaeologists and historians in understanding our past. It holds significant value in understanding cultures
where script was either absent or remains un-deciphered.

Evolution of pottery making in India

Neolithic age:

First reference of pottery in this age. It is hand-made pottery but during the later period foot-wheel is also used.

Chalcolithic age:

It is marked by the occurrence of distinct pottery cultures. Such as- Black and red-ware pottery, black-on-red ware and Ochre colored
pottery.

Harappan civilization:

Pottery traditions that existed during this time include- Polished Ware Pottery with rough surface, Burial Pottery of Harappa, Ochre
colored pottery (OCP), Black-grey burnished ware, Black-on-red ware, Grey-ware and Painted grey-ware.

Vedic age:

Pottery traditions that existed during this time include- Painted Grey-ware (PGW), Northern Black Polished ware (NBPW), megalithic
pottery found in Kerala.

Mauryan period:

Use of the pottery wheel became universal.

The pottery associated with the Mauryan period consists of many types of ware.
But the most highly developed technique is seen in a special type of pottery known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP), which
was the hallmark of the preceding and early Mauryan periods.
Gupta period:

Gupta pottery remains found at Ahichchhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur and Bashar afford an outstanding proof of the excellence of pottery.
The most distinctive class of pottery of this period is the red ware.

Kushan period:

The Kushan cultural phase in Bengal and North Indian sites brought a new horizon in ceramic craft. The characteristic pottery of this
phase is marked by a unique red polished ware with stamped design along with a large number of dull or sturdy red ware.

Important elements of pottery analysis

The three key elements of pottery analysis are fabric, form and decoration.
The form or morphology of a pot consists of four main elements: its base, body, neck and rim.
Fabric is the outer physical surface of the pottery which is a combination of factors such as clay used, degraissant mixed, firing
technique (i.e. oxidation and reduction) etc
Another aspect of the physical form of pottery is decoration and surface treatment.
 Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP)
It is a Bronze Age culture of the Indo-Gangetic Plain”generally dated 2000-1500 BCE,” extending from eastern Punjab to
northeastern Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh.
Artefacts of this culture show similarities with both the Late Harappan culture and the Vedic culture.
As its name implies, its main distinguishing feature is its ochre colour, which gives the appearance of being badly fired.
Its other characteristic feature is a porous texture and a weathering out of the edges of sherds (broken piece of ceramic material)
It was sometimes decorated with black painted bands and incised patterns. It is often found in association with copper hoards, which
are assemblages of copper weapons and other artifacts such as anthropomorphic figures.

Black and Red Ware (BRW)

It is associated with the Neolithic phase, Harappa, Bronze Age India, Iron Age India, the megalithic and the early historical period.
In the Western Gangesplain (western Uttar Pradesh) it is dated to c. 1450–1200 BCE, and is succeeded by the Painted Grey Ware
culture.
In the Western Ganges plain, the BRW was preceded by the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture.
Cultures like Ahar-Banas showed the presence of Black and Red ware pottery with white linear designs.
The BRW sites were characterized by subsistence agriculture(cultivation of rice, barley, and legumes), and yielded some ornaments
made of shell, copper, carnelian, and terracotta.

Painted Grey Ware (PGW)

It is an Iron Age Indianculture of the western Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley in the Indian subcontinent, conventionally
dated 1200 to 600–500 BCE
It is characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with geometric patterns in black.
PGW culture is associated with village and town settlements, domesticated horses, ivory-working, and the advent of iron metallurgy
Pottery generally has a red surfaceand is wheel thrown although handmade ones too exist
Polished wares were well
Most of the pottery ispolychrome meaning more than two colours are used to colour the pottery.
Most of the pottery is such that they usually have flat bases
Geometrical designalong with paintings depicting flora and fauna are observe
Perforated pottery was also found may be used for straining liquor.
Pottery throughout the civilization was uniform (mass thrown) revealing some form of control and leaving less space of individual
creativity
Presence of luxurious pottery obtained from certain sites reveals economic stratification in the society.

Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

It is an urban Iron Age Indianculture of the Indian Subcontinent, lasting c. 700–200 BCE (proto NBPW between 1200 and 700 BCE).
It developed beginning around 700 BCE, in the late Vedic period, and peaked from c. 500–300 BCE, coinciding with the emergence
of 16 great states or Mahajanapada in Northern India, and the subsequent rise of the Mauryan Empire.

Some notable NBPW sites in India are-

Charsada (ancient Pushkalavati) and Taxila, in Pakistan

Delhi lor Indraprastha
Hastinapura, Mathura, Kampil/Kampilya, Ahichatra, Ayodhya, Sravasti, Kausambi, Varanasi, all in Uttar Pradesh
Vaishali, Rajgir, Pataliputra, and Champa in Bihar
Ujjain and Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh

It is a glossy shiny type of pottery

It is made of fine fabric and served as tableware for richer class. It is considered as deluxe pottery only found with the elites revealing
societal stratification which was a result of Brahmanical hegemony.
It is classified into two- bi-chrome and monochrome.
Monochrome pottery has a fine and thin fabric. Potted on fast wheel and have a strikingly lustrous surface. 90% of this type is jet
black, brownish black and bluish black and 10% have colours like pink, golden, brown among others.
Bi-chrome pottery is found less. It shows all the features of monochrome except that it shows combination of two colours.

Glazed and Unglazed Pottery

glazed pottery is the type of pottery that has a shiny coating of glass-like material on the surface, which makes it more durable and
decorative. Glazed pottery was known in India from ancient times, but it was not very common1.

Unglazed pottery is the type of pottery that has no glaze on the surface, which gives it a natural and rustic look. Unglazed pottery is
the oldest and most widespread form of pottery in India, and it has many regional variations2. Some of the most famous styles of
unglazed pottery are:

Paper-thin pottery, which is very delicate and light, and is produced in Kutch, Kanpur and Alwar.
Terracotta pottery, which is made of reddish-brown clay and is often used for making idols, sculptures, toys and utensils.
Papier-mache pottery, which is made of paper pulp mixed with glue and clay, and is painted with bright colors and designs

India Puppetry
A puppet is one of the most remarkable and ingenious inventions of the man. Puppetry is a type of narrative theatre; at the crossroads
between bardic storytelling and theatre plays.
Shows include live music, narration and gestures taken from dance.
Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important place in traditional entertainment. Like traditional theatre, themes for puppet theatre
are mostly based on epics and legends.
Puppets from different parts of the country have their own identity. Regional styles of painting and sculpture are reflected in them.
History of Puppetry
Different forms of Puppetry in India
Is Indian puppetry a dying art form?

Growth of popular electronic media and a penchant for western modes of entertainment has seriously dealt a blow to the survivability of
the puppetry in India. The lack of patronage to this art form coupled with limited scope vis-à-vis script, improvisation, lighting etc has led
to general decline in its popularity amongst the masses.

However, it would not be prudent to call puppetry a dying art form in the society since even puppetry has started to incorporate
modernized techniques of presentation with ancient story-telling. The rise in fame of Indian puppetry can also be ascertained due to
growth of some organizations such as ‘Dhaatu puppetry fest’ that has acquired a prominent place among both the rural as well as urban
population.

The organization Dhaatu is setup by Anupama Hoskere. Her organization works to revive the traditional art form of puppetry. She was
awarded even the Central Sangeet Natak Akademi Puraskar for Puppetry. The international puppet festivals conducted by this
organization has brought many people back into the influence of the art form.

The government too in recent times; particularly during the times of Covid has used the art form to create awareness amongst the
masses regarding the pandemic

What more could be done?

Government should encourage the families and individuals engaged in this art form through appropriate measures such as adequate
funding, setting up exhibitions etc
Government could collaborate with other civil society organization engaged in conservation of this art form to ensure the latter are
adequately supported
Government could also mull the possibility of introducing the art form at the school level to ensure the future generation take an active
involvement in the survivability of the art form
Government could invest in research and development to come up with ways that can best ensure the survivability of the puppetry art in
India
Encouraging CSR activities in the conservation of this art form could also help in ensuring the survivability of the art form.

String Puppets
String Puppetry (Marionettes): String puppetry is prevalent in various parts of India, including Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and
Kerala. The puppets are made of wood, cloth, and sometimes leather, with strings attached to their limbs. Puppeteers skillfully
manipulate these strings to bring life to the characters and enact stories from mythology and local legends.

Shadow Puppets
Shadow Puppetry (Togalu Gombeyaata): Shadow puppetry is a popular form in Karnataka, especially in the region of coastal
Karnataka. Here, puppets made of leather are used to cast shadows on a translucent screen. The puppeteers use bright lights and
carefully choreographed movements to create lively and dynamic performances, typically based on mythological tales.
 Rod Puppets
Rod Puppetry: This form of puppetry is practiced in West Bengal and Orissa. The puppets have rods attached to their hands and
sometimes their heads, allowing the puppeteers to manipulate their movements. Stories from mythology, folklore, and social themes
are commonly performed using these puppets.

Glove puppets
Glove Puppetry (Pava Kathakali): This form of puppetry is prevalent in Kerala and is influenced by the traditional Kathakali dance-
drama. The puppets are made of cloth and are worn on the puppeteers' hands like gloves. The puppeteer's fingers control the
movements, and they often present stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics.

Modern Puppetry
Modern puppetry refers to contemporary approaches and techniques used in the art of puppetry. While traditional forms of puppetry
remain alive and cherished, modern puppetry has evolved and embraced new technologies, materials, and concepts to expand its
creative possibilities. Here are some key aspects of modern puppetry:

Experimental Techniques: Modern puppetry often involves experimenting with unconventional materials and techniques to create
unique and innovative puppet characters. Puppeteers may use materials like foam, latex, paper, and even recycled objects to
construct puppets with distinct visual aesthetics.

Puppet Animation: With advancements in technology, puppet animation has gained popularity. It involves combining puppetry with
digital animation to create visually stunning and dynamic performances. This can be done through stop-motion animation or using
computer-generated imagery (CGI).

Integration of Technology: Modern puppetry frequently incorporates various technological elements, such as projections, sensors, and
animatronics. These additions allow for more sophisticated movements and interactions between puppets and performers or the
audience.

Puppetry in Films and Television: Puppetry has found its way into mainstream media through movies, television shows, and
commercials. From classic puppet characters like "The Muppets" to more recent examples in stop-motion films, puppetry continues
to captivate audiences worldwide.

Political and Social Commentary: Modern puppetry is often used as a medium for expressing political and social commentary.
Puppet performances may address relevant issues and engage the audience in thought-provoking ways, similar to other forms of
contemporary theater.

Puppetry in Education: Puppetry has been integrated into educational programs to make learning more engaging and interactive,
especially for young children. Puppet shows are used to teach various subjects, moral values, and life skills in a fun and entertaining
manner.

Contemporary Performance Spaces: Modern puppetry can be found in a variety of performance spaces, including traditional
theaters, art galleries, street performances, and even digital platforms.

Puppet Slams and Festivals: Puppet slams, which are short, often experimental puppet performances, have become popular in
many places. Additionally, puppet festivals are organized worldwide, bringing together puppeteers from different cultures to share
their craft and learn from one another.

Puppetry in Therapeutic Settings: Puppetry is also used in therapeutic settings to aid in communication, emotional expression, and
healing processes, particularly in working with children or individuals with special needs.

Modern puppetry continues to evolve and push the boundaries of what is possible with this ancient art form. It maintains its appeal by
combining tradition with innovation, offering audiences a diverse and captivating range of puppetry experiences.

Tribal Puppetry
Tribal puppetry in India refers to the traditional puppetry forms practiced by various indigenous tribal communities across different
regions of the country. These tribal puppetry traditions are deeply rooted in their cultural heritage and have been passed down
through generations. Each tribal group has its unique style of puppetry, reflecting their customs, beliefs, and social life. Here are
some notable examples of tribal puppetry in India:

Gombeyata (Karagattam): Gombeyata is a form of puppetry performed by the Gond tribes in the central Indian states of Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. The puppets are made from wood and cloth, and the performances often revolve around local legends,
myths, and folktales.

Putul Nautch: Putul Nautch is a traditional puppetry form practiced by the Santhals in West Bengal and Bihar. The puppets are made
from wood, and the puppeteers skillfully manipulate them using strings. The performances portray scenes from daily life, hunting
expeditions, and stories from their tribal mythology.

Bommalattam: Bommalattam is performed by the Koyas and Chenchus tribes in the state of Andhra Pradesh. The puppets are made
from wood, and the performances usually depict stories from Hindu mythology, along with tales from tribal folklore.

Togalu Gombeyaata: Togalu Gombeyaata is a form of shadow puppetry practiced by the tribes in the Malenadu region of Karnataka.
The puppets are made from buffalo hide, and the puppeteers use oil lamps to cast shadows on a screen. The performances often
center around mythological stories and local legends.

Tholu Bommalata: Tholu Bommalata is a leather puppetry form performed by the Yadava and Valmiki communities in Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana. The puppets are made from goat or sheepskin and are intricately designed. The performances typically
narrate stories from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and other traditional tales.

Sitalpati Puppets: Sitalpati is a traditional art form practiced by the Mech and Rava tribes of Assam. It involves making puppets from
woven cool mat materials and using them for storytelling, often revolving around local myths and folktales.

These are just a few examples of tribal puppetry in India. Each tribal community has its distinct artistry, puppet-making techniques,
and performance styles that have been preserved and cherished as an integral part of their cultural heritage. Tribal puppetry serves
as a means of entertainment, education, and preserving the rich oral traditions of these indigenous communities.

Indian Cinema
Cinema also known as motion cinema, has evolved into a popular media since the latter part of 20th century. It has become a popular
medium of entertainment because of its accessibility and relative inexpensiveness. It is worthwhile to be noted that Indian produces the
maximum number of movies in the world.

Evolution of Indian cinema

In 1896, the Lumière Brothers’ films were first shown in Mumbai

India witnessed the first motion picture in the late 1910s and was introduced by late Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, also popularly known as
Dada Saheb Phalke; through the film “Raja Harishchandra” (It was a silent film). He is also considered to be the “Father of Indian
cinema”.
It took nearly two years after Raja Harishchandra for the first motion picture with sound to release i.e Alam Ara directed by Ardeshir Irani
The Indian cinematography law was passed in 1918. It provided for the licensing of cinema halls and censorship of indigenous and
foreign films. The board of censors was established in the provinces beginning from 1920.
The seed of colour cinema was also sowed through ‘Kisan Kanya’ directed by Moti B Gidwani in 1937.
Indian filmmakers call the era after the end of British Raj as “The Golden Era” from the 1940s to the 1960s. This was the time when
parallel cinema came into existence and Bengali filmmakers like Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen and many more were the
pioneers and major contributors.
The process of filmmaking has witnessed considerable progress over the years, even competing with films made in Hollywood. Ex: SS
Rajamouli’s Bahubali.
Every year hundreds of movies spanning every major language and region of our country are made for the viewing of the audience.
These films include commercial and art cinemas too which have not only captivated the attention of domestic audience but also that of
the international audience in recent times.
Indian diaspora has also been a major contributor to the Indian cinema to hoist its flag over the global platform.

Parallel cinema, or New Indian Cinema, was a film movement in Indian cinema that originated in the state of West Bengal in the 1950s
as an alternative to the mainstream commercial Indian cinema.
Inspired by Italian Neo-realism, Parallel Cinema began just before the French New Wave and Japanese New Wave, and was a
precursor to the Indian New Wave of the 1960s.
It is known for its serious content, realism and naturalism, symbolic elements with a keen eye on the sociopolitical climate of the times,
and for the rejection of inserted dance-and-song routines that are typical of mainstream Indian films.eg: Savkari Pash, Duniya Na Mane.

India’s first cinemascope film is Kagaz ka Phool1959 by Guru Dutt.

India’s first 70 mm film is Around the World (Hindi) 1967 by Raj Kapoor.
Swarna Kamal (Golden Kamal) is the name of the award given to the best film of the year by the Government of India.
Adi Shankara directed by G.V. Iyer is the first Sanskrit film in India.
Sivaji Ganesan was the first Indian to win the Chevalier Award instituted by the French Government.
The first International Film Festival of India was held in 1952.
First Indian 3-D Picture is Malayalam cinema My Dear Kuttichathan.
Indians who won Oscar- Bhanu Athaiya, Satyajit Ray, Resul Pookutty, A.R. Rahman and Gulzar.

Important characteristics of Indian cinema

Cinemas of all genres are produced in the country.

Music and dance are an integral part of Indian cinema.
Parallel cinema is as much an integral part of Indian cinema as commercial cinemas.
The emphasis in recent times in Indian cinemas is on experimenting- on new roles, techniques, subjects and treatment. Films are being
produced to reflect the contemporary social and political scene. Bollywood Movie Sherni reflects environmental issues.
The growth in Indian cinemas in recent times is based on the growth of regional cinemas too which have been producing quality content
cinemas. Malik and Great Indian Kitchen of Malayalam.
Music in Indian films derives its melodies from three diverse sources- Indian classical music, folk music from different regions and
Western classical and popular music.
Dance in Indian films too derive its inspiration from the above three diverse sources.

Famous film awards in India

The Dadasaheb Phalke Awardis India’s highest award in the field of cinema. It is presented annually at the National Film Awards
ceremony by the Directorate of Film Festivals, an organisation set up by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
Dadasaheb Palke award

Some of the other important film awards in India are- IIFA awards, Screen awards.
Each state in India has also its own set of state film awards.

Institutions in India associated with films industry in India

Film division of India

Th Film Division was constituted in January 1948. Its HQ is located in Mumbai.
Films Division produces documentaries, short films, animation films and news magazines.
The aim and objectives of the Division, focused on national perspectives, are to educate and motivate people in the implementation of
national programmes and to protect the image of the land and the heritage of the country to Indian and foreign audiences.

Central Board of Film certification

It was set up under the Cinematograph Act 1952.
CBFC certifies films for public exhibition in India.
Its headquarters is in Mumbai.
It has nine regional offices in Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai, Cuttack, Guhawati, Hyderabad, Mumbai, New Delhi and
Thiruvananthapuram.

National Film Development Corporation Limited (NFDC)

It was incorporated in 1975.
It was formed by the Government of India with the primary objective of planning and promoting an organized, efficient and integrated
development of the Indian film industry.

National Film archive of India

It was established as an independent media unit under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting in February 1964 with the following
aims and objectives
To trace, acquire and preserve for posterity the heritage of national cinema and build up a representative collection of World Cinema.
To classify and document data related to film, undertake and encourage re- search on cinema and publish and dis-tribute them; and
To act as a centre for dissemination of film culture in the country and to ensure the cultural presence of Indian Cinema abroad.

Directorate of Film festivals

It was setup under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting in 1973 with the prime objective of promoting good cinema.
The activities of Directorate of Film Festivals include:
The International Film Festival of India
The National Film Awards and the Dada Saheb Phalke Award
Cultural Exchange Programme and Organizing screening of Indian films through the mission abroad.
The selection of Indian Panorama.
Participation in international film festivals abroad.
Special film exposition of behalf of the Government of India
Print collection and documentation. These activities provide a unique platform for exchange of ideas, culture and experiences between
India and other countries in the field of Cinema.

Children’s Film Society

It is a nodal organisation of Government of India that produces children’s films and various TV programs in various Indian languages.
It was established in 1955.
CFSI functions come under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
It is headquartered in Mumbai.
Indian Theatre
Definition: The theatre is a fusion of music, dance, drama, stylized speech and spectacle. As an art form theatre is steeped in the local
identity and native culture of our country

Significance of theatre as an art form:

In the art form of theatre, age-old forms, customs, and the desire to improvise are intermingled. It serves as a platform for continuance of
traditions and customs
It also serves as a platform to hold mirror to the society for its act of omission and commission. Ex: During National movement in India,
theatres were used as a platform to spread national consciousness.
It provides a source of livelihood for the actors and others involved in the theatre business.
Some of the globally acclaimed Indian artists had their skills honed in the theatre. Ex: Naseeruddin Shah, Irrfan Khan, Dr Rajkumar,
Shabana Azmi etc.

Sanskrit Theatre
Sanskrit Theatre
As a literary composition, drama usually tells us a story, but not just through words, in the form of dialogues, but also through gestures,
movements, and facial expressions of the characters, dances, costumes, background landscape, music, stage setting etc. Drama is,
therefore, a performative art that includes many components and participants such as the playwright, actors, director, audience,
costume designer, make-up artists etc.

Indian classical drama

The Indian dramatic tradition was influenced by the dramatic elements found in the Vedas, in dialogue hymns and Vedic rituals. Thus,
it is in the Vedic era (1500 – 1000 BCE) that we see dramatic elements that will come to define drama in the years to come and
eventually usher in a genre known as Indian Classical Drama as we know it. Even the epics, such as the Mahabharata support the
existence of performers or nata as early as 400 CE.

However, the most extant treatise on Indian drama is the Natyashastra by Bharatamuni, which emerged in 3rd CE. Bharata ascribes
a divine origin to the dramatic tradition, which highlights its Vedic religious beginnings. The very existence of such a text suggests
that it was the culmination of a fairly long process of dramatic development taking place at that time.

Indian classical drama and Greek drama: Similarities and differences

The Greek invasion of the Indian subcontinent has led a few critics such as Weber to assert a Greek influence on Indian drama.

Similarities: There are some similarities such as- the plot being mainly centered on historical, mythical figures and the division of the
Play into Acts and Scenes, use of the Chorus, developments of stock characters demonstrate this Greek influence on all drama
Differences: Indian tradition has the added element of supernatural figures such as gods and goddesses that populate the world of
drama, the absence of tragedy in the Indian dramatic tradition, Greek drama’s adherence to the Three Unities of time, place and
action is not strictly observed in Indian drama where the action shifts from earthly spaces to heavenly ones, taking place across many
years as well and dance and song are an important part of Indian drama and which are not found in the Greek counterpart
Some scholars have also highlighted the influence of Buddhist and Jain traditions in the formalizing of the Indian dramatic tradition.
Thus, we can conclude that there might have been a strain of the Greek influence along with influences from other literary traditions
and cultures such as the Buddhist and Jain traditions that worked together with ancient Vedic ones to create the Classical Indian
drama as we know it today. This may be particularly true of the Tamil Epic Silappadikaaram which is influenced also by the Buddhist
and Jain traditions

Some of the salient features of Sanskrit drama are:

Inspiration: Multiple sources of influence as seen earlier

Purpose:
According to the Natyashastra, a dramatic work’s purpose was to provide not just entertainment and pleasure but instruction, wealth,
justice, and spiritual liberation.
That’s why Sanskrit drama does not have a tragic ending because in Hindu cosmology, death is not the end but a means to either
achieve spiritual liberation from the cycle of life or be reborn till it is achieved.
Emphasis on sentiment:
Rasa can be explained as a blissful aesthetic experience achieved via drama, and is seen as Sanskrit drama’s highest purpose.
The Rasa or the aesthetic sentiment is an important aspect of Sanskrit drama, and can be best defined as the audience’s refined
emotional response evoked by the play
Rasa is broadly composed of vibhava, anubhava, vyabhicharibhava, and sthayibhava, which are the different types of emotional
responses to a work of art
Classification of plays:
Natyashastra also elucidates the different types of plays, the major type (Rupaka) or the minor type (uparupaka).
Rupaka consists of ten varieties out of which the Nataka, are plays based on myths and heroic tales, and the Prakarana, are plays
based on fictitious stories and where less important characters are dominant.
Plot structure:
Sanskrit drama’s idealized plot structure consists of five transitions that lead to a final culmination of the events depicted.
The first is the “origin” (mukha), which states the seeds or the beginning of the plot
The second is the “incident” (pratimukha), which develops the plotline further by showing both good and bad events
The third is “germ” (garbha) where good actions/events seem to lead towards the “aim” (phala)
The fourth is “crisis” (vimarsa) where bad actions/events seem to outweigh the good and strays away from the “aim”
The fifth is “completion” (nirvahana) that brings together all the different narratives in the play to a definitive conclusion.
Bilingual nature: One of the unique aspects of Sanskrit drama is its bilingual nature. The protagonists who belonged to the upper
castes such as Brahmins and Kshatriyas spoke in Sanskrit whereas characters from other sections of society such as soldiers,
servants, women and children etc. spoke in the various Prakrit languages.
Composition of actors: Unlike the ban on female actors in European classical drama, the Sanskritic tradition did not have such
prohibitions that required male actors to perform the role of female leads, and drama could be performed by men alone, women
alone or a mix of both, depending on the plot.
Drawback of Sanskrit drama
• The audience was mostly limited to a refined circle of upper castes such as the royalty, aristocrats, Brahmins and Kshatriyas since
they were educated in Sanskrit unlike the masses who did not possess the knowledge of elite Sanskrit language

• Natyashastra states that the ideal spectators should be educated and noble men, all four castes could watch a play as long as they
were seated separately

• Rigid rules which did not provide much room for improvisation.

Such barriers limited the extent of popularization of Sanskrit drama amongst the masses.

Sanskrit drama is defined by the works of dramatists such as Sudraka, Bhasa, Bhavbhuti, Harsha, and Kalidasa to name a few. They
have survived through thousands of years because of their literary prowess in depicting characters, settings, plots in their own
individualistic way. Almost all the great Sanskrit playwrights benefitted from royal patronage or were part of royal households or even
of kings

Some of the recent Sanskrit playwrights include- Manmohan Acharya (Arjuna Pratijnaa, Shrita-kamalam, Pada-pallavam, Divya-
Jayadevam, Pingalaa, Mrtyuh, Sthitaprajnah, Tantra-mahasaktih, Purva-sakuntalam, Uttara sakuntalam and Raavanah); Vidyadhar
Shastri (Purnanandam, Kalidainyam and Durbala Balam) and Prafulla Kumar Mishra (Chitrangada and Karuna), are a living
testimony to the endurance of the genre.

Some of the famous ancient Sanskrit classical playwrights

Bhasa

Bhasa (3rd- 4th CE) was a Sanskrit playwright, preceding Kalidasa, believed to have lived in the city of Ujjain
Bhasa’s works saw the light of the day in 1909 when the play Swapnavasavadatta (Vision of Vasavadatta) was discovered by Pandit
Anandalvar of the Archaeological Survey of Mysore. In 1913 a total of thirteen plays were discovered in an old library in
Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) by T Ganapati Shastri.
Bhasa drew his inspiration from epics such as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Purana and semi-historical legends and figures
Bhasa’s plays do not follow the Natyashastra very strictly, even breaking dramatic conventions. This has led some critics to conclude
that Bhasa’s plays were written before Bharatamnuni’s treatise, others see this as an indication of Bhasa’s poetic experiments and
disregard for dramatic conventions
Swapnavasavadatta is his most famous play that depicts the story of King Udayana, who must choose between marrying for love his
beloved Vasavadatta or the daughter of a neighboring king, Princess Padmavati, for political gain. In the play Bhasa combines
romance with political intrigue creating a new kind of drama. Along with traditional dramas, Bhasa also wrote short plays, one act
plays, and monologues.
Among the many dramatic conventions that Bhasa broke was depicting a tragic ending in his plays. Both Uru-bhanga (Breaking of
the Thighs) and Karnabhara (Karna’s Task), which deal with the stories of Duryodhana and Karna respectively, end on tragic notes.
Unlike others, he treats these characters with sympathy.
Bhasa does not shy away from showing violent acts on stage, which was another Natyashastra convention that he disregards.

Sudraka

Sudraka, literally translated as the little servant, was a poet-king who lived in Ujjain in the 2nd CE
He is well known for his Prakarana play, Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart), which is an extended version of Bhasa’s incomplete
play Charudattam (Charudatta)
The ten act play tells the love story of a Brahmin merchant, Charudatta and a courtesan Vasantasenâ, whose union is thwarted by a
jealous suitor
It offers an interesting and realistic picture of urban society and the complex social structure of that time.
His other plays include Vinavasavadatta, and a Bhana (short one-act monologue), and Padmaprabhritaka

Bhavbhuti

Bhavabhuti, a major dramatist of the later Sanskrit dramatic period, was the court poet of King Yashovarman of Kannauj, in north
India in 8th CE
He too wrote plays based on the Ramayana, such as the Mahaviracharita (Exploits of a Great Hero), which depicts the early life of
Rama and Uttaramcharita (The Latter History of Rama), which shows the final years of Rama’s life as written in the Uttara Kanda of
the Ramayana. Both the plays consist of seven acts written in the Nataka style.
His third drama, Malatimadhava (Malati and Madhava), is a Prakarana play centered on the love story of Malati, the daughter of a
minister and Madhavya, her beloved. The use of the supernatural makes this play a one of a kind drama that skillfully combines
romance with horror
He is known for completely doing away with the vidusaka and thus eliminating the comic element in his plays. Critics see this as a
reflection of his temperament that could not portray humor effectively

Kalidasa

Kalidasa was a Sanskrit playwright belonging to the period of 4th-5th He is believed to be a courtier under Chandragupta II
His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Ramayaṇa, the Mahabharata and the Puraṇas.
His works include notable plays, such as Mālavikāgnimitram (Pertaining to Mâlavikâ and Agnimitra), and Vikramorvasiyam
(Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi). He also wrote epic poems such as Raghuvamsa (Dynasty of Raghu) and Kumârasambhava
(Birth of ‘Kumara’ or Subrahmanya) along with Khandakavyas (minor poems)
However, his most popular and famous work remains the Abhijñâna Shâkuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala).
Folk Theatre
Folk Theatre is a composite art form in India with a fusion of elements from music, dance, pantomime, versification, epic and ballad
recitation, graphic and plastic arts, religion and festival peasantry. The Folk theatre having roots in native culture is embedded in
local identity and social values. Besides providing mass entertainment, it helps Indian society as indigenous tools of interpersonal,
inter-group and inter-village communication for ages.

Folk theatre has been used extensively in India to propagate critical social, political and cultural issues in the form of theatrical
messages to create awareness among the people. As an indigenous form it breaks all kinds of formal barriers of human
communication and appeals directly to the people

Emergence of folk theatre

Historically speaking, it was during the 15th -16th century that the folk theatre emerged forcefully in different regions. It used different
languages, the languages of the regions in which it emerged. Initially these were purely devotional in tenor and typically revolved
around religion, local legends and mythology. Later, with changing times, it became more secular in content and began to focus on
folk stories of romance and valor and biographical accounts of local heroes.

Classification of folk theatres

Indian folk theatre can be broadly divided into two broad categories — religious and secular — giving rise to the Ritual Theatre and
Theatre of Entertainment respectively
The two forms thrived together, mutually influencing each other. Most often the folk and traditional forms are mainly narrative or vocal,
i.e. singing and recitation-based like Ramlila, Rasleela, Nautanki and Swang, without any complicated gestures or movements and
elements of dance.
While most of these theatrical styles have their own unique form dependent on their local customs, they differ from one another in
execution, staging, costume, make-up and acting style, although there are some broad similarities.
The south Indian forms emphasize on dance forms like Kathakali and Krishnattam of Kerala and actually qualify as dance dramas,
while the north Indian forms emphasize on songs, like the Khyal of Rajasthan, the Maach of Madhya Pradesh, the Nautanki of Uttar
Pradesh and the Swang of Punjab. The Jaatra of Bengal, Tamasha of Maharashtra and the Bhavai of Gujarat stress on dialogues in
their execution, the latter two emphasize on comedy and satire.
Puppet theatre also flourished at many places in India-Shadow (Gombeyatta of Karnataka, Ravana Chhaya of Orissa), Glove
(Gopalila of Orissa, Pavai Koothu of Tamil Nadu), Doll (Bommalattam of Tamil Nadu and the Mysore State and Putul Naach of
Bengal) and String puppets (Kathputli of Rajasthan and Sakhi Kundhei of Orissa) are some of the popular forms in vogue.
Dramatic art can also be found in some of the solo forms of Indian classical dance, like Bharat Natyam, Katthak, Odissi and
Mohiniattam, and folk dances like the Gambhira and Purulia Chhau of Bengal, Seraikella Chhau of Bihar and Mayurbhanj Chhau of
Orissa. Dramatic content is even woven into the ritual ceremonies in some areas, particularly those of Kerala, with its Mudiyettu and
Teyyam.

Some of the famous folk theatres in India are:

Bhand Pather

Traditional theatre form of Kashmir

A unique combination of dance, music, and acting
Music is provided with Surnai, Nagaara, and Dhol
It is usually held in open spaces.
There are no predetermined scripts. Innovativeness is also a unique feature of this form of play
These stories commemorate the lives of rishis (Sufi Sages, both Hindus and Muslims). This shows the secular character of this play.

Saang/Swang

It is a folk dance–theatre form in Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh.
It is considered as the most ancient folk theatre form of India
Two important styles of Swang are: Rohtak and Haathras
Nautanki and Tamasha originated from this folk dance theatre
Saang or swang

Nautanki

It is associated with the state of Uttar Pradesh

Famous centers of this theatre form are Kanpur, Lucknow, and Haathras.
Only Men could play a part in this folk dance theatre initially. However, these days even woman are allowed
Gulab Bai of Kanpur is a famous artist of this school
Nautanki

Raasleela

It is based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends

Some believe that it was Nand Das who wrote the initial plays based on the life of Krishna.
This theatre is famous in the regions of Mathura, Vrindavana in Uttar Pradesh, especially during the festivals of Krishna Janmashtami
and Holi
Raasleela

Bhavai

It is a traditional theatre form of Gujarat

The centers of this form are Kutch and Kathiawar.
In this theatre form, both devotional and romantic sentiments are used.
Bhavai

Jatra

This form was born and nurtured in Bengal

It became popular due to Chaitanya Mahaprabhu influence
The earlier form of Jatra was musical. Dialogues were added at a later stage.
Fairs in honor of gods, or religious rituals and ceremonies are also conducted
Jatra

Maach

It is a traditional theatre form of Madhya Pradesh

Songs are given more prominence than the dialogues
The tunes of this theatre form are known as Rangat.
Maach

Bhaona

This theatre form originated in Assam

Practiced in Assam, Bengal, Odisha, Mathura, and Brindavan
The story begins in Sanskrit and then either Brajboli or Assamese is used.
Bhaona

Tamasha

Traditional folk theatre of Maharashtra

The female actress is the chief exponent of dance movements in the play
She is referred to as Murki
Tamasha

Dashavatar

Theatre form of Goa and Konkan regions

The performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu
These performers wear masks of wood and papier-mache
Dashavatar

Krishnattam

It is a folk theatre of Kerala

It came into prominence under the patronage of King Manavada of Calicut
The episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna
Krishnattam

Mudiyettu

Traditional folk theatre of Kerala

It is primarily performed in the Kali temples of Kerala
It depicts the triumph of Goddess Bhadrakali over the Asura Darika.

Koodiyaattam

Traditional theatre form of Kerala

This theatre form is based on Sanskrit theatre traditions
There is more emphasis on hand gestures and eye movements in this theatre form technique
Koodiyaattam

Yakshagana

Traditional theatre form of Karnataka

Districts in which Yakshagana is famous in Karnataka: Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga and western parts of
Chikmagalur districts
It is also famous in Kasaragod district in Kerala
In this theatre form- dance, music, dialogue, costume, make-up, and stage techniques are combined to form a unique style and form
Yakshagana is also referred to as “Aata” or āṭa
‘Badagu thittu’ is a form of Yakshagana that is famous in Tulu Nadu region
It is based on the mythological stories and Puranas
The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata
Yakshagana shows are traditionally presented from dusk to dawn.
Some of the famous Yakshagana artists are- Siddakatte Chennappa Shetty, Chittani Ramachandra Hegde, Naranappa Uppoor,
Balipa Narayana Bhagawat, and Kalinga Navada.
Kabuki, a regional theatre in Japan is much similar in its structure and performance to Yakshagana.
Yakshagana

Therukoothu

The most popular folk drama of Tamil Nadu

It is also followed in Tamil speaking regions of Sri Lanka
It is mostly performed at the time of the annual temple festivals of Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest.
The theme in this street play are usually from Hindu epic Mahabharata, focusing on the character Draupadi
The core of this theatre form is based on eight plays based on the life of Draupadi
Therukoothu

Harikatha

It means ‘Story of the Lord’

It is also known as Harikatha Kaalakshepam in Telugu and Tamil
It is a composite art form composed of storytelling, poetry, music, drama, dance, and philosophy most prevalent in Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Maharashtra, and Karnataka
Here, the storyteller, explores a traditional theme, usually the life of a saint or a story from an Indian epic

Burra Katha

It is an oral storytelling technique performed in villages of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana

The troupe consists of one main performer and two co-performers.
It is a narrative entertainment that consists of prayers, solo drama, dance, songs, poems and jokes
The topic will be either a Hindu mythological story (Jangam Katha) or a contemporary social issue

Folk theatres grew out of the situations, experiences, and analysis of the actors who are themselves villagers. They created their own
dramas out of their own collective analysis of their immediate situation and the deeper structures in which they are embedded. This
art is a genuine expression of the people. Many national and international seminars held on the role of Folk Theatre and
Development suggested the integration of folk Theatre forms with Mass Media for quicker transmission of information as it was
motivating the rural audience.
 Modern Theatre
The modern Indian theatre draws itself from three different traditions i.e. the Sanskrit theatre tradition, folk theatre tradition and the
tradition of western theatres. It is actually the third which can be said to form the basis of the modern Indian theatre.

Origin of modern Indian theatre

Modern Indian theatre started after the advent of the British in India. The British developed Calcutta in the east, Bombay and Surat in
the west and Madras in the south as important centres of trade and administration. They also set up theatres in these cities for their
entertainment.

Levdef, a gentleman of Russian origin, established a theatre by the name of Bengali Theatre. Abridged versions of plays like
Disguise and Love is the Best Doctor were enacted on 21 November 1765, well over 200 years ago. Many rich drama lovers
followed the example of Levdef and started conducting shows in their houses, lawns and gardens. This set in motion a process in
which many theatres were established and plays enacted.

Once general interest developed in the plays, their commercial viewing became inevitable. This led to the formation of theatrical
companies among which the Parsi theatrical companies became most popular. These companies toured various provinces and
made money. But, more significantly, they contributed to the popularization of the plays by writing them in Indian languages.

The first Parsi Theatre company called “Pārsī Nāṭak Maṇḍali” performed their first play Roostum Zabooli and Sohrab in 1853,
followed by King Afrasiab and Rustom Pehlvan and Pādśāh Faredun. By 1860 over 20 Parsi theatre groups were formed in Mumbai.

Salient features associated with Modern Indian theatre are:

Predominant influence of western notions of drama

The Ancient Indian tradition rested on a happy ending of the plays whereas in the western tradition the tragic ending was generally in
vogue
Modern Indian theatre was a product of certain Indian social developments. The processes of modernization and Renaissance in the
Indian society, brought about Socio – cultural changes and these changes were reflected in the field of art and literature
The initial thematic content of the modern Indian plays rested on the historical and the mythological themes. Later the social and
political themes were also given a place. Along with this, Indian theatre soon began incorporating elements from the classical
Sanskrit theatres and folk theatres. This combination brought about many changes in the Indian theatre. For example, plays in the
Parsi theatres gave tremendous importance to music, song and dances which was the influence of the traditional folk plays.
A picture of one of the Parsi theatrical company setup during this time

Fig: A picture of one of the Parsi theatrical company setup during this time

The post independence theatre also incorporated much of the folk and the Sanskrit traditions but, in essence, retained the realist
western tradition. Playwrights like Badal Sarkar, Shambhu Mitra, Vijay Tendulkar, B.V.Karant, Ibrahim Alkazi, Girish Karnad and Utpal
Dutt etc. made new experiments in the theatrical devices

Modern Indian drama and nationalism

Combining nationalism with contemporary social reality was another trend in modern plays. The first famous play of this kind was
written by Dinabandhu Mitra (Neel Darpan) in Bengali. This play was based on the theme of forcible cultivation of indigo inflicted on
the native planters by British imperialism. This play was also indicative of a newly emerging consciousness of nationalism
Dinabandhu Mitra, author of Neel Darpan

Figure: Dinabandhu Mitra, author of Neel Darpan

Assamese plays by Padmanath Gohai Barua (Lochit Barfukan), Lahshmikant Bejbarua (Ckakradhwaj Singhj and Bimlanand Barua
(Sharai Ghat) were also powerful expressions of nationalist feelings. Pavler wrote nationalist plays (Khadrin Verdri and Desheeya
Koti among others) in tamil. In malayalam the nationalist tradition was carried by V.T. Bhattiripad, K. Damodaran, Govindan, Ittasheri,
S.L. Puran, K.T. Muhammad, Bhartendu Harishchandra wrote nationalist satires in hindi (Bharat Durdasha, Bharat Janani and
Andher Nagri) and his tradition was carried to its culmination by the plays of Jai Shankar Prasad.
The Indian intellectuals of the 19th century had grasped the reality that India’s degeneration was not only because of the alien rulers
but also because of certain social evils and superstitions prevalent in the Indian society.
The plays of that period reflect this understanding very well. The playwrights focused their sarcasm on those Indians who were busy in
blindly following the west. The playwrights of this period attacked the caste system, child marriage, dowry, false notions of pride and
prestige, prostitution, untouchability and other social evils in their plays

Post-independence plays

The post independence period witnessed changes in both the style and content of the Indian plays. The Second World War and the
partition of the sub-continent had a profound impact on Indian society. The widely shared optimism of a better tomorrow turned out to
be an illusion after the attainment of independence

The rapid changes brought about by science and industrialization in the society, affected the value systems of the people. These
changes were bound to show up in the world of Indian plays in a variety of ways.

An important change was the increased access, to India, of plays written in foreign languages other than English. Indians were now
getting introduced to the plays of Brecht from Germany, Gogol and Chekhov from Russia and Sartre from France. This influenced
both the writing and staging of the new plays. The new trend is most visible in the plays of Badal Sarkar in Bengali, Vijay Tendulkar in
Marathi and Girish Karnad in Kannada. The new plays displayed receptivity towards new experiments being made in the field. The
earlier trend was to write five act plays, with many scenes in one act. This was reduced to three and finally to one. Many scenes in an
act used to disturb the continuity and interrupt viewer’s pleasure. Therefore, the practice of having many scenes in an act was almost
discontinued

The historical plays of the pre-independence period used to focus on invoking national pride. But the new historical plays attempted
to understand and analyse history from a new angle. The plays of Uttam Barua (Varja Fuleshwari, assamese), P.Lankesh (Sankranti,
kannada), Girish Karnad (Tughlaq, hindi), Vijay Kumar Mishra (Tat Niranjan, oriya), Mohan Rakesh (Ashadh Ka Ek Din, hindi),
Jagdish Chandra Mathur (Pahla Rqja, hindi) and Sant Singh Sekhon (Mohu Sar Na Kai, punjabi) are quite remarkable in this
respect.

Staging of Girish Karnad’s drama- Tughlaq

In the post-independence plays the mythological form was also used to portray complex human emotions and dilemmas. The focus
on social plays continued in the post independence period as well, with a much enlarged canvas to include new social problems and
themes. Now, the increasing economic disparity with resultant frustrations, the plight of women in the society, the despondency of the
dalits and the depressed, Hindu-Muslim relations, the miseries of the rural life, de-humanization of the city life, hypocrisy of the middle
class and the clash between the new and the old values dominated the thematic content of the new social plays.

Personalities Associated with Theatre

Famous Personalities of Modern Indian Theatre
Samsa (Sami Venkatadri Iyer) and Adya Rangachary are well-known Kannada playwrights and dramatists.
Kuppali Venkatappa Puttappa, better known as Kuvempu, is another well-known Karnataka actor-playwright.
Other notable theatre personalities include Tamil Nadu's Subrahmanya Bharathiar and Andhra Pradesh's Veeresalingam Pantulu.
Kerala's Sreekandan Nair, Bharatendu Harishchandra, and Jaishankar Prasad.
BV Karanth is well-known for his contributions to theatre in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh.
KV Subbanna founded the acclaimed NINASAM theatre group and is a Ramon Magsaysay award winner.
Indira Parthasarathy, Girish Karnad, Habib Tanvir, Vijay Tendulkar, Badal Sarkar, Vijaya Mehta, Dharmavir Bharati, Mohan Rakesh,
Chandrashekhar Kambar, and P Lankesh are some other notable modern personalities.

Sculpture Art
Sculpture Art is one of the oldest art forms to exist in India, rooting itself as a widespread practice even in the ancient Indus Valley
Civilisation (c.3300-1300 BCE). In the context of the Indian subcontinent, sculptures remained a significant part of documenting life.
Tracing the history of sculptures from ancient times, one can find that sculptures can act as a good basis for recreating and
understanding our past.

Indian sculpture artists have always been fascinated by figures from mythology and religion as it runs strongly in our culture. Sculptures
of Hindu gods and goddesses, Lord Buddha, figures from Christianity and so on are some of the most common themes in sculpture art
as seen from the ancient times. India also boasts sculptures of animals, birds, and human figures, depicting daily life activities. In the
current art scene, Indian artists experiment with abstract sculpture and sculpture in multimedia form

Difference between sculpture and architecture

The designing and construction of buildings is said to be Architecture while a 3D work of art is considered to be Sculpture. Stone,
wood, glass, metal etc are used in Architecture while a Sculpture is generally made up of a single piece of material.
Sculptures of Harappan Civilisation
Indus Civilization Sculpture

Perhaps, the most beautiful amongst all of Indus valley art is the statue of ‘Dancing girl’
This statue is made of metal and is probably one of the finest examples of the artistic and technical skills of Indus Valley craftsmen
This female figure at the same time shows the fine skills of metal casting and artistic refinery.
The figure is lanky, thin and rhythmic in character
Some very interesting points can be noticed in sculpture:
First of all, while she has been shown without clothes, in her left hand she has bangles till almost her shoulder, very much like we can
find in the tribal people of modern days in Gujarat and Rajasthan region.
Second important thing to notice is the hairstyle. While the other mother goddess figures, which have been found from this
civilization, have a queer and elaborate hair style. This figure shows a much contemporary style.
Also to be noticed is its curious posture. She stands in a resting posture with her right hand at her waist and her left hand on her left
thigh. The casting is perfect. It shows accuracy of the artists in metal casting during that period
There is tremendous monumentality in this particular sculpture. That means, though this is approximately 4 inches in height only, it
seems to be a larger one to us. This is what makes it really unique.

Two male figures – one a torso in red sandstone and the other a bust of a bearded man in steatite are other important evidences of
sculptures from this time period.

Kalibangan and Daimabad have yielded significant examples of metal- cast sculptures.
Apart from metal sculptures, sculptures made from terracotta have also been discovered here. Some well-known examples of these
are Mother Goddess, Toy carts with wheels, whistles, birds and animals etc

Most of the images were used for religious and ritualistic purposes.
The metal casting process was also used for making articles of daily use like utensils.

Sculptures of Mauryan Age

The Maurya period is marked by an impressive progress in the Indian sculpture. Dr. Ananda Coomarswamy differentiates the
Mauryan sculptures into Court art and the Popular Art. The Court art includes the pillars and their capitals while the popular art
includes the works of sculptors such as the Yakshas and Yakshinis. The Yaksha image from Parkam and Yakshini Image from
Besnagar are examples of popular art.

Influence of Religions on Maurya Sculptures

In those times, the religious practices had many dimensions and were not confined to just one particular mode of worship. At the
same time, the Buddhism became the most popular social and religious movement during Maurya era.

Yaksha worship was very popular before and after the advent of Buddhism and it was well assimilated in Buddhism and Jainism.
Thus, the concept of religious sculpture was predominant during the Mauryan Empire.

Influence of Foreign Countries on Maurya Sculpture

It is a well-known fact that the first three Mauryan emperors, Chandragupta, Bindusɑra and Aśoka, maintained friendly relations with
the Hellenic West, particularly with the court of the great Seleucid kings who may be described as successors of Alexander, the Great
and of the Achaemenids of Iran as well.

This may indicate the source of extraneous influences, and an adaptation of Achaemenids models has been recognised in the Edicts
of Aśoka and in the remains of the Mauryan palace in the imperial city of Pɑtaliputra.

But the Mauryan pillars are different from the Achaemenid pillars. The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars thus displaying the carver’s
skills, whereas the Achaemenid pillars are constructed in pieces by a mason.

Maurya Court Art

During the Maurya era, excellent stone sculpture comes into full being all at once. The stone was now used all over the country for
sculpture as well as architecture. Further, bright polish was imparted to the stone surface during Maurya era. Mauryan art is notable
for bright mirror like polish as well as a huge variety of its creations. This art is visible in stone pillars, railings, parasols, capitals,
animal and human sculptures and several other motifs besides.

However, the best specimens of Maurya court art are the huge number of monolithic columns with their majestic animal capitals.
Generally speaking, each column consists of two parts, the shaft and the capital. The shaft, circular in section and slightly tapering, is
made from a single block of stone and has a graceful and elegant proportion. The capital, monolithic like the shaft, was divided into
three parts by an inverted lotus, often called ‘bell’, abacus and a crowning sculpture in the round.

The surface of both the shaft and the capital was chiselled with extraordinary precision and accuracy. The bell was decorated with
highly stylized longitudinal lotus-petals with sharp and thin ridges in the middle and wide and roundish border moldings.

Stone pillars were erected all over the Mauryan Empire with inscriptions engraved on them. The top portion of the pillar was carved
with capital figures such as bull, the lion, the elephant, etc. Every capital figure stands on a square or circular abacus. The abacuses
have been decorated by stylized lotuses.

The important places where the pillars have been found are Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya- Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa and
Sarnath.

These pillars were carved in two types of stone viz.

Spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura.

Buff-coloured fine grained hard sandstone usually with small black spots quarried in the Chunar near Varanasi.
The uniformity of style in the pillar capitals suggests that they were all sculpted by craftsmen from the same region. They were
inscribed with edicts of Ashoka on Dhamma or righteousness. The animal capital as a finely carved life like representation.
Noteworthy are the lion capital of Sarnath, the bull capital of Rampurva and the lion capital of Laurya Nandangarh.

Examples of Maurya Court Art

Lion Capital at Sarnath
The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly known as the Lion Capital, which is now our national symbol, is considered to
be the finest example of Mauryan sculptural tradition.
The capital originally consisted of five component parts:
The shaft, which is broken in many parts now
A lotus bell base
A drum on the bell base with four animals proceeding clockwise
The figures of four majestic lions
The crowning element, Dhammachakra, a large wheel, was also a part of this pillar. However, this wheel is lying in a broken condition
and is displayed in the site museum at Sarnath. Chakras were also made on the circular drum under the feet of the lions.
The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus base has been adopted as the National Emblem of Independent India.
The four voluminous roaring lion figures firmly stand on a circular abacus which is carved with the figures of four animals – a striding
elephant, a galloping horse, a walking bull and a prancing lion. Four lions placed back-to-back face the cardinal directions, indicating
the spread of dharma. These are formal and stylised and are reminiscent of the Persian tradition.

The four lions on the Sarnath pillar originally supported a large chakra, or wheel. The chakra is an important symbol of cosmic order
in Upanishadic thought. In Buddhism, it represents the Dhammachakrapravartana (the first sermon by the Buddha), which has
become a standard symbol of this great historical event in the life of the Buddha.

Four other animals were also shown proceeding clockwise around the drum, suggesting the movement of the wheel of dharma.
Unlike the lions above, these animals are made in a highly naturalistic manner.

The precision with which this capital has been carved shows that the Mauryan sculptors had considerable mastery in the sculptural
techniques.

Pillar at Vaishali
The Asokan pillar at Vaishali is different from the earlier Ashokan pillars because it has only one lion capital. Location of this pillar is
contiguous to the site where a Buddhist monastery and a sacred coronation tank stood. The lion faces north, the direction Buddha
took on his last voyage.

Asoka Pillar at Allahabad

In Allahabad there is a pillar with inscriptions from Ashoka and later inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta and Jehangir. The pillar
is located inside the Allahabad Fort. It is assumed that the pillar was first erected at Kaushambi an ancient town some 30 kilometres
west of Allahabad that was the capital of the Koshala kingdom. The Ashokan inscription is in Brahmi and is dated around 232 BC.

Pillars at Lauriya-Areraj and Lauriya-Nandangarh

The column at Lauriya-Nandangarh, 23 km from Bettiah in West Champaran district, Bihar has single lion capital. The hump and the
hind legs of the lion project beyond the abacus. The pillar at Lauriya-Areraj in East Champaran district, Bihar is devoid of any capital.

Critical evaluation of Maurya Court Art

The most important function of the Mauryan pillars was to impress and over-awe the populace with the power and majesty of its
rulers. This is evident from the compactness of the solid animal figures, their exaggerated forms and their conventional appearances,
also the most imposing stateliness of the columns. But this renders Mauryan court-art to be individualistic in its essential character
and ideology. It lacked deeper roots in the collective social will, taste and preference and was, therefore , destined to have an
isolated and short life, coeval and coexistent with and within the limits of the powerful Mauryan court. That is the reason that Mauryan
court-art, with all its dignified bearing, monumental appearance and civilized quality, forms but a short and isolated chapter of the
history of Indian art.

Maurya Popular Art

The popular art in Maurya period is represented by images of Yakshas and Yakshinis. Yaksha refer to the nature-spirits, usually
benevolent also known as fertility spirits. A yakshini is the female counterpart of the male Yaksha. Both Yaksha and Yakshini attend to
Kubera, the Hindu god of wealth who rules in the mythical Himalayan kingdom of Alaka. Yaksha also refers to one of the Exotic Tribes
of Ancient India. Yakshas and Yakshinis are the caretakers of the natural treasures. They have a prominent place in the Hindu, Jain
and Buddhist literature and have become part of figure representation in Buddhist and Jaina religious monuments.

In India, large statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis, mostly in standing position, have been found at many places such as Patna, Vidisha
and Mathura. Most common element among these images is the polished surface and clear physiognomic details.

Didarganj Yakshini
One of the finest examples of popular Maurya art is the Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna. This is a tall, well built, well-proportioned,
free-standing sculpture in sandstone with a polished surface, reflecting the sophistication in the treatment of form and medium.

The Yakshini holds a chauri (flywhisk) in the right hand whereas the left hand is broken. The image shows sculptor’s sensitivity
towards the round muscular female human body. Folds of muscles are properly rendered. The tightening of garment around the belly
creates the effect of a bulging belly. The lower garment has been rendered with great care. Every fold of the garment on the legs is
shown by protruding lines clinging to the legs, which create somewhat transparent effect. Heaviness in the torso is depicted by heavy
breasts and impressive back.

Elephant sculpture at Dhauli

The rock cut sculpture of Elephant in Dhauli, near Bhubneshwar in Odisha represents the fore-part of an elephant carved over the
Edicts of Aśoka, including the two specially meant for Kalinga.

In the modelling and execution of this elephant figure, one may recognise a note and feeling different from those manifested in the
animal figures surmounting the pillar capitals. It represents a fine delineation of bulky volume and living flesh, natural to that animal,
along with a dignified movement and linear rhythm that have no parallel except in the elephant figure in relief on the abacus of the
Sarnath capital.

Facades of Lomus Rishi Cave

The rock-cut cave carved at Barabar hills near Gaya in Bihar is known as the Lomus Rishi cave. The facade of the cave is decorated
with the semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance. The cave was patronised by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect. The Lomus Rishi cave is
an isolated example of this period.
Jain Sculptures
Jain sculptures were primarily notable for their splendour. The brilliance of the Jain sculptures can be seen from the fine images of
the Jain Tirthankaras. Columned chambers, inner sanctums, domes and pointed spires are the common elements of the Jain
Temples architecture.

Figurines of Jain Art

Jain sculptures are images of Jain Tirthankara. Jain sculptures are an example of Jain art. These figures, also known as
"Tirthankaras" that are the principal focus of Jainism art. They are worshiped by followers of Jainism. The Tirthankara sculptures are
mainly of Lord Parshvanatha, Rishabh Dev or Vardhaman. The highest ideal in Jainism is the wandering and passionless ascetic,
which is why Jains are always depicted as mendicants or yogis. They are portrayed in only two positions: either seated in the lotus
posture (Padmasana) or standing in the exclusively Jain body-abandonment posture (Kayotsarga).

In terms of style, ornament, subsidiary figures, Jain sculpture is indistinguishable from sculpture made for other Indian religious
groups. Movements and innovations within the Jain religious communities are also depicted in sculpture, which proved influential to
members of other religious traditions with which they regularly came in contact. Some features of Jain sculpture are Jain,
unmistakable from imagery associated with other sects and they help one to identify the work as Jain in orientation. They include
representations of the 24 Tirthankaras who are the liberated beings of Jainism. Narrative sequences that are found only in Jain
devotional texts. Most common are scenes from the lives of the Tirthankaras especially Mahavira, Lord Parshwanatha or
Rishavanatha.

Examples of Jain Sculptures

Giant rock-cut statues of Jain Tirthankaras are carved in the Gwalior Fort, Gwalior and Madhya Pradesh. Charans are footprints
exclusive to Jain temples. The charans of Tirthankara Rishabha are present at the Badrinath Temple. Many Jain sculptures are kept
in Government Museum, Chennai.

The Jain sculptures in the following religious places are:

Jain Temple, Jaisalmer
Gomateswara Temple, Mysore
Dharmastala Jain Centre, Karnataka
Jain Mandir, Warangal
Rishabh Deo Temple, Uttar Pradesh
Chaubishi Jain Mandir, Patna
Jain Temples, Rajasthan
Pareshnath Jain Temple, Kolkata
Digambar Jain Lal Temple, Delhi
Taranga Jain Temple, Gujarat
Jain Temples of Madhya Pradesh
Ajit Nath Temple, Mehsana
Bhatkuli Jain Temple, Maharashtra
Digambar Jain Temple, Gujarat
Palitana Jain Temples, Palitana
Jain Temple of Jainimedu, Palakkad
Jain Temples, Madhya Pradesh
Shwetambar Jain Temple, Raipur
Jain Temples of Maharashtra
Mudabidri
Early Jain Vestiges, Tamil Nadu
Jain Temples of Gujarat

Buddhist Sculpture
Buddhist Sculpture

From the second century BCE onwards, various rulers established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire: the Shungas, Kanvas,
Kushanas and Guptas in the north and parts of central India; the Satavahanas, Ikshavaku, Abhiras, Vakatakas in southern and
western India. Incidentally, the period of the second century BCE also marked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects such as the
Vaishnavas and the Saivas.

Some of the prominent examples of the finest sculpture are found at Vidisha, Bharhut (MP), Bodhgaya (Bihar), Jaggayyapeta
(Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (UP), Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha) etc.

Bharhut Sculptures
The sculptures here are tall like the images of Yaksha and Yakshini in the Mauryan period.
In the relief panels depicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality is shown with tilted perspective
At Bharhut, narrative panels are shown with fewer characters but as the time progresses, apart from the main character in the story,
others also start appearing in the picture space.
Availability of the space is utilized to the maximum by the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well as single figures of the
Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown flat clinging to the chest.
There is a general stiffness in the body and arms. But gradually, such visual appearance was modified by making images with deep
carvings, pronounced volume and a very naturalistic representation of human and animal bodies. Sculptures at Bharhut, Bodhgaya,
Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta are good examples.
Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans used the pictorial language very effectively to communicate stories. In one such
narrative. Ex: Queen Mayadevi’s (mother of Siddhartha Gautama) dream, a descending elephant is shown
One main characteristic in all the male images of first–second centuries BCE of Bharhut sculptures is the knotted headgear.

Sanchi Sculptures:
The next phase of sculptural development at Sanchi Stupa-1, Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh (Guntur District) is noteworthy in
the stylistic progression
It has four beautifully decorated toranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka. Sculptures depicting the
normal life have also been depicted here.
Figure compositions are in high relief, filling up the entire space. Depiction of posture gets naturalistic and there is no stiffness in the
body
Heads have considerable projection in the picture space. Rigidity in the contours gets reduced and images are given movement
Carving techniques appear more advanced than Bharhut. Symbols continue to be used representing the Buddha and the Manushi
Buddhas or the past Buddhas
The historical narratives such as the siege of Kushinara, Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of Ashoka to the Ramgrama Stupa are
carved with considerable details.

Gandhara School of Sculpture:

The sculptures tradition of Gandhara was influenced by traditions of Bactria, Parthia and local region
It flourished largely during the Kushan dynasty in the North-West frontier of the country
They used Grey/bluish grey sandstone
Buddhism was the main inspiration behind many of the sculptures
Features of the Gandhara sculptures:

Spiritual Buddha– there is a sense of calmness in the depiction of Buddha

Less ornaments on Buddha
Buddha has been depicted with wavy hair
Large forehead and eyes appear to be closed
The seated Buddha is always shown cross-legged in the traditional Indian way
The Buddha and Bodhisattva figures resemble the Greek God Apollo with broad shoulders, a halo around the head
The physical features such as muscles, nails, hair have been done with great detail.

Mathura School of Sculpture

Spotted sandstone was the preferred medium for depiction of sculptures

There was outside influence of the traditions of Mathura school of sculptures
All 3 religions – Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism were depicted in Mathura style
This school was patronized by Kushana rulers
The local sculptural tradition at Mathura became so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern India
Salient features of this school of sculpture:

The Buddha image at Mathura is modeled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features.
It may be noted that the images of Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their ayudhas (weapons).
There is boldness in carving the large images, the volume of the images is projected out of the picture plane, the faces are round and
smiling, heaviness in the sculptural volume is reduced to relaxed flesh.
The garments of the body are clearly visible and they cover the left shoulder.
Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis, Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities and portrait statues are profusely sculpted.
In the second century CE, images in Mathura get sensual, rotundity increases, they become fleshier.
In the third century CE, treatment of sculptural volume changes by reducing the extreme fleshiness, movement in the posture is shown
by increasing distance between the two legs as well as by using bents in the body posture.
Softness in the surface continues to get refined.
Transparent quality in the robes of the Buddha images is evident
Halo around the head is profusely decorated

Amaravati School of Sculpture:

A Buddhist relic, having features belonging to Amaravati school of Art was unearthed by a group of Indologists on the banks of River
Gundlakamma in Andhra Pradesh.
This form of art originated in the area of Amaravati, AP.
It was patronized by the Satavahanas and later by the Ikshavaku
Prominent places where this style developed are Amravati, Nagarjunikonda, Goli, Ghantasala and Vengi.
Features of this form of sculpture:

The material used in Amaravati art is ‘White marble’

Sculptures were carved in a naturalistic manner. Ex: ‘taming of an elephant by the Buddha’.
Reflects narratives theme based on life of Buddha and Jataka stories
Buddha is depicted both in human as well as in animal form
Both religious and secular imageswere present in this style.
The Amaravati style is more elegant and sophisticated.
The sculptured panels of Amaravati are characterised by delicacy of forms and linear grace.
Numerous scenes of dance and music adorn these reliefs displaying the joy of life.
Gupta Sculpture
The Gupta period may be described as ‘classic’ in the sense of the degree of perfection it achieved – something that was never
achieved before and has seldom been achieved since and in perfect balance and harmony of all elements in style and iconography
also considered as “The Golden Age of Indian Art”.Gupta sculpture seems to belong to a sphere that is entirely different. The Gupta
artist seems to have been working for a higher ideal. A new orientation in the attitude towards art is noticed in the attempt to establish
a closer harmony between art and thought, between the outer forms and the inner intellectual and spiritual conception of the people.
Features of Gupta sculpture

The human figure, taken as the image, is the pivot of Gupta sculpture. A new canon of beauty is evolved leading to the emergence of
a new aesthetic ideal.
This ideal is based upon an explicit understanding of the human body in its inherent softness and suppleness.
The soft and pliant body of the Gupta sculpture with its smooth and shining texture, facilitates free and easy movement
Gupta sculptures are characterized by elaborate draperies, jewellery, etc.
The wet or transparent clinging drapery hence became the fashion of this age. But the sensuous effect of these draperies especially
in the case of female figures was restrained by a conscious moral sense, and nudity as a rule was eliminated from Gupta sculpture.
The magnificent red sandstone image of the Buddha from Mathura is a most remarkable example of Gupta workmanship datable to
the 5th century A.D. The great Master, in all his sublimity, is here shown standing with his right hand in Abhayamudra, assuring
protection, and the left holding the hem of the garment.
The smiling countenance with down-cast eyes is robed in spiritual ecstasy. The robe covering both shoulders is skillfully represented
with delicately covered schematic folds and clings to the body. The head is covered with schematic spiral curls with a central
protuberance and the elaborate halo decorated with concentric bands of graceful ornamentation.

The finished mastery in execution and the majestic serenity of expression of the image of Buddha came to be adopted and locally
modified by Siam, Cambodia, Burma, Java, Central Asia, China and Japan, etc., when these countries adopted the Buddhist
religion.
The image of the standing Buddha is an excellent example of Gupta art in its maturity from Sarnath. Unlike the delicately carved
drapery folds of the Mathura Buddha, only the fringe of the diaphanous robe is here indicated. The perfect execution of the figure
matched by its serene spiritual expression is truly worthy of the sublime being.
Sarnath introduces not only a delicacy and refinement of form but also a relaxed attitude by bending the body in the case of the
standing figure, slightly on its own axis, thus imparting to it a certain litheness and movement in contrast to the columnar rigidity of
similar Mathura works.
The stone carving from the temples at Deogarh and those from the temples of Udayagiri and Ajanta are excellent specimens of figure
sculpture in their decorative setting. The large panel of Sheshashayi Vishnufrom the Deogarh temple, representing the Supreme
being slumbering wakefully on the serpent Ananta, the symbol of eternity, in the interval between the dissolution of the universe and its
new creation, is a magnificent example.

Medieval School of Sculpture

Instead of the classical dignity, sobriety and simplicity, the sculpture is now more and more tending towards ornamentation, creating
highly ornate art objects, with strange and unusual imaginary creatures, such as half-human, half monsters.
The characteristic of this new form of style of art is the difference with classical art in attitude, if not in skill and aptitude. Loveliness
and idealization are still the artist’s passion as they were for artists in the early classical period, but the love of the ornate, decorative
details is now dominant over classic simplicity.

Examples of this form of sculptures during this time:

One of the distinguishing monuments of sculpture during this time is the magnificent prayer hall or Chaitya, at Karle in the Poona
district.
Figure of Vrikshika, or a celestial damsel, from Gyraspur, in Gwalior, standing in a gracefully flexed pose, against a tree.

Pallavas Sculpture:
An artistic movement of great importance flourished under the aegis of the Pallava rulers of Kanchi
Some of the outstanding sculptures that are credited to their patronage are the Mahishasurmardini in relief, Girigovardhana panel,
Arjuna’s penanceor the Descent of the Ganga, Trivikrama Vishnu, Gajalakshmi and Anatasayanam.

In the annals of Indian art, there is perhaps a no better example of the representation of the Elephant than that in the Arjuna’s penance
scene. The celestial world, the temporal world as well as the animal world has been shown with masterly skill.
In all these examples the vigor of the composition is unique. The Pallava style concerns itself with a tall and slender physiognomical
form.
The thin and elongated limbs emphasize the tallness of the figure.
The female figures are much lighter in appearance, with their slender waists, narrow chests and shoulders, smaller breasts, sparse
ornaments and garments and generally submissive attitude. The figure sculpture of the Pallavas is natural in pose and modeling.
A great masterpiece is the carving from Mahabalipuram showing the great goddess Durga engaged in a fierce battle with the buffalo
headed demon aided by their respective armies. Riding on her lion she is rushing at the powerful demon with great courage. He is
moving away, yet watching for a moment to attack.

Later Pallava sculpture shows greater details of workmanship, lighter anatomy and more developed artistic finishing.

Rashtrakutas Sculpture:
In the middle of the 8th century, the Rashtrakutas wrested power from the Chalukyas.
They created the greatest wonder of medieval Indian art in their Kailasa temple at Ellora.
Quarried out of a hill and solid rocks, it is sculptured on a grand scale. The bold and magnificent carving in this temple shows the
Rashtrakuta style of tall and powerfully built figures, reflecting spiritual and physical poise.
The beautiful architectural rock sculpture from Cave No.29 at Ellora shows the marriage of Siva and Parvati.

Siva holding the hand of the bashful Parvati occupies the centre of the composition. To the right Brahma, the creator is actively
engaged in stirring up the flames of the sacred fire. The dignified grace of the divine couple and the gentle solemnity of the occasion
have been portrayed by the sculptor with masterly skill.
Another magnificent sculpture at Ellora is a panel depicting Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa.
The cave shrine at Elephanta is another great monument of the Rashtrakutas, which contains the famous Mahishamurti.
The three heads emanating from one and the same body represent three different aspects of Lord Shiva. The central face with a
calm and dignified appearance shows him as the creator, the one on the left, with a severe look, portrays him as the destroyer and
the third, to the right, with a calm and pacific expression.

Chola Sculptures
The Cholas who succeeded the Pallavas and ruled over South India from the 9th to 13th centuries A.D. created the great temples at
Tanjavur, Gangai Kondo Cholapuram, Darasurama, which are a veritable treasure house of their art.
At the Brihadisvara temple at Tanjavur which is the most mature and majestic of the Chola temples, sculpture, there has attained a
new maturity which is evident in the gracefully modeled contours of the figures, their flexed poses, delicate ornamentation, pleasing
faces and certain freshness, all of which add charm to the work. Chola art not only influenced the art of Ceylon, but it travelled as far
away as Java and Sumatra
A good example of Chola craftsmanship in the 11th century is the relief carving of Siva as The irate god is engaged in a vigorous
dance of fierce ecstasy after having killed the elephant demon, who has given so much trouble to the rishis and his devotees..
The later phase of Chola art, in the 13th century, is illustrated by the sculpture showing Bhudevi or the earth goddess as the younger
consort of Vishnu. She stands in a gracefully flexed attitude on a lotus base holding a lily in her right hand, while the left arm hangs
along her side in
Bronze sculpture tradition under the Cholas
The art reached a high stage of development during this time
The sculptors work during this time are famous for their elegance, sensitive modeling, and balanced tension
Realism and attention to finer details reached its utmost perfection during this time. Ex: Clear demarcation of the areas of the body,
such as the creases between the torso and the stomach, around the navel, sharp edges along the tibiae, a pointed nose, facial
expressions are one of the most noticeable features of this time (Nataraja image).

Chandellas Sculpture
The Chandellas, who ruled from 950 to 1100 A.D., constructed towering temples in central India, like the Kandariya Mahadev temple
at Khajuraho.These were sculpted with human representations of endless variety. The sculptor here preferred the slender taller
figures with a considerable accentuation of linear details.
The art of Khajuraho is a world of beauty. The lovers locked in an embrace which is approximately carved, display a throbbing
passion. Varying moods are brought into relief by a slight change in the smile, a little difference in expression and in the pose.
The sculptures of Khajuraho are such great masterpieces of Indian sculptural art that they can be admired both individually as well as
cumulatively.

Pala Sculptures
Great impetus was given to art under the reign of Pala rulers in Bihar and Bengal during the period 730 to 1110 A.D.
They were Buddhist by faith. They greatly encouraged centres of learning like Nalanda and Vikramasila, where the stupas and
monasteries gave ample scope for the sculptor’s expression of an art which found stimulus in religion.
During this period art reached technical perfection. The Pala Style is marked by slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewellery and
conventional decoration.
Their sculptures from Bihar are somewhat thick set and heavier in their general proportions of limbs than those from Bengal. The
Pala rulers had intimate relations with Java which are evident in- Hindu-Javanese sculpture, and painting of Nepal, Kashmir, Burma
and Thailand.

Some amount of stylization is noticed in the later phase of Pala art, but the tradition is continued under the Sena rulers in the 12th
century until the Islamic rulers overran the country.
An excellent specimen from Mahanad in West Bengal is this lovely figure of the personified river goddess Ganga.She stands
gracefully under a tree, Kalpataru, on a lotus, holding a water-vessel in her hand, symbolizing prosperity and plenty. The ends of her
scarf draped around the arms, trail on either side. She is adorned with profuse jewellery and wears a lower garment reaching to the
ankles. The figure is expressive and the workmanship is of a high order.

Eastern Gangas Sculptures

The kings of the Eastern Ganga dynasty who held sway in Odisha from the 7th to the 13th centuries have left monumental temples at
Bhubaneswar, Puri, and Konarak which are richly embellished with a wealth of sculptures.
By the middle of the 9th century A.D. especially in Odisha, there developed a school of sculpture which, among other things, took
sensuous delight in the lovely forms of women. There are numerous sculptures of beautiful female figures on the face of the walls.
The Odisha templehas many such representations of young and charming creatures with seductive smiles, luxurious hair full of
jewellery etc
Similar lovely women are seen to appear everywhere as if growing out of trees and creepers, themselves like beautiful flowers and
vines, often holding on to branches of trees and standing on floral ornaments. They are nymphs, and spirits that live in trees and
shrubs and animate them.
They are shown decorating the walls and temples in Odisha, which become vast forests of ornamentation, crowded with flowers,
scrolls and elegant geometric design. Most of these lovely ladies stand in various dance poses
The famous temple at Konark was built by Narasimhavarmanin the middle of the 12th century and dedicated to Surya or the sun god.
It has been conceived as a huge stone chariot on immense wheels, dragged by seven rearing horses. Its presiding deity, the sun-god
as seen here, is depicted in the typical north Indian manner, wearing boots, chain-mail armor, holding a lotus in each hand. He is
riding a chariot driven by seven horses. On each side are his two wives, Chhaya and Suvarchasa, and the attendant’s Danda and
Pingla.

On the plinth of the Jagmohana of the temple, at a height of about 50 feet from the ground, are installed colossal celestial musicians
facing in all directions, playing on different musical instruments. These celestial maidens are shown playing the Veena. The massive
proportions and powerful modeling of the figure, and a gentle smile on her face, express a sense of harmonious delight.
Another celestial maiden, similar to the Veena player, is this drummer. They are all in pink coloured sandstone of a rough texture.
These figures are of colossal proportions yet very elegantly and beautifully carved.
Narasimha, the great builder of the Konarak templeis shown here on a swing in his harem, surrounded by beautiful women and
listening to music.
Another scene shows him appreciating literature in an assembly of poets patronized by him.
Yet another shows his tolerance for faiths by presenting him before Siva, Jagannath and Durga. There are several other similar
representations of his life, and Konarak, with its rich sculpture, may be considered a storehouse of 13th-century culture in Odisha.

The image of Surya from the Sun Temple at Konarak drawn by seven rearing horses, one of which fully caparisoned, is of
monumental proportions.
The Odisha artist without giving up the conventional lines of grace and vigor produced images that were faultless in the perfection of
their form and vitality.
The examples of this school have sensuous charm and beauty of form.The Mithuna, or a pair of amorous lovers, glows with the
exuberance characteristic of Odisha art. They have the eternal smile of lovers who are absorbed in each other. In point of time as well
as technique, Odisha art culminates in the famous Sun-temple at Konarak.

Marble Sculptures in Western India

The traditions of the marble sculpture of Gujarat in Western India are seen in the profusion of intricately carved sculptures that
decorate the Jain temples at Mount Abu, Girnar and Palitana.
The beautiful image of the four-armed Vishnu, the Hindu god of preservation, was fashioned in the 13th century A.D. under the
characteristic attributes that is the mace, the discus and conch-shell. The hand which hold the lotus is now lost.
The weapons are again shown as personified attendant figures on the base. On either side are seen the conventional decorative
motifs, and the miniature image of Brahma and Siva, within rectangular niches.
The Dilwara temples at Mount Abuare the outstanding productions of the western school in the Jain tradition. They are not
monuments of architecture, but are sculptural masterpieces, placed one upon the other to fashion one of the sculptural wonders of the
world. The ceiling of the Dilwara temple, especially, is one of the world’s masterpieces of intricate sculptural carvings.

Hoysalas Sculptures

A splendid example of the Hoysala sculptural art is portrayed in the carving showing Lord Krishna holding aloft the mountain
Govardhana to save the inhabitants of Gokul from the wrath of Indra, who let loose torrential rains to teach them a lesson for their
insolence, in paying homage to Mount Govardhana instead of worshipping him. The Mountain with its forest and animal kingdom is
held aloft by the youthful Krishna on his left hand, sheltering the entire population of Gokul, including the cows.

The artist takes delight no more in the depiction of the beauty of the handsome male or the loveliness of the female body.
The human body almost completely disappears under a fantastic mass of decoration and ornamentation which become more
important than the human figure.
In the sculpture of the period showing a woman holding a fly-whisk and other figures, we come to the almost total disappearance of
the body.
The temples they built at Halebidu and Belur look like lacework in stone.The decoration is elaborate, the emphasis being more on
ornamentation than movement or the grace of the human body.
Hoysala sculptures are somewhat squat and short, highly embellished, or almost over-loaded with ornamentation, but yet are
pleasing to behold.

Vijayanagar Empire Sculptures

The last great Hindu Kingdom in South India was Vijayanagara. During this regime, from circa 1336 to 1565 A.D. several beautiful
temples were erected at places like Tadpatri, Hampi, Kanchipuram, etc.
Carving in these temples show the Chola and Chalukyan art traditions. During this period representations in narrative forms of the
Ramayana and Krishna, Bal Lila became favorite themes.
The Vijayanagara emperors caused excellent portraits to be carved by the sculptors to immortalize them in the vicinity of their favorite
deities.
One such fine example is of Krishnadevarayaat one of the Gopuras at Chidambaram. The final flicker of this, however, is seen in the
amazingly virile sculpture in titanic proportions carved by the sculptors of Tirumylnayak, and the Gopuram and the courts of
Meenakshi temple at Madurai.
Bronze sculpture tradition during Vijayanagara rule
During the Vijayanagar period (1336–1565) the ornamentation tended to become more elaborate, interfering with the smooth rhythm
of the body, and the postures became more rigid.
The sculptors in this period have combined the likeness of the facial features with certain elements of idealization. The idealization is
further observed in the manner the physical body is modeled to appear imposing as well as graceful. Ex: life-size standing portrait
statues of Krishnadevaraya found at Tiruppathi

Sculptures of Nayakas of Madurai and Thanjavur

The 17th century was a great period of titanic work under the Nayaka of Madurai and Tanjavur.
During this period the animal motif with fantastic detail as seen in the outstanding sculpture at Srirangam temple in Trichinapallymay
be seen.
Though, stylized, this art is full of vitality.
A pair of rampant, furious horses whose heads support the pillars, are carved with great skill and vigor. The riders are shown in
realistic poses trying to control them. Each sculpture is realistic though the concept is fantastic.

Mughal Sculptures

Though traditions of stone sculptures continued, no major sculpture movement survived under the Mughal and the other
Muhammadan rulers
Under the Muhammadan rulers, a great impetus was given to architecture, but sculptures are rarely found and even those available
are products of local chieftains.
During the British regime, no proper patronage was provided to sculptors and the whole tradition of Indian art almost came to a
standstill.
 Modern Indian Sculpture
The basic characteristics and problems of contemporary Indian Sculpture are very similar to those of contemporary painting.
It began in the academic style, based on mid-Victorian ideas of naturalism and smugness, and was a legacy of the British. This
mannerism was perpetrated in the government art schools and colleges established around the century in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras
and elsewhere.
However, this contemporary style evolved from academism to well-defined non-objectivism.
Contemporary Indian sculpture has not shown either the speed or variety of painting and has not arrived at the logical ‘cul de sac’
which in the case of painting has provided the necessary height and perspective.

Martial Art
Origin:

Martial arts mean “arts concerned with the waging of war”. Various Indian Martial arts have originated from various ancient war skills.

Origin of Martial arts in India

An Indus valley civilization seal shows two men spearing one another in a duel which seems to be centred on a woman. A statue of a
spear thrower was also excavated from an Indus Valley site.
Dhanurveda, a section found in the Vedas (1700 BCE – 1100 BCE) contains references to martial arts
The Mahabharata tells of fighters armed only with daggers besting lions and describes a prolonged battle between Arjuna and Karna
using bows, swords, trees, rocks and fists.
The oldest recorded organized unarmed fighting art in the Indian subcontinent is Malla-yuddha or combat-wrestling, codified into four
forms in the Vedic Period.
The Charanavyuhaauthored by Shaunaka mentions four upaveda (applied Vedas). Included among them are archery (Dhanurveda) and
military sciences (shastrashastra)
A number of Indian fighting styles remain closely connected to yoga, dance and performing arts
Written evidence of martial arts in Southern India dates back to the Sangam literature of about the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century
AD. The Akananuru and Purananuru describe the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and Silambam in the Sangam era.

Various forms of Martial arts in India

Kalaripayattu – Kerala

Kalarippayattu is a famous Indian martial art from the land of attraction Kerala and one of the oldest fighting systems in It is practised in
most of the parts of south India.
A Kalari is the school or training hall where martial arts are taught
It includes strikes, kicks and some weapon-based practised
Footwork patterns are the most important key in this art form
Legend says: Parashuram started this
There is no song or drumming involved with his
Silambam – Tamil Nadu

Silambamis a weapon-based Indian martial art from Tamil Nadu. Every state has it own style of martial arts.
A wide variety of weapons are used in silamban, some of which are not found anywhere else in the Majorly used “Silambam staff” as a
weapon.
Silambam art also used animal movements of the snake, tiger, eagle forms and footwork patterns is play a key role here as
Another part of Silambam is Kuttu varisai, it is the unarmed kind of martial
Associated Legend: This martial art was developed by Lord Muruga (son of Lord Shiva, other name – Kartekeya) & sage Agasthya
Travelled from Tamil Nadu to Malaysia.
Gatka – Punjab

Gatka is weapon-based Indian martial art basically created by the Sikhs of Punjab. Gatka means – “One whose freedom belongs to
race”.
There are many weapons used in Gatka like, Stick, Talwar, kirpan and
The attacking and defense methods are based upon the positions of the hands feet and nature of weapons
It is also displayed during the different celebrations or at fairs in Punjab
Musti Yuddha

It is an unarmed martial art from the oldest city of India “Varanasi”.

The technique used in this martial arts are punches, kicks, knees and elbow
This style is a complete art of physical, mental and spiritual
This art is very rarely visible but was very popular in the middle
It makes proper utilization of punches and elbow strikes; kicks and knee strikes are comparatively less used in Musti Yuddha, as
punches mostly dominate the fight.
Musti Yuddha tournaments were mostly held in Benares on a regular basis, but due to increased agitation and fights amongst the
supporters of the Musti Yuddha boxers, the sport was eventually banned
Malla -Yuddha (South India)

Malla-yuddha is the traditional form of combat-wrestling originating from the Indian

The unarmed type fighting, body to body, that unites taken, throws, levers and which is intended to subdue the opponent on the ground
has very ancient
Malla-yuddha incorporates grappling, joint-breaking, punching, biting, choking and pressure point
It is closely related to Southeast Asian wrestling styles such as naban and is the ancestor of Indian wrestling is described in the 13th
century Malla Purana.
Malla-yuddha is divided into four categories. Each yuddhan is named after Hindu gods and legendary fighters :
Hanumanti – for technical superiority
Jambuvanti – focuses on locking and holding till opponent gives up.
Jarasandhi – breaking limbs and joints
Bhimaseni – focuses on sheer strength
Thang Ta – Manipur

Thang Ta is a popular term for the ancient Manipuri Martial Art also known as HUYEN LALLONG.
“Thang” means “Ta” means spear. Other weapons used are shield and axe.
Manipuri martial arts with swords and spears are strong yet gracefully sophisticated
Huyen Langlon martial art from Manipur consists of two main components, armed combat and unarmed fighting
Sword and spear are the two primary weapons of huyen langlon
It is practised in 3 different ways :
Firstly, ritualistic in nature linked with tantric practices,
Secondly, the mesmerising performance of sword and sword dances and
Thirdly, is the actual technique of fighting
Lathi Khela – West Bengal

Lathi is an ancient armed martial art of India. It also refers to one of the world’s oldest weapons used in martial arts.
Lathi or stick martial arts practised in Punjab and Bengal region of India
Lathi still remains a popular sport in the Indian villages
A practitioner is known as lathial
Cheigi Gadd-ga

One of the oldest martial arts of the northeast Indian state Manipur
Original fighting instrument: sword and a shield
Current modified version: a stick enveloped in soft leather and a shield, also made of leather
Cheibi refers to the stick which has a length of 2 to 5 feet while the shield has a diameter of 1 metre.
Mardani Khel – Maharashtra

Mardani Khel is an armed method of martial art created by the Maratha

This traditional martial art of Maharashtra is practiced in Suitable for hilly regions.
Was popular during the early and later medieval era and during the time of Maratha regime
It is particularly known for its use of the uniquely Indian “pata” (sword) and “vita” (corded lance).
Uses sword mainly & needs rapid movements
Pari Khanda -Bihar

Pari-khandaa style of sword and shield fighting from Bihar. “Pari” means shield & “Khanda” means sword (according to Chhau rulers).
This art is created by the rajputs
Pari-khanda steps and techniques are also used in Chau dance
Inbuan Wrestling (Mizoram)

Inbuan wrestling is a form of wrestling and combat sports that emerged in Mizoram, India
It is believed that Inbuan form of wrestling emerged in the village of Dungtlang in 1750.
It was recognized as a sport after the “Mizo” people migrated from Burma to the Lushai Hills.
The “grappling” techniques are used in this combat form, the main weapon would be the “arms” of the wrestler
Has strict rules prohibiting kicking, stepping out of the circle and bending of the knees
Aim is to lift the opponent off his feet from the ground while strictly adhering to the rules
Catching hold of the belt worn by the wrestlers around the waist; it has to remain tight all through the game
Kuttu Varisai – South India

It is an unarmed Dravidian martial art used to advance athleticism and footwork through yoga, gymanstics, breathing exercises etc
Mainly practised in South India and also popular in the north-eastern part of Sri Lanka and Malaysia
This art was first mentioned in Sangam literature in the first or second century B.C.
Kuttu Varisai means ‘empty hand combat’.
It also uses animal-based sets including snake, eagle, tiger, elephant and monkey
Techniques used: Grappling, striking and locking techniques are used in this art
Thoda – Himachal Pradesh

Thoda name is derived from the round wooden piece attached to the head of an arrow to minimise its lethal potential.
It is a mixture of martial art, sport and culture
It takes place during Baisakhi every year
This martial art relies on a player’s skill of archery and can be dated back to the time of Mahabharata where bows and arrows were
used in the valleys of Kullu and Manali
In the game, there are 2 groups of 500 people each. All of them are not archers but dancers also who came with them to boost the
morale of their respective teams.
The two teams are called Pashis and Saathis, who believed to be the descendants of Pandavas and Kauravas of Mahabharata
Techniques used: Wooden bows, arrows are used
Paikha Akhadha – Odisha

Paikha akhada or paika akhara is an Odia term that means “warrior scholl”.
Served as training schools of the peasant militia in Odisha, eastern India
Used for practising the traditional physical exercises
Performance art with rhythmic movements and weapons being hit in time to the drum
Acrobatic maneuvres and use of the khanda(straight sword), patta(guantlet – sword), sticks and other weapons
Malla Khamb

A traditional Indian sport in which a gymnast performs aerial yoga postures

The word Mallakhamb refers to the pole used in the sport
Three popular versions of Mallakhamba are practised using a sheesham pole, cane, or rope
The name Mallakhambha derives from the terms malla meaning wrestler, and Khamb which means a pole
On April 9, 2013 the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh declared Mallakhambha as the state sport
Vajra – Mushti

Vajra Mushti is a unique Indian martial art that incorporates various techniques of hand-to-hand combat like grappling, wrestling and
striking techniques
Vajra Mushti, which literally means Thunderbolt Fist, is characterised by the utilization of a knuckleduster, a small metal weapon
The knuckleduster, also known as Vajra Mushti, usually made of animal horns, is worn on the knuckles of the fighter
The main objective of this Indian martial art form is to neutralize the opponent and counter his weapon
The weapon is sometimes called Indra-musti which means Indra’s fist
The vajramusti is usually made of ivory or buffalo horn
Bandesh

Bandesh is one of the ancient Indian Martial Arts forms.

It is basically a collection of martial techniques mainly used to disarm and defeat an armed opponent without taking his life
Different types of lock holds are utilised against different kinds of weapons like daggers, swords, long staff etc
In the competition of this ancient martial art, the conqueror is the one who takes the weapon from the other
Sqay – Kashmir

Sqay is a Kashmiri martial arts form of sword-fighting.

Armed sqay makes use of a curved single-edge sword paired with a shield, or one sword in each hand.
Unarmed techniques incorporate kicks, punches, locks and chops. Sqay have different techniques single sword double sword free hand
techniques and lessons of both freehand and sword.
Sqay has two events :
Combat(Loba) – One to one
Artistic event, in artistic there are two events one without music and other is with
The best fighters of sqay in world Arena are from Kashmir.
Saldu – Nicobar

Saldu, a form of wrestling, is one of the prominent sports of the Nicobarese tribe
It does not require a court, only vacant land
The field is divided by a line in the centre, and there are no boundary lines
The number of players is as desired, but each team is to comprise an equal number of players
Usually, a maximum of 20 players are allowed in each team
Kirip – Nicobar

Kirip is an indigenous form of wrestling quite popular with the Nicobarese tribe
In this sport, before the bout begins, wrestlers grip each other from behind with their hands, and this grip is not to be slackened till the
very end of the competition
The wrestler, using various parts of the body, including the leg, tries to thrust the opponent to the ground
If a contestant’s back touches the ground, he is declared the loser
Insu Knawr – Mizoram

Rod pushing sport is an indigenous game of Mizoram, a state in North – East India
A circle of 16 ft diameter with a straight line across the circle at the center is drawn.
Suk or a wooden rod or bamboo rod shall be approximately 8 ft long and 2.5 – 3 inches in diameter
Kathi Samu – Andhra Pradesh

Kathi Samu is one of the ancient martial arts of Andhra Pradesh, practiced by the royal armies
This prestigious martial art employs various kinds of swords
The place where Kathi Samu is performed is known as ‘garidi.’
Stick fight known as ‘vairi’ has an important role in Kothi Samu and it is the prelude to the actual swordfight. The fighting takes place
between two persons brandishing long and curved swords
‘Gareja’ in which a participant holds four swords, two in each hand and ‘Dal Farri Khadga’ are other important aspects of the sword
skills
 Circus
Circus in India

A circus is a company of performers who put on diverse entertainment shows that may include clowns, acrobats, trained animals,
trapeze acts, musicians, dancers, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, magicians, unicyclists, as well as other object manipulation and
stunt-oriented artists.

Modern circus as described by Philip Astley (considered to be the father of Modern circus) started appearing in India since the 1880s.
However, street performances similar to circuses have existed in India since ancient times.

Evolution of Modern India circus in India

In 1879, the Royal Italian Circus by Giuseppe Chiarini toured India.

Vishnupant Chatre bought most of the circus equipment from Chiarini. Within a year, he formed a new circus company called the Great
Indian Circus. This is the first circus company in India.
In 1887 Priyanath Bosefrom Bengal founded the Great Bengal Circus and toured Bengal, India and South East Asia.
On February 2, 1904, the Malabar Grand Circus, the first circus company in Kerala state was inaugurated at Chirakkara under the
leadership of Pariyali Kannan
Great Royal Circus was supposed to have started in 1909
In the year 1920, Baburao Kadam founded the Grand Bombay Circus.
Some of the other important circus established in India at a later point in time are- Gemini circus, Rajkamal circus, Jumbo circus etc.

Circus- A dying art and industry in India

Circus is widely seen as a dangerous profession. So most families, even those who find it difficult to make both ends meet, are
unwilling to send their young ones to join it.
The shoddy working environment and the poor conditions in which its animals were often kept is contributing to the declining trend of
circus in India.
Amongst the common masses, there is a massive drop in popularity of circuses.
Ban of the use of wild animals has crippled the business. Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has
canceled the recognition of all circuses in the country that force wild animals to perform tricks in the name of entertainment.
The amendment made to the Child labour act which prohibited circus companies from employing anyone under the age of 18 has also
affected the industry since training artists at an older age might not yield dividends for the circus companies.
Sustaining oneself as a circus artist in India is also economically unviable.
The pandemic situation has further exacerbated the financial difficulties of the circus companies in India.

Literature
Perhaps no other region in the world has created such a substantial amount of literature about knowledge and wisdom than India. For more
than 300 years, Sanskrit—first in its Vedic form, then in its classical form—dominated India’s literary tradition.

Ancient Indian Literature

The oldest known piece of Indian literature is known as the Rig Veda, which consists of 1028 hymns written in Vedic Sanskrit. Although the
majority of the ancient Indian literary works that have survived are religious texts, it is erroneous to characterise ancient Indian literature
exclusively in terms of religion.

Indian literature spans a variety of literary forms, including epics, songs, dramatic and didactic poetry, narrative and scientific writing, as
well as oral poetry and music. Two ancient Indian epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Prior to the Gupta dynasty, a lot of
secular literary works were produced. During this time, poetry and drama were in their prime.

The principal topics of these works included political events, allegories, comedies, romances, and philosophical issues. In Southern India,
ancient Indian writings were written in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, four Dravidian languages that also established their own
literature and script.

The earliest of these, with literature from the first decades of the Christian era, is Tamil. Three Sangams (meetings of poets and writers)
held at separate eras resulted in this development. Sangam literature frequently explores the topics of politics, love, and war.

Vedic Literature
Between the end of the Indus Valley Civilization and the start of the second urbanisation in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain in 600 BCE,
India’s history is known as the Vedic period, or Vedic age (c. 1500–c. 500 BCE).
When the Vedic literature, which includes the Vedas, was written in the northern Indian subcontinent (1300-900 BCE).
The Vedas are vast collections of religious writings from ancient India that were written in Vedic Sanskrit.
They are the earliest texts in both Sanskrit literature and Hinduism.
It is said that the Vedas were transmitted orally from one generation to the next.
They are frequently referred to as Shruti as a result. The four Vedas are Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda, and Rig Veda.
The mantra text of each Veda is known as a Samhita.
There are two types of Vedic literature:

Shruti Literature
Smriti Literature
Shruti literature– The term “Shruti Literature” refers to the sacred texts, which include the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads
and is derived from the word “Shruti,” which means “to hear.”Since it is canonical, contains revelation, and contains unquestionable truth,
shruti literature is regarded as eternal.

Smriti literature– The word “Smiriti,” which refers to supplementary information that could change over time, literally means “to be
remembered.”Vedanga, Shad Darshana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas, and Upangas are all part of the Smriti literature.

Ramayana And Mahabharata

Two ancient Indian epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
These have been in their current form for millennia and represent the ethnic memory of the Indian people.
They were transmitted orally over the years by singers and storytellers, and they were probably first recorded in the second century BCE.
Generally credited to Maharishi Valmiki is the epic Ramayana.
The 24000 verses that make up the Ramayana are organised into seven Khandas, or volumes.
It’s written in a poetic style with both entertainment and education in mind. It is Rama’s story, and it describes how to achieve the four
Purusharthas of human existence: Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha.
With one million lines, The Mahabharata is the longest poem ever written.
The Itihasa Purana, or Mythical History, is what it is called (because this history is not merely the depiction of events that happened, but
these are the events that will always happen and repeat).
It was written by Vyasa and recounts the succession struggle between the Pandavas and the Kauravs for the crown, weaving together
numerous incidents to create one epic.
In addition to the main story of the fight, a later addendum to the Bhagavad Gita also includes an integrated view of Dharma (performance
of righteous duty in the selfless way of Nishkama Karma).
Puranas
They helped Hinduism develop from the ancient Vedic faith. In Sanskrit, the word “Purana” literally translates as “to resurrect the old.”Most
likely during the third and eleventh centuries AD, the Puranas were written.

The literature of the Puranas is broad and addresses a variety of subjects, including but not limited to:

Cosmology
Genealogy/Medicine
Astronomy
Goddesses and Gods
Grammar
Demigods
Heroes
Sages
They were written in order to show the populace the veracity of the Vedas. The Puranas impart philosophical and theological principles via
well-known folklore and mythological tales.

The Puranas contain numerous tales and anecdotes from India’s religious, social, and cultural past when paired with the Ithihas
(Ramayana and Mahabharata).

Based on the writings of Lomaharshana (a Ved Vyasa), the 18 Upa Puranas

Earlier Buddhist writings

The Buddha’s teachings were rehearsed and approved in the First Council in 483 BC, and then they were divided into the Three Pitakas.
His instructions were recorded in Pali somewhere around 25 BCE.
The earliest Buddhist literature is in Pali. The Sutta Pitaka is a collection of conversations between the Buddha and his followers.
A compendium of rules for monastic organisations is known as the Vinaya Pitaka.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka is a systematised philosophical analysis of monks’ academic and teaching output.
The Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, and Milind Panha, among others, are important Buddhist texts.
The Milindapanho is a compilation of conversations between the Indo-Greek king Menander and the Buddhist Nagasena.
The Jatakas are an important part of early Buddhist literature and are a collection of tales that have been incorporated into many
sculptures.
Ashvaghosha is the author of the Sanskrit book Buddhacharita, which details the Buddha’s life.
Important Indian ancient Sanskrit literary works
Some of the ancient Indian literary works include the following:

Mudrarakshasa
Time period-4th century to the 8th century CE
Author – Visakhadatta
Vishakadatta’s political intrigue Mudrarakshasa, which was written in the sixth century CE, is set in an intriguing era of Indian history. At the
beginning of the play, Chanakya tries to persuade Rakshasa to join his cause so that Chandragupta can have a capable minister on his
side. The name Mudrarakshasa alludes to Rakshasa’s signet ring. It was taken by a spy for Chanakya.
Arthashastra
Time period-2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE
Author-Kautilya
An ancient Indian text written in Sanskrit on statecraft, political science, economics, and military strategy is known as the Arthashastra. The
Arthashastra is a text on politics, economics, military strategy, governmental function, and social organisation that is attributed to the
philosopher and prime minister Kautilya (also known as Chanakya).
Malavikagnimitram
Time period-5th century
Author-Kalidasa
Kalidasa wrote the Sanskrit play Malavikagnimitram.It is his first play, and it is based on a number of incidents that took place under
Pushyamitra Shunga. The tale of Agnimitra, the Shunga Emperor in Vidisha, and his love for the lovely handmaiden of his chief queen is
told in Malavikagnimitram.
Vikramorvasiyam
Time period-5th century CE
Author-Kalidasa
In the fifth century CE, Kalidasa wrote the play Vikramorvasiyam.The plot centres on a human who develops feelings for a celestial girl. The
piece is renowned for a “crazy scene” in which the bereaved monarch wanders through a beautiful forest while apostrophizing different
flowers and trees as if they were his love. One interpretation states that the term “Vikrama” in the title refers to Vikramaditya, the patron
king of Kalidasa.
Raghuvamsa
Time period-5th century CE
Author-Kalidasa
The great poet Kalidasa created the literary masterpiece Raghuvamsa. The drama’s creator, Raghuvamsa Kalidasa, is honoured. The
drama centres on Lord Rama’s ancestors, descendants, and the legendary warrior Raghu. The heroism and power of the legendary
warrior Raghu are major themes of Raghuvamsam. It chronicles the lives of some of India’s greatest military rulers. Lord Rama is without a
doubt the most well-known of them all, as his life’s story was preserved in the ancient epic Ramayana.
Mricchakatika
Time period – 5th century CE
Author-Sudraka
Mricchakatika is a drama that takes place during the rule of King Plaka of the Pradyota dynasty in the historic city of Ujjayanai, India.
Vasantasena is a wealthy courtesan or nagarvadhu who falls in love with Charudatta, a noble but poor young Brahmin. The play stands out
among the existing Sanskrit plays for concentrating on a hypothetical situation rather than a classic tale or legend.
Kiratarjuniya
Time period-6th century
Author-Bharavi
The epic poem Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi is regarded as the most potent piece of Sanskrit literature. In eighteen cantos, Lord Shiva’s battle
with Arjuna (who took the form of a kirata, or “mountain-dwelling hunter”) at Indrakeeladri Hills near Vijayawada is described. It is one of the
three main Sanskrit mahakavyas, or great epics, together with the Naisadhacarita and the Shishupala Vadha.
Sisupalavadha
Time period- 7th or 8th century
Author- Magha
Magha created the Shishupala Vadha, a masterwork of classical Sanskrit poetry, in the 7th or 8th century (kavya). This Sanskrit poem, or
kavya, is based on one of the epics, specifically the Mahabharata. Lord Krishna is enraged by Shishupala, the king of the Chedis in central
India after he insults him repeatedly in an assembly. Shishupala is then killed.
Kamasutra
Time period-400 BCE to 300 CE
Author-Vatsyayana
The Kamasutra stands out among Sanskrit literature for having a nearly complete disregard for caste and class (varna) (jati). The writing
style combines prose with poetry in the anustubh metre. The literature makes reference to the Purusharthas, or acceptable life goals, which
are defined as desire, sexuality, and emotional fulfilment. The chapters of the book cover a variety of topics, including courtship, finding a
partner, flirting, and maintaining authority in marriage.
Sangam Literature
Around the third century B.C. to the third century A.D., South India (the region south of the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers) saw the
Sangam Period.
Four Dravidian languages—Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam—evolved their own literature and script and were used to transcribe
ancient Indian manuscripts in Southern India.
The best work was published in anthologies, which were censored by distinguished thinkers who congregated at the sangams.
These literary works served as the earliest illustrations of Dravidian literature.
The earliest of them, Tamil, has literature that dates back to the very beginning of the Christian era.
This developed throughout the period of three Sangams, which were gatherings of poets and scribes that took place at various times.
Politics, love, and war are all common themes in Sangam literature.
Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, and Tolkappiyam are two significant works from the era.
The most well-known author of our time is Thiruvalluvar, who wrote Kural, a book that touches on many facets of life and religion.
Elango Adigal penned Silappathikaram, and Sittalai Sattanar wrote Manimegalai, the two sagas.
Additionally, they provide insightful information on Sangam politics and society.
Importance of Ancient literary works
There is a great deal more to understand and absorb from ancient Indian literature than only the Vedas and epics.
Ancient literature also explains the Dharmashastras, which define a person’s obligations and describe how a person should develop as a
character. Shastras encompassed mathematics and science.
Kautilya’s book Arthashastra, written in Sanskrit, discusses economic and governmental policy.
The popularity of Buddhist literature written in the Pali language also increased. It includes works of Buddhist literature like poetry,
philosophy, and some grammar.
Ancient Indian literature is both beautiful and challenging to read and understand.
The formation of a person’s character and the quest for happiness are both facilitated by the Vedas, Shastras, and Upanishads.
The primary subjects of old Sanskrit poets included love, nature, panegyric, moralising, and narrative.
The ancient poets spoke passionately of physical love when it came to love; they saw nature in connection to man rather than for its own
sake.
The Sanskrit Kavya reaches a level of quality and perfection unmatched in Kalidasa’s literature.

Conclusion
In its broadest sense, Indian literature encompasses both religious and commonplace writing, epic and lyric poetry, dramatic and didactic
poetry, narrative and academic prose, as well as oral poetry and music. There is perhaps no other region of the world that has produced
such a vast array of knowledge and wisdom books. Indian literature from the past is both beautiful and challenging to read and
comprehend.

Indian Literature

Indian Literature refers to the literature produced on the Indian subcontinent. The earliest works of Indian Literature were orally transmitted.
Sanskrit literature begins with the Rig Veda. The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabarata appeared towards the end of the the first
millennium BCE. Classical Sanskrit literature, Tamil Sangam Literature and Pali Literature flourished in the first few centuries of the first
millennium CE. Literature in Kannada and Telugu appeared in the 9th and 11th Centuries respectively. Later Literature in Marathi,
Bengali, Hindi, Persian, Urdu began to appear.

Assamese Literature

Though the origin of Assamese language may be traced in the 7th century, its literary tradition started in the 13th century with the advent of
the Vaishnava founder in Assam, Shanker Dev (1449-1568) who composed ' creative drama, epic and songs. The tradition of fiction
novel writing was started in the 19th century by Padnath Gohai Barua and Rajnikant Bardolai. Some of the famous novelists of this phase
were Dandinath Kalit, Devchandra Ta lukdar, Beena Barua who are still remembered. In the field of prose, Virendra Bhattacharya (1924
-1997) bagged the prestigious Gyanpith award. Again in year 2000, Indira Goswami was given the Gyanpith award. The most famous
modern Assamese writers are Indira Goswami, Nirupama Bargohain, Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya, Homen Borgohain, Bhabendra
Nath Saikia, Amulya Barua, Atul Chandra Hazarika, Nalini Bala Devi, Sharma Pujari, Roindra Bora etc.

Bengali Literature

During the primary stage of its development, the Bengali literature followed the Nath School of thought and romanticism of Radha Krishna.
The tradition of modernity in Indian languages emerged first in Bengali literature because the Britishers first came there and infused
English thought with the Bengali. The Benga liliterature got internat ional recognition when Gitanjali of Rabindranath Tagore was awarded
Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. Other famous Indian Bengali writers were Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Bankim Chandra Chattopa
dhyay and Michael Madhasudan Dutt.

Bodo

Bodo is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Bodo people of North-Eastern India and Nepal. It is a rich language, it has to its credit
large number of books on poetry, drama, short story, novel, biography, travelogue, children’s literature and literary criticism. After the
inclusion of Bodo language in the Eighth Schedule as a 22nd official language in 2003, noted Bodo literati, Mangal Singh Hajowary was
awarded the coveted; Sahitya Akademi Award for his "Jiuni Mwgthang Brsombi Arw Aroj" for year 2005.

Kannada Literature

Kannada is one of the important part of Indian literature and even during the fifth century, it was considered well developed. It is very close
to the Sanskrit. A revolutionary change in the Kannada literature was brought by Basveshwar who contributed a lot in prose writing
which was also adopted by Telugu. The prominent authors of the cultural Renaissance period were B.M. Shri Kantya, M. Govinda Pandey,
K.V. Puttapa and D.R.Bandre. Putt apa and Ba ndre have been awarded Gyanpith award. Girish Karnad is the famous dramatist of this
phase. The fiction Sanskar of U.R,. Anantmurthi has also bagged Gyanpith award. Works of Kannada literature have recieved seven
Gyanpith awards which is the highest number awarded for the literature in any Indian Language.

Konkani

Konkani is very close to Marathi and Hindi. The Portuguese impact may be easily traced in most of the literary work of Konkani. The
modern phase in the Konkani started in 19th century during which Shomaya Goyambay, B. Barker, R.B. Pandit and Sar Desai were the
chief authors. The prominent Konkani novelist are Reginaldo, Fernandese, M. Sar Desai and B.J.P. Saldhana.

Maithili Literature

Maithili is chiefly spoken in the Mithilanchal region of Bihar. It is the second State language of Bihar. In the 14th century, Jyotishwar
enriched the literature in a holistic way. His work Dhurt Sama-gam is very popular in Maithili Vidyapati was another founding father of
Maithili. He was the court poet of Mithilanchal under King Shiv Narayan. His poetic works and songs are full of devotion to the God Shiva.
He opted the theme of love, beauty and separation for his literary work. He is also very popular in Hindi and Bengali. In the 20th century,
Baba Nagarjun, Ramanand Renu etc. contributed in the field of prose writing. The Graduate Putauh & Kanyadan of Hari Mohan Jha are
very popular.

Manipuri Literature

The history of Manipuri Literature trace back to thousand of years with florish of its civilization. Manipuri is a language of Tibeto- Burmen
family and particularly spoke in some estern states . The literature is greatly influenced by the folk literary tradition. Most of the early
literary works found in Manipuri literature were in poetry and prose. Some of the books were written with combination of both the prose
and poetry. Hija Harao is an epic of ornamental style. Ram - No Gaya is the another popular work based on the death of Ram.

Marathi Literature

The first phase is the Yadav period (1189 -1320) which was basically a period of poetry writing; Viveksindhu of Nathpanthi Mukundraj was
the greatest work of this period. Bhavarth Ramayan was composed by Eknath. During the period of Marathas (1600-1700), Christian
Missionary of Goa contributed a lot. Father Cofens wrote Krist Puran. During this period Tukaram and Guru Ram Das emerged. During
the Peshwa period (1700-1800), new literary trends were established, Krishna Dayanarv and Sridhar were the chief poets of this period.
In 1840, the first Marathi daily Digdarshan was started which was later on, followed by Darpan. During this modern phase,
Nibandhamala of Chiplunker, biographical work of N.C. Kelker and several novels of Hari Narayan Amte and V.S. Khandekar published
which became very popular. Vijay Tendul akar is known for his dramas , Sakharam Bainder and Ghasi Ram Kotwal.

Malayalam Literature

The primary Malayalam literary tradition consists of three streams of thought in its composition. The first is the Pach Malayam stream,
which consists of folk song and folk story. The second is the Tamil stream, during which the Ramayana like composition were composed
and third is the Sanskritic stream, during which refined literary compositions were composed. In the 15 th century, Krishna gatha was
composed by Cherushasheri Nambudri. In the 16th century Ezhuthachan compos ed Adhyatma Ramayana Killipattu, Sree Maha Bharatam
Killipattu and Bhagavatham Killipattu. The poetic works Ramnattam of Kottarakara Thampuran, Bakvadham, Nivat hakavaju Kalkeya
vadam, Kirmeerava dham, Kalyanas owgandhikam of Kottayathu Thampuran, Nalacharitam of Unnayi variyar etc. also become popular.
Several noted works were written during the 19th century, but it was in the 20th century the Malayalam literary movement came to
prominence. Malayalam literature flourished under various genres and today it is a fully developed part of Indian literature.

Nepali Literature

Nepali is the language of Indo-European family and it follows Devanagri script. It is also very close to Hindi, Maithili and Bengali. In the 18th
century, Nepalese literature came in light with the publication of the works of Subnand Das, Shalai Ballav Aryan and Udayanand. Sanskrit-
works were generally translated into Nepali. Krishna Charitha, first epic in Nepali, was composed by Vasant Sharma. In the 20th century,
Mitrasen, Moti Ram Bhatt, Lekhnath and Balkrishna Sharma contributed a lot in the field of prose writing. Some popular novelist are
Pratiman Lama, Rudraraj Pandey, Shiv Kumar Rai, Subhas Ghising etc. Balkrishna Sharma and Aryali are the popular dramatist.

Oriya Literature

Oriya has a rich literary heritage dating back to the 13th century. Sarala Dasa who lived in th 14th century is known as the Vyasa of Orissa.
He translated the Mahabharta into Oriya. Oriya basically originated from the Magadhi dialect and it is very close to the Assamese. Sharla
Das, Balram Das, Jagrmath Das, Yashwant Das etc. contributed, a lot to this devotional and cultic tradition. Fakir Mohan Senapati is
considered as the modern and popular architect of Oriya literature. He is known for his novel Galp- Salp and Chhamana Aatha Guntha.
The epic Mahayatra of Radhanath Rath is widely popular. In 1993, Sitakant Mahapatra was awarded Gyanpith award. Manoj Das,
Ramakanta Rath,Jagadish Mohanty, Sarojini Sahoo, Pratibha Satpathy, Padmaj Pal, Binapani Mohanty are few names who made the
Oriya literature and Oriya language work.

Kashmiri Literature

The Kashmiri languages and literature is greatly influenced by the Persian and Sanskrit. The first literary works in Kashmiri is Tantrasar of
Abhinav Gupta whi ch was composed dur ing the 11th century. The modern phase in Kashmiri literature started when a large number of
Urdu poets began to start writing in Kashmiri. Prominent among them are Mahjur, Akhatar Moinuddin, Mohammad Amin Kamil and Agha
Shahid Ali. Rehman Rahi got the 2004, Gyanpith award.

Gujarati Literature

Gujarati Literature’s history may be traced to the 10 00 AD. Si nce then li tera ture has flourished till date. During the 13th century and its
primary stage of development, Gujarati literature followed the romanticism in their work. Padam, Rajshekhar and Jaishekhar composed
romantic prose in Gujarati. Modernism in Gujarati is visible in the fiction, Koran Chela of Narmod Shanker. In 1985, Pannalal Patel was
honoured with Gyanpith award. Well known laureats of Gujarai literature are Hemachandracharya, Narsinh Mehta, Mirabai, Akho,
Premanand Bhatt, Dayram, Narmad, Umashankar Joshi, Pannalal Patel etc.

Punjabi Literature

The history of Punjabi Literature starts with advent of Aryan in Punjab. The Punjab literary tradition is generally conceived to commence
with Fariduddin Ganjshakar. His mostly spiritual and devotional verse were complied after his death in the Adi Granth. The Janamsakhis,
stories on the life and legend of Guru Nanak are early examples of Punjabi prose literature. Sufi poetry developed under Shah Hussain,
Sultan Babu, Shah Sharaf, Ali Haider and Bulleh Shah. The Victorian novel, Elizabethan drama, free verse and Modernism enter ed
Punjabi Literature through the introduction of Brit ish education during colonial rule.

Tamil Literature

It is the language of Dravida family, the origin, of which may be traced around 500 B.C. It is very ancient as well as modern. At the primary
stage Tolkapiyam, a grammar was published. This period (500 B.C.-200 B.C.) is known as the Sangam period. Tirukural of Tiruvallure is
still very popular. As far as devotional literary work is concerned, the Ramayana of Kamban got wide popularity. Manimekhale and
Shilappadikaram are the other prominent epics. The trends of modernisation, patriotism and consciousness in Tamil literature started with
the works of Subrahamanyam Bharthi. He inspired thousands of youths through his literary works. The other prominent novelists are Rajan
Ayyar, Madhavaiya, Pudumaipitan, K.P. Rajgopalan and Kalki Krishnamurti. The chief architect of prose composition are
Jayakantan,Neela Padamnabhan, Sunderamswami, Indira Parthsarthi etc.

Telugu Literature

The origin of this language is traced to the llth century. The period between 11th to 15th century is consi dered as the period of
translation. In the 16th century. The poet, Srinath who composed Shreengar Naishadham was widely acclaimed.Gona Ganna Reddy is
considered as the Tulsidas of Telugu. His Rangnath Ramayana became very popular. Patana, Tikkanna and Gauranna were the other
religious poets. The period of 16th and 17th centuries is considered as the golden age in the Telugu literature. 19th century is considered
as the period of Renaissance in Telugu literature.

Santhali Literature

Santhali language is classified under the Munda sub-group of the Austric family. The Santhali speaking population is spread across
Jharkhand, West bengal, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Assam, Tripura, and even Nepal, Bangladesh, Tibet and Burma. After a long
struggle, the Santhali language was incorporated into the 8th Schedule of the Indian Constitution or. 22 December, 2003. It is believed that
the Santhali literature has its beginning in the 14th century. The first ever book in Santhali literature was published in 1852. It was written by
Reverend J. Phillips, titled " An Introduction to the Santhali language". The first real work by a Santhali writer was a translation of R.
Corstairs 'Harma's Village' by R.P.K. Rapaj and was titled 'Harmawah Ato'. The first collection of poems that was printed was that of Paul
Jujhar Soren titled 'Baha Dalwak'. Pt . Ra ghunat h Mur mu, N ar a yan Sor en (Toresutam), Aditya Mitra (Santhali), Babulal Murmu
(Adivasi) are some of the prominent Santhali literary figures. Writers like Doman Sahu 'Samir', Basudev Besra and Bhagwat Murmu gave
valuable contributions to this literature. Recently, Jadumani Besra became the first Santhali writer to be awarded the prestigious Sahitya
Akademi Puraskar.

Sanskrit Literature

The origin of Sanskrit language is traced during the 1500 B.C. to 1200 B.C. The Ashthadhayi of Panini, Ramayana of Valmiki,
Mahabharata of Vyas etc. were composed during early times. The Panchatantra of Vishnu Sharma , Budhacharitra of Ashwaghosh and
Bodhimatiakavya of Saundaranand are other famous works of this period. Meghdutam, Kumar sambhav and Raghuva nsham of Kalidas
are still very popular. His famous drama, Abhigyan Shakuntalam got world wide r ecogni t i on. Ma l vika gni mi tr a and
Vikramorvshiyam are the other famous dramas of Kalidas. Ashwaghosh and Bhasa started the dramatical composition in Sanskrit.
Pratiyogandharayan and Pratibhanatkam are very popular dramas of Bhasa. Vishakhadutta, Harsha, Bhavbhuti, Bodhayan and
Rajshekhar were the other prominent dramatists. The ancient book on Ayurveda such as Rasraj Mahodadhi, Charakshamhita, Yog
Ratnakar etc. were composed in Sanskrit. Algebra of Aryabhatta and "Lilawati" of Bhashkaracharya were also composed in Sanskrit.

Sindhi Literature

The history of its origin may be traced in a 13th century. Gahu is considered as a very ancient work of Sindhi which follow the t heme of
Roma nt i cis m. In Sindhi,like Sanskrit, the primary poetic composition followed the oral tradition. Pir Saduddin (1290 - 1551) was the
chief poet who composed religious and devotional poetry. The famous sufi poet of the Sindhi is BajKajan (1465-1551). From the 17th
century, this literature proceeds towards modernism. Rasalo Sandesh of Shah Abdul Latif is a popular work. Some of the other known
authors are Sahay, Chairai Sami, Dalpat, Gulmohammad, Imtiaz Aadil Soomro etc. Lal Shahbaz Oalardar was famous for his different
works.

Urdu Literature

The literary trends of Urdu may be traced in the 13th century especially in the Muslim courts and administration. The prominent authors of
Southern Urdu are Shekh Ganjus IIm, Khawaja Banda Nawaz, Mukini and Ahmad Aziz. Miratul Aashikeen of Banda Nawaz is still recited in
a very voracious tone. In 17th century, Mullah Vajhi composed Kutub Mustari and Anayokti Sabras. The trend of Gazal writing was started
by Amir Khusro, Vali, Kutub Shah etc. The credit of starting the trend of modernism in Urdu goes to Sir Saiyad Ahmad Khan. Mir Hasan
and Mir Taqi Mir also contributed a lot. The Gul-i-Nagma of Raghupati Sahay Firak Gorakhpuri got Gyanpith award. Premchandra,
Nazeer Ahamad etc. are the promi nent prose writers.The popular dramatist are Banarsi, Talib Hassan and Lakhnavi. In 1990, Aag Ka
Dariya of Kuratul- aim Haider got Gyanpith award.

Hindi Literature

According to Acharya Ram Chandra Shukla, the entire history of the Hindi literature may be understood by dividing it into three major
phases. The first is called Virgatha or "Aadikal" (1050-1375) during which the composition of court poets became very popular. Some of
the best compositions are Prithiviraj Raso, Parimal Raso, Hamir Raso, Beesaldev Raso etc. Chandbardai, Sridhar and Madhukar were
the popular poets. The second phase or period is known as "Bhakti Kal" (1375-1700) during whi ch most of the literary works were
composed in devotion or respect to God especially Ram and Krishna. Sakhi, Sabad and Rasal of Kabir are still alive. Dadu Raidas,
Nanak, Maluketc. were the prominent authors. Ramcharitramanas, Vinay Patrika, Kavitawali and Hanumanbahu etc. of Tulsidas are
popularly known works. The third phase is known as "Ritikal" (1700-1900). By this time, the Hindi literary tradition became very matured
and ornamental literary composition had already made its departure along with romanticism. Ramachandrika of Kesavdas b eca me very
popular. Bihari, Jaswant , Padmakar etc. were the prominent poets of this time.

The tradition of modernity in Hindi started in the late 19th century. In 1826 Udant Martand, a Hindi weekly was st ar ted. Bha rt endu
Harischandra wrote Premchandrika and Satya Harischandra (drama) which became very popular. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi started
Sarswatipatrika in 1930. In the field of novel writing, Devkinandan Khatri, Srinivas Das and Premchandra contributed a lot. Jayshankar
Prasad, Bhagwati Charan Verma and Vrindawan Lal Verma are known figures. Mahadevi Verma, Nirala and Prasad were the prominent
mystic (Chhayavadi) poets.

English Literature

Rabindranath Tagore was the first Asian writer to win the Nobel Prize for Literature(1913) . Tagore represents a happy combination of the
ancient Indian tradition and the new European consciousness. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for his poem entitled Gitanjali. His other
known works are Gora, Chare Baire and Galpa Guchchha. Mulka Raj Anand's r eputati on was first established by his first two novels ,
Untouchable (1935) , which gives an account of "a day in life" of a sweeper, and Coolie (1936), which follows the fortunes of a peasant
boy uprooted from the land. His trilogy, The Village (1939), Across The Black Waters (1940) and The Sword and the Sickle (1942), is an
epic account of the gradual growth of the protagonist's revolutionary consciousness. Raja Rao's first novel Kanthapura (1938) is his most
straight forward work. It gives an account of how her village' s revolt against a domineering plant ation owner comes to be influenced the
Gandhian ideal of non-violence. Rao's major work The Serpent and the Rope (1960) is regarded by some Indian critics as the most
important Indian novel in English to have appeared to date. Rao has also published the short novels The Cat and Shakespeare (1965) and
Comrade Kirillov (1976). Nirad C. Chaudhari is being regarded as the most controver sial of Indian writers in English. He emerged on the
scene with his book The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian (1951). When he visited England, he recorded his experiences in A
Passage to England (1959). In The Continent of Circe (1965) he puts forward the thesis that the Aryan settlers of India became enfeebled
by the climate of North India. He has also published To Live or not to Live (1970) and a second volume of autob iography, Thy Hand, Great
Anarch (1987). R.K. Narayan's early novels include the triology Swami and Friends (1935), The Bachelor of Arts (1937) and The English
Teacher (1945). The novels of his middle per i od r epr es ent his b es t wor ks ; t hes e include Mr. Sampath (1949), The Financial Expert
(1952), The Guide (1958), The Man- Eater of Malgudi (1961) and The Sweet- Vendor (1967) . They explore conflicts between traditional
Hindu values and western in cursions into the society. Narayan's more recent novels include The Painter of Signs(1976) , A Tiger for
Malgudi (1983) and Talkative Man (1986). He has also published several volumes of short stories, including An Astrologer's Day (1947)
and Lawley Road (1956).

Vikram Seth's first novel, A 'Suitable Boy has made him the most hyped-up first-time novelist in the history of Indian literature. The Golden
Gate, a novel in verse had hit the bestsellers' lists in 1986-87. This was followed by three collections of verses : The Humble
Administrator's Garden, All You Who Sleep Tonight and Beastly Tales From Here and There.

Salman Rushdie won the 1981 Booker Prize for Midnight's Children (1981). The Shame (1983) approaches politicalevents in Pakistan. He
has also published Grimus (1975), a science fiction novel, and The Jaguar Smile (1987), a journal about wartorn Nicargua and of course,
the banned book - The Satanic Verses. He was declared the writer of the millennium.

Anita Desai has written Fire in the Mountains (1977). Clear Light of Day (1980) and The Village by the Sea (1982), Cry the Peacock
(1963), Bye-Bye Black Bird (1971) and In Custody (1984). Her subtleuno stentatious prose and her sensitive evocation of the inner lives of
her characters make her one of the finest talents at work in the Indian novel.
Architecture
Indus Civilization
Indus valley civilization is the earliest known culture of the Indian subcontinent. It developed primarily during the Chalcolithic period
(3300-1300 BCE). Most of the sites belonging to this period have been excavated from modern day- India and Pakistan.

Harappa and Mohenjodaro were the two great cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, emerging around 2600 BCE along the Indus River
Valley in the Sindh and Punjab provinces of Pakistan. Their discovery and excavation in the 19th and 20th centuries provided important
archaeological data regarding the civilization’s architecture, technology, art, trade, transportation, writing, and religion.

Some of other important archaeological sites belonging to this period are- Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the
Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three in Gujarat. Amongst the excavated sites, Rakhigarhi (It is a
village located in Haryana) is the largest IVC site.

Figure: Some discoveries made at the Rakhigarhi site

Bhirrana is now considered the oldest discovered IVC site, with some of the oldest mounds dating back to 7500 B.C.E. Previously,
Mehargarh, in the Pakistani province of Baluchistan, dating from around 7000 B.C.E. was considered the oldest IVC site.

Indus Civilization architecture

Some of the important features associated with IV architecture

The style was indigenous without any apparent foreign influence

The buildings were constructed purely from an utilitarian perspective rather than aesthetic
The development of architecture and sculpture often does not happen in isolation. However, Indus valley architecture is an exception to
this
The architectural practices evolved from local cultures that had roots extending back thousands of years to the earliest farming and
pastoral communities. Ex: They constructed their houses on immense platforms of mud bricks.
The crowning jewel of the IV architecture happens to be the sophistication achieving with its town planning. No other contemporary
civilization could be boast of such sophistication
Town planning: Salient features
Utilitarian perspective:
The Harappans were the first who gave the idea of the welfare of workers for the first time by establishing separate worker’s quarters
which has now become a necessity in a welfare state
Fortification was one of the common features across the IV sites. This fortification was primarily constructed for providing security to the
citizens from any attacks
Layout of Harappan cities

The town planning of Harappan cities were not quite similar. But same pattern was followed at most of the cities. The fortification wall,
the citadel and lower town, streets and lanes, drainage system and their water management system were the important features of
Harappan city plans.
The city plan was designed by the architects with the help of geometrical tools.
In most of the Harappan cities, a particular plan was followed in most of the cities the citadel was to the west of the lower town but at
some cities it was in the southern part.
Some of the rural settlements were also divided in to blocks and sub-blocks by the cardinal directions of streets and lanes. The houses
were flanked to the both sides of lanes.
Fortification wall: Some of the Early Harappan settlements like many Harappan cities were protected by the fortification wall. Kot Diji,
Rehman Dehri, Tarakai Qila, Kohtras, Buthi, Mehargarh, Dhalewan, Bhirrana, Balu, Kalibangan, etc. were protected by the fortification
wall
Gateways: Some Harappan cities had one gateway like at Lothal and Balu, Kalibangan, Surkotada, etc. had two or more than two
gateways. The gateways were of two types, one simple entrance for vehicular activities while the other had some special importance.

Bastions: In Harappan period the bastions were constructed with the fortification walls. They served as watching towers.
Materials used: Materials used where mud – bricks, baked-bricks, mud, stones, etc.
Intercommunication passage: Some Harappan sites had intercommunication passages which were used for the movement of the
rulers, priest and for the common people.
Citadel and lower-town:
Harappan cities were composed of walled sectors, in different parts of the settlement.
The citadel was built on a raised plate form while the lower town was located on the lower part of the town. The lower town was larger
than the citadel. While public buildings like the Great Bath was built in the citadel, the lower town usually had only residential buildings.
Some of the metropolitan cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Lothal, Dholavira, etc. had citadel and
lower town but in most of the cities the settlements were not divided into citadel and lower town.
Grid-pattern: By 2600 BC, Mohenjodaro and Harappa, major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, were built with blocks divided by a
grid of straight streets, running north–south and east–west.

Grid pattern observed in Harappa and Mohenjodaro

Disaster-proof: Harappan people made their houses on the platforms to prevent from the flood
Drainage system:
The Harappans were master in hydraulic engineering. They developed the efficient system
The drops at the regular intervals were constructed in the drains for self cleaning
The private drains drained in to small drains and the small drams into large drains. The large drains took the entire waste water of the
city to the outside in open area or in some kinds of ponds.
Some drains were covered with stones or large sized bricks. Soakage jars, man-hole cesspools, etc. were the important components
of drainage system.

A mud-brick drain excavated in Kalibangan

Reservoirs:
The construction of the reservoirs is also one of the important aspects of Harappan town planning at Dholavira.
The evidence of Great Bath and Wells at Mohenjodaro, number of bath platforms and drains at Kalibangan, rock cut tanks and dams in
Manhar and Mansar nala at Dholavira for the conservation of water and a moat for defense at Banawali etc. were two important features
of the Harappan town planning
Water management:
Harappan people were very skilled in water management. The Harappan agriculture depended on monsoon but they constructed the
canals for better production and to prevent their crops from adverse climatic conditions.
They also constructed some hydraulic structure to collect the rain water, so that they could use that water in irrigation. Some evidences
like dams, canals and reservoirs were found at different sites
The greatest construction made by the Lothal engineers to the advancement of science and technology consisted in building an artificial
dock for berthing ships.

An artificial dock at Lothal

Great Bath is located to the east of the granary in the Mohenjodaro. It is the earliest water tank in the ancient world. The floor of the bath
had five layers. It was so watertight that even today it holds water. There were changing rooms. People probably used it during festivals
and religious ceremonies.
Granaries: The granary was the largest structure in Mohenjodaro, and in Harappa there were about six granaries or storehouses. These
were used for storing grain.
Houses: The houses varied in size. Some might have had two storeys. The houses were made of burnt bricks. Most of the houses had a
central courtyard, a well, a bathing area, and a kitchen.
How design of IVC of urban cities can provide Inputs to overcome the challenges that Indian cities face in the present times?

One of the major challenges of urban planning, in India, has been dealing with the haphazard construction of buildings. In the IVC, the
streets were built on grid-like patterns, which allowed for methodical and planned growth.
In modern times, Le Corbusier’s plans for Chandigarh provided for a rectangular shape with grid iron pattern, which enabled fast
movement of traffic and reduced the area.
The present cities are characterized by poor sanitation network and open drainage systems that give rise to multitude of infectious
diseases. IVC city placed emphasis on segregation of wastes at the source and closed drainage system if incorporated can help in
combating the present problem.
In the IVC, the town was also demarcated clearly between residential areas and common/public areas. Incorporation of this in the
present city planning could minimize the traffic congestion in Indian cities.
The houses in the IVC were constructed in such a manner to ensure the effective and efficient use of light and wind. Ex: IVC houses
were constructed in such a manner to make the best use of light and wind. Incorporation of these features could help reduce the carbon
footprint in the present society.
The houses had doors that opened out into the lanes instead of the roads. Thereby, preventing any dust or other particles entering the
house due to traffic on the roads.
Use of tanks and ponds for storage of water has been observed in rain starved cities of IVC especially Dholavira. Incorporating such
water conservation strategies in our present urban planning could prevent drinking water crisis that Chennai witnessed couple of years
ago.
Temple Architecture
As human beings began to fear and respect the forces of nature, they also started worshipping them. Man personified these forces so
that the concept of ‘god’ took form in people’s minds. The gods in their human forms came to be housed as idols in structures called
temples.The temples in India developed in every region of the country, often the geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and
linguistic aspects of the region had a greater part to play in shaping the style of the temples in India.

Early Temples in India

In the early part of the Vedic era there is no clear mention of temples. All worship and rituals were carried out before the holy fire,
called the ‘yajnas’. However, in the later period of the Vedas, along with the ceremonial fire, idol worship also began to be practiced.
These idols were housed in very elementary dwellings. The very first temples may have been simple earth mounds, later substituted
by brickwork with grass roofs.

Early temples found in India before the distinctive styles emerged can be classified into following three types:

Sandhara type (without Pradikshinapatha)

Nirandhara type (with Pradakshinapatha) and
Sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from all sides)
Some of the important temple sites of this period are Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran, Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha in
Madhya Pradesh. These temples are simple structures consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.

Basic Form of Hindu Temple

The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following:

Sanctum (Garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’), which was a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in
time. The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon which is itself the focus of much ritual attention
The entrance to the temple which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers and
is known as a mandapa
Freestanding temples tend to have a mountain-like spire, which can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a
pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in South India
The Vahan,e., the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before the
sanctum.
The basic components of the Hindu temple
Two broad orders of temples in the country are known— Nagara in the north and Dravida in the south. At times, the Vesara style of
temples as an independent style created through the selective mixing of the Nagara and Dravida orders is mentioned as a distinctive
style of temple architecture by some experts

Iconography of Indian temples

The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art history called ‘iconography’, which consists of identification of images
based on certain symbols and mythologies associated with them. Every region and period produced its own distinct style of images
with its regional variations in iconography.

The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are usually found at
the entrance of a garbhagriha in a Nagara temple, Dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the gateways or gopurams of
Dravida temples, similarly, mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious planets) and yakshas are also placed at
entrances to guard them

Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the main deity. Finally, various elements of
ornamentation such as gavaksha, vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalasha, etc. are used in distinct ways and places in a temple.

Dravida Style of temple Architecture

The Dravidian style of temple architecture of South India was pioneered by the Pallavas who reigned in parts of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, and northern Tamil Nadu until the ninth century. Although they were mostly Shaivite, several Vaishnava shrines also survived
from their reign.

The early buildings are generally attributed to the reign of Mahendravarman I, a contemporary of the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II of
Karnataka. Narasimhavarman I, also known as Mamalla, who acceded the Pallava throne around 640 CE, is celebrated for his
architectural works.

Shore temple, Mahabalipuram

The main features of this style of temple architecture are:

The Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.

The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a Gopuram.
The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than
the curving shikhara of North India.
In the South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at the top of the temple which is usually shaped
like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola— this is equivalent to the amalak and kalasha of North Indian temples.
Fierce Dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple adorn the entrance to garbhagriha
It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.
At some of the most sacred temples in South India, the main temple in which the garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the
smallest towers. This is because it is usually the oldest part of the temple

Layout of Dravidian temple

It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.
Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as distinct, separate small shrines beside the
main temple
Kailashnath temple at Ellora is a famous example of a temple built in complete Dravidian style
Classification of Dravidian temples:

Just as there are many subdivisions of the main types of Nagara temples, there are subdivisions also of Dravida temples.
These are basically of five different shapes: square, usually called kuta, and also caturasra; rectangular or shala or ayatasra;
elliptical, called Gaja-Prishta or elephant-backed, or also called vrittayata, deriving from wagon-vaulted shapes of apsidal chaityas
with a horse-shoe shaped entrance facade usually called a nasi; circular or vritta; and octagonal or ashtasra
The above classification is a simplistic one since several different shapes may be combined in specific periods and places to create
their own unique style.
Famous Dravidian temples in India

The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, called the Rajarajeswara or Brihadeshwara temple, built in the Dravidian style was
completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola, and is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples
Other famous Dravidian temples in the south are- Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, Meenakshi temple, Tamil
Nadu, Airavatesvara temple etc
The contribution of Pallavas to Dravidian architecture

In the south the Pallavas created beautiful monuments in th 7th CE AD

Mahendravarman and his son Narasimhavarman were great patrons of art and architecture (Their contribution to rock-cut
architecture will be discussed elsewhere)\
The shore temple at Mahabalipuram was built later, probably in the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha. It has
shrines dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu

Shore temple
The contribution of Cholas to Dravidian architecture

The Cholas perfected the Dravidian temple style inherited from the Pallavas. During this time, the architecture style became more
elaborate by moving away from the early cave temples of the Pallavas
Stone came to be used as the predominant material for the construction of the temples during this time
Gopurams became more prominent. They were decorated with carvings representing various Puranas
The Vimanas attained a greater grandeur during the Chola period. Ex: The temple tower of Brihadeshwara temple is 66 metres
Greater emphasis was given for the use of sculptures in the construction of the temple.
Nagara Style or North India style of temple architecture
Nagara style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as Nagara. In North India it is common for an
entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.
Another unique characteristic is that it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
There are many subdivisions of Nagara temples depending on the shape of the shikhara.
Amalaka or Kalash which is installed on Shikhara is another characteristic feature of this form of temple style
Kandariya Mahadev Temple in Madhya Pradesh is an example for Nagara style of temple architecture
Other examples of Nagara style of temples in India are- Sun temple, Konark, Sun temple at Modhera, Gujarat and Ossian temple,
Gujarat.

Classification of Nagara style of temple architecture based on the style of Shikhara

Rekha-Prasad or Latina: These temples are characterized by a simple Shikara with a square base and inward curving walls that
have a pointed top. Early medieval temples such as the Sun Temple at Markhera in Madhya Pradesh (MP). The Sri Jagannath
Temple of Odisha has been constructed in the Rekha-Prasad Shikara style.

Sri Jagannath temple

Shekari: is a variation of the Latina where the Shikara comprises of a main Rekha-Prasad Shikara and one or more rows of smaller
steeples on both sides of the central spire. Additionally, the base and corners also feature mini Shikaras. The Khajuraho Kandariya
Mahadev Temple is one of the most prominent temples built in this style.
Bhumija: Another type of Nagara temple that evolved from the Latina style was the Bhumija architecture developed in Malwa under
the Paramara dynasty. These temples have a flat upward tapering projection comprising of a central Latina spire and miniature
spires on the quadrant formed by the tapering tower. These mini Shikaras carved out both horizontally as well as vertically. The
Udayeshwar Temple in MP is built in this style.

Udayeshwar Temple in MP
Valabhi: style temples are rectangular in shape comprising of barrel-vaulted roofs. The vaulted chamber roof has earned them the
moniker wagon vaulted buildings/structures. Teli Ka Mandir, a 9th Century temple at Gwalior has been built in this style.
Phamsana: are shorter but broader structures comprising of roofs with numerous slabs that rise upwards in a gentle slope on a
straight incline like a pyramid meeting at a single point over the mid-point of the building. The Jagmohan of Konark Temple is
constructed in the Phamsana mode.
Sub-schools of Nagara style of temple architecture

Odisha School – The most prominent distinguishing feature is the Shikara (Deul) which rises vertically before curving inwards at the
top. The main type is square while the upper reaches are circular. These temples have intricately carved exteriors and usually bare
interiors. Unlike Nagara temples of the north, most Odisha temples have boundary walls.
Chandel School – Unlike Odishan style, these temples are conceived as a single unit and have Shikaras that curved from bottom to
top. There are a number of miniatures Shikaras rising from the central tower and towers that gradually rise up to the main tower cap
both the porticos and halls.
Solanki School – They are similar to the Chandel School except that they have carved ceilings that appear like a true dome. The
distinguishing feature of these temples is the minute and intricate decorative motifs. Except for the central shrine, one can find
carvings on both the inner and outer sides of the walls.
Famous Nagara temples in various regions of India

Central India
Some of the oldest surviving structural temples belonging to Nagara style are from the Gupta Period are in Madhya Pradesh
These are relatively modest-looking shrines each having four pillars that support a small mandapa which looks like a simple square
porch-like extension before an equally small room that served as the garbhagriha.
Deogarh (in Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh) was built in the early sixth century CE is a classic example of a late Gupta Period type of
temple. This temple is in the panchayatana style of architecture where the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four smaller
subsidiary shrines at the four corners (making it a total number of five shrines, hence the name, panchayatana). The tall and
curvilinear shikhara also corroborates this date. The presence of this curving latina or rekha-prasada type of shikhara also makes it
clear that this is an early example of a classic Nagara style of temple
The Lakshmana temple of Khajuraho, dedicated to Vishnu, was built in 954 by the Chandela king, Dhanga.
A Nagara temple, it is placed on a high platform accessed by stairs. There are four smaller temples in the corners, and all the towers
or shikharas rise high, upward in a curved pyramidal fashion, emphasizing the temple’s vertical thrust ending in a horizontal fluted
disc called an amalak topped with a kalash or vase.
The crowning elements: amalak and kalash, are to be found on all Nagara temples of this period.
Kandariya Mahadeo temple at Khajuraho is the epitome of Nagara style of temple architecture in Central India. Khajuraho’s temples
are also known for their extensive erotic sculptures; the erotic expression is given equal importance in human experience as spiritual
pursuit, and it is seen as part of a larger cosmic whole
West India
Nagara temples located in Gujarat and Rajasthan
The Sun temple at Modhera which dates back to early eleventh century and which was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty
in 1026 is an example of Nagara style of temple in this region. The influence of the woodcarving tradition of Gujarat is evident in this
temple

Sun temple at Modhera

3. East India

Eastern Indian temples include those found in the North-East, Bengal and Odisha.
It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction, and also for moulding plaques which depicted Buddhist and Hindu
deities in Bengal until the seventh century
An old sixth-century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate
near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the import of the Gupta style in that region.
Regional variation: The style that came with the migration of the Tais from Upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style of Bengal
and led to the creation of what was later known as the Ahom style in and around Guwahati. Kamakhya temple, a Shakti Peeth, is
dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya and was built in the seventeenth century.

Kamakhya temple, Assam

The Palas are celebrated as patrons of many Buddhist monastic sites; the temples from that region are known to express the local
Vanga style. The ninth century Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan District, for example, shows a tall curving
shikhara crowned by a large amalaka and is an example of the early Pala style. It is similar to contemporaneous temples of Odisha.
This temple is also an example of the regional variation of Nagara style of temple architecture
The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-style within the Nagara order. In general, here the shikhara, called deul in Odisha, is
vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.
At Konark, on the shores of the Bay of Bengal, lie the majestic ruins of the Surya or Sun temple built in stone around 1240. Its
shikhara was a colossal creation said to have reached 70m
Other famous Nagara temples in this region are: Muktesvara temple, Rajarani temple, Lingaraja temple etc

Jagannath temple, Puri

4. The hill states of India

A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir. Kashmir’s proximity to prominent
Gandhara sites
This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that were brought to it from Sarnath, Mathura and even centres in Gujarat
and Bengal.
As a result both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills. The hills also had their own tradition of
wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
At several places in the hills, therefore, you will find that while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in a rekha-prasada or
Latina style, the mandapa is of an older form of wooden architecture. Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape
Of the temples in Kumaon, the ones at Jageshwar near Almora, and Champavat near Pithoragarh, are classic examples of Nagara
architecture in the region.
Vesara Style of temple architecture
Vesara is a combination of Nagara and Dravidian style of temple architecture styles. The term Vesara is believed to have been
derived from the Sanskrit word vishra meaning an area to take a long walk. Many historian agree that the Vesara style originated in
the what is today Karnataka.

The trend was started by the Chalukyas of Badami (500-753AD) who built temples in a style that was essentially a mixture of the
Nagara and the Dravida styles, further refined by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (750- 983AD) in Ellora, Chalukyas of Kalyani
(983-1195 AD) in Lakkundi, Dambal, Gadag etc. and epitomized by the Hoysalas (1000-1330 AD)

The Hoysalas temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura are prime examples of this style.

Unique features of Vesara style of temple architecture

Ornamentation: In case of ornamentation of temple walls and pillars, Chalukyan temple shows indigenous quality.
Transformation of Dravida tower: The Chalukyan builders modified the Dravida towers by minimizing the height of each storey and
arranging them in descending order of height from base to top with much ornamentation in each storey.
Transformation of Nagara tower: Instead of inclined storey here modification is seen in the vertical shape of the tower
Two special features of Chalukya temples – Mantapa and Pillars:
Mantapa: The mantapa has two types of roof – domical ceilings (the dome like ceilings standing on four pillars are very attractive) or
Square ceilings (these are vigorously ornamented with mythological pictures).
Pillars: the miniature decorative pillars of Chalukya temples stands with its own artistic value.
Famous temples built with this style include: Kallesvara temple, Kukkanur; Ramalingesvara temple, Gudur; Mahadeva temple, Ittagi;
Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi (and several other temples at Lakkundi); Brahmadeva temple, Savadi – notable for being fully
stellate; Mallikarjuna temple, Sudi (and Joda-kalasha temple)

Influence of Nagara and Dravidian style of temple architecture on the style of Vesara

The plan of shrine, subsidiary shrine, panchayatan style bears similarity to Nagara School.
The plan of vestibule joining the sanctum to mantapa bears resemblance to Odishan temples.
The most of the temple pillars in Karnataka region bears similarity to sekhari and bhumija type of pillars in northern India.

The stepped diamond plan that is a plan of design arrangement as seen in Chalukya temples is from northern region.
The most of the temples in kalyani portrays Nagara articulation projecting stepped diamond or stellate plan.
The Dravida influence is mainly visible in vimana of the Chalukya temples in first part of the Chalukya rule
Miniature decorative towers and ornamentation of walls in Chalukya temples show combination of both Nagara and Dravida style.
Famous temples built during the reign of several empires in South India

Chalukyan architecture

Their architecture consisted of admixture of Nagara and Dravidian styles.

Temples built during this time can be found in- Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal
Temples built during their time period do not have a covered ambulatory path
The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal built in imitation of Kailashnath temple is the jewel of Chalukyan architecture
The Rameshwaram temple at Ellora built in 7th century was also built during the Chalukyan time period
Lad Khan temple and Durga temple at Aihole are other noteworthy monuments built during this time period

Rashtrakuta architecture

They were the successors of the Chalukyas

Their temples were built mostly imitating the Chalukyan style
The Kailas temple at Ellora, built during the time of Krishna II is the representative form of architecture of the empire
The Navalinga Temples in Kukkanur is another temple built during this period
Hoysala temple architecture

Kesava temple at Belur built during the time of Vishnuvardhana to commemorate his victory over the Cholas is a representative art of
this period
In this temple, there are multiple shrines grouped around a central pillared hall and laid out in the shape of an intricately-designed star
Such an arrangement could be found in temples during this time in Halebid, Somnathpur and elsewhere
Hoysaleswara temple dedicated to Lord Shiva is another famous temple built during this period.

Vijayanagara architecture

It is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles

Local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had been for the Badami Chalukyas.
Vijayanagar temples are characterized by ornate pillared halls and rayagopurams, or monumental towers adorned with life-sized
figures of gods and goddesses that stand at the entrance of the temple.
Vijayanagar temples are also known for their carved pillars , which depict charging horses, figures from Hindu mythology, and yali
(hippogriphs)
Some of the larger temples are dedicated to a male deity, with a separate shrine intended for the worship of his female counterpart.
Some famous temples exemplifying the Vijayanagar style include the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and the Hazara Rama temple of
Deva Raya I.
Indo-Islamic Architecture
The establishment of the Muslim rule since the end of the 12th century brought together two great architectural traditions. Eventually, this
led to a greater synthesis and fusion of the best in both traditions which manifested in some of the most beautiful Indo-Islamic
monuments in the Indian sub-continent. Mosques and mausoleum were centres of Islamic architecture in India.

the Characteristic features of Indo-Islamic form of architecture:

Buildings in Islamic countries were made of brick, lime and mortar

Their styles was arcuate; meaning architecture based on arches, domes and vaults
Muslims under religious injunction avoided the use of human figurines rather they opted for geometrical patters (arabesque), floral
patterns, inscriptions in various styles, inlay on marble (Pietra dura).

Ornamental, perforated lattice screens with arabesques, star motifs and other geometric designs such as pentagons, hexagons,
octagons and circles.
Gardens were an integral part of Islamic architecture.

Styles of islamic architecture in the Indian subcontinent

Styles of Islamic architecture in the Indian subcontinent:

Imperial style

The style of this period is also called the early Indo-Islamic style.
The existing buildings were converted into mosques with the elements of ruins from Hindu temples
The palaces were elaborately decorated and embellished with arches and domes. Floral patterns and other Hindu motifs were used
widely

Provincial style:

In this style of architecture which lasted for a period of two-hundred-and-fifty years, they created buildings with the locally available
materials, combining the regional styles with the typical Muslim features such as domes, arches, the minarets and the mihrabs. Initially
they constructed on the ruins of Hindu, and Jain temples, and later they derived their own style in building art.

Mughal style

The Mughal style is the style of architecture that flourished in India under the patronage of the Mughal Empire from the mid-16th to the
17th century
It is a unique blend of Indo-Islamic and Persian style with Turkish influences.
The buildings were excellent and remarkably symmetrical in form and uniform in pattern with intricate ornamentation.

Types of buildings in islamic architecture in the Indian Subcontinent

Mosques
Mosques are the places of congregation where men gather to offer prayers. They are also called “masjids” and known as a place for
prostration
They are basically large columned halls known as hypostyle halls and in some of the mosques, Madrasahs are also a part of the same
building
An important element used in the mosque was the “mihrab”. It is the niche in the wall that indicates the direction of Mecca towards which
all the Muslims pray.
The most visible element of the mosque is the “minaret”, the tower which is either adjacent or attached to the mosque from which the call
to prayer is announced.
The most important (but inessential) element of Islamic architecture and a part of the mosque is the “dome” which is also known as
“qubba” in Muslim architecture
Calligraphy is also the most visible decorative element in mosques.

Forts
They were palaces; a place of accommodation on a larger and more comprehensive scale, thus forming a city within a city
They were built for the purpose of defence to protect the monarchs and their people from their enemies.
We can also see the influences of different regional architecture of Gujrat and Punjab in the construction of the forts

Tombs
Among the architectural marvels that were built during the Islamic rein in India, the most wonderful, and beautiful structure was the tomb
of Mumtaz Mahal, the Taj Mahal, which is an integrated complex of many structures.
White domed marble, large gardens, pools with fountains reflecting the light, landscape, and four tall standing minarets surrounding the
structure imply a symmetrical and a balanced form. This proves the elegance of the Indo-Islamic style of architecture. It is a perfect
example of an architectural accomplishment of the Mughal building art.

Evolution of this form of architecture during the medieval period:

Delhi sultanate

With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of architecture- the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and
Central Asia.
The engineering features of these buildings were the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosques and tombs built by the rulers
had these features which were blended with the features of the indigenous architecture and a new synthesis in architecture was
achieved.
This happened because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the services of the local Indian craftsmen who were very skillful and had
already constructed beautiful buildings.
The earliest building of this period is Quwwatul Islam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub Minar. The latter is a tower, whose height is 70
metres. It is a tapering tower that has five stories. There are beautiful engravings of calligraphy both in the mosque and on the tower.

Ala-ud-din Khilji enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This gateway is called the Alai
Darwaza. He also built the Hauz Khas in Delhi which was a hydraulic structure.

The tomb of Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq and the forts of Tughlaqabad are some more examples of structures built during this
time
During the Afghan rule the tombs of Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi and Shershah’s tomb at Sasaram were built
The architecture of this period also shows how indigenous styles were adopted and utilized by the builders. During these years, the
Turks were still in the process of settling down. The rulers were threatened by the Mongols, who made sudden invasions from the north.
This is why the buildings of this period are strong, sturdy and practical.

Regional kingdoms

With the establishment of regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful buildings having their own style were
constructed.
The Jama Masjid, the Sadi Saiyyad Mosque and the shaking towers at Ahmadabad are a few examples of this architecture
In Mandu (central India) the Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal and Jahaz Mahal were built.
In the Deccan, the Sultans erected a number of buildings. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, the Madarsa of Mahmud Gawan at Bidar,
Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the fort at Golconda are just a few famous buildings.
Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the world. All these buildings vary in design and style from the buildings of north India.

In Bengal the oblong shape of many structures and the peculiar style of roof construction were some of the distinctive features of the
regional architecture of Bengal like the Adina mosque and the tomb of Jallal-ud-din at Pandua, Khil Darwaza and Tantipara mosque at
Gaur.
In Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers had a gigantic screen covering the dome while the tomb of Hoshang Shah at
Malwa is made entirely of marble and is made of yellow and black marble inlay work beautifully done by craftsmen.
The Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the temples of Southern India. The Jama Masjid at
Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of this mosque is covered with a large number of domes and is the only mosque in India
which has a covered courtyard.

Mughals

The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture.

Indo-Islamic architecture reached its zenith during this period
The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. Red sandstone was used in this building. It has a main gateway and the
tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. Many consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal
Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Buland Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal Empire. This building was
made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat
The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis
of Persian and Indian elements.
During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula
which was built entirely of marble.
Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He used marble extensively. Decorative design in inlay work, (called pietra
duro) beautiful arches and minarets were the features of his buildings
The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the buildings built by Shahjahan.

The Taj Mahal, the tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and reflects all the architectural features that were developed during the
Mughal period. It has a central dome, four elegant minarats, gateway, inlay work and gardens surrounding the main building.
The Mughal style of architecture had a profound influence on the buildings of the later period. The buildings showed a strong influence of
the ancient Indian style and had courtyards and pillars. For the first time in the architecture of this style living beings- elephants, lions,
peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets
Rock-cut Architecture
Rock-cut architecture is the creation of structures, buildings, and sculptures by excavating solid rock where it naturally occurs. The three
main uses of rock-cut architecture were temples tombs, and cave dwellings. The Oldest rock-cut architecture is the Barabar caves,
Bihar built around 3rd Century BC.

Rock-cut architecture was suited India since the country had plenty of rocky Mountains, and structures excavated in stone were the ones
which were most durable.

Evolution of rock-cut architecture in India

The earliest rock-cut caves are attributed to Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha.
The early Buddhist architecture covers the period from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The excavations belonging to this
period mostly consists of- the chaitya, viharas. They were mostly constructed of wood. Examples of the early Buddhist architecture can
still be seen at Karla, Kanheri, Nasik, Bhaja and Bedsa and at Ajanta.

Karla Caves

The second phase of rock-cut architecture began in the 5th century AD. This phase was characterized by the elimination of timber and
by the introduction of the image of the Buddha as a dominant feature of the architectural design. Viharas underwent a slight change
during this time, the inner cells inhabited by the monks alone, now housed the image of the Buddha as well.

Buddha in Kanheri caves

The next and perhaps the most dominant phase in the tradition in the rock-cut tradition happen to be Dravidian rock-cut style. The
primary features of this style are mandapa and ratha. The mandapa is an open pavilion excavated out of a rock. It takes the form of a
simple columned hall with two or more cells in the back wall. The ratha is a monolithic shrine carved out a single rock.

Mahishamardini Rock Cut Mandapa

Important rock-cut caves

A few Rock-cut caves and features have been given below. These are important in the exam point of view.

Kanheri caves

They are located near Mumbai

They cover the period from 2nd to 9th century AD
They belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhist architecture
However, additions were made when Mahayana Buddhism was gaining ground. Ex: 5th century image of Buddha
It has around 100 caves.

Kanheri Caves

Jogeshwari caves

These caves are located within the island of Salsette

They belong to the last stages of Mahayana Buddhism
Brahmanical shrines are also found here
They belong to the second half of the 8th century

Jogeshwari Caves
Montpezir

It is also called as Mandapeswar caves. It is situated near Mumbai

The caves are situated in Mount Poinsur, Borivali, a suburb of Mumbai. Originally, the caves were on the banks of the Dahisar Riverbut
later the course of the river changed
They are the only Brahmanical caves to be converted into a Christian shrine
It has three caves which are dated to 8th century

Mandapeswar Caves
Karla caves

Karla caves are located on Banaghta hills near Mumbai

It belongs to the Hinayana period of the Buddhist architecture
The chaitya here is among the largest and the best preserved in the country
Many traders and Satavahana rulers made grants for construction of these caves.
The main cave, called the Great Chaitya cave, or Cave No.8, features a large, intricately carved chaitya, or prayer hall, dating back to
120 CE.

Karla Caves

Bhaja caves

It is located near Pune

They are believed to be excavated in 2nd century BC
It belongs to the Hinayana Buddhism sect in Maharashtra
These caves are notable for their indications of the awareness of wooden architecture
The carvings prove that tabla – a percussion instrument – was used in India for at least 2300 years

Bhaja Caves

Bedsa caves

It is located near Pune

The Chaitya resembles the great hall at Karle but is smaller.
It has four pillars with carvings of horses, bulls and elephants mounted by make and female riders

Bedsa Caves

Ellora caves

It is located in the state of Maharashtra

is one of the largest rock-cut Hindu temple cave complexes in the world, featuring Hinduism in particular and few Buddhist and Jain
monuments with Artwork dating from the 600–1000 CE period
Cave 16 features the largest single monolithic rock excavation in the world, the Kailash temple, a chariot shaped monument dedicated
to Lord Shiva.
There are over 100 caves at the site, all excavated from the basalt cliffs in the Charanandri Hills
All of the Ellora monuments were built during the Rashtrakuta dynasty, which constructed part of the Hindu and Buddhist caves, and the
Yadava dynasty, which constructed a number of the Jain caves.

Stone pillar at Kailashnath temple

Cave 15 of Ellora is known as Dashavatara cave. It belongs to the period of Rashtrakuta king, Dantidurga. This cave mainly depicts
Lord Shiva & Lord Vishnu in various forms. This two-storeyed structure has a large courtyard in which stands a monolithic Nandi
mandapa.
Notable among the Buddhist caves is Cave 10, a chaityaworship hall called the ‘Vishvakarma cave’, built around 650 CE. It is also
known as the “Carpenter’s Cave”, because the rock has been given a finish that has the appearance of wooden beams.

Buddha in one of the Ellora caves

At the north end of Ellora are the five Jain caves belonging to the Digambara sect, which were excavated in the ninth and early tenth
centuries could be found

Lord Mahavira, Ellora caves

The Indra Sabha (Cave 32), excavated in the 9th century, is a two-storey cave with a monolithic shrine in its court. 19th-century historians
confused the Jain Yakshas for alternate images of Indra that were found in Buddhist and Hindu artworks, thus leading to the temple
being given the misnomer “Indra Sabha”.

The contribution of Pallavas to Rock-cut architecture

Perhaps no other empire has garnered appreciation for their contribution to rock-cut architecture as Pallavas. Some of the monuments
created by Pallavas during their rule through rock excavation have garnered the worldwide admiration for its beauty and the skills
displayed by the artists

The Pallavas were a powerful ancient dynasty that ruled a huge part of Southern India, including present day Tamil Nadu, between the
6th and 9th centuries AD, with Kanchipuram as their capital. They are credited with introducing the Dravidian style of temple
architecture.

The first Pallava shrines were rock-cut cave temples. Gradually, these evolved to monolithic shrines carved out of huge rocks, and finally
culminated in “structural temples” built from scratch.

Their contribution in realm of rock-cut architecture could be seen in Mahabalipuram. Some of these are highlighted below:

There are multiple rock cut shrines, they consist of cave-like verandahs or mandapas with rows of pillars.
Most of the pillars are embellished with carved lions at their bases, a signature feature found in almost all of Pallava architecture.
Detailed panels depict episodes from Hindu mythology, and niches inside the caves often house sculpted deities. The Varaha Mandapa
in Mahabalipuram has stunning carvings that tell stories of Varaha, the avatar of Lord Vishnu in the form of a boar.
The Mahishamardini Mandapa is dedicated to Mahishamardini, a form of Goddess Durga, and the Trimurti Mandapa to the trinity of
Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva.
The Krishna Mandapa is known for a magnificent panel called Govardhanadhari, portraying Lord Krishna holding up the mythical
Govardhana hill to protect the people of his village from torrential rains.

Comparison of Art form found at Ellora and Mahabalipuram

Comparision of art form found at Ellora and Mahabalipuram

Stylistic Similarities

Mahabalipuram monuments are carved out of single stone, which is also the case in case of Ellora Kailash Temple.
The reliefs, sculptures and architecture depict the gods, goddesses found in Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism
The relief panels at both the monuments showcase stories of two major Hindu Epics -Ramayana and Mahabharata
e.g. The Relief panel of Arjuna’s Penance at Mahabalipuram and The relief panel of Ravana shaking Kailash at Ellora

Both have rock-cut and cave temples.

For instance in Ellora’s Cave 21, also called Rameshwar Lena is cave and rock cut temple.
Similarly in Mahabalipuram Varaha cave is cave temple and pancharathas are rock cut.
Gavaksha or Chandrashala a type of horseshoe arch is a common feature
eg. The Draupadi Ratha of Mahabalipuram and the cave 10 at Ellora both share the Gavaksha feature
The carvings of the Mahisasur-Vadh in Ellora is very similar to the Pallava style in Mahabalipuram
Crest Carving: – is a kind of rock carving from the outside is a dominant feature at Mahabalipuram. The same can be seen in the
Kailashnath temple and Dasavatara Nandimandapa at Ellora
The barrel vaulted roof a special feature of the Bhima ratha in Mahabalipuram is also a feature at Ellora caves

Apart from the similarities some distinct features make each of these architectural treasures different from the other

Ellora caves have been carved out of the volcanic basaltic formation ,While those at Mahabalipuram are of granitic origin
Ellora architecture also comprises Jain temples and Buddhist chaitya halls
The style of figures at Mahabalipuram are more slender, less mobile, and colder in feeling
While Mahabalipuram showcases deductive carving, Ellora architecture is majorly on core carving techniques.
The cruciform plan of the Kailash temple at Ellora is not found in the Mahabalipuram architecture plan.

Indra Sabha cave, Ellora

Ajanta caves

The caves are carved out of flood basalt rock of a cliff, part of the Deccan Traps formed by successive volcanic eruptions at the end of
the Cretaceous geological period.
They are a group of rock-cut caves in the Sahyadri ranges on Waghora River near Aurangabad in Maharashtra.
There are a total of 29 caves. All of these caves belong to the religion of Buddhism
The caves were developed in the period between 200 BCE to 650 CE.
The construction of the caves received patronage from Vakatakas kings
References to these caves could be found in the observations made by the Chinese traveller Fa Hien and also Hieun Tsang
The earliest group consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A. The murals in these caves depict stories from the Jataka
The second phase of construction at the Ajanta Caves site began in the 5th century. The second phase is attributed to the theistic
Mahayana

Ajanta caves

Elephanta caves

It is located in Mumbai
They belong to 8th century AD
The Ganesh Gumpha is one of the earliest examples of the Brahmanical temple and has been excavated in a rock terrace, the outside
consisting of a columned verandah and approached by steps flanked by sculpted elephants
One of the master-piece of this cave is the three faced-image of Shiva
Other important sculptures here are- Ravana shaking Kailasa, marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Shiva performing the Tandava dance,
Ardhanariswara

Sculpture of Trimurti in Elephanta caves

Udaygiri caves

These caves are located in MP

They contain some of the oldest surviving Hindu temples and iconography in India
They are the only site that can be verifiably associated with a Gupta period monarch from its inscriptions.
Udayagiri caves contain iconography of Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Durga and Matrikas) and Shaivism (Shiva)
They are notable for the ancient monumental relief sculpture of Vishnu in his incarnation as the man-boar Varaha, rescuing the earth
symbolically represented by Bhudevi clinging to the boar’s tusk as described in Hindu mythology
The site has important inscriptions of the Gupta dynasty belonging to the reigns of Chandragupta II (c. 375-415) and Kumaragupta I
The Udayagiri Caves complex consists of twenty caves, of which one is dedicated to Jainism and all others to Hinduism
Buddhist Architecture
Many of the architectural traditions in India owe its origin to both Buddhism and Jainism. Between fifth to fourteenth centuries,
developments in Buddhist were equally vibrant, and often went hand-in-glove with Hindu ones. Sites such as Ellora have Buddhist,
Hindu and Jain monuments

The pre-eminent Buddhist site in India is Bodhgaya. Bodhgaya is a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here and
became Gautama Buddha. While the Bodhi tree is of immense importance, the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an important
reminder of the brickwork of that time.

Remember: The first shrine at Bodhgaya, located at the base of the Bodhi tree, is said to have been constructed by King Ashoka
The design of the Mahabodhi temple is unusual. It is, strictly speaking, neither Dravida nor Nagara. It is narrow like a Nagara temple, but
it rises without curving, like a Dravida one.

Mahabodhi temple

Other important Buddhist related architectural monuments in India

Nalanda university

The monastic university of Nalanda is a mahavihara as it is a complex of several monasteries of various sizes
Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang—previously spelt as ‘Hsuan-tsang’— which states that the
foundation of a monastery was laid by Kumargupta I in the fifth century CE
There is evidence that all three Buddhist doctrines— Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana—were taught here and monks made their
way to Nalanda and its neighboring sites of Bodhgaya and Kurkihar from China, Tibet and Central Asia in the north, and Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Burma and various other countries from the south-eastern parts of Asia.
The excavated ruins of the institution indicate that bright red bricks were used in its construction.
It has been included in UNESCO’s World Heritage Site

Excavated ruins at Nalanda

Sirpur in Chhattisgarh

It is an early-Odisha style site belonging to the period between 550 and 800, with both Hindu and Buddhist shrines
Such sites later developed in other regions such as- Lalitagiri, Vajragiri and Ratnagiri

Buddhist shrine in Sirpur

Stupas

The older stupas were enlarged during the time period between Mauryas and Guptas
The famous amongst these are- Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati
Stupa has a cylindrical drum or a circular anda over which one can see harmika and chhatra. The circumambulatory path, Pradakshina
path, is enclosed by railings called vedika.
Bharhut stupa

Located in MP
A brick stupa was constructed at the site during the time of Ashoka
The carvings of these stupas depict the Jataka tales and stories
A stone railing was constructed here during the time of Sungas
An important feature of this site is that the narrative art is accompanied by an inscription which is not found elsewhere
Bharhut stupa is made of red sandstone

Bharhut stupa, MP

Sanchi stupa

It is the most-well preserved stupa amongst the three

The foundation of this stupa was probably laid by Ashoka
It was enlarged during the time of Sungas
During the rule of Satavahanas, toranas were added
The railings depict the Jataka tales
The Sanchi Stupa is made out of locally quarried sandstone.

Sanchi stupa, MP

Amaravati stupa

It was completed around 200AD

It has carved panels telling the story of the life of Buddha
Its surfaces were carved in the Bharhut style but some features of the Mathura and Gandhara sculptures were also adopted
White marble limestone was used in the construction

Amaravati stupa

Nagarjunakonda stupa

It is AP
It belongs to Saka-Satavahana era
It reflects Mahayana Buddhism
Excavations have unearthed stupa, chaityas, mandapams
Remember
Largest stupa: Kesariya stupa, Bihar
Oldest stupa: Great stupa at Sanchi
Dhamekh stupa: place where Buddha proclaimed his faith
Chaukhandi stupa: consists of an octagonal tower built by Emperor Akbar to commemorate his father’s place to the Stupa
Viharas

It was the ancient Indian term for a Buddhist monastery.

Originally, viharas were dwelling places used by wandering monks during the rainy season but eventually they evolved into centers of
learning and Buddhist architecture through the donations of wealthy lay Buddhists.
Life in “Viharas” was codified early on. It is the object of a part of the Pali canon, the Vinaya Pitaka or “basket of monastic discipline.”
Typical large sites such as the Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad Caves, Karli Caves, and Kanheri Caves contain several viharas.

A rock-cut viharas at Ellora

Chaityas

It refers to a shrine, sanctuary, temple or prayer hall in Indian religions.

Most early examples of chaitya that survive are Indian rock-cut architecture
Chaityas have a gigantic hall with high vaulted roof, with a lot of sculpture work on the pillars and the entrance
The largest Chaitya-Griha among all Buddhist monuments in India is the Karle caves.
Many Chaityas show a stupa at the back. Chaityas were carved either as rectangular halls or apsidal vault-roof or apsidal vault pillarless
halls
Modern Architecture
The arrival of Europeans to India further enriched the architectural traditions of our country. It saw the synthesis of the indigenous
architectural traditions of India with the European architectural styles. In the beginning of the colonial rule there were attempts at creating
authority through classical prototypes. In its later phase the colonial architecture culminated into what is called the Indo-Saracenic
architecture.

The colonial architecture exhibited itself through institutional, civic and utilitarian buildings such as post offices, railway stations, rest
houses and government buildings.

Major monuments built by various colonial empires

Portuguese
Many of the early architecture of the Portuguese are manifested in churches, cathedrals and schools. These churches were built in the
Iberian style
Western India, especially Goa and Daman and Diu have seen the maximum influence of Portuguese colonization.
The Basilica do Bom Jesus in Old Goa, with its three stories and baroque style reminds one of the late Renaissance architecture. The
Cathedral de Santa Catarina is a mix of Tuscan and Corinthain styles and home to its big Golden Bell. Other religious structures that are
heavily influenced with Portuguese style of building and were built during their reign include the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi,
Convent of Santa Monica, Chapel of the Weeping Cross, Sanctuary of Saint Joseph Vaz and more.
Other famous Portuguese monuments in India: The Bandel Church in West Bengal on the banks of the River Hooghly. In Mumbai, the
Madh Fort, Castella de Aguada and St. John’s Baptist Church are structures that remain from the Portuguese colonial rule.
French architecture in India
France had a strong presence in India
The Parisian architectural styles can be seen in various places in India
The French architecture made use of local raw materials and took into account the climatic conditions of the place
French shutter windows, carvings on archways and narrow street fronts were the French style
Monuments of this style can be seen in Puducherry, Bengal, Karaikal, Mahe etc
French grid patterns, clear sectors and perpendicular streets are the three distinct features that comprise the plan of the French towns
Some of the noted buildings and monuments bearing French style include statue of Joan of Arc at Dumas street; ‘Le Café’; Mairie
building that presently houses the Puducherry Municipality; the French consulate building; ‘Le Foyer du Soldat’, a legion hall for veteran
soldiers
British architecture
The Palladian style was sought to be introduced by the British officer in the 18th The famous example of a building of this style is,
Constantia, it was erected by general martin at Lucknow
In the 19th century, there grew a movement to combine the best elements from India and Western architecture. The pioneer of this
movement was, FS Growse
The museum at Jaipur and the Moor Market in Chennai are examples of this form of architecture
G Wittet designed the Gateway of India in Mumbai, borrowing several elements of Mughal style

Gateway of India

The Victoria terminus station in Mumbai is an example of Victorian Gothic revival architecture in India, deriving themes from Indian
traditional architecture. It was designed by FW Stevens

Chhatrapathi Shivaji terminus

Indo-Saracenic movement

At the end of the Victorian era, India entered the era of national awakening and movement. The architecture represented the character
of the time, a combination of imperial and national urges. It was this urge that led to the movement of Indo-Saracenic. This movement
drew elements from the indigenous and Indo-Islamic architecture and combined it with the Gothic revival and Neo-classical styles
favored in Victorian England

Salient features of this form of architectural style are:

Bulbous domes

This is one of the most characteristic feature of Indo-Saracenic buildings

The Bulbous dome is a hemispherical structure evolved from arch, usually forming a ceiling or roof.
The Dome is considered as a symbolic representation of the vault of the heaven
Some of the examples with Bulbous Domes are Egmore Railway Station, Chennai Museum
Overhanging eaves (Chhajja)

It is a protruding structure which provides protection for the lower walls

This feature was common in Mughal architecture. Ex: Tomb of Salim Chishti, Fatepur Sikri, India
This feature became part of the Indo-Saracenic architecture during 19th and 20th Ex: Chhatrapathi Shivaji Terminus, Rashtrapati
Bhavan

Chhajja in Rashtrapati Bhavan

Vaulted roof

Vaulted Roofs are ceilings with intersecting arches.

These roofs can be seen in mausoleum which was built during the Islamic period.
However, this feature was adopted by the British into the monuments they built during their time in Ex: St.Matthias’ Church, Chennai.
Chhatris

Chhatris are an elevated, dome-shaped pavilions used as an element in Indian architecture.

The word chhatri is also refer to the small pavilions that mark the corners, roof of entrance of a major building
These pavilions are purely decorative and have no utility, but they are a classic folly which represents the status and wealth. Ex: Tomb of
Humayun
This feature can also be found in Indo-Saracenic style. Ex: Rashtrapati Bhavan.
Minarets

It is a tall spire with a conical or onion-shaped crown.

Minarets are either free-standing or taller than associated support
The basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery
In Chennai, the Senate house is the best example of Indo-Saracenic architecture with Minarets.
Pavilion

Pavilion refers to the subsidiary building that is positioned separately or as an attachment to a main building.
Palaces or other large houses may have one or more subsidiary pavilions that are either freestanding or connected by covered
walkways in the buildings of Mughal architecture.
These pavilions can be found in the forts, palaces of British architecture in Indo-Saracenic style.
Cusped arches

The cusp in architecture is the intersections of lobed or scalloped forms, particularly in arches (cusped arches) and tracery (ornamental
stone work)
The monumental cusped arch had become the standard Mughal style component by the end of 17th Century
The British builders also used the cusped shape arch universally and frequently enriched it with representations of leaves, flowers, or
even human heads at the tip. Ex: Chennai corporation building, Rashtrapati Bhavan, Chhatrapathi Shivaji Terminus