Table of Contents

UNIT 1: MAP WORK INTERPRETATION............................................................................2

UNIT 2: TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS.....................................................................................5
UNIT 3: INTERPRETATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND VIDEO IMAGES.......................7
UNIT 4: TECTONIC PROCESSES........................................................................................11
UNIT 5: THE EXTERNAL LANDFORM PROCESSES.......................................................23
UNIT 6: RELIEF IN RWANDA...........................................................................................27
UNIT 7: WEATHERING AND ROCKS................................................................................31
UNIT 8: SOILS IN RWANDA................................................................................................37
UNIT 9: CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN RWANDA...........................................40
UNIT 10: VEGETATON IN RWANDA................................................................................43
UNIT 11: DRAINAGE IN RWANDA....................................................................................45
UNIT 12: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION IN RWANDA......................................49
UNIT 13: POPULATION IN RWANDA................................................................................51
UNIT 14: RURAL AND URBAN SETTLEMENT IN RWANDA........................................57
UNIT 15: AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS IN RWANDA.......................................................63
UNIT 16: FORESTRY IN RWANDA....................................................................................71
UNIT 17: FISHING AND FISH FARMING IN RWANDA..................................................73
UNIT 18: MINING AND QUARRYING IN RWANDA.......................................................76
UNIT 19: POWER AND ENERGY IN RWANDA................................................................78
UNIT 20. INDUSTRY IN RWANDA.....................................................................................81
UNIT 21. TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATION AND TRADE.............................................84
UNIT22. TOURISM IN RWANDA........................................................................................91

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UNIT 1: MAP WORK INTERPRETATION

I INTRODUCTION
Map work is the ability to study and extract information from maps.

1.1 Location of places and features on maps

The geographic location in a map may be shown by using
1 Direction and bearing
direction is the point of place in relation to another by use of a compass.

a) How to find direction on a map

To find direction on a map, follow these steps:
 Identify the two points in question.
 Draw a line joining the two points.
 Draw a compass with the four cardinal points on the point where you are told ‘from’.
 Draw a horizontal line on that point showing east and west direction.
 Use the compass drawn to determine direction.
Bearing
Bearing is the direction of a point from another stated in degrees and measured clockwise
from the north.

a) How to find a bearing on a map

 Identify the two points, in this case given as A and B.
 Mark the two places with a pencil.
 Join the two places with a straight line.
 At the point where the bearing is required, draw a line running through the point from
north to south.
 Place a protractor on the point where bearing is required. Read the angle in a
clockwise direction from the North line.
 Read the angle where the protractor touches the drawn line that connected two points.
This angle should be stated in three digits. Say if it is 45o , write 045o
The following diagram shows the bearing of point C from D. Using a protractor, measure the
angle indicated by the red line and give the correct bearing of point C from D.

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Points to note
• All places to the East of the North-South line have bearings of between 0º to 180º. Those to
the West of the same line have bearings of between 180º to 360º.
• The North has a bearing of 360º or 0º.
• Bearing is stated in three figures, such as 000º, 075º or 250º.
1.2 Use of grid references
A grid is a network of horizontal and vertical lines printed on the map.
Grid reference method use to locate point on map by using grid lines. Grid lines are the
vertical and horizontal lines which are printed on topographical maps.

The vertical lines are called Eastings because they are usually numbered eastwards. The
horizontal lines are called Northings because they are usually numbered northwards.

There are 2 ways in which grid reference is used to find location of places.
 Four figure grid system
 Six figure grid system

Grid reference of point X using four figures is: 4225 (Four figures)
Grid reference of point B using six figures is: 445248 (Six figures)

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1.3. The scale of a map
a. Statement scale: scale in words E.g.: one centimeter on the map represent two
kilometers on actual ground.
b. Representative fraction or Ratio scale: scale written in ratio Eg 1:200,000 or 1/200000
c. Linear scale or graphic scale: this is a way of expressing the scale by using line divided
into sections and each section represent one centimeter on the map. Linear scales is
divided into two parts, namely (i) Primary division and (ii) secondary division.

1.4 Measuring distances and areas on a map

Measuring distance of straight lines
The features with straight edges include runways, sections of some roads, football grounds,
rectangular water dams and others. Distances of such features can be measured using:
 A straight edge of a piece of paper
 A ruler
Measuring distance of curved lines
Some of the features on the earth’s surface are irregular and curvy

 use non-elastic cotton thread.

 use straight edge of paper

Measuring areas on a map

Areas with regular shapes
The areas on a map with regular shapes are calculated using mathematical formulae.
Areas with irregular shapes
Most natural features such as lakes and forests have irregular shapes. To calculate their areas,
we use the grid square method.
The following steps should be followed:
 Divide the map into equal squares with the help of eastings and northings. Each
square will represent 1 km2 (one square kilometre).
 Mark out and count the complete squares covered by the irregular surfaces.
 Mark out and count the squares which are not fully covered.
 Take the total number of the incomplete squares and divide them by two.
 Add the number of the complete squares to the answer you got after dividing the total
number of the incomplete squares with two.
 The figure you get is the area of the irregular surface.
 Give your answer in km2

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 𝐇𝐚𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝟐
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝐅𝐮𝐥𝐥 𝐬𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐫𝐞+ 𝐤𝐦
𝟐

20
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 29 + 𝐤𝐦𝟐 = 𝟑𝟗𝐤𝐦𝟐
𝟐

1.5 Description of relief on a map

Relief refers to the general physical appearance of the landscape. It includes all the
physical features found on the earth’s surface.
The relief features that can be shown on a map include:
• Hills • Mountains
• Plains • Valleys • Plateaus
The various relief features that can be shown on a map are usually represented by use of:
i) Use of colours
Relief can be represented on a map by use of colour.
The following are features and colours used to represent them.
• Mountains – Purple
• Hills and uplands – Brown
• Mountain tops – White
ii) Use of contours
Contours are lines drawn on a map to join areas with the same height above sea level.
They show height and shape of relief features such as hills, valleys, slopes and ridges.

 Contour lines that are drawn close together are steep slope while
 Contour line that are widely spaced are plateaus and plains.

iii) Trigonometric stations

A trigonometric station is a point represented on a map by a triangle or circle with a
dot at the centre.
Trigonometric stations on maps usually appear in areas that are highlands. These places
include mountains, hills and mountain ranges.

iv) Spot heights

A spot height is an exact altitude of a point on a map. The height of the area is recorded
next the spot height.

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UNIT 2: TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS

2.1 Definition of photographs

A photograph is the image of an object or person taken with a camera and printed on a
special paper.
Picture: is the image of an actual object represented either as drawing, painting or
photography.

1. Types of photographs
There are two types of photographs. These are classified on the basis of the position and
location of the camera at the time the photograph was taken. The two types of
photographs are:
 Ground photographs
 Aerial photographs
i) Ground photographs are photo taken when camera are horizontally to the ground.
Ground photographs are further divided into three:
 Ground general view
 Ground close-up
 Ground oblique

(i) Ground general view: are photographs taken when camera is held horizontally to the
ground facing the area focused on.

Main characteristics feature.

 Only one face of the object is clearly seen
 Photography cover a relatively small area
 Features nearest to the photographer

(ii) Ground close-ups: are photographs taken when camera is focused on one major object
such as a person, an animal or a house.
(iii) Ground oblique: The photographs in this type of photos stands on a higher or lower
ground than an object.
Characteristics
 They are taken when the camera is tilted looking down from a higher ground.
 they tend to show the tops of the object being photographed
 The actual size and height of the object does not correspond accurately with the
relative size of the ground
 Ground oblique photographs tend to have a smaller dead ground

b) Aerial photographs are photographs taken from space above the object being
photographed by using aircraft.
There are two types of aerial photographs.

(i) Aerial oblique photographs

These are photographs that are usually taken at an angle 45 degrees. These photographs
can cover a large area. The objects nearer the camera are usually larger than those far
away.

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 (ii) Vertical aerial photographs
These are aerial photographs that are taken vertically above the land. In such
photographs, only the top part of the features or objects can be seen. These
photographs can be use for making maps.

characteristics of aerial photographs

 Aerial photograph is not very clear and do not show every detail
 They cover a wide area due to the great vertical height from which they are taken
 Aerial photographs do not have any dead ground

Parts of a photograph
 Foreground is the area that is nearest to the camera
 Middle ground is the part in the centre of the photograph
 Background is the part that is furthest from the camera.
2.3 Importance of photographs
 They show physical features such as appearance of a landscape or economic activities
taking place in a given area.
 Photographs are important sources of history and information when periodically taken
and safely stored.
 They are easy to share because they are less bulky.
 Aerial photographs are used for making maps.
 Photographs enhance the understanding of reality.
 Photographs help geographers to record information from the field.
 Photographs are easy to take and store information.

UNIT 3: INTERPRETATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND VIDEO IMAGES

3.1 Types and divisions of a photograph
i) Types of photographs

ii) Divisions of a photograph

These refer to the sections of a photograph.

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 From the divisions above, the foreground, middle ground and background can therefore
be further subdivided into three parts each. This is to precisely state or locate position of
objects in a photograph. The following figure illustrates how this subdivision can be
done.

3.2 Identification of human and physical features on photographs and video images
The main difference between a photograph and a video image is
photograph is the image of an object while
video image is a display of moving pictures that may be recorded over a certain period of
time together with sound.

a) Identification of human activities on photographs and video images

Human activities refer to the work done by people in order to earn an income, or improve
their standards of living.
The main human activities include farming, mining, forestry, fishing, trading, transport,
settlement, manufacturing and processing.

b) Identification of physical features on photographs and video images

Relief features that can be deduced from a photograph include mountains, hills, slopes,
valleys, plateaus and plains.

3.3 Relationships between different features (human and physical aspects)

Relationship between Relief and settlement
 Steep slope discouraging effective construction of houses
 Flat relief encouraging effective and easy construction of houses.
 Valley relief discourages settlement. Valleys are not normally settled because they tend to be
swampy.

Relationship between relief and communication and transport

 Steep and hilly relief filled with ridges / sharp scarps tends to discourage easy construction of
road and railway network.
 It is very expensive to construct roads and railways lines on very steep slopes
 Flat relief tends to influence transport and communication positively hence encouraging it.
 Valley relief discourages transport and communication

Relationship between relief and human activities

 Steep relief tends to be more useful for rock quarrying while it discourages grazing
 Some steep relief and mountains encourage tourism because of their impressive appearances

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 Mining is more easily carried out in valley relief and flat land. (clay)
 Valleys can be used to grow particular crops that thrive in waterlogged areas such rice, yams.

Relationship between relief and drainage

 Hilly or steep relief has encouraged the development of radial drainage .
 Faulted relief in rectangular form has led to the development of trellis drainage of
rivers.
 relief has encouraged the development of dendritic drainage.
 On the valley is where lakes founded

Relationship between drainage and settlement

 Water bodies help to modify the climate on areas through provision of convectional rainfall
after evaporation.

 The presence of water bodies such lakes and rivers and lakes tend to encourage settlement
near to these water bodies.
 Places occupied by the water bodies themselves are not settled in
 Water bodies are sources of water for domestic and industrial use.

 Absence of drainage features in an area tends to attract less or no settlement at all.

Relationship between drainage and communication and transport

 Presence of large and deep drainage features like lakes and rivers tend to encourage water
transport
 Water tends to discourage road and railway transport and communication lines such as
telephone poles.
 Construction of transport lines is only made possible by use of bridges and culverts.

Relating drainage and human / economic activities

 The presence of drainage features tends to encourage most human activities such as farming
 Absences of drainage features in any area tend to cause aridity in the affected areas.

3.4 Drawing sketch diagrams from photographs

Before you draw a sketch of a photograph, you need to highlight the main features shown. It
is also good to point out their locations in the area covered by the photograph.
Procedure:
1. If the photograph given is rectangular, draw a rectangular box to fit in the details. If it
is squared, draw a squared box. The size of the box can be the same as that of the
photo, half its size or twice its size.
2. Using clear pencil lines, draw the main features in the frame, ensuring they remain
proportional to those in the original photo. Try to locate them in your frame as
accurately as possible.
3. Using symbols and a key, label the features on the sketch.
4. Give your sketch a title.

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The sketch of the above photo will appear as follows:
Sketch of a Photograph showing Features

3.5 Reduction and enlargement of photographs

a) Reduction of photographs
refer to reducing the size of photo than original photo.
To do this:
i. Measure the dimensions of the photograph. If the length is 10cm and the
width 5cm, divide them by 2, to get 5cm by 2.5cm rectangular box.
ii. Identify the main features to be shown on your sketch. Maintain their
accurate position as much as possible.
iii. Give the key and title of the sketch.

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b) Enlargement of photographs
refer to increase the size of photo than the original photo. For example, this can be one
and a half times or twice the size of the original photo.
Enlargement by 1.5 of the original size:
i. Measure the dimensions of the photograph. If the length is 10cm and the width
5cm, multiply them by 1.5, to get 15cm by 7.5cm rectangular box.
ii. Identify the main features to be shown on your sketch. Maintain their accurate
position as much as possible.
iii. Give the key and title of the sketch.

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END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Write brief notes on each of the following types of photographs:

(a) Ground close-ups
(b) Oblique photographs
2. Describe the procedure you will use when drawing a sketch from a photograph.
3. Explain briefly how you can accurately show features on a sketch drawn from a
photograph

UNIT 4: TECTONIC PROCESSES

4.1 Introduction to landform processes

The term landform refers to the slope and nature of a specific land features of the surface of
the earth.
Landforms were formed as a result of various processes which operate inside or outside the
earth.
Those processes operating inside the earth are called internal or endogenic land forming
processes while those processes operating on the surface of the earth are called external or
exogenic processes.
The external processes may lead to
 weathering,
 mass wasting,
 erosion,
 deposition etc.
The term internal processes include all dynamic processes of Endogenic origin e.g.
 earthquakes,
 faulting,
 warping,
 vulcanicity,
 folding, etc.

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We have two types of internal earth movement( tectonic movement)
 Vertical internal earth movements (epeirogenic): these are the movements which
operate from the interior towards the surface or inwards from the surface to the
interior. E.g. Down-up warping and up-warping
 Horizontal internal earth movements (orogenic): these are the movements which
operate along a horizontal plane within the crustal rocks causing the earth’s rocks to
stretch, shorten or shear. Some of its consequences are compression, tension and
shearing.
Causes of internal earth movements.( tectonic movement)
 Convectional currents of magma in the mantle.
 Gravitative pressure
 Then due to the earth’s gravitational pull
 Isostatic adjustment. This is the cycle of balance between SIAL and SIMA to reach
the equilibrium.

Consequences of plates movements

4.2 Folding
4.2.1 Meaning of folding
is the process through which the crustal rocks bend slowly over a long period of time as
result of compressional forces. Or folding is the bending or crumpling of rock strata caused
by compressional forces.

The parts of the earth that bend upwards are called anticlines or upfolds. Those parts that
bend downwards are called synclines or downfolds. The amount of folding in the rocks
and the features that result from it depend on the strength of the forces involved. This in
turn determines the nature of the features that form on the surface of the earth.

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 The structure of a Fold

Anticline: the uplifted part of a fold

Syncline: sunken part of a fold
Trough: the lowest part of a syncline
Crest: the upper most part of an anticline
Limb: slope of a fold
Axis: a line drawn vertically through the center of the anticline.

2.1. Types of folds

1) simple fold or symmetrical fold is formed when weak compression forces with equal
strength cause rocks to bend.
These folds are formed by compression forces of equal magnitude.

2) An asymmetrical fold
These are formed as a result of unequal compression forces acting on the crustal rocks. One
of the forces is slightly stronger than the other

3) Over folds is fold formed when one limb is pushed over the other limb.
the result is that the anticline is pushed over the limb of the next fold,

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4) Over thrust folds is formed when pressure is very great a fracture occurs in the fold and
one limb is pushed over the other limb forming an over thrust fold.
The result is that the crests are separated and one block jump over the other.

5) Recumbent fold
These are the overfolds which are completely pushed over on one side such that they lie
horizontally; the axis of each fold is almost horizontal.

4.2.2 Resultant features of folding

1. Fold mountains: e.g. Alps, Himalaya, Atlas, etc

2. Rolling plains these are low-lying areas which are characterized by a chain of gently
sloping anticlines and very wide synclines.
3. Ridge and valley landscape: these re series of Asymetrical folds where anticlines form
uplands and synclines form valleys.
4.2.3 Areas of folding
Most of the great and highest mountains around the world are folds such as:
 Andes (South America)
 Rockies (North America)
 Appalachians (Central America)
 Alps (central Europe)
 Himalaya (Asia)
 Urals (Eurasian border)
 The atlas in North West.
 The cape range and Drakensberg
 Karagwe- Ankolean rocks alongside Uganda and Tanzania
 Eastern Province of Rwanda.
4.2.4 Effects of folding
Negative effects of folding
1. Fold mountains are attractive to tourists e.g. the Alps in Switzerland
2. The process of folding can bring valuable minerals to the surface, making them available
for mining
3. We can build communication antenna on the top of fold mountains
4. Fold mountains influence rainfall( relief rainfall/orographic rainfall)
5. The valleys of fold mountains are good for agriculture

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6. Fold Mountains are source of rivers that are used in generation of power (HEP Hydro-
Electric Power) and supply water for industrial and domestic use.
7. Some fold mountains acts as catchment area because they have springs at their feet or are
ice capped
8. Fold Mountains act as defensive walls during warfare.

Negative effects of folding

1. Fold mountains can be barrier to transport and communication
2. The topography of some mountainous areas discourage settlement due to their ruggedness
3. Folding process can ease the crustal rocks hence they are easily weathered and eroded
4. During folding, some minerals could get buried deep in the ground, making them
inaccessible.
5. Sometimes, folding is accompanied with vulcanicity which brings bad to worst effects.

4.3 Faulting
A Fault: It is cracking and displacement of rocks in a plane of weakness in the earth’s crust
A Fracture: It is a crack in the earth’s crust where there has been no relative movement of
rocks along cracks
Faulting: refer to the process through which fracture or crack of crustal rocks caused by
tectonic forces (both compression and tensional forces) that operates in the earth’s crust.
Compression forces: Are forces pushing in towards each other from both side.
Tensional forces: These are the forces which act in opposite directions then lead to horizontal
movement of crustal rocks
Escarpments is a steep sided feature where fault are taking place. when faulting is
accompanied by upward or downward movement of adjoining parts of the crust.

Diagram show the part of fault

/

4.3.1 Types of faults

I. NORMAL FAULT: are fault caused by tensional forces which
pull the earth crust apart from a central point. One block of
landslides downwards against the other one . Eg: There are very
common in East African section of the great valley

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 II. REVERSE FAULT
These are produced by compression forces as the crust is being compressed, a time will reach
when one block over rise (push upwards) on other.

III.TEAR/SHEAR FAULTS are a product of two opposing forces which move

parallel to each other
This type of fault involves horizontal movement of land without its vertical position being
altered (changed).
If a shear/tear fault occurs across continents it is known as a transform fault e.g. the San
Andreas Fault in California and Glen Fault of Scotland.

IV.ANTICLINAL FAULT is fault that appear at anticline when compressional force from
both side are great
VI.STEP FAULT
There could be a general up rift of the land but the rate of up rift could be different. such that
the same part is lifted up faster than others. The landscape would be in form of steps
(Stairs).
4.3.2 Landforms resulting from faulting
A variety of landforms develop as a result of faulting depending on the strength of the forces
and the nature of the rocks involved, some of such features include the followings:

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1) Rift valleys: A rift valley is a long depression that forms between two faults scarp
which are almost parallel.
You can also define rift valley as an elongated trough or depression with the in-facing fault
scarps or walls. E.g. of Rift valley is Great East African Rift valley.
2) Fault scarps/ escarpments: These are steep slope or wall of a rift valley where the land
falls along the fault.
3) Fault steps: refers to a series of fault scarps at different levels. The process of
formation of step faults is called Step faulting.
4) Block Mountains or horsts: these are the blocks of land that are raised above the
surrounding land caused by Faulting or Tensional forces.
5) Fault guided valley: as its name suggests, it is a valley that follows the direction of
fault line.
6) Tilt blocks: These features develop when vertical tectonic forces push the block of land
upward but in the process of being pushed upwards some parts become raised more
than others due to uneven forces.

4.3.3 Areas of faulting

 The section from Kenya to Tanzania( Gregory rift valley)
 The section starts from the North-west Tanzania up to Southern Sudan( Western Rift
valley)
 The section from Tanzania up to lake Malawi
 The section from Ethiopia( Afar depression) up to Kenya( lake Stephanie)
 The Benue rift system in west Africa
 Western side of RWANDA to the part of lake Kivu

4.3.4 Effects of faulting

Positive effects
 The lakes in rift valleys (Graben lakes) are major fishing grounds e.g. L. Kivu, L.
Tanganyika.
 Some of these lakes have water which can be used for irrigation and also for domestic
purposes and industrial use.
 Block Mountains receive abundant and reliable rainfall (orographic rainfall) which
also makes the place suitable for agriculture and settlement.
 Faulting has resulted into the formation of high mountains in Africa especially East
Africa e.g. Mt. Rwenzori.
 Some block mountains serve as national parks and game reserves which the later
attract tourists.
 Faulting can cause the formation of waterfalls. E.g. Kabarega falls in Uganda.
 Faulting has resulted in the exposure of minerals like diatomite which later increase
income for the country.
 Faulting present an impressive scenery which can be used for tourism e.g. lake Nakuru
has millions of colorful Flamingos and other birds.
 Fault- scarp slopes may expose underground water resulting in the formation of scarps
springs which could be sources of clear water.
Negative effects of faulting
 Faulting can cause a river to change its course and start to flow along the fault line
 Block mountains hinder smooth and easy construction of roads
 Steep Block Mountains and fault scarps promote soil erosion and landslide.

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 Subsidence of land resulting from faulting can lead to loss of life and property.
 As the wind ward sides of Block Mountains receive rainfall, there will be also
formation of semi-aridity on the lee-ward side.

4.4 Warping
This is a process involving a gentle deformation of the earth’s crust over a considerable area.
The landforms associated with warping are few. Common ones are
- Plateau - waterfall
- Low uplands or hills - river & lakes
- plain
-swamp

Types of warping
- down ward warping
- upward warping
- tilted up warping

Influence of warping on drainage

1. it led to the formation of lake
2. Change of direction of river
3. Warping hills are source of steams
4.it led to deformation of waterfalls

Areas of warping in Africa

1. In East Africa, large scale warping occurred in central Uganda where it formed the
current Lakes Victoria and Kyoga basins.
2. The western side of the plateau upwarped to form highlands in western Uganda and
eastern Rwanda.
3. In eastern part of Rwanda, downwarping occurred in some areas that resulted in the
formation of relatively large basins where water accumulated to form lakes such as
Lake Muhazi.
4. In western Kenya, south eastern Uganda and north eastern Tanzania, minor upwarp
occurred to form the Lake Victoria basin.
5. The Lake Victoria basin also tilted slightly northwards towards Lake Kyoga. Water
that overflowed from Lake Victoria ended up in the Kyoga basin.
6. Downwarping also created several smaller basins on the plateau. Many of these also
formed lakes such as Nakivali, Kachira and Wamala in the west as well as Bisina and
Opeta in eastern Uganda.
4.5 Vulcanicity and volcanicity
Vulcanicity: is the process by which magma is pushed into and on the earth’s surface.
Volcanicity: refers to the process where igneous materials reach the surface of the earth.

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4.5.1 Causes of vulcanicity
There are three main causes of vulcanicity. These are:
a) tectonic plates move away from each other when this happen they create a gap
where volcanic eruption occur.
b) tectonic plates move towards each other
c) Tensional force that act of the earth’s crust

4.5.2 Types of volcanic features

There are two main types of volcanic features. These are intrusive features and extrusive
features.
1. Extrusive igneous features or (volcanic igneous features) are features formed from
cooling and solidifies magma on the earh’crust after volcanic eruption

1. Ash and cinder cones: these are steep sided hills formed by violent eruption usually less
than 150m. They are characterized by large craters that cover all the summit area.
2. Composite cones or strato-volcanoes: it is a very large volcano made of alternating
layers of lava and ash ejected through a central vent over a long period of time. E.g.
Muhabura, Kalisimbi, etc
3. Explosion craters: These are depressions surrounded by a rock fragments especially at
the top of volcanic mountains. They are usually 500 m wide in diameter and 50-100 m
deep.
4. Calderas: A caldera is a wide crater that exceeds one kilometer in diameter.
5. Lava plateau: It is an extensive fairly level upland area which is elevated to over 500 m
above sea level which is formed when magma erupts through a large crack or a number
of cracks successively, causing an outpouring of layer upon layer of lava.

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 6. Lava plains: These are like lava plateaus but their surface is at altitude of less than
500m above sea level and is covered in lava flow.
7. Lava domes or shield volcanoes: This is a gently sloping volcanic dome i.e. it has a
broad base and gentle slopes because of basic lava it contains. E.g. NYAMURAGIRA
near Lake Kivu in DRC.
8. Plug domes (spine): This is formed when a mass of very viscous acidic magma is
forced out of the ground in the shape of a rigid cylindrical column. Under prolonged
denudation, the cone may be completely worn away, leaving the more resistant lava in
the neck standing up as a plug or spine. E.g. volcanic plug.
9. Hot springs: This refers to constant flow of hot water from the rocks of the ground.
10. Geysers: these refer to periodically ejected hot water and steam from the country rocks
11. Fumerole: These are vents from which gases and steam are continuously released under
low pressure.
C.2. Intrusive igneous features
These are features resulted when magma fails to esc ape the crustal rocks and it cools within
the earth’s crust.
1. Batholiths: This is a dome shaped large mass of volcanic magma which solidified at
great depth.
2. Lapolith: It is a saucer- shaped igneous intrusion within the rock strata.

3. Dyke: It is a vertical or steeply inclined rock sheet intruded across the rock strata.

4. Lacolith: It is a dome-shaped intrusion of lava but with more or less flat floor which is
formed when a viscous magma rises and solidifies far below the earth’s surface.

5. Sill: It is a rock sheet of lava intruded horizontally along the rock strata or bedding
plane.

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The diagram below shows some of the features that form as a result of vulcanicity. It contains
both intrusive and extrusive landforms.

4.5.4 Types of volcanoes

In terms of volcanic activity, volcanoes are classified into three categories namely, active,
dormant and extinct.

 Active volcanoes: These are volcanoes which constantly eject volcanic lavas, gases,
ashes and fragmental materials. These are erupted very recently or are engaged in
eruption. Examples are Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira in DRC, Lengai and Etna,
Stromboli (in Mediterranean Sea).
 Dormant volcanoes: These are volcanoes which have taken long without erupting
but still show signs of eruption. An example is Muhabura, Karisimbi, Gahinga and
Bisoke in Rwanda, Vesuvious near Naples in Italy.
 Extinct volcanoes: These are volcanoes that have taken a long time without
erupting and signs of erupting in future. A good example is Mount Sabyinyo in
Rwanda,Mt.kilimandjaro,Mt.kenya,Mt. elgon

In terms of volcanic eruptions, volcanoes are classified into different categories.

Several types of volcanic eruptions have been distinguished by volcanologists.
1. Hawaiian eruption is the volcanoes erupt quietly due to less viscous lava and non-
violent gas. A good example is Nyiragongo of DRC, Mihara in Japan, Etna of Italy,
Kilauea of the southern Hawaii island.
.

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 2. Strombolian eruption Such volcanoes erupt with moderate intensity.. e.g: Stromboli
in Italy.
3.Vulcanian eruptions Such volcanoes erupt with great force and intensity. e.g:Lipari in
the Mediterranean Sea, Sakurajima in Japan etc.
3. Pelean eruptions They are the most violent and explosive types of volcanoes. e.g:
Pellee Volcano of Martinique Island in the Caribbean Sea.
4.5.5 Effects of vulcanicity
Negative effects
1. Loss of life: when volcanoes erupt, they can perish our life because magma ejected is
very dangerous and often acidic.
2. Loss of properties: buildings, bridges,etc can be destructed by rocks ejected from
volcanoes
3. Obstacles to road transport: it is difficult and expensive to construct roads across
highlands and we know that volcanic rocks are too hard.
4. Obstacles to settlement: most of these volcanic mountains are very steep and high
above sea level that the tops are cold and sometimes glaciated. Example, KALISIMBI,
KILIMANDJARO.
5. Volcanic eruption may lead to both displacement of people and animal
6. Volcanic activities are often accompanied by earthquakes which cause the damaging
effects to living things like animals, people and plants.
7. Air pollution: during volcanic eruption, some gases are ejected high in the atmosphere
and among them there are surphur dioxide which pollute the atmosphere.
8. Hindrance to mechanized agriculture: it is very difficult for tractors and other farm
equipment to work in the steep slope.
9. Soil erosion and landslides: steep slopes of volcanic mountains have higher chances of
experiencing soil erosion and landslides compared to lowlands.
10. Rain shadow effects: volcanic mountains create arid conditions on the leeward side
which is located in rain shadows, therefore are largely dry.
11. Volcanic eruption can lead to climate change especially due to the blockage made by
ash, cinder, and toxic gases emitted during eruption.
Effects of volcanicity on drainage
 Formation of lava dammed lakes
 Radial drainage has developed on volcanic domes as rivers radiate into different
directions from the volcanic craters.
 Volcanicity can result into water pollution
 Formation of crater lakes and caldera
Economic importance of volcanicity
1. Tourism: most of volcanic mountains have magnificent scenery which attracts tourists.
2. Quarrying: more plutonic rocks are used for building.
3. Mining: volcanic activity may result in the formation of valuable minerals, hence,
influence mining.
4. Forestry: most of volcanic mountains are associated with forest vegetation on their
slopes; the trees are conserved and can be used on sustainable basis.
5. Some intrusive features like dykes and sills sometimes produce waterfalls to generate
hydro-electric power when they are crossed by rivers.
6. Soil formation: when the lava rocks are weathered, very fertile soil are produced.
7. Energy: most of volcanic activities are mostly related with geothermal energy.

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 8. Rainfall: most of high volcanic mountains experience the formation of relief rainfall on
their slopes.
9. Source of rivers: the heavy rainfall and ice on some mountains have influenced the
evolution of radial drainage pattern.
4.5.6 Distribution of volcanoes
 The circum pacific belt( ring of fire)
 The Indian ocean region
 The Mediterranean and Asian belt
 The North Africa, Middle Eastern, East Africa and Madagascar belt.
 The minor and isolated regions of the Caribbean
 The pacific ocean region

4.6 Earthquakes
Earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the earth’s crust caused by rapid earth movement or
vibration in the earth’s crust.
4.6.1 Causes of earthquakes
There are both natural and human causes of the earthquakes:
Natural causes
 Tectonic movements: when tectonic plates meet or slipping over or past another plate
along a transform fault vibrations are triggered off which cause shocks.
 Volcanic eruptions: violent volcanic explosions and violent emission of volcanic gases
can shake the crustal rocks since it is being displaced suddenly (rapidly).
 Energy release: radioactivity which take place down in the mantle may result in
excessive energy release which could be exploded resulting in the crustal rocks shaking
caused by shock waves sent.
Human causes
 Underground nuclear tests: when nuclear bombs are exploded underground they cause
vibration of the earth in the region where they go off
 Movement of trains: a passing train generates vibrations as it rolls on its rails these
shakes can be felt in the neighborhood of the railway.
 Use of explosives: some explosives are used to blast the rocks during quarrying, trigger
off vibrations which are felt in the surrounding area.
The nature of earthquakes
Focus: The point beneath at which earthquakes originates.
Epicenter: It is the point on the earth’s surface which is perpendicular to the focus.

The energy of earthquakes is released in form of waves (Seismic waves). We have two main
types of seismic waves i.e. Body waves and Surface waves.
I. Body waves: They are waves which travel through the crust. These are also in two
types:
1) Primary waves: They are waves that move through Earth by causing particles in rocks
to move back and forth in the same direction the wave is moving
2) Secondary: They are waves that move through Earth by causing particles in rocks to
move at right angles to the direction of the wave.
II. Surface waves: They are waves that travel outward from the epicenter and are
generated by energy that reaches the Earth’s surface. They are in two forms
1) Love waves: They are waves which cause the surface rocks to move from side to side,
at right angles to the direction of wave movement.

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2) Rayleigh waves: They are waves which cause surface rocks to have circular movement
very similar to that of water in a sea wave.
In the ocean, earthquakes cause ocean waves which are very destructive especially to the
coastal areas and these waves are called Tsunami.
4.6.2 Measurement of earthquakes
The science which studies about earthquakes is called Seismology. The scientists who study
earthquakes and seismic waves are called Seismologists.
The vibration of an earthquake is measured by an instrument called a Seismograph. The
strength of an earthquake is measured by is its Intensity and Magnitude.
Intensity of an earthquake: refers to total effect produced by earthquake (how destructive
an earthquake is). It is measured by using the Mercalli scale
Magnitude of an earthquake: it is the total amount of energy released or given off by an
earthquake. This is measured by using Richter scale.
Isoseism: refers to the point drawn on the map to join the places with equal earthquakes
intensity (energy).

4.6.3 Consequences of earthquakes

Destruction of Properties: earthquakes may cause some buildings to have their walls
cracked or may be pulled down completely, it may also damage Transport and
communication lines such as Gas pipes, oil and water pipelines, electricity lines and roads.
1. Loss of life: earthquakes have caused death of thousands of people in many parts of the
world, the deaths occur when houses collapse over people and rocks roll over settlements,
etc.
2. Displacement of people: when an earthquake takes place, some people may survive, but
consequently a number of them may be left homeless after the destruction of their homes.
3. The earthquake may displace the earth’s crust laterally or vertically
4. They can rise or lower the parts of sea floor
5. The earthquake may raise or lower the coastal rocks. E.g. in the Alaskan earthquake
of 1899, some coastal rocks were raised by 16m.
6. Earthquakes can cause landslides; the great vibrations associated with strong earthquakes
of the ground shake unconsolidated rock particles which may loosely moved on the steep
slope mountains.
7. Earthquakes can cause Tsunamis when they are acting in the oceans.

4.6.4 Major regions of earthquakes

The majority of earthquakes occur in narrow belts, which mark the boundaries of tectonic
plates that are referred to as seismic zones the main regions are:
 The mid-ocean ridge e.g. St. Helena, Iceland,etc.
 Ocean trenches and volcanic islands
 The circum-pacific belt including Japan, Phillipines,etc
 The belt across southern Europe and Southern Asia including the Himalaya
 Along all the boundaries of tectonic plates especially region of crustal compression,
 The great East African rift valley region
North-west Africa along the Atlas Mountains

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. State the causes of earth movements.

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 2. Using diagrams, explain the formation of normal faults and reverse faults.
3. List examples of fold mountains in Africa.
4. Mention areas of warping in Rwanda.
5. Using geographical knowledge, explain the effects of earthquakes.

UNIT 5: THE EXTERNAL LANDFORM PROCESSES

Introduction
The main external land forming processes are erosion, weathering and mass wasting. These
processes shape the way the landscape looks like.
5.1 Soil erosion
This refers to the removal of the topsoil by agents of erosion. Soil erosion takes place in two
steps: • Breakdown of soil particles • Transportation of the broken particles

5.1.1 Agents of erosion

Agents of erosion are the things that transport the top loose soil from one place to another.
The agents of erosion include: a) Running water b) Wind c) Moving ice d) Gravity e)
Animals f) Humans
5.1.2 Types of erosion
Soil erosion takes place through the following ways:
a) Splash erosion: When rain drops break and displace the soil particles. Then, makes
them to be thrown away from their original positions in a splash.
b) Sheet erosion: The rain slowly moves, it carries the loose, top thin layer of soil.
c) Rill erosion: This is uncontrolled sheet erosion caused by water creates small
channels in the soil.
d) Gulley erosion: This is a result of continued erosion; the rills get enlarged to become
gullies. These are large gaping channels that carry large volumes of soil during heavy
downpours.
5.1.3 Causes of erosion
Soil erosion can be caused by natural factors as well as human factors.
i) Natural causes of soil erosion
 Heavy rainfall: Excessive rainfall causes surface run-off. When this occurs on bare
land, it causes soil erosion.
 Steep slopes: They increase the speed of flow of water on the surface. This increases
the rate at which erosion can occur.
 Winds: Strong winds are capable of causing sheet erosion. This occurs in areas with
little or no vegetation. Vegetation acts as wind breakers, lack of which promotes
erosion.
 Drought: Vegetation dries up during long periods of sunshine and unreliable or no
rainfall at all. Reduced vegetation cover increases chances of erosion.
 Increase in wild game population: When wild animals are many, they eat and
trample on vegetation. This may be to a point when the land is left almost bare. In the
long run, this can cause erosion.
ii) Human causes of soil erosion
Some human activities cause the loosening of the soil making it easy to be carried away.
Clearance of vegetation, mining, Overgrazing, farming and quarrying.
5.1.4 Effects of erosion on landscape
When soil erosion is not controlled in its initial stages, it may lead to serious problems. Some
of these are:
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  Sheet erosion and rill erosion causes the fertile top soil to be carried down slope.
 Gulley erosion creates deep trenches into the soil making it unsuitable for settlement,
agriculture and construction.
 Gullies also make the land to lose its original beauty.
 Soil degeneration: This is the loss of soil fertility. It occurs when the fertile top soil is
carried away by agents of erosion.
 Siltation in rivers and lakes: When soil is washed away by running water, it may end
up in nearby rivers or lakes
 Desertification: If the soil is eroded to a point where it cannot support plant growth,
this can easily cause desertification.
 Landscape destruction: Soil erosion makes the land to look ugly.
5.2 Weathering
Weathering occurs when rocks break down into smaller particles in situ (that is, without
movement). Further breakdown of these rock particles results into even smaller particles that
form soil.
5.2.1 Forms of weathering
There are three forms of weathering. Each is explained in the following table.

5.2.2 Causes of weathering

a) Climate
The main elements of climate that cause weathering are sunshine and rainfall.
 The amount of sunshine determines the heat responsible for expansion of the rocks.
At night, contraction occurs within the rocks. This alternate expansion and contraction
causes the rocks to break down.
 Rainfall provides water that dissolves minerals in rocks causing them to crumble.
Some rocks absorb water, which enlarges and softens them. This causes them to break
down easily.
b) Slope
After rocks have broken down, the slope determines the rate of removal of the pieces.
This exposes the parent rock to further weathering. Some materials may flow down
slope freely. Sometimes, these materials may need to be swept by water. On a flat
surface, the rate of removal is slow, so is the rate of weathering.
c) Plants, animals and human activities
 Organic acids released from the decomposition of plants and animals assist in
chemical weathering.
 Plant roots grow deep into the ground, penetrating into rock joints. This opens
the joints up, leading to physical weathering.

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  Human beings accelerate the rate of weathering through activities such as
digging, mining and blasting.
d) Time
This refers to the duration the rocks are exposed to agents of weathering. The longer a
rock is exposed to agents of weathering, the greater the rate of weathering.
5.2.3 Impact of weathering on landscape
The following are examples of how land is shaped as a result of weathering:
 When the rocks seen on the earth’s surface undergo weathering, they reduce in size.
The harder parts of the rocks may remain protruding on the earth’s surface as the
rocks wear down.
 Some rocky highland areas may also undergo weathering leading to the creation of
flat topped hills.
 Soluble parts of some rocks lead to the formation of holes on the surface. Water may
disappear into such holes, which may further dissolve minerals underground. This
creates underground caves.
 Some rocks get weathered by peeling off. The rock layers appear like layers of an
onion. Such a process is called exfoliation.
 The summits of some mountains get weathered, leaving behind the hard solid rock in
the middle of the main vent.
5.3 Mass wasting
Mass wasting is the movement of weathered material down slope under the influence of
gravity. Mass wasting occurs when weathered materials upslope are lubricated by rain water.
5.3.1 Forms of mass wasting
The movement of materials during mass wasting may be slow or rapid.
Type of mass Description Type of slope Speed of
wasting movement
Soil creep Very This is a slow, almost continuous, gentle slope Slow
movement of soil that is lubricated
by water on a gentle slope. The
movement may not be noticeable.
However, the effects are tilted trees,
fences or electric posts. The soil is
also seen to accumulate at the foot
of the slope or behind obstacles
such as walls.
Solifluction This is a slow movement of soil Moderate Slow
saturated in water over a frozen slope
ground on a moderate slope. The
movement is common in
mountainous areas and in very cold
climates.
Earth flow This is movement of weathered soil Moderate to Rapid
over a slope after lubrication from near steep
moderate rainfall. The soil gets slope
saturated then breaks away from the
slope and flow downhill rapidly.
Mud flow This is movement of soil over a Moderate to Rapid
slope after lubrication from heavy near steep

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 rainfall. It mainly takes place in arid slope
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5.3.2 Causes of mass wasting

The movement of weathered materials down slope depends on:
The weight of the weathered materials
Earth or tectonic movements
Nature of the material
 The angle of slope
 Human activities
 Vegetation

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5.3.3 Effects of mass wasting
The effects of mass wasting are both positive and negative.
Activity: Discuss other effects of mass wasting.
5.3.4 Measures of controlling erosion and mass wasting
The various measures used to control erosion and mass wasting are called soil conservation
methods. These include:
 Choosing alternative sites for infrastructural development.
 Creating public awareness on the need to conserve the environment to avoid cases of
erosion and mass wasting.
 Afforestation
 Reafforestation
 Agro-forestry
 Planting cover crops
 Ploughing across the contours
 Using soil embankments on slopes

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Define soil erosion.
2. Identify the agents of erosion.
3. State different forms of weathering.
4. Discuss different forms of mass wasting.
5. Describe the causes of soil erosion and mass wasting.
6. Explain the measures of controlling erosion and mass wasting.

UNIT 6: RELIEF IN RWANDA

Introduction
Rwanda is one of the fifty four independent countries of Africa. It is in the central part of the
continent within the great lakes region.
6.1 General presentation of Rwanda
a) Location of Rwanda
Rwanda is a landlocked country in East Central Africa at latitudes 1°04’S and 2°51’S of
Equator, and longitudes 30°53’Eand 28°53’ W of Greenwich.
Rwanda is located at 1200km from Mombasa Port, 1400km from Dar-es-salaam, 2200Km
from Matadi and 3750Km from Cape.
Rwanda is surrounded by:
 Burundi in the South  Uganda in the North
 Tanzania in the East  DR Congo in the West
b) Size of Rwanda
The area of Rwanda is 26,338 square Kilometers. It comprises 4 provinces (North, South,
East and West, with Kigali city). The land surface is about 24,670 sq km whilst 1,668 sq km
is occupied by water.
c) Administrative sub-division of Rwanda
The Rwanda is divided into 5 administrative provinces, Eastern Province, Western Province,
Southern Province, Northern Province and Kigali city (Municipality). These provinces are
further subdivided into 30 districts, 416 sectors, 2148 cells and 14837 villages.

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Map: Administrative divisions of RWANDA
d) Population of Rwanda
The results of the 4th Population and Housing Census of Rwanda give a total resident
population of 10,537,222 people (composed of 5,074,942 males and 5,462,280 females) as of
August 15th 2012, “census night”. The population density is of over 416 people per square
kilometers in 2012.
The most populated province is the Eastern Province with 2,600,814 inhabitants, followed
closely by the Southern Province (2,594,428 inhabitants) and the Western Province
(2,476,943 inhabitants). The Northern Province and Kigali City includes respectively
1,729,927 and 1,135,428 inhabitants.

6.2. Rwanda as a land locked country

A land locked country is that one which has no direct access to a coastline. Therefore,
Rwanda is included among these countries in Africa which has hindered her development
especially in trade and transport.
6.2.1. Disadvantages of being landlocked
1. Hindrance to trade: this is because most of the commodities coming from
outside(imports) will not be easily accessed.
2. Hindrance to transport: water transport has been proved to be the cheapest transport
means and yet these countries are getting the commodities only by road or air
transport.
3. Overdependence: these countries are under risks of over depending to those
countries which have the commodities in plentiful by accessing to the coasts.
4. High production and transport cost
5. A challenge to effective participation in different economic integrations
6. Poor development of infrastructures.

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 6.2.2. Possible solutions of being landlocked
1. The government of Rwanda should improve energy supply and internet access to
improve the flow of information.
2. Rwanda should enhance good political relationship with neighboring countries
3. Rwanda is also solving this issue by joining more economic integrations like EAC so
as to solve the problem of transport cost.
4. Rwanda is focusing on air transport.
5. There is a law in UN which protects landlocked countries from over taxation.
6. Rwanda has agreed with neighboring countries on getting lower transport charges for
goods via there.
7. Our country Rwanda is improving the quality of roads.
6.3 The major forms of relief in Rwanda
Rwanda is divided into six physiographic regions, each related to one another in the types of
scenery or features. These include
i) The Bugarama plain (Below 900m above sea level): It is a plain blocked by
volcanic intrusions and crossed by River Rusizi.
ii) The Eastern Plains (1000-1500m above sea level)
It is occupied by Rivers Akagera, Nyabarongo, Umuvumba etc. and widespread Savannah
vegetation.
iii) The central plateau (1500-2000m above sea level)
It covers more than half of the country (over 80km in width), Kigali, Muhanga, Bugesera,
Rulindo, Gicumbi as the examples.
iv) The slopes and banks of Kivu Lake (1460-3000m)
It is an area blocked by fault scarps and escarpments as a result of plate tectonics. The slopes
are steep and highly eroded by rain water. The streams flow westwards towards Lake Kivu.
v) The Congo-Nile Crest (2500m-3000m above sea level)
This is a divide between the Waters of River Congo to the west and waters of River Nile to
the East. It is an extensive area of about 160km in length (North to South) and 20km wide
(East to West). The highlands have sharp pointed hilltops and V-shaped valleys.

vi) Volcanic Region (3000-4507m above sea level)

The Volcanoes are also locally known as “BIRUNGA” these volcanoes form an important
geographical area in RWANDA. This is because, they experience cool, moist and healthy
climate for human settlement, animal and plant life. The region also has the most fertile soils
which are potential for the growth of a variety of crops. Actually, these highlands are more
densely populated than any other physical division in RWANDA.

The major volcanoes in Rwanda are:

a) The Karisimbi (4507m) is the most complex and highest of all the volcanoes in
RWANDA. It has a crater lake of about 1200m in diameter and its peak is sometimes
covered by snow and hence the name “Karisimbi” (ice that resemble beads).
b) The Muhabura (4127m) is the youngest of all the volcanoes in RWANDA. It has a
crater lake of about 100m in diameter. It is a dormant and the most visible volcanoes
throughout the whole of RWANDA. Long ago, it was used to trace the direction to
and from an area/region by the Rwandans hence the name “Muhabura”.
c) The Bushokoro/ Bisoke (3711m) is a complex volcanic cone with the biggest crater
Lake.

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 d) The Sabyinyo (3634m) is the oldest and the most extinct of all the volcanoes in
RWANDA. It is found in the border between Uganda, RWANDA and DR Congo.
Its slopes have been badly eroded by surface run offs and streams leaving behind
several ridges and necks of resistant rocks that resemble teeth hence the name
“Sabyinyo”. It has no crater lake.
e) The Gahinga (3474m) is the smallest of all the volcanoes in the Birunga chain and
said to have been a conelet of Muhabura volcano. It has no Crater Lake.

NB: All the volcanoes in RWANDA were used to demarcate the boundary between the
Republic of Uganda, DR Congo and RWANDA. These volcanoes extend in DR Congo by
MIKENO and NYIRAGONGO and NYAMURAGIRA. The last two volcanoes are still
active.

RELIEF MAP OF RWANDA

Advantages of relief features in Rwanda
1. High mountains have been a solution to telecommunication as they set the antenna
there. For example, at Mt Jari, Kalisimbi.
2. Some sport activities are developed to these high mountains like mountain bike or
even mountain climb.
3. Gentle sloped areas are good for settlement.
4. In the plains of RWANDA, agriculture is favorable and easily practiced.

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 5. Some areas near by rivers or lakes are good for mining.
6. Mountainous regions have favored relief rainfall.

Disadvantages of relief features in Rwanda

1. Steep sloped areas are hindering settlement.
2. Hilly areas hinder transport as it is not easy to construct roads.
3. Hilly areas like Gicumbi are steep sloped which has welcomed more accidents in the
roads.
4. There will be deserts conditions on the leeward of high mountains.
5. Sometimes hilly areas are under risks of being eroded.
6. The valleys and swamps like Nyabarongo, Rugezi have favored multiplication of
Mosquitoes which increases the rate of Malaria.
Relationship between relief and human activities/land use in Rwanda
Relief determines the way people make use of that land.

Mountain slopes and hillsides are set aside for forestry and for conservation of wildlife. An
example is the Birunga National Park. This promotes tourism. Where natural forests have
been cleared, for example in Gishwati forest, more trees have been planted as a form of
environmental conservation.
On the other hand, farming takes place on broad valleys such as Nyabarongo (sugarcane),
Nyacyonga (rice) and Akanyaru in Gisagara and generally in Kigali where vegetables and
rice are grown.

In most cases, people avoid land that has steep slopes because it is not suitable to establish
settlements, farms or roads and railways. Steep land is only used if people have no other areas
to make use of. For instance, in some parts of Rwanda, people have farms that are on hillsides
because the land is hilly. They farm using contour method to avoid soil erosion. Crops like
tea is grown on sloping land where soil is well drained.

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. What is the meaning of the term ‘relief’?
2. What are some of the relief features in Rwanda?
3. On what type of relief do people practice contour farming and why? Give examples
of such areas in Rwanda.

UNIT 7: WEATHERING AND ROCKS

7.1 Types of weathering and resultant features

Definition: it is the weakening, breaking up and disintegration of the rocks by the agents of
weathering in situ (i.e. the broken materials are not transported rather they remain near where
they are broken from).
Therefore, the agents of weathering we may note: wind, rainfall, glaciers, animals, man and
other minor agents, temperature, etc.

Types of weathering
There are 3 basic types of weathering:
a. Physical/Mechanical weathering
b. Chemical weathering
c. Biological weathering

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 Physical weathering is the breakdown of rock into small fragments by physical
processes without a change in chemical composition

Main agent of physical weathering

 temperature

The main process of physical weathering

i. block disintegration (block separation)

It is a process in which blocks of rock break away from the original rock.
Block disintegration may be caused by the large diurnal ranges of temperature in some
regions such as desert.

ii. Exfoliation
Exfoliation occurs when there is thermal expansion of rocks during day and contraction
of rocks during night due to repeated temperature changes. Rock will be peeled or
removed off.

iii. granular disintegration

This is the breakup of rocks into small particles.this occurs to that have different
chemical composition
iv) Frost action
This is the action of ice on rocks at high altitudes in the tropics, which experience
alternate freezing and melting. this led to the breaking of rock

v) Pressure release (unloading)

This occurs when the rock is exposed by the removal of the overlying debris of
vegetation by denudation. This cause the cracking of exposed rock.

vi) Rainwater action(slaking)

During the wet season, the particles of clay within the rock absorb moisture, making them
swell. When the dry season sets in the particles loses much of this water causing them to
shrink.
vii. Crystallization
is the physical processes of weathering in which some rocks may absorb salty water and
collect in rock cavities and pores? Then because of evaporation, salt crystals will remain
alone
B. Chemical weathering Refer to break dawn of rock with complete change in the
chemical composition. The main agent is water
Chemical weathering involves the following 5 processes as explained below:
1) Carbonation: this is a process through which rain water dissolves the atmospheric
gases of carbon dioxide(CO2) to form a weak carbonic acid which reacts with rocks to
weather or wear away those rocks especially in limestone areas.
H2O+CO2 H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
H2CO3+CaCO3 Ca (HCO3)2 (Calcium Bicarbonate)

2) Solution: this involves only dissolving of soluble rock minerals by rain or running
water leaving the insoluble rocks dug up with holes called Sink holes or Grikes

3) Hydration: this one involves absorption of water by the minerals contained in the
rock. The rock minerals then expand causing stresses to develop and when this process

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continues, rocks disintegrate. An example of hydration are found along River Tana( Kenya)
and Bundibugyo in Uganda, where calcium sulphate absorb water to form Gypsum.

CaSO4+2H2OCaSO4 2H2O

4) Hydrolysis: This is a chemical process that occurs in rocks, which absorbs water.
Hydrolysis is a reaction of Hydrogen and some minerals within certain rocks.
K2AL203.6SiO2+H2O AL2O3.2SiO2.2H2O

4) Oxidation: It is combination of oxygen and Metal like Iron, Magnesium, Aluminium,

etc. 4FeO+O2 2Fe2O3

C. Biological weathering is the breakdown of rocks due to the action of biological

organisms, namely plants, animals and people.

i) Action of plants
-Sometimes plants roots such as those of trees grows into the joints and cracks of rocks.
ii) Action of animals
-Respiration: this is where living organisms such as rats, moles and rabbits give
out carbon dioxide that mix with soil water to form a weak carbonic acid that
facilitate chemical weathering.
iii. Action of people
-People mechanically break up rocks by blasting them, using explosives, quarrying or
even exploding bombs on the ground.

Difference between physical and chemical weathering

 Physical weathering involves breakdown of rocks without any change in chemical and
mineral structure of rocks while Chemical weathering is breakdown of rocks in which
chemical changes are experienced.
 Physical weathering is mainly influenced by temperature changes while chemical
weathering is mainly influenced by rainwater.
 Physical weathering is common in arid areas where the diurnal temperature range is
high while chemical weathering is rampant in equatorial regions where rainfall is high
throughout the year.
 Physical weathering concentrates on upper layers of earth and therefore is shallow
while chemical weathering weathers even deeper layers where percolating rainwater
can reach.
 Chemical weathering is slower in disintegrating rocks because of the slow reactions of
gases in water while physical weathering may be quicker e.g. man cracking rocks with
bulldozers.

The interdependence of physical and chemical weathering

The rocks are all interdependent in a sense that physical weathering and chemical weathering
operate on rocks at the same time and one may open the way for the other like in the
following processes:

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a) The joints, cracks and weaknesses found in a rock as a result of physical weathering allow
deeper penetration of water hence providing a favorable ground for rock decay( chemical
weathering)
b) Some rocks are dissolved in water and weathered away in solution. The solution formed
may later undergo precipitation leading to crystal growth when crystal growth happens in
rock cavities they will exert a lot of pressure that will disintegrate the rocks physically.
This occurs in chlorides, carbonates, sulphates, etc.
c) Hydration( chemical process) results into rocks absorbing a lot of water e.g. hematite,
limonite which makes these rock particles to peel off in a physical process called
Spheroidal weathering
d) The physical process of frost shuttering opens up and crashes the rock and when these
rocks are occupied by water chemical weathering takes place. E.g. carbonation.
e) Roots of plants which expand within bedding planes of rocks and burrowing animals
which drill holes in rocks all allow water entry into these rocks which accelerate chemical
weathering.
f) Chemical weathering weakens rocks making them be disintegrated by physical
weathering.

7.2 Factors influencing weathering

The rate of weathering is determined by the following factors:

1.Rock Structure: The nature of the rocks determines the rate (speed) at which it may
break down. Soft rocks, for example break down more easily than hard rocks..
2.Time: the longer the rock is exposed to agents of weathering, the more weathered it is
likely to be and vice versa.
3.Climate: high temperature and heavy rainfall increase the rate of weathering.
High temperature and cold temperature favour physical weathering while
precipitation encourages chemical weathering.
4.Relief: the rate of physical weathering is higher on steep slopes than in gentle or flat
slopes. In contrast, the rate of chemical decomposition is higher on gentle and flat slopes
than steep slopes.

1. Aspect: this refers to the degree of incidence or exposure of the rocks to agents of
weathering and most particularly the sunshine. Some rocks are directly facing the sun
and therefore undergoing high thermodynamics while other rocks are in the lee of the
sun and rain. Therefore these rocks which are in the lee of the sun and rain are
protected from agents of weathering and therefore will undergo limited weathering
compared to those that are over exposed.
2. Living Organisms: plants and animals have also got their role to play in rock
disintegration and decay. Plants and certain chemicals E.g. nitritic acid and citritic
acids which chemically weather away the rocks, their roots also shutter the rock as
they expand therefore, the thicker and bigger the vegetation, the faster will rock
disintegrate.

Animals and bacteria also undermine rock strength. Decaying animals release certain
acids

Importance of weathering
 Weathering creates landforms like exfoliation domes

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  It produces lateritic soils which are important in road construction as Murram.
 Weathering helps to expose mineral rocks
 Weathering produces soil that helps in agriculture
 Weathering produces lateritic soils that helps in construction of roads
 Weathering produces clay that influences in pottery industries
 Landforms from weathering attracts tourists
 It provides ground for research

Disadvantages of weathering
 Deep weathering of rocks on slopes can cause mass wasting and mostly landslides which
are dangerous to man and his property
 Weathering of rocks leads to Soil erosion which makes the soil infertile
 Weathering landscapes(deeply weathered) can be unfavorable for building and therefore
for urban growth

Relationship between weathering and different rock types

1. Rock permeability: This is the ability of a rock to absorb water. Rocks with
limestone promote rain percolation. This causes decomposition of rocks due to
its reaction with water.
2. Mineral composition: Rocks with uniform minerals expand and contract at
the same rate. This may result into exfoliation due to the peeling off of the
outer layers uniformly. Rocks with iron on the other hand can easily be
weathered by oxidation while those containing limestone can be weathered by
carbonation.
3. Rock joints; Unjointed rocks are difficult to be weathered as neither water nor
plant roots can penetrate them easy. This is unlike jointed rocks which allow
water and plant roots as well as small animals to pass through them
4. Rock PH; Acids rocks are more resistant to weathering than other rocks.
However, such as rocks easily undergo physical weathering.
5. Colour of the rock; The type of mineral determines its colour as well. Some
minerals are dark coloured than others. Rocks such as mineral tend to absorb
heat faster than those which are generally bright coloured such as Olivine.
this makes them to be easily weathered through block disintegration.

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. State and explain different types of weathering.
2. Explain the factors that influence weathering.
3. Determine the relationship that exists between weathering and rock types

UNIT 8: SOILS IN RWANDA

Soil is the top layer of loose materials that lies on the top of the crustal rocks. Soils form
after weathering of the parent rock into small particle.

The soils are made up of gases, water mineral matter, remains of plant and living
organism.

8.1. Types of soils in Rwanda

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 1. Kaolisoils (altered soils)
It is specifically common in central part of Rwanda. These soils developed on
weathered of the parent material which mainly had clay mixed iron and aluminium
oxides.

2. Valley soils
These are soils found along river valley which form in valley floors of hills and
mountains. It forms from old alluvial deposits.

3.High land soils/Inceptisoils: are found on the slopes mountains in the north west
of Rwanda covering most parts of the Congo Nile crest Peak.

4.Volcanic soils
These soils resulted from the weathering of volcanic rocks. They are found in volcanic
regions of Rwanda.

8.2. Importance of soil in

Rwanda
1. Soil is significant to animals in that it supports animal life.
2. Soil is eaten directly by animals in the form of salt licks.
3. Soil is used directly in making bricks, tiles, and whitewash.
4. Soil is used in making pottery, ceramics and sculptures
5. Some soils contain minerals
6. Soil fertility influences farming activities
7. Soil has cultural and medicinal values in some communities

8.3. Soil erosion impovershment in Rwanda

Soil erosion is a process in which the top most layers is removed by running water,
Wind, humans and glacier.

In Rwanda, the areas affected by severe erosion are the steep slopes of northern and
western soil regions.
Soil impoverishment refers to the low productivity of soil.
Causes of soil erosion
 A great increase in population which has led to over use and misuse of the existing
land
 The steep slopes which have easily eroded by running water especially after heavy
rainfall
 Poor methods of farming especially on steep and gentle slopes
 Indiscriminate cutting trees on slopes
 Swamp reclamation which lowers the water table and makes soils susceptible to
erosion
 Uncontrolled grazing (overstocking) in almost dry areas such as Umutara
 Unstable soils coupled with unfavorable climate especially on steep slopes and in
valleys
 Monoculture: this one leads to over cultivation of land making it to lose its fertility
and becoming exhausted.
 Uphill and downhill cultivation: this is commonly practiced in hilly areas such as
MUSANZE, GICUMBI, etc. in RWANDA . This causes rills which develop into
galleys when the vegetation is removed hence, accelerating the speed of runoff.

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  Excavation and construction works: via the construction of roads, rail way and the
process of getting historical facts about man’s activities, this creates galleys and
tunnels which lead to soil erosion.
 Heavy rainfall especially due to the climatic changes which are taking place
nowadays with some effects like el- nino which overwhelmingly has led to the heavy
rainfall hence soil erosion.

Effects of soil erosion in Rwanda

 Over flooding of the river valley may occur as a result of eroded materials blocking the
flow of a river
 Destruction of natural vegetation cover (environmental degradation)
 Loss of lives due to landslide
 Erosion leads to soil degeneration: hence, poor agriculture productivity, as the top
fertile soil are washed away, the soil fertility is reduced and the soil get exhausted hence,
leading to poor crop yield
 Erosion can lead to the destruction of landscape: by deforming the natural beauty of
the landscape is the affected areas.
 Soil erosion may cause poor soil profile development by interrupting the soil formation
processes.
 Erosion can lead to desertification: erosion destroy the vegetation cover which would
act as a source of convectional rainfall, thus causing semi-arid condition to develop.
 Erosion is a hindrance to agricultural mechanization: since the rills and galleys
created by erosion, and these ones hinder the movement of the machines.
 Erosion is a hazard and hindrance to transport and communication because it
destroys our life and sometimes eroded trees are falling over electric cables, then
communication is hindered.
On the other side, there is a tangible example in RWANDA where on 3 rd May 2013 the load
linking KIGALI- MUSANZE-RUBAVU broken down, then transport was not possible
by then.
 Erosion can cause famine and drought: because when the available vegetations are
eroded, this affect the level of rainfall then it causes drought which lead to the reduction
of crops yield, hence, causing famine.
 Erosion lead to sedimentation in lakes: the deposition of soil which are washed away
(sediment) in the lakes, reduces the depth of water and disturb fishing industry.

Soil conservation methods in Rwanda

- Cropping rotation: this involves of growing different crops at different times on the
same piece of land.
- Use of fertilizes on poor soils: The use of fertiliser and manures increase the soil
fertility and these give soil to resist on soil erosion.

- Planting of cover crops in an area:Cover crops include the grass , beans…could

planted to conserve soil
- Mulching: covering the soil with crops remains, grass. Mulching also reduce soil
erosion by running water.
- Contour ploughing: In this system of cultivation, the ploughing is aligned to
the contours and they help to reduce soil erosion.

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 - Planting of trees: The trees reduce the amount of surface runoff by improving the rate
of water absorption and soil erosion.
- Strip cropping: this involves of growing of crops in alternate band. The strips
of crops may also be planted at right angles to the direction of wind to limit wind
direction
- Control grazing: The land should be protected from overgrazing in order to
reduce the destroying of vegetation.
- Terracing of land; are cutting the right angle to the slope. This reduce soil
erosion
- Reforestations: Planting trees in areas where forests have been destroyed.
- Afforestation: planting trees in an area where there were no trees.
- Agro-forestry: planting trees and crops in the same farms

8.2 Soil erosion and impoverishment in Rwanda

Soil erosion is a process in which the top most layers in removed by running water, Wind
and glacier
Soil impoverishment refers to the low productivity of soil.
Causes of soil erosion
 A great increase in population which has led to over use and misuse of the existing
land
 The steep slopes which have easily eroded by running water especially after heavy
rainfall
 Poor methods of farming especially on steep and gentle slopes
 Indiscriminate cutting trees on slopes
 Swamp reclamation which lowers the water table and makes soils susceptible to
erosion
 Uncontrolled grazing (overstocking) in almost dry areas such as Umutara
 Unstable soils coupled with unfavorable climate especially on steep slopes and in
valleys
 Monoculture: this one leads to over cultivation of land making it to lose its fertility
and becoming exhausted.
 Uphill and downhill cultivation: this is commonly practiced in hilly areas such as
MUSANZE, GICUMBI, etc. in RWANDA . This causes rills which develop into
galleys when the vegetation is removed hence, accelerating the speed of runoff.
 Excavation and construction works: via the construction of roads, rail way and the
process of getting historical facts about man’s activities, this creates galleys and
tunnels which lead to soil erosion.
 Heavy rainfall especially due to the climatic changes which are taking place
nowadays with some effects like el- nino which overwhelmingly has led to the heavy
rainfall hence soil erosion.

Effects of soil erosion in Rwanda

 Over flooding of the river valley may occur as a result of eroded materials blocking the
flow of a river
 Destruction of natural vegetation cover (environmental degradation)
 Loss of lives due to landslide
 Erosion leads to soil degeneration: hence, poor agriculture productivity, as the top
fertile soil are washed away, the soil fertility is reduced and the soil get exhausted hence,
leading to poor crop yield

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 Erosion can lead to the destruction of landscape: by deforming the natural beauty of
the landscape is the affected areas.
 Soil erosion may cause poor soil profile development by interrupting the soil formation
processes.
 Erosion can lead to desertification: erosion destroy the vegetation cover which would
act as a source of convectional rainfall, thus causing semi-arid condition to develop.
 Erosion is a hindrance to agricultural mechanization: since the rills and galleys
created by erosion, and these ones hinder the movement of the machines.
 Erosion is a hazard and hindrance to transport and communication because it
destroys our life and sometimes eroded trees are falling over electric cables, then
communication is hindered.
On the other side, there is a tangible example in RWANDA where on 3 rd May 2013 the load
linking KIGALI- MUSANZE-RUBAVU broken down, then transport was not possible
by then.
 Erosion can cause famine and drought: because when the available vegetations are
eroded, this affect the level of rainfall then it causes drought which lead to the reduction
of crops yield, hence, causing famine.
 Erosion lead to sedimentation in lakes: the deposition of soil which are washed away
(sediment) in the lakes, reduces the depth of water and disturb fishing industry.

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Write brief notes on the three constituents of soil.
2. How does heavy rain cause soil impoverishment?
3. Herbert has a small farm on which he practices mixed farming. Lately, the
productivity has gone down.
a) What are some of the probable causes of the declining farm productivity?
b) Suggest appropriate solutions that Herbert could apply to improve soil quality.
4. How does Rwanda stand to benefit from soil conservation?

UNIT 9: CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN RWANDA

Introduction
RWANDA is a mountainous country located in 2° S of the equator. The altitude is less than
1500 meters in the Eastern plateau but rising to between 1500 and 4507meters in the West
and North. Although located only 2° south of the Equator, Rwanda’s high elevation makes
the climate temperate.
9.1 Climatic regions and seasons in Rwanda
Climate is the average weather conditions of an area recorded over a long period of time.
This period may range between 30 and 35 years.
9.1.1 Major climatic regions of Rwanda

1. Tropical wet lake Kivu:In this region, average annual rainfall varying between
1300mm near lake Kivu and 2000mm in volcanoes and Nyungwe forest per year.
Temperature varies 250c near kivu, 15.50 cin Nyungwe, and 9.50c in volcanic
region.

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 2. Tropical wet-dry central plateau: areas with high altitude between 1500m
and 2000m above sea level especially in central plateau. Areas in Rwanda that
experience this type of climatic condition includes Huye, Muhanga and Ruhango.

3. Tropical wet-dry lowlands: In this region, climate is very hot and fairly dry. The
average annual temperature is between 200c and 220c in Gabiro and Karama
regions, the sky is less cloudy and the areas receives low rainfall between 830mm
and 850mm per year.

4. Temperate tropical Highland r: Areas of North-west of Rwanda (Congo Nile

watershed, the volcanoes regions and highland of Gicumbi) receivingrainfall is
between 1800mm and 3000mm of rain per year. Temperature range varies
between 150cand 170c.

9.1.2 Types of seasons in Rwanda

 September – November: Short rain season
 March – May: Long rain season
 December – February:Short dry season
 June – August:Long dry season

9.3 Causes of climate change in Rwanda

is a large-scale, long term shift in the weather patterns. For instance, the average
temperatures over a large area of land may generally increases
a) Pollution
This is the contamination of air, soil, water and the environment in general. In other words,
pollution is anything that makes the earth dirty and unhealthy. Air pollution is the most
rampant type of pollution in Rwanda. The main air pollutant is carbon dioxide, which is
emitted from industries and motor vehicles exhaust fumes.
Air pollutants cause global warming by trapping heat from the sun in the earth’s atmosphere,
causing a rise in temperature on the earth’s surface.
b) Human misuse of the environment
There are many types of human activities that directly cause changes in climate.
 Deforestation
 Construction of dams or reservoirs
 Overstocking
 Growing crops such as rice under irrigation
9.4 Effects of climate change in Rwanda
Changes in weather patterns over time have had a major effect on various human activities in
Rwanda. These include farming, fishing, settlement, transport and even time to go for
holidays. The following are some of the resultant effects of climate change in Rwanda:
a) Drought
Drought is a long period of dry weather, when no rain falls for weeks or even months.
Drought has many effects, including the following:
 A shortage in the supply of water both for domestic and industrial use.
 Loss of livestock to starvation due to lack of pasture.
 Reduced hydro-electric power generation due to reduced water levels in rivers.
 Reduced food production as a result of less rain and little water in the rivers to
support crop cultivation.
 Drying up of pasture lands, making them vulnerable to fire outbreaks
 Reduced recreation and tourism activities, especially when wild animals migrate in
search for pasture and water.
b) Landslides

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A landslide occurs when a large mass of earth, rock or other material move down a
slope. The process may be slow, taking place over a long period of time, or rapid. In most
cases, rapid landslides can be destructive to life and property. Due to climate change, there
are cases of extremely heavy rains received in some parts of our country. This has caused a
lot of destruction, such as landslides. Landslides occur when there is persistent rainfall in
highland areas with inadequate cover. Oversaturation of the topsoil with water causes it to
move downslope, sometimes abruptly.
c) Floods
Floods occur when land is totally covered by water. It can be caused by an overflow from
existing water channels. It can also be caused by persistent rainfall over a period of time,
leading to overflowing due to oversaturation of the soil. Changing weather patterns are also
responsible for recurrent floods in Rwanda. This is also caused by more than usual rains.
d) Aridity and desertification
The government’s efforts to tackle desertification are clearly visible. Gishwati Forest for
instance has undergone massive reforestation after it was almost cleared for human settlement
and agriculture.
9.5 Climate change adaptation and mitigation in Rwanda
The following are some of the ways to lessen the effects of climate change in Rwanda:
a) Drought
 Efficient use of water when in plenty.
 Growing drought resistant crops such as cassavas, yams, bananas, millet and
sorghum.
 Recycling water from industries and homes to ensure maximum usage of available
water.
 Irrigating farms with available water to increase crop productivity.
 Storing excess water during the rainy season.
b) Landslides
 Afforestation on steep slopes prone to landslides.
 Application of improved farming methods on steep slopes by terracing and contour
ploughing.
 Restricting settlement and infrastructural development on hill slopes.
 Building barrier walls on slopes that often experience landslides.
 Growing cover crops to slow the movement of water and increase saturation. Such
crops also hold the soil particles together firmly.
c) Floods
 Improving drainage through construction of pumping stations, water gates, culverts
and water tunnels.
 Keeping drainage channels clear to enable water to flow within the confines of the
channels. This includes unblocking them when congested with silt and garbage.
 Construction of check dams to store excess water during the rainy season. This can
also include extending areas that serve as retention basins to increase their capacity to
hold more water.
 Limiting construction of permanent structures near or across water courses.
 Avoiding disposal of wastes in water channels.
 Discouraging deforestation that increases surface runoff, causing siltation and
subsequent flooding.
d) Aridity and desertification
Efforts to combat aridity and desertification in Rwanda include:
 Advocating for a reduction of livestock numbers to reduce chances of overgrazing.
 Improving in farming methods to avoid the effects of monoculture and other methods
of farming.
 Sensitising the public on the need for smaller families in order to reduce the need for
more housing.
 Carrying out tree planting campaigns to increase the forest cover and restore forests
that were once cleared.

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  Subsidising alternative sources of energy to substitute the use of charcoal and
firewood.
 Educating the public on the causes and effects of aridity and desertification, and
possible ways of how to curb the same.

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. In your note books, draw the map of Rwanda showing the climatic zones of Rwanda.
2. Write down the indicators for climate change in Rwanda.
3. Explain the causes and effects of climate change in Rwanda.
4. Write an essay on the measures being taken in Rwanda to mitigate effects of climate
change.

UNIT 10: VEGETATON IN RWANDA

Introduction
Natural vegetation is the plant life that grows in a place as a result of natural factors.
They are found in Nyungwe, Gishwati and Mukura forest. Volcano vegetation is a forest
dominated by bamboos and umugeshi.
10.1 types of vegetation in
rwanda

I. Savannah woodlands: These type of vegetation found in southern parts of Rwanda and
Bugesera district. this vegetation is characterized by hardwood type of trees that are
medium height and short scrubs that have many shoots from one stem.

II. Riverine and Marshland vegetation: this type of vegetation is found in wetland areas
such as Rugezi swamp in Burera district and along river including Akagera, nyabarongo,
rusizi.

III. Savannah grasslands: are found on the lower slopes including the hills in the central
part of RWANDA and Eastern of Rwanda in Akagera national park

IV. Mountain vegetation are vegetation that found in the mountain western part of Rwanda.
Mountain forest have more than 200 species of trees and are home of wild animals.
Example ngungwe national park and volcano national park

10.2 Factors that influence vegetation distribution in Rwanda

1. Drainage: in areas where it is well drained, the development of vegetation is
encouraged
2. Climate: abundance rainfall helps in plants growth and the opposite is a hindrance.
Moderate Temperature also helps in development especially 60C.

3. Soil: deep and rich loam soils on the gentle slopes support the growth of tall trees, on
the other hand, thin, poor and immature soils exist leads to the development of less
luxuriant plants grow.

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4. Relief: steep slopes are affected by erosion and then a hindrance to the plant grows
while gentle slopes favor deposition which helps in development of tall plants.
5. Human Activities: such activities like bush burning, grazing, deforestation,
reclamation are obstacles of vegetation development.
6. Role of animals: the excretion by some animals act as fertilizers but also other
animals help in reduction of quality of land and destruction of existing vegetations like
Herbivorous.
10.3 Importance of different vegetation types
1. Some plants produce fruits leave or roots that are edible for humans -
2. Used for agriculture.
3. Bamboo are used in craft making
4. Vegetation like savannah Provide pastures for animals.
5. Support lumbering and tourism in RWANDA.
6. Provide employment for who are employed like in tourism sector and lumbering.
7. Provide construction materials and furniture materials.
8. Promote wild game conservation and environmental conservation.
9. Reduce surface run-off and protect soil erosion in high slopes.
10. Attract rainfall in different areas of RWANDA.
11. Different plants are there for ornamental purpose.
12. Contribution in reducing carbon dioxide in atmosphere which is harmful for life
10.4 Impact of man’s activities on vegetation in Rwanda.
Rwanda is a small country with a total area of 26,338 square kilometres and with a
population of about 11.5 million (National Institute of Statistics - Rwanda - 2016). The
density ranges from 250 to 380 people per square kilometres. For this reason:
 There is a very high demand for land. As a result, people are forced to settle and farm
in any available land including the steep hill slopes.
 The original vegetation in most parts of the country has been cleared to give room
for farming and settlement.
 Former forests areas are currently farms and homesteads.

10.5 Measures to conserve natural vegetation in Rwanda

1. There is a programme of planting more trees by afforesting the places which have
been the forests like Gishwati.
2. There are laws which punish the encroachers who are cutting illegally the trees
3. Protection of forests by fencing on the boundary of the same forests
4. The government of RWANDA is doing restlessly so as to increase the protected areas.
5. More seedlings are being supplied to farmers so as to plant them within or along their
farms.
10.6. The protected conservation zones in Rwanda
 Volcanic national park (Northwest)
 Nyungwe National Park (mountainous forest situated on the crest of the Congo-Nil on the
southwest)
 Akagera National Park in the Eastern part (Savannah wood land) in Eastern Province

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Name two vegetation types in Rwanda and for each give an example of a region
where it is found.
2. Explain how rainfall influences distribution of vegetation in Rwanda.
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 3. What is the importance of Nyungwe Forest to the population around it?
4. Explain why it is important to conserve vegetation.
5. What role do the local communities in Rwanda play in conservation of vegetation?

UNIT 11: DRAINAGE IN RWANDA

Introduction
Drainage is a lay out or an actual plan made by a river and its tributaries on the landscape.
The sources of water in Rwanda include lakes, rivers, swamps and ground water.

11.1 Major rivers, swamps and lakes in Rwanda

A river: refers to water flowing in a given channel in a definite direction.
Rivers, swamps and lakes are some of the features that make up a drainage system. Drainage
refers to the process by which water moves or exists on the surface of the earth.
Permanent and Seasonal
A permanent river is that one which has a continuous flow throughout the year when there
is normal rainfall.
Seasonal River is the one whose flow decreases for a given period of time during the dry
season.
11.1 Major rivers, swamps and lakes in Rwanda
Rwanda has got different lakes according to origin or process of formation. These lakes
include
1. Lake due to volcanicity

a) Lava dammed lakes

During the eruption and erection of Birunga (Rwanda volcanoes), flowing lava blocked
the flow of rivers to form lava dammed lakes. Such as lakes in Rwanda include Burera,
Ruhondo and Cyahafi in Burera district. These lakes could have been formed when river
Rugezi was dammed near Ntaruka.

b) Crater or caldera lakes

Crater lakes are smaller depressions occupied by water at the top of a volcano after
volcanic eruption. Mt. Karisimbi with a Crater Lake about 12m wide. Mt. Muhabura
(with Crater Lake of about 100m in width)

2.Lakes due to faulting

The only rift valley lake in Rwanda is Lake Kivu. The sunken depressions in the rift
valleys are referred to as GRABENS. When water accumulates in such depressions, a
lake known as Rift Valley Lake is formed.

3.Lake due to alluvial deposits (back ponding of rivers)

In Rwanda there are back pounded lakes in river valleys. These lakes include Muhazi,
Mugesera, Ihema, Cyohoha north and Cyohoha South, Rweru, Nasho in Bugesera and Kirehe
districts. These are lakes which were formed during valley flooding and as a result of river
reversal.
A) Ox-bow lakes: these includes:

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 These are lakes that form along the course of a river. The lakes are formed in the lower
course of the river where it flows through meanders or pronounced bends.
of oxbow lakes are lakes Ihema and Hago on Akagera River.

B)Alluvial lakes

These are Lakes that are formed by river reversal in depressions. Examples of such lake
are Rweru and Cyohoha.

4.Man- made Lakes: these are small lakes that have been created by man especially in
river valleys as reservoirs of water for crop cultivation especially rice. Examples are
found in eastern province such as Cyabayaga,Rwagitima, Kanyonyomba and in other
river like Rugeramigozi near kabgayi in Muhanga district ,river mukunguri (Nyanza
district , Muyira sector).

Major rivers in Rwanda

Rwanda is blessed by numerous drainage patterns. The drainage systems of RWANDA are
categorized into two classes: Permanent Rivers and seasonal streams. The major rivers are:

1. Akagera: River Akagera begins from the juncture or confluence of river Nyabarongo and
Akanyaru. Akagera receives waters from numerous small rivers such as Muvumba,
Kibaya and Kagogo from Kirehe and Ruvubu (Burundi near Rusumo falls). Rivers
Akagera flows eastwards to the down warped basin where it empties itself into Lake
Victoria.
2. River Nyabarongo: River Nyabarongo emerges from Nyungwe National Park at
confluence of its important tributaries. River Rukarara and river Mwogo. Due to the
rising of Congo-Nile crest, River Nyabarongo flows northwards from Nyungwe forest.
After capturing the waters of River Mukungwa (from Lake Ruhondo), it reversed
eastwards through Kigali where it captures the waters of river Nyabugogo, and then
southwards until where it captures the waters of River Akanyaru.
3. Rivers flowing into Lake Kivu: These are rivers which flow to the east of L. Kivu. They
include Sebeya and its tributary Pfunda which have their source from Gishwati forest.
Koko and its tributary Kore with their source in Rutsiro, Kilimbi and its tributary Matovu
from Nyungwe forest, Kamiranzovu from Kamiranzovu swamp and Karundura from
Nyungwe.
4. River Rusizi: This is found in the South of Bugarama. Its major tributaries are RUHWA
and RUBYIRO. River Rusizi is the only one outlet of Lake Kivu and it flows southwards
to Lake Tanganyika where it empties itself.
5. River Suswa: This river gains its water from the volcanic highlands. Its major tributaries-
Rwebeya and Muhe flow from Karisimbi and Gahinga mountains. Karisimbi is also
drained by Lakes Karago and Bihinga.

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Among the swamps we have in RWANDA the most remarkable are, Kamiranzovu, Gishoma,
and Rugezi swamp in Burera district northern province, along the rivers like
NYABARONGO, AKAGERA, AKANYARU, NYABUGOGO.
11.3 Importance of water bodies in Rwanda Allow farming on fertile flood plains and
swamps
 Development of recreational facilities like swimming
 Lakes may favour the development of inland ports particularly in deep sheltered waters
 Transport development along rivers and lakes
 Hydroelectricity power generation over resistant rocks of rivers flowing in or out of lakes
such as Ntaruka and Rusizi
 May encourage development of tourism
 They may favour the development of fishing industries
 They favour the development of crafts industry
 They encourage mining industry like peat coal, clay and sand etc. due to deposition and
methane gas from Lake Kivu
 It supplies water for irrigation, industry as well as for domestic use
 Wetland/swamps can be used for research in agriculture and areas for future agriculture
expansion.

11.4 Challenges to obtaining sustainable and clean water in Rwanda

 Sewage and garbage disposal,
 Misuse of water sources
 Water scarcity.
 Settlement pattern
 Poverty
 Climate change
 High population growth which leads to high demand of water
 Increased in housing developments.

11.5 Conservation and management methods of water bodies in Rwanda

Water management refers to the effective planning and control of the processes and
activities that are likely to cause worsening of water resources. Available options for
providing safe drinking water include:
a) Developing and maintaining strategic boreholes, traditional dug wells, water pans
and supply lines to improve access to water.
b) Increasing capture and storage of rainwater to ensure availability of water during the
dry season, particularly roof harvesting at household level.
c) Organising focused awareness campaign that simplifies the need for sustainable use
of water resources, in a language that is clearer to people particularly those in rural
areas.
d) Involving water users including gender groups, administrators and non-
governmental organisations in water resource management.
e) Enforcing laws against the destruction of water resources.
Water conservation

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This is the protection and preservation of water resources from destruction or wastage.. There
exist so many ways we can preserve water; among these we can mention:
1) Water re-using or recycling
2) Protecting water catchment areas
3) Removing invasive plants like Hyacinth in water bodies.
4) Treating or disinfecting community wells and boreholes during drought and floods.
5) Educating people of taking care about public water pipes and taps.

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. What is the origin of water bodies in Rwanda?
2. Supposing you are a member of the water club, you have been asked to share with the
class wise use of water. Prepare five key points for the presentation.
3. a) Draw a sketch diagram of the feature below.
b) Use simple diagrams to describe how it could have formed.
3. a) Describe how Lake Kivu was formed.
b) Explain how communities make use of the waters of Lake Kivu

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UNIT 12: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION IN RWANDA
12.1 Definition of environmental resources and environmental degradation
Environment: this term is used to describe everything which surrounds man including man
himself.
Environmental resources: it is everything in the environment that can be exploited to be
used by human beings. In fact they are the environmental features which can be benefited by
human beings. Among these resources there are renewable resources and others which are
non-renewable.
Environmental degradation: it refers to the deterioration of the quality of the environment
which comes as a result of misuse or careless use of the environment.
12.2 Types of environmental resources in Rwanda
1) Water : 4) Soil
2) Land 5) Minerals
3) Forest(vegetation) 6) Animals
12.3 Ways of exploiting environmental resources
Land
In Rwanda, parts of the land under natural vegetation are used for various purposes. Some are
used as national forest reserves, wildlife conservation parks, protected water catchment areas,
national wetlands and areas for urban development.
Soil
People who live on the hilly areas practice contour farming and terracing on their farms. This
helps keep the soils stable so that it is not carried by rain water. The other challenge is that
farming is done continuously on the small pieces of land.
Vegetation
Rwanda’s natural vegetation is found in very few areas which have been set aside as forest
reserves. The biggest is the Nyungwe Forest Reserve. Cutting of trees in the forest reserves is
strictly prohibited.
Wildlife
Wild animals are a very important resource in Rwanda. They are a national heritage that has
to be carefully used. Wild animals are tourist attraction and enable the country to earn foreign
exchange.
Water resources
The water resources in Rwanda are lakes, rivers, wetlands and rainwater.
 These sources provide water for domestic, industrial and agricultural use.
 The lakes, rivers and some swamps are important sources of fish.
 Rivers in Rwanda provide water for irrigation and generating hydro-electric power.
12.4 Causes and consequences (effects) of over-exploitation of environmental resources
Land
Overexploitation of land in Rwanda happens because the population is very high and
most of the people are small scale farmers. They own small plots of land which they
cultivate every year. The land is not given time to rest since people have to farm to
obtain food.
Forests
Due to the high population, the demand for firewood and building materials is very high.
This has led to exploitation of forests leading to reduced areas under forest. Some forest
such as Gishwati were completely cleared until the government stepped in to control
further exploitation.

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 Animals
Animals, both domestic and wild, are important to us. We protect them from misuse or
even killing them for selfish reasons.
Fish
Over-exploitation of fish happens when fishermen use nets such as mosquito nets which
catch all the fish both the young and the mature ones. The effect is that fish breeding
process stops and the fishery has no more fish unless there is restocking and restricted
fishing to allow fish to regenerate.
Wetlands
Due to scarcity of land, people have encroached on the wetlands removing the
vegetation to allow for farming. Some wetlands have dried up as a result. Some wetlands
have been polluted affecting all the living things both plants and animals in the water.
12.5 Environmental conservation measures (ways of upgrading the environment)
There are different methods of conservation of the environment.
Land
Land conservation includes taking care of land itself, soils and vegetation.
Land conservation measures include:
 Using good farming practices - Farmers whose land is on sloping areas have to
terrace their land to control soil erosion and sustain productivity. Cover crops such as
bananas, sweet potatoes, tea and grass are planted to help conserve soils.
 Proper planning of land use – Well planned land use ensures misuse of land is
avoided. For example, the government has set aside some areas to be used as national
forest reserves and wildlife conservation parks, protected water catchment areas,
national wetlands and areas for urban development.
 Protection of water catchment areas – Water catchment areas are conserved by
ensuring that vegetation is not cleared as this can lead to the water drying up.
 Planting trees in the farms (agroforestry) – Farmers are encouraged to plant trees
in their farms to protect soil from erosion as well as supplying firewood and timber
for building. Afforestation and reforestation programmes are also conducted to
upgrade areas that had been affected by deforestation.
 Controlling of forest fires – Fire can destroy vegetation in large area within a short
time. Forest fires are sometimes carelessly caused by those collecting honey or
cigarette smokers. Land affected by such fires take long to recover its vegetation and
soil fertility. Forest rangers are employed to ensure any fire spotted is put off before
it spreads. They also guard forests against illegal cutting of trees.
Taking care of the land after mining
The effect of mining on land is known as land dereliction. This is abandoning an area after
mining has been done in a state which has little or no economic value. Once the minerals
have been extracted, piles of waste rock and gaping pits are created within the mining area.
Such waste land cannot support vegetation or agriculture unless it is rehabilitated. Usually,
mining companies are unwilling to spend money on rehabilitation of such land. The
government has to enforce laws to ensure the mining company fills up the pits and
flattens the piles of waste rock then plants some vegetation before abandoning the site.

This process is known as land reclamation. This is a process of making land useful by
restoring it from quarries and wastes left after mining has taken place.

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This upgrades the environment in former mining sites. Setting up aquariums on the mining
pits can upgrade the environment. Such aquariums can be used as fish hatcheries for valuable
fish species which can be used to restock the fisheries that are overfished.
Conservation of water
Water conservation processes include the following:
 Avoiding to discharge waste materials into water bodies. For example, owners of
factories should not discharge oils and dirty water into lakes, rivers or swamps.
 Protecting the vegetation around the sources of rivers. If springs are exposed to too
much sun heat, the water will evaporate and rivers will dry up. The bamboo
vegetation on parts of Nyungwe forest are protected because they help hold water
that slowly feeds rivers.
 Avoiding wastage of water. It is important to make sure that water pipes are not
leaking and water taps are turned off after use.
 Controlling soil erosion. Soil erosion leads to water pollution as silt is deposited in
the water making is unsafe for drinking. Soil erosion leads to silting of rivers, lakes
and swamps. If more and more silt is deposited in these water bodies, they become
shallow could eventually dry up.
 Harvesting and conserving rain water.
 Building dams to hold storm water. Dams should be constructed on rivers in order to
hold back water which is then released in a regulated way for people to use.
Conserving wildlife
Conserving wildlife is a way of upgrading the environment. This is because wildlife is a
resource that enables the government to generate income.
END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning of:
(a) Environmental resources
(b) Environmental degradation
2. Give three proper ways of farming that protects soils from erosion.
3. Explain the causes of over-exploitation of forests in Rwanda
4. Describe the measures that should be taken to ensure water resources in Rwanda are
conserved.

UNIT 13: POPULATION IN RWANDA

Population is defined as the total number of people living in an area or regions or a country
in a given period of time.

Rwanda is one of the densely populated countries in the region. The 2012 census indicated
that the country had a total population of 10,515,973 people of which 52% are women and
48% men. The population density in 2012 was 416 inhabitants per square kilometre. The
population of Rwanda is young with one in two persons being under 19 years old.

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS:

Population density: Population density refers to the ratio between the total numbers of
people living at a place to the total surface occupied by that population
Population growth: It refers to the increase or decrease during a given period of time.

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 It is got by making the difference between the birth and death rate and the result shall be
added to the previous population.
Migration refers to the movement of people from one region to another. It may be
permanent or
semi-permanent.
Population distribution refers to the pattern of settlement, spread or dispersal of
population over the surface of the earth
Population structure refers to the composition of the population in terms
of age and sex
Census is an official count of members of a population.
Demography is the scientific study of human populations primarily with respect to their
size, their structure and their development.
Population change refers to the increase or decrease in population over a period of time

13.1 Factors influencing population distribution and density in Rwanda

1. Fertility of soils: The volcanic soils of Musanze, Burera, Nyabihu and Rubavu have a
great influence over population settlement, especially in relation to agriculture. Thus
in most volcanic areas of RWANDA , the population is dense because of having
fertile soils that support a flourishing farming system.
2. Availability of mineral resources: The spread of settlement especially in relation to
the utilization of natural resource like mining has tended to alter. The pattern of
human settlement over the last century. For example: population concentration are
high in mining areas of Gatumba, Rwinkwavu, Musha, Mukingo, Rutongo, etc
3. Ideal climate: Suitable climate (hot and humid tropical climate) favours the growth of
various crops. This is so because of favourable rainfall, which is, well distributed and
reliable in some areas. The temperatures are also moderate and this attracts people for
settlement.
4. The presence of communication networks: for example roads in various parts of the
country, have encouraged population growth especially in urban centers like Kigali,
Butare, Ruhengeri and Gisenyi.
5. The development of urban centres has also influenced the nature of population
distribution in RWANDA. Urban centres provide a good number of functions which
attract people into them eg cheap HEP, Commercial activities improved housing
facilities, ready healthy services, cheap and constant transport services, clean water
and so on.
6. Relief: The low lying and undulating hill such as the central plateau and eastern plains
have attracted many settlements. Rwandan plateaus are highly settled because of
gentle slopes and almost flat tops.
7. The influence of Kings Place: In RWANDA dense population concentration are
also found in areas which had strong political Kingdoms. For example Nyanza and
Gasabo places
8. Development of medical and educational facilities: the establishment of hospitals
and schools facilities also encouraged many settlers. Such areas in RWANDA have
dense population.
9. Influence of modern administrative cities like Kigali city and other
administrative factors also encouraged settlements

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10. Altitude: In mountainous areas, the difficulties of cold weather and lack of soils are
aggregated by lack of sufficiently gentle sloping land. Only plateau where farming
and communication are relatively easy, have been settled.
11. Prolonged drought: In the low lying and lot areas such as Umutara and some parts of
Bugesera temperatures, rainfall and humidity are very low all the year round. The
climate in these areas is harsh and encourages the spread of certain pests and diseases
12. Poor soils: In areas where climate is favourable, yet soils are poor, population
settlement is sparse because the soils are infertile.
13. Lack of transport and communication networks: Hostile environments especially
valleys and mountains are poorly served with transport links. This reduces the
attractiveness of such areas for human settlement.
14. Historical background: the urban centers like Kabgayi, Kigali, Save, Zaza and more
others are densely populated because they used to be colonial posts.
13.2 Population structure in Rwanda (composition, age and sex)
Population structure is referred to as the composition of population in terms of age and sex.

Within any population, there are people of different ages. These include the young,
middle aged and old people. There are also both men and women.

Fig: Pyramid of age and sex showing population structure in Rwanda

Notice that on the left are the males and on the right, there are the females. The longer the bar
is higher the number of people within the given age group. This type of a graph is called an
age-sex pyramid.
The following are some of the conclusions that can be made from the pyramid above:
 The pyramid is broad at the base and gradually becomes narrow toward the top. This
means that Rwanda’s population has a large number of young people.
 There are many children whose age is 0 to 4 years. This shows that the birth rate in
Rwanda is very high. This is an indication of a population that is growing rapidly.
 A large part of the population of Rwanda consists of young people between 0 to 20
years. These are mainly children and the school going age who depend on their
parents and guardians for all their needs.
 The old people who are over 70 years are few. From this age upwards, the people are
not actively involved in economic activities. Like the young people, these are also
dependants.

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13.3 Population movements/migration in Rwanda (causes and effects)
Population migration is the movement of people from one place to another. Movement can be
within the country (internal migration) or from the country to other parts of the world
(external migration also termed as emigration). Movement can also be from other countries
to Rwanda (immigration). Some of the movements are on permanent basis while others are
temporary.
a) Causes of population movements
The following are factors that cause movements (or migrations) in Rwanda:
 Travelling for duty
 Population pressure
 Search for employment opportunities
 Search for pasture and water
 Natural calamities
 Political instability
 Search for better health care and education
 Leisure/tourism
 Government policy
 Search for valuable resources
b) Effects of migrations
 Depopulation: The areas which people move from may experience reduction in
population if the movement involves too many people.
 Reduced demand for local products: Due to the reduction in the number of people it
could lead to a reduction in demand for goods and services.
 Reduced skilled labour: If those moving out are the educated and skilled people, for
example when professionals like teachers, doctors and engineers migrate, this causes
a shortage of the skilled people.
 Ease in population pressure: If people move out because of pressure on land, there
will be sufficient land for those left behind. When people are few, the rate of
environmental degradation reduces.
 Pressure on amenities: The areas where people migrate to experience an increase in
the population. This could lead to congestion and strain on social amenities.
 Increased labour: The areas gets a large number of people with all skills that may be
needed for different economic activities using cheap labour.
 Higher levels of unemployment: Not all those who move to towns in search of
employment are lucky to get jobs. Job opportunities do not increase as fast as
population increase. Many people remain unemployed.
 Increased market for goods and services: this is because demand increases with
increased population.
 Development of informal settlements: Those who move to towns and fail to get
employment are not able to afford good houses. They end up creating shanties to live
in.
 Increase in crime rate: The unemployed turn to criminal activities to be able to
survive. Some become drug dealers while some turn to prostitution.

13.4 Population growth and associated problems in Rwanda

a) Population growth

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Population growth means increase in the number of people in an area over a given period of
time. Some of the reasons why Rwanda’s population grows so fast are:
1. Improved healthcare and standards of living which has reduced death rates.
2. High fertility rates which means that the number of children born to one woman in
Rwanda is high.
3. Migration into the country especially by Rwandans who were in exile during the
1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.
4. Cultural values where parents attach a high value to many children.
5. Low levels of education which means that many people lack understanding of the
importance of small families.
Problems associated with population growth in Rwanda
Rapid population growth in Rwanda has led a wide range of problems. These problems are
not only felt by individuals but also by the government and country as a whole. Those
problems include:
 Pressure on
 Land fragmentation
 Declined soil fertility
 High expenditure by the government
13.5 Possible solutions to population growth in Rwanda
 Introduction of family planning programmes
 Discouraging early marriages
 Advocating for small families
 Discouraging prostitution
 Encouraging female education
 Setting up the minimum age at first marriage (25,23) men to men respectively
 Restricting polygamous marriages
 Setting up the number of children per family to only 3
 Involving the media (Radio, TVS, Newspapers) health workers, community and peer
educators on the dangers of over population
13.6 Impact of early sex, health risks, HIV and Aids, STDs in Rwanda and possible
prevention measures
 Early sex causes undesired pregnancy
 Early sex can cause STDs which consequently leads to death
 HIV/AIDS leads to decline of economic production of ones who get infected.
 Early sex can cause increased number of street children and beggars
 Furthermore, early sex weakens physical production and health of someone who does.
 Early sex astonishes the reputation of the dealer.
13.7 Possible prevention measures to the impact of early sex, health risks, HIV and
AIDS and STDs in Rwanda
1) First step is to put this unit into education curriculum for both primary and secondary
schools in RWANDA.
2) Second, trainings were given to the teachers and other stakeholders about comprehensive
sexuality education so as to emphasize the impacts of early sex, and HIV/AIDS and
STDs.
3) A room preserved for girls during a period was put at each school with girls in
RWANDA.
4) More measures were sensitized so as to protect the baby whose mother is infected.

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5) More efforts were provided so as to centralize health services in order to let the people
have access on testing how their life is.
6) Another measure taken is to give comprehensive knowledge to young people on
preventive measures against STDs.
7) Also, different campaigns and adverts are made to unearth the demerits of early sex.
13.8 Demographic problems in Rwanda and their solutions
Demography is the study of population. Like many African countries, Rwanda’s population
is faced with many problems. However, the government is doing everything possible to solve
these problems. Some of the measures the government is employing are included in the table
below

Problems Explanation Solution

High fertility rate This is the ratio of live births The solution to high birth
born to females of child rate is to introduce family
bearing age. It is expressed planning measures to control
per 1000 people. For the number of children a
Rwanda, it was estimated at family gets.
4.62 in 2012 which is very
high compared to other
countries.
High birth rate This is the number of Like the fertility rate, the
children born per 1000 solution is to accept to
people. In Rwanda, it was control the number of
estimated at 33.6 in 2012 children born in a family.
births per 1000 people.
High death rate – (Low life This refers to the number of Citizens must be educated on
expectancy) years a person is expected to ways of staying healthy and
live. This is also termed as safe. There is also need to
life expectancy. The life have better medical facilities
expectancy in Rwanda was which are accessible in all
estimated at 64.5 in 2012. parts of the country
The death rate in Rwanda
was estimated at 7.7% in
2012.
High dependency ratio This is the number of people The solution is to reduce the
who are not actively involved birth rate so that there are
in economic activities
fewer dependants. At the
compared to those who they same time, the government
depend on for all the basic should create an enabling
needs. environment for job creation.
High levels of poverty The high dependency levels Improved farming methods
and low levels of income would increase food for
results into high levels of home use and surplus to sell.
poverty. Creation of more
employment opportunities
would also provide more
people with income
High population pressure The total area of the entire If the birth rate is lowered,

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 country is 26,338 square population pressure would
kilometres. Part of the land is ease.
lakes, mountains, forests and
game parks. The remaining
area supports close to 12
million people.
Low levels of education When people are not Rwanda has made strides in
among the adults educated, it is not easy to providing its population
teach them basic knowledge across all ages with
related to their economic education as a measure
activities. against illiteracy.
High incidents of diseases Diseases such as diarrhoea, The citizens must be
malaria and STDs spread fast educated and be willing to
because medical facilities are undertake disease preventive
not evenly spread out. measures. Access to
improved medical facilities
for all citizens is important.

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Identify and explain the factors influencing population distribution and density in
Rwanda.
2. Describe the population structure of Rwanda.
3. Explain the causes for population movements in Rwanda.
4. Outline the reasons for rapid population growth and state the effects.
5. Suggest ways through which Rwanda can control the population growth.
6. Explain the impact of early sex, health risks, HIV and Aids and STDs.
7. Suggest the various ways of preventing the spread of these diseases in Rwanda.
8. Describe the demographic problems in Rwanda and for each suggest possible
solutions

UNIT 14: RURAL AND URBAN SETTLEMENT IN RWANDA

Introduction
Settlement refers to how people live and carry out their economic, political, religious and
social activities. There are two basic categories of settlements. These are rural and urban
settlements.
14.1 Rural settlement in Rwanda
Settlement is a place where people live. Therefore, a rural settlement is the way people live
outside urban areas or in a given village. Settlements are influenced by social, economic,
cultural, political, physical and ecological factors.
14.1.1 Types of rural settlements
a) Nucleated settlements: This is where houses are concentrated in one place without
proper arrangement. Here on finds very many semi-permanent structures being
confined to one place. These settlements are found in many places in RWANDA
such as in North-Western districts, Muhanga, etc. It is also referred to as village
settlement.

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 b) Linear settlement: This is where houses are arranged along transport and
communication lines like along the main roads in RWANDA .
c) Sparse settlement/scattered settlement: This is where houses are scattered in certain
areas. This type of settlement is dominant in an area where rainfall is low and
unreliable and where nomadic pastoralism is the major economic activity like in
Umutara.
d) Isolated settlement: This is a type of settlement which is characterized by few houses
very far from normal settlements. An example is Akagera Game Lodge (Hotel), Lake
Ihema fishing village and other tourist resorts.
e) Grouped/planned settlement pattern: This is a well-planned settlement by the
Government. It is also known as UMUDUGUDU. These settlements are linked to
each other by feeder roads from the main roads.
14.1.2 Characteristics of rural settlements
 Most rural area settlements consist of scattered homesteads and other buildings that
are far apart.
 Most rural area settlements may be separated by ridges, hills or rivers.
 Rural households are also common where extensive farming is practised.
 Rural settlements are characterised by single farms and nucleated villages.
 Majority of inhabitants of rural settlement are involved in agriculture and primary
activities like fishing, farming, forestry and mining.
 The pattern of rural settlement varies from a single farm to a cluster of houses. This is
determined by the resource present and type of land use.
14.1.3 Problems affecting rural settlements
Rural settlements experience the following problems:
Inadequate basic social facilities for the population.
The rural to urban migration results to shortage of labour in the farms.
Deteriorating soil fertility due to poor farming methods that has caused decline in
agricultural production.
Encroachment onto forested areas reducing the forest cover.
Few income generating activities leading to increased poverty levels.
14.1.4 Solutions to the problems affecting rural settlements
 Establishing regrouped settlements through imidugudus.
 Improving the basic infrastructure and services such as water supply, electricity
supply, transport and communication, health and education services.
 Improving agricultural production that is the mainstay of the economy of Rwanda.
 Initiating the creation of other income generating activities other than agriculture by
working with private development partners to empower communities financially.
 Initiating training architectures on low cost alternative building materials to save
forests.
 Implementing the The National Policy on Human Settlement that provides for the
control of unplanned rural settlements. It also provides for consolidation of rural
settlements with basic infrastructure.
 Initiating plans to develop inclusive settlement with priority to the vulnerable such as
the women, youth, the disabled and those living with HIV and AIDs. This will be
done in collaboration with development partners. Specifically, women will be trained
in entrepreneurship and management of decent economic activities.
14.1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of rural settlement schemes (Imidugudu)
Advantages of rural settlement schemes (Imidugudu)

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  It led to the construction of many houses for survivors of the 1994 Genocide against
the Tutsi.
 Since the policy focused on group settlement, the government managed to solve the
problem of land scarcity.
 Imidugudu targeted the establishment of specific residential areas in each village in
efforts to enhance proper land utilisation
 Through such an initiative, the government has been able to provide the basic
services to a larger section of the population. This is because people would be
concentrated in defined areas, making it much easier and more efficient to provide
social and economic services such as health, education, water and sanitation to the
population.
 Such settlements enabled people to mobilise self-defence units against gangs of
militiamen that still roamed the countryside after the 1994 Genocide against the
Tutsi.
 Communities in the Imidugudu provide mutual support and foster trust amongst
themselves.
Disadvantages of rural settlement schemes (Imidugudu)
 Some of the housing units were hurriedly constructed compromising the building
standards of the houses.
 The size of the land available per household is less than one hectare and the
space for agricultural activities is about half a hectare. This limits the available
land for agriculture.
 In some cases, areas of flat land were chosen, making housing construction
easier. However, the land was often fertile agricultural land, which forced those
affected to use less fertile hill slopes for cultivation.
 In some Imidugudu, such as the ones in Nyagatare, people walk at least 35 km to
the nearest health centre. Children in Ngoma on the other hand live 20 km from
the nearest school.
14.2 Urban Settlement
14.2.1 Major urban centres in Rwanda
Urban centres are spread in all the five provinces. The major cities are headquarters of the
provinces or districts.
 Kigali
* Huye
* Musanze
* Rubavu
* Rwamagana
* Nyagatare
* Muhanga
14.2.2 Major characteristics of urban settlement
 Urban settlement like Kigali and Butare have streets lined with trees
 Kigali has well planned modern residents and high class housing for commercial and
economic activities
 Urban centres have different activities according to land value and zones
 Urban centres are settled by people from different parts of the country.
 Most of urban centers in RWANDA are administrative sites
 Urban settlements are characterized by improved accommodation than rural areas.

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14.2.3 Functions of urban centres in Rwanda

i) Commercial centres: most urban centres in RWANDA are trade, business and
commercial centres e.g. Kigali, Rubavu, Huye, Gicumbi, etc.
ii) Administrative centres: Most of urban centres in RWANDA are headquarters
of government departments: Kigali, the capital city of RWANDA and others are
centres of the local administration.
iii) Cultural and education centres: Butare, Kigali are centres for education (UR
HUYE, URCE, URCT, KIM, ULK, CBM, etc Kigali) and cultural activities e.g
National Museum (Butare)
iv) Residential urban centres: Almost all urban centres are meant specifically for
accommodating individuals from different areas of the country. The high class and
medium classes are found in urban centres.
v) Urban centres: Kigali, Huye, etc are also centres for communication and
information. The headquarters for radios, television stations and other medias are
found in urban centres
vi) Urban centres also play a function of collection and distribution of goods and
services to other towns and villages in the country.
vii) They are also industrial centres: Most industries in RWANDA are in urban
centres

14.2.4 Factors influencing the growth of urban centres in Rwanda

1. Rural-urban migration: This is the drift of the people from rural areas to urban centres
in search of employment. This resulted in rapid population growth of the population
which is the main cause of rapid urban development.
2. Regional imbalance: in terms of natural resources as well as social services, rapid
development of roads, schools, hospitals and other social services has attracted man urban
dwellers especially in Kigali
3. Natural of education: This is theoretical rather than practical. This trains RWANDA n
students to be job seekers rather than job creators and as a result people rush to towns
looking for “white collar jobs” that are not available in rural centres.
4. Religions, educational and cultural factors: determine the growth of town. This is
because they involve pilgrimage of Christians, Moslems, etc. hence encouraging the
growth of urban settlements. For example, Butare developed due to the fact that it was an
educational centre as well as cultural activities like those used to take place at the King’s
place in Nyanza.
5. Defense: Today urban centres are developing because they have proved to be areas of
tight security and this further attracts foreign investors and people from rural areas. For
example, Kigali developed into an urban centre because it was chosen as a centre for
military operations and an administrative centre.
6. The presence of industries due to high technology: This has led to rapid urbanization
because industries provide employment opportunities; provide markets for raw materials
and at the same time steady supply for finished goods. The best example in RWANDA
is Kigali which has numerous industries (Kigali Special Economic Zone, Gahanga and
Rwamagana Industrial parks). These attract many urban settlers.

7. Relief of the area: Many urban centres in RWANDA are developed due to the nature of
the landscape. For example, Kigali grew into an urban centre because of being centrally

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 located on gentle sloping hills (Nyarugenge, Nyamirambo, Mburabuturo, Kimihurura,
Gikondo, Kicukiro, Remera and Kacyiru, etc). These plateaus favored commercial,
settlement, transport and communication activities.
14.2.5 Problems facing urban centres in Rwanda and their possible solutions
Problems faced by urban centres
1. Development of slums: the slums are informal settlements occupied by low income
earners characterized by poor sanitation, overcrowding, poor accommodation, etc
around an urban area.
2. Increase in prostitution: because of presence of people with different cultures in
urban areas and the problem of unemployment, prostitution is increased which ends
up leading to the increase in contamination of STDs and population growth.
3. High crime rate: towns yield too many idlers who end up developing bad habits such
as pick-pocketing, robbery, killing and raping.
4. Traffic congestion: cause by many people and vehicles using few roads especially
during rush hours like lunch and evening time.
5. Pollution: Water, air, and soil pollution are affecting the urban areas mostly due to
poor disposal of waste by the town residents and by industries.
6. Environmental degradation: due to search for land for expansion and need for fuel,
forests have been cut down.
7. Spread of contagious diseases: such as dysentery and cholera due overcrowding.
8. Insecurity: this is also created because diverse cultures and unemployment, many
youth people are engaged in insecurity acts.
9. Increase in the prices because of increase in demand
10. Culture disturbance
11. Unemployment problems
12. Increase in cost of living from the increase in the prices

Solutions to the problems associated to the urbanization in Rwanda

1. Improvement of slum conditions: by providing facilities such as clean water,

electricity, etc.
2. Recycling of wastes to solve the problem of environmental pollution
3. Increase in investment so as to provide employment opportunities
4. Emphasizing family planning methods
5. Construction of estates: this is aimed at availing houses to everyone in the town so
as to solve the problem of poor accommodation, high crowd index, etc.
6. Extension of social essential facilities in rural areas to slow down the rate of rural-
urban migration.
7. Mass and free education in order to encourage job creation instead of job seeking
and relying only upon agriculture.
8. Security keeping in urban areas so as to curb down such high crime rate
9. Construction of storied houses to cater for a large number of people
10. Clearing garbage out of the town and allocating a distant place for garbage and
sewage disposal
11. The problem of accommodation can be solved or reduced by construction of storied
houses which occupy small space on the ground and which can accommodate very
many people

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 12. Enlargement of existing roads by constructing highways and subways for vehicles and
pedestrians in addition to strict laws governing traffic
13. Putting in place proper government policy and plans concerning urban settlements
and land utilization
14. Government of RWANDA has put in place a good urban planning strategy to avoid
further slum development such as digging water tunnels to trap rain water and
replacing semi-permanent structure with permanent structure and modern houses.
14.2.6 Environmental protection measures in urban centres in Rwanda
The development of slum has been a major concern to the government. The following are
some of the solutions initiated:
 Creating jobs in the smaller cities of Huye, Rubavu, Nyagatare, Rwamagana, Rusizi
and Musanze. This is expected reduce migration to the capital of Kigali.
 Training people in technical and vocational skills to enable them take part in the
construction of more housing units needed in the cities.
 Identification of the right raw materials for construction and right technology to
promote low-cost indigenous home building.
 Expanding the sewerage system in line with increased population. Regular garbage
collection and disposal to be out of town. Garbage treatment is undertaken far from
towns.
 Extending social services to rural areas to limit rural-urban migration.
 Providing enough security in urban centres to suppress crime.
 Constructing new roads, highways and expanding existing ones to ease traffic
congestion.
END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What is the meaning of the following terms?
• Settlement
• Land use
• Urbanisation
2. Give three characteristics of rural settlements.
3. How does urban growth help in developing rural areas?
4. Write four functions of Kigali city.
5. Explain four efforts the Government of Rwanda has made to improve rural
settlements.

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UNIT 15: AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS IN RWANDA
Introduction
Economic activities refer to what people do to get money. Agriculture is one of the main
economic activities people carry out in Rwanda. Other activities are trade, forestry, mining
and fishing.
Agriculture involves crop farming and animal keeping. It generates more than 70% of the
country’s export revenues.
15.1 Types of agricultural systems in Rwanda
15.1.1 Subsistence farming
This refers to the growing of crops and rearing of animals on small scale. Most people in
RWANDA are subsistence farmers. Examples of crops grown by subsistence farmers
include: Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, sorghum, beans, maize, banana, cassava, etc
Characteristics of subsistence farming
 Crops grown are on small scale and are mainly food crops for home consumption e.g.
Irish potatoes and beans. The surplus yield can be sold or exchanged for other goods
 Simple tools are used e.g. hand hoes, swords, etc
 Poor methods of farming are employed e.g. bush burning before ploughing, cultivating
upper hills, over cultivation, overstocking, etc
 It employs people who are mainly members of the family and at times few hired workers
 Different crops are grown together
 Low yield per square unit of land cultivated
 Farms are owned by individuals

Advantages of subsistence crop cultivation

 Easy management : this is because it mainly involves the members of the family to
grow crops
 People are assured of enough food supply because crops grown are for consumption
 It is cheap as it requires very little capital investment and there many people can
afford it
 The farmer is free from government taxation imposed on large scale farms
 A farmer has a chance of saving crops when there is an outbreak of a disease or a pest
because of growing different crops
 Soil fertility is maintained because of growing different crops while some remove
nutrients from the soil others add

Disadvantages of subsistence crop cultivation

 Mechanization is in most cases not possible because of land fragmentation

 Low standards of living because of little yields per square unit area grown for
consumption
 Government earns little income from subsistence farmers because they are free from
taxation
 It employs very few people
 The farmer does not offer social services to the workers
 Poor methods of farming like cultivation on upper hills, over cultivating, etc leading
to low yields. This also yields to environmental degradation e:g soil erosion.
 Deterioration of soil fertility due to poor methods of farming used

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  Difficult to control a disease or pest when there is an outbreak because of growing
different crops together
 Infrastructures remain at low levels
15.1.2 Commercial farming
This is the agriculture for sale using the most modern methods of farming. It involves the
increased use of farm fertilizers, machinery and the planting of high yielding varieties of
crops.
Activity: Discuss the characteristics of commercial agriculture in Rwanda
15.1.3 Irrigation farming
Irrigation is the artificial method of providing water to crops in places where rainfall is not
received or is unreliable eg in Umutara and Bugesera areas. Irrigational farming is not fully
developed in RWANDA due to:
 Variations in the volume of water in rivers
 Lack of irrigational facilities
 Limited water sources in some agricultural areas
 Limited technology
 Shortage of capital

TYPES OF IRRIGATION FARMING

1.Canal irrigation are dug a small canal from the main source of water into the farms.
2.Sprinkler irrigation Water from the source is pumped onto farms through pipes connected
to sprinklers.
3.Drip irrigation a series of pipes with small holes at the required interval for a particular
crop are used to supply water on the farm.
4.Bucket irrigation This is where water is carried in buckets or watering cans to the field
and each plant is watered at a time.

15.2 Major crops produced in Rwanda

Food crops: beans, sorghum, potatoes, irish potatoes, millet, maize, cassava, taro, peanuts,
peas, etc
Cash crops: coffee, tea, sugar cane, rice, pyrethrum, etc.

15.3 Livestock farming

Livestock faming is the keeping of animals. Animals kept on a larger scale are mainly for
sale. Those kept on a small scale are usually meant for domestic consumption. There are two
types of livestock farming. These are:
a) Traditional (or subsistence) livestock farming
b) Commercial livestock farming
15.3.1 Traditional (or subsistence) livestock farming
Traditional (or subsistence) livestock farming is where farmers keep the livestock primarily
for family consumption. Products include eggs, milk, meat and honey.
Characteristics of pastoralism:
1) They occupy area dominated by savannah grass vegetation
2) They occupy area with low rainfall or very low temperature
3) Large herds of animals are kept, however, this is changing due to shortage of land
4) It is carried out in areas with poor soils where cultivation has been discouraged
5) Pastoralism is carried out where the land is relatively flat
6) They burn bushes during the dry season when they expect rains so that they can get fresh
pastures
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7) Animals kept are mainly for domestic purposes
8) Different local breeds of animals are kept
9) Animals are grazed communally on natural pasture and on unfenced land
10) Pastoralism is carried out in sparsely populated areas

Advantages of pastoralism

1) It leads to the development of industries such as milk processing plants, e.g Nyabisindu,
Rubirizi, Gishwati, Inyange, etc. Also leather and meat processing, Inyange, etc. Also
leather and meat processing industries because it provides them with raw materials
2) It is a source of bride price (dowry) to many communities in RWANDA
3) It is a source of food to the people for example milk, meat, etc
4) It is the source of fuel in rural areas where dry cow dung is used for cooking when
firewood is scarce, and to produce biogas energy
5) It is a source of manure. Cow dung adds fertility to the soil
6) It provides employment to the rural population especially those who did not get chance of
going to school

Problems facing pastoralism

1) There is over stowing problem which results in over grazing of existing pastures. This
also causes soil erosion
2) Wars and political instabilities e.g the 1990-1994 war of liberation in RWANDA
claimed many livestock’s
3) Poor and unpalatable pasture because of prolonged drought
4) Shortage of pasture and water especially because of low and unreliable rainfall
5) Animal diseases which lead to the death of animals e.g foot and mouth diseases
6) Poor transport facilities to transport the animals and animal products to the market centre
7) Presence of animal predators such as lions, hyenas, tigers, etc especially in areas near
national parks. These attack pastoralists as they migrate with their animals

Possible solutions
1) Construction of water valley laws and bore holes to ensure that there is constant supply of
water to the pastoral areas
2) Extending social services to pastoral areas. In addition, veterinary institutions can be
established to train more veterinarians
3) Establishing demonstration farms where farmers learn better methods of animal rearing
4) Provision of capital and especially by giving loans to pastoralists in order to improve on
the quality of animals reared
5) Educating the livestock farmers on the importance of quality and to reduce on the size of
heads to ensure constant supply pastures
6) Fencing and padlocking to ensure controlled grazing
7) Cross breeding of local breeds with exotic breeds and practicing artificial insemination to
improve on quality of animals

15.3.3 Ranching is the rearing of livestock on an extensive scale for commercial purposes
Characteristics of ranching
 Animals are kept mainly for production of meat and for sale.
 Animals graze on natural pastures in the ranches.

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  The ranches are supplied with sufficient water.
 The ranches are divided into paddocks to ensure availability of pasture throughout.
 The animals are protected against diseases through spraying or dipping in chemicals
to remove ticks and other parasites that could cause diseases.
 Cross breeding is done to improve the quality of the animals.

15.3.4 Dairy farming

Dairy farming on the other hand is a type of farming where the cattle are reared for milk
production.
Characteristics of ranching and dairy farming
Characteristics of dairy farming
 Animals are kept mainly for production of milk.
 It can be in small or large scale.
 Most small scale dairy farmers practice zero grazing where animals are kept in an
enclosure and provided with feeds and water.
 Large scale dairy farming involves keeping animals in open grazing fields divided
into paddocks.
 The main dairy cattle breeds kept are Friesian, Jersey, Ayrshire and Guernsey.
 Dairy farming is carried out in areas that have good transport facilities and ready
market for the milk.
 Farmers grow fodder crops and also use manufactured feeds to boost milk
production.
 Reproduction is facilitated through artificial insemination.
 Animals are well cared for to avoid attacks by parasites and disease.
Advantages of dairy farming
 Occupy wetland areas which may not be favourable for other activities
 Exotic breeds of animals are kept
 Animals are grazed in paddocks and this gives chance for other activities to be carried out
on the farm
 Animals are kept for commercial purposes
 There is controlled grazing on the farm
 Veterinary services are carried out on the farm
Problems facing dairy farming in Rwanda
 There is limited land for dairy farming in RWANDA because of rapid population growth
 There is general lack of capital to improve the activity
 Veterinary services are still limited in RWANDA
 Frequent droughts, which reduce pasture and water for the cattle.
 Animals are at times attacked and killed by diseases such as Nagana which is transmitted
by tsetse flies.
 The exotic breeds reared are expensive to keep particularly during the dry season.
 Ranching requires skilled labourers that may not be readily available.
Ways of improving livestock farming in Rwanda
The following are some of the ways livestock farming in Rwanda is being improved.
 The government has made effort to improve livestock farming. One way of
improving livestock farming is by educating farmers on better ways of taking care of
livestock.

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  Demonstration farms have been established to train farmers on modern methods of
livestock farming. Other support services include teaching farmers how to control
livestock diseases. In addition, they are taught how to get money from the
government, banks or cooperatives to support their farming.
 Effort has been made to cross-breed local animals with imported breeds. This is to
produce quality products for the market. The government has also constructed valley
dams and boreholes to reduce water shortages. Farmers are encouraged to grow
alternative feeds with high nutritive value for the livestock.
 To promote commercial livestock farming, farmers have been educated on adding
value to products to gain higher profits.
 Better storage facilities have also been established.
 Transport and communication networks are always being improved and have also
been expanded to enable quick transportation of products to the market.
Keeping of small animals
Small animals that are commonly kept in homes include pigs, goats, sheep, rabbits,
chicken and bees. The keeping of small animals is increasingly being taken up by
farmers. This is because they are cheaper to keep. They also provide a quick source of
income.
Factors affecting the keeping of small animals
 Favourable climate: Livestock such as goats, hens, pigs and rabbits survive in a
wide range of climate.
 Relief: Areas of high relief such as those in the western side of the country
favour the rearing of such animals as pigs. The drier areas on the eastern side of
the country favour bee keeping.
 Government policy: The government has undertaken a number of steps to
support the rearing of small animals in Rwanda. These include facilitating
extension services, providing subsidised farm inputs and ensuring good roads for
transport of animal products.
 Traditions of the people: Many Rwandans have always had one or more
animals kept at home.
 Land: As population increases, the available land for agriculture keeps on
shrinking. This has forced many people never to the keeping of small animals.
 Availability of pasture: Small animals need a small piece of land for pasture.
Some of them survive on the leftovers at home.
15.4 Problems and solutions of agriculture in Rwanda
The following table shows how some of the problems facing agriculture in Rwanda can be
solved.
Problem Solution
Crop failure or low yields due to frequent • Practising irrigation and planting drought
droughts. resistant crops in a given area.
• Harvesting and storing water for use during
the dry season.
Soil erosion which leads to soil exhaustion • Encouraging the use of organic and
and poor harvests. chemical fertilisers.
• Encouraging mixed farming so that the
organic materials from crops and dung from
animals can be used to maintain soil fertility.
• Practising crop rotation.

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Occurrence of pests and diseases which • Spraying and dipping the animals to control
affects crops and animals. pests.
• Using insecticides, pesticides and
fungicides on crops.
Inadequate funds to buy essential farm inputs • Extending credit facilities and providing
such as certified seeds, fertilisers and quality them with subsidised farm inputs.
breeds.
Land fragmentation or subdivision into small, Changing the system of land tenure to
scattered plots which lower the farm combine parcels of land into larger, high
productivity. productive units.
Fluctuation in the prices of agricultural Adding value to the products to fetch higher
products. earnings from other countries in the region.
Poor transport networks that hinder delivery Improving and expanding transport and
of inputs to the farms and produce to the communication networks.
market.

15.5 Agriculture modernisation

Agriculture modernization refers to Changing from traditional agriculture to modern
agriculture.
15.5.1 Measures put in place by the government to modernise agriculture
These include:
 Combining and reorganising the fragmented pieces of land into productive units.
 Using modern machinery and equipment during land preparation. There are machines
and equipment that can also be used during the growing period of the crops. For
instance, tractors are used on large farms in areas such as Nyagatare and Kayonza.
 Planting certified seeds and using cuttings and plant tissues that are high yielding
varieties.
 Planting drought resistant varieties of crops to minimise chances of crop failure.
 Engaging in commercial farming as opposed to subsistence farming.
 Using better soil management practices such as adding manure or using plant
remains as a mulch to conserve soil nutrients and moisture.
 Using natural means, pesticides and fungicides to control crop and animal diseases.
 Improving transport and communication to help people access markets faster.
 Reducing reliance on rain-fed agriculture to farm in all seasons. This is by storing
water in dams and harvesting rain water for use during the dry season.
 Increasing investments and financial services to the farmer

15.5.2 Factors favouring implementation of modernised agriculture

1. The government supports the implementation of agricultural modernisation by:
 Training farmers regularly on agricultural management, value addition and
entrepreneurial skills.
 Working with private investors to fund agricultural enterprises.
 Improving the spread of information on agricultural commodities and their prices
through low cost methods such as the use of mobile services.

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  Supplying inputs to farmers such as fertilisers and improved seeds, and farm
equipment at subsidised prices.
 The government has employed more extension workers to assist farmers.
 Training farmers on the best practices from traditional agriculture to enhance
modernised agriculture.
2. The increase of population in Rwanda has created a ready market for agricultural
commodities.
3. There has been improved information on changes in weather.
4. Research on agriculture has been intensified and results shared with farmers.
5. Currently, farmers can get loans and financial advice through cooperatives.
15.5.3 Advantages of modernised 15.5.4 Disadvantages of modernised
agriculture agriculture
The advantages of modernised agriculture There are several disadvantages of
are: modernised agriculture. Some of these
 Communities grow crops, rear are:
animal and engage in business to  The use of chemical fertiliser has
build better lives. negatively affected the
 The high yields from different environment. For example,
types of farming have led to an during the rainy season, excess
increased production of food for fertilisers are washed down from
all people. farmlands into water bodies such
 There is an increased employment as lakes. This leads to the growth
opportunities especially in the of weeds in these water sources.
rural areas.  The use of pesticides kills some
 Women and the young people useful insects.
make up a high percentage of  Modern farming requires a lot of
population in rural areas. They water particularly to irrigate the
supply a significant part of labour land. This may affect the
to the various forms of agriculture. availability of water for other
Modern agriculture has created uses.
commercial opportunities for  The use of certified seeds and
them. By earning income, poverty new animal breeds may in the
is reduced. long run cause a decline in the
 Modern agriculture has increased original (traditional) plants and
the production of raw materials for animal species.
industries.  A lot of funds are required to
 Modern transport and storage support modern agriculture.
facilities help to reduce wastage.  Intensive commercial farming
 The country earns foreign exchage and monoculture in large
from the export of agricultural plantations causes
commodities. impoverishment of soil.

15.6 Impact of agriculture on sustainable development of Rwanda

 Agriculture is important in the development of Rwanda because of the following
reasons: The country is able to provide adequate food for the people. It also enhances
the quality of life for farmers and the society as a whole.
 Agriculture helps to make the most efficient use of non-renewable resources such as
soil and other on-farm resources.

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  The revenues enables the government to provide education, primary health and clean
water services to its citizens.
15.7 The advantages and disadvantages of plantation farming in Rwanda
Plantation farming refers to large scale growing of a single crop purposely for sale. This is
called monoculture. In this type of farming,scientific methods are used. Most of the crops
grown on plantation in Rwanda are perennial crops such as tea and coffee. With the
temperate climate and plentiful rain and sunshine, the slopes are perfect for growing tea.
Together, tea and coffee make up a large percentage of the country’s agricultural exports.
Barley for beer and green beans are also grown as cash crops.
Advantages of plantation farming
1. Plantation farming offers employment opportunities. Many people skilled and unskilled
labour are intensively used
2. Plantation farming stimulates the development of industries: the agro-based industries
because they provide raw materials
3. Plantation farming leads to the development of infrastructures such as roads
4. The country raises foreign exchange when the crops are exported
5. It offers social services to the workers: e.g. medical care, educational services,
recreational facilities, etc
6. It is a source of income to the government through taxation
7. It improves the standard of living of the people as it provides market to rural people
8. It is easy to control diseases or pests when there is an outbreak of pests and diseases
because scientific methods are used
9. People living nearby the plantations get the technical knowledge of how to grow the crops
scientifically
10. It provides market to the out growers
11. It leads to the development of urban centres eg Mulindi, Kabuye, etc
12. Marketing of crops is much easier and relatively cheap
13. Plantations owners can easily get loan from the government
14. Soil conservation resulting from most of the crops grown are trees species
15. Favours training of farmers and development of cooperatives. Eg Tea plantation
cooperatives
Disadvantages of plantation farming
1. Because of growing a single type of crop, plantations suffer from the price fluctuation
when there is no demand for that particular crop on the world market and so farmers
suffer because they have no alternative crops
2. There is monoculture which leads to soil exhaustion since plantations specialize in single
crop cultivation
3. It is expensive because many people cannot manage
4. It can lead to famine because food crop cultivation is neglected
5. Repatriation of profits to their home country instead of developing the country where the
plantation is. This is because of plantations are mainly owned by foreigners
6. Plantations lead to the displacement of people because large areas are required
7. Plantations are costly because long gestation periods where investors have to wait for a
long period before first crop harvest
8. When there is an outbreak of diseases or pests, the crop may be destroyed and the
investor many have no alternative crop to depend on. Also such crops many be subjected
to natural hazards like hailstones which may do a lot of damage to the crops
END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning of “commercial livestock farming.”

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 2. Give reasons why farmers in Rwanda should keep small animals at home.
3. Discuss the contributions of livestock farming in Rwanda.
4. Explain the major characteristics of dairy farming in Rwanda.
5. Describe the problems affecting cattle keepers in Rwanda and give the solutions to
these problems.
6. Explain the meaning of the term “agriculture modernisation.”
7. Suggest the ways of transforming agricultural practices in Rwanda.

UNIT 16: FORESTRY IN RWANDA

16.1 Definitions of forest, forestry and silviculture
Forestry refers to the industry that deals with preservation and exploitation of trees.
A forest is an extensive piece of land covered with trees. Reserved forest zones in
RWANDA include: Nyugwe forest, Giswhati forest, Akagera National Park, Birunga,
Mukura, Cyamudongo. Forests in RWANDA fall into two categories, natural and artificial
forests.
Silviculture: The branch of forestry dealing with the development and care of forests

16.2 Types of forests and major forest areas in Rwanda

Natural forests: These are forest that were not planted by man. Examples include:, Nyungwe
forest,Birunga,Mukura and Cyamudongo forest all in western province a part from Birunga in
the north.
Artificial forests: These are forests planted by man and are widely distributed but on a small
scale. Examples are the forests on mount Kigali, arboretum of Ruhande, Sorwathe forest in
Gicumbi and others on hill and mountain slopes especially of northern and western provinces.

 Protective forest are those looked after for the purpose of protectection eg
protecting the soil against erosion, protecting water catchments areas
 Production forests are those looked after for timber and other products e.g
Nyungwe forests, Gishwati, Mukura, etc
16.3 Importance of forests in Rwanda
 Forests help to make healthy environment by providing oxygen needed by many living
organisms including man
 Forests help to prevent soil erosion especially on steeps slopes like highlands and
mountainous areas of Musanze and Gicumbi districts. Roots build the soil and hold it up
 Forests facilitate climate modification through evaporation-transpiration that leads to the
formation of rain
 They act as water catchment areas by regulating the flow of water thus leading to
formation of rivers
 Forests act as wind breaks, protecting buildings and crops from being destroyed by strong
winds
 Forests help in conserving soil fertility i.e decomposed materials (e.g leaves and
branches) and add fertility to soils
 Forests act as habitats for wild animals e.g monkeys, elephants, zebras, etc
 Forests act as source of fuel e.g firewood, charcoal, etc
 Forests act as source of timber which is used for building and furniture making, etc
 Forests act as a basis for industrial development e.g paper manufacturing industry, wood
processing industry, saw mills, pulp mills, etc

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 Forests are tourist attraction sites leading to tourism by providing raw materials to the
tourism industry and thus earning foreign exchange
 They act as the source of medicine especially herbs
 Forests act as a source of employment to many people e.g those making in the
departments of forest in the ministry
 Forests act as the source of government revenue through taxing engaged on exploitation
of forestry resources
 Forests are grounds educational scientific researches.
16.4 The concept of deforestation: causes, effects and control measures
Deforestation refers to the removal of trees or simply continuous cutting down of trees.
Causes of Effects of deforestation Measures to control
Deforestation deforestation

 Mining  It results in the formation of  Control human and

 Search for land for low rainfall animal population in
settlement  It directly leads to global order to stop
 Search for land for warming encroachment of
agriculture  It leads to loss of soil fertility forests and
 To find charcoal  Soil erosion can easily take overgrazing
 To get trees used for place especially on slopes  Educating the
construction. where trees have been cut masses on the
 Floods especially in valley advantages of forest
many occur during the rainy conservation (need
season to conserve forest)
 Sitting up of water bodies  Employing forest
especially lakes and rivers rangers and wardens
to protect the forests
from poachers and
fire outbreaks
 Enforcing rules and
regulation governing
forests in order to
punish those who
misuse the forests
 Training people on
forest management

16.5 Areas under the risk of deforestation in Rwanda

Different areas in RWANDA have been under risks of deforestation for different reasons but
the main one being searching land for settlement, insecurity reasons like war and genocide
and other personal reasons of the poachers.
Those areas under such risks we say MUKURA FOREST, GISHWATI FOREST,
VOLCANOES NAIONAL PARK and BUGESERA WOODLANDS.

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Draw a map of Rwanda and locate the forest areas.

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 2. Explain the importance of forests in Rwanda.
3. Identify the causes of deforestation and discuss the solutions being undertaken in
Rwanda.
4. Explain why some areas in Rwanda are under more risk of deforestation than others.
5. Explain the effects of forestry on the sustainable development in Rwanda.

UNIT 17: FISHING AND FISH FARMING IN RWANDA

Fishing is the process of extracting fish from water bodies, while, Fish farming is a science
of rearing fish in artificial water bodies or ponds. It is also referred to as pisciculture.
17.1 Major fishing and fish farming areas in Rwanda
Fishing areas:
Lakes Kivu, Ihema, Muhazi, Cyohoha, Rweru, etc,
Flooded rivers and plans.
* The major fish species caught are: Limnothrisa miodon, Tilapia, Claria Gariepinus,
stolothrisa from Lake Muhazi.
17.2 Factors influencing fish farming in Rwanda
Currently, pisciculture is done in several areas of the country. The type of fish caught is
Tilapia but productions still low. The piscicultural centres of Butare and Kigembe are
demonstration and breeding centres which maintain in their ponds high-output fish e.g.
tilapia. They young fish are then distributed in the prepared ponds in the other areas of the
country. Other farms are privately owned by households though still at a low rate.
The factors favouring fishing in Rwanda include the following:
 Abundance of plankton on the shallow waters: These are food for fish. They flourish in
the shallow waters where there is enough sunlight
 Rivers from different parts of RWANDA bring large amounts of food for fish i.e they
carry load and deposits which contain good
 Availability of capital to invest in fishing such as buying modern fishing equipment
 Government policy e.g the government may protect fishing industry from foreign
competition
 Large domestic market base in RWANDA
 Availability of both skilled and unskilled labour.
17.3 Methods of fishing used in Rwanda (traditional and modern)
Most of the methods used to fish in RWANDA are Traditional methods. Among these methods
we would like to emphasize on:

a) Spearing and shooting using spears, arrows and bows etc. This method is used in
shallow waters
b) Baskets method whereby the basket is set in the following water so that fish enters
through a wide opening which faces upstream and cannot easily come out of basket
c) A gill net method: it involves a net that hangs in water like a curtain. The net is held
on the surface of water by floats while weights carry the net down in water so that is
hangs like a curtain
d) Hooking: This involves using a hook and a bait, it is thrown into water and when fish
comes to eat the bait, the hook traps it into its mouth

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 e) Case net method: A case net method is circular net that tied on the wrist or held in
hand. The net is thrown and spreads out so that it fallows on water trapping the fish
beneath
f) Scoop net method: This involves a net that is held in water and fishermen lift it at
interval when they see fish passing over. When this method is used at night lights are
used to attract fish to the net
17.4 Problems faced by fishing and fish farming in Rwanda and possible solutions
Problems Possible solutions
Over-exploitation of fish in the major fishing • Restocking of the fisheries that have been
areas. depleted to increase the species and quantity
of fish.
• Encouraging people to engage in other
income generating activities.
Use of unregulated fishing nets that catch all • Punishing fishermen found using the small
sizes of fish including those that are not meshed nets.
ready for harvesting. • Banning the use of nets with small meshes.
Use traditional methods of catching fish like • Introducing better methods of fishing to
use of traps, spears and poisoning. increase the output.
Pollution in the lakes, swamps and rivers due • Enacting laws against water pollution.
to discharge of domestic waste into the water • Ensuring that the laws are enforced in
and use of poison to kill fish. order to reduce pollution
Inadequate internal market for fish. • Educating and sensitising the local people
on the value of eating fish to promote the
local market.
• Rearing and exporting of fingerlings of
valuable fish which are on high demand in
some countries.
Use of traditional methods of conserving fish • Improving preservation methods by
because the modern methods are expensive. improvising for remote areas.
• Expanding supply of electricity for cooling
systems to be installed.
Some fisheries have water weeds that hinder • Clearing water weeds to enable fishing
movement of boats and limit the catch. activities in the water bodies.
The country has few commercially profitable • Carrying out research on the suitability of
species of fish which limits the earnings from fisheries for breeding of more profitable fish
the industry. species

17.5 Fish preservation and conservation in Rwanda

Fish preservation is the keeping of caught fish for a long time waiting for consumption. Fish
preservation in RWANDA includes:

 Sun drying: The fish is split open and allowed to dry in the hot sun
 Salting: This is where the fish is kept in a strong solution of salt
 Deep frying: this is dipped in deep oil to fry it

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 Refrigeration (deep freezing): refrigerators can keep fish fresh for long time without
decaying and refrigerator vehicles can as well transport fish from the fishing ground to
the market
 Canning: this involves making use of metal cans for storing fish which is ready for
consumption
 Smoking and roasting/frying are also common methods used but they are very
temporary
17.6 Fish conservation in Rwanda
Fish conservation refers to continuous making of fish to exist and breed in water. Fish
conservation includes the following:

 Hatching of fish in ponds and then they are taken to rivers and lakes (or oceans) to mature
 Limiting the size of gill net used. E.g. Very small gill nets say 2 1 x 21 should not be
allowed for certain water bodies in RWANDA and species of fish like Tilapia
 Limiting size of fish caught e.g if by bad luck one catches a very young fish one should
throw it back to the river or lake
 To avoid fishing poisoning
 Constant clearing of water bodies (preventing waters from pollution)
 Training and educating of the population near water bodies about practices of fishing

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Explain the factors responsible for the growth of fishing industry in Rwanda.
2. Which fishing methods are commonly used in Rwanda and why?
3. Explain the problems facing the fishing industry in Rwanda.
4. Describe the fish preservation and conservation methods used in Rwanda.

UNIT 18: MINING AND QUARRYING IN RWANDA

18.1 Meaning of mining and quarrying

Mining refers to obtaining or exploitation of mineral resources from the ground.
A mine: The place where minerals are dug out or drilled.
Quarrying is excavation of building stones, gravel, sand and clay from the ground.
A mineral is a naturally occurring solid substance found in rocks of the earth.
18.2 Minerals and mining areas in Rwanda:
RWANDA is not endowed with many mineral resources. The common minerals extracted in
RWANDA are: TIN, WOLFRAM, LIMESTONE, COBALT, COLTAN (Colombo-tantalite),
GOLD, PEAT COAL, NATURAL GAS

 The cassiterite layers are in Gatumba, Mwaka, Rutsiro, Bisesero, Rutongo, Rwinkwavu,
Musha and Nemba
 The wafram layers are in Gifurwe, Nyakabingo, Bugarama
 The gold layers are in Nyungwe, Miyove, Karenda
 Colombo-tantalite (coltan) and the beryl.
18.3 Methods of mining in Rwanda

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a) Open cast/ quarrying: This involves the removal of the upper layers of rock to get the
mineral are and is used to mine tin, wolfram
b) Underground/shaft mining method: This involves digging a tunnel under many layers
of rock to get mineral ores and is used to mine limestone, tungsten
c) Alluvial method: This involves mining a mineral are that contains a lot of unwanted
rocks hence involve washing off the mud and other subsistence from the mineral are, it is
common with mining of cobalt
d) Drilling/drifting method: This involves the extraction of semi-liquid or gaseous mineral
whereby pipes are drilled into mineral bearing rock to extract the gaseous/liquid from
mineral. It is used in extraction of natural gas in Lake Kivu.
18.4 Factors influencing mineral exploitation in Rwanda
 Availability of capital to invest in the development of mining also favours mineral
exploitation
 There is availability of minerals in large quantities
 Presence of market for minerals also give way to mineral exploitation
 The value of minerals high valuable minerals encourage the development of mining
because they fetch high revenues
 Presence of skilled and unskilled labour to carry out the exploitation of minerals also is a
big factor that favours mineral exploitation
 High level of technology where by capital intensive methods are employed is a great
favour to mineral exploitation
 Political stability and security of the country enables mineral exploitation
 Availability of cheap power to use in the processing of minerals
 Good government policies, such as giving of subsidies and tax exemptions favours
mineral exploitation

18.5 Importance of mining and quarrying in Rwanda

 Mining is a source of raw materials to most industries in RWANDA

 Mining is a source of power e.g petroleum, natural gas, etc
 It is a source of income or revenue to the household and the government through taxation
 Mining offers employment opportunities to many people in the country
 Mining has led to the growth of towns in RWANDA like Rwinkwavu and Rutongo
have grown because of their proximity to mining centres
 Mining has led to the growth of sector because of economy like tourism, trade and
industry
 Mining has promoted infrastructure development in form of roads, railways, industries,
etc
 Mining is a source of foreign exchange when minerals exported.
18.6 Problems hindering mining and quarrying in Rwanda
 The absence of high grade ores
 Lack of enough capital to invest in the development of mining
 Low level of technology: This is the major factor limiting exploitation of natural gas from
Kivu Lake
 Shortage of market

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 Competition between mining industry of RWANDA and that of other countries as well
as competition between mining and other sectors of the economy has greatly hampered
mining industry
 Shortage of power to use in the processing of minerals
 Poor transport due to lack of good roads and railways
 Shortage of skilled manpower for exploitation of minerals
Areas affected by over exploitation of mineral resources
Open pits after mining may cause health hazards. This may be from the pools of water that
form in the pits which are not only breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Accidents are also
likely to occur where such pits exist. Mining companies often fail to restore the affected areas
because there is no direct benefit from such an activity.
• 18.7 Effects of mining on the natural environment in Rwanda Destruction of
vegetation: In areas where mining site has been set up, the vegetation is cleared.
This destruction of vegetation leads to exposure of soil erosion

• Land dereliction: Open pits left behind after open cast mining causes permanent
damage to the land where the natural beauty of the landscape is lost.

• Pollution: Mining activities pollute the environment during the removal and
processing of minerals. smoke and dust particles are released into the air while
poisonous industrial wastes are discouraged.

18.8 Future prospects of mining in Rwanda

Mining is one of the sectors which are productive in RWANDA from the national level to the
local people who are working as man powers in mining.Therefore this sector is not ignored
among the ones to be developed in the future. That is why the following solutions have been/
will be suggested so as to sustain the development of mining.
 Improvement on the mineral exploitation
 There will be sensitization on legal exploitation of minerals by seriously punishing the
ones who are applying illegal mining.
 Mining companies should reduce the risks of mining by seriously equipping their
employees.
 The government should encourage investment in the field of mining
 Reinforcement of safety to attract the investors should be done.
 Improvement of transport system to facilitate access to the mineral mines
 Training of the technicians in mining
 Through education RWANDA has empowered the sector of mining by inaugurating a
new faculty of mining and geology.
 Electrification should be focused on so as to promote technology in the field of mining.
 An eye should be kept on industrialization so as to promote mining by even locally
processing the minerals extracted in RWANDA.
 The government plans to involve more people in the mining industry particularly women
and youth.
END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS.
1. Complete the table below with the correct answers.

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 2. Correct this statement: We need not worry too much about our supply of minerals
because other materials can serve all purposes the metals can serve.
3. From your study of minerals write two key things you have learnt you would like to
share with your community

UNIT 19: POWER AND ENERGY IN RWANDA

Introduction
Energy is the power required to do work. It is derived from wind, water, petroleum, coal and
natural gas among other sources, mainly to provide light and heat or to drive machines.
Power is the rate at which energy is transferred.

19.1 Renewable and nonrenewable energy resources

Energy resources: these are all the sources where the energy or power can be generated
from. Including like Biogas, Water, wind, sun, geothermal, etc.
Power refers to the energy to do a work. There are different sources of power in RWANDA.
According to sustainability of the energy, we have two types including:
There are two main groups of energy sources. These are:
a) The renewable sources of energy
b) The non-renewable sources of energy

Renewable energy: this is energy which cannot be exhausted, it renews its self. This is to
mean that there is no man’s contribution to the availability of this energy. Example: Solar
energy, Hydro-electric power, geothermal power, Wind power, and tidal power.
Non- renewable energy: this is energy which source can be exhausted at any time, to mean
that more you use this energy; it will reach a time where such energy will be over and not
able to be replaced. Ex: Coal, Petroleum, uranium, natural gas.
 Wood/charcoal, hydroelectricity  Biogas
 Methane gas, geothermal  Solar energy
 Peat coal  Fuel/Petroleum

1. Hydroelectric power: Ntaruka falls in Burera province, Rusizi falls in Nyamasheke

district, Mukungwa, Gihira, Pfunda, Kilinda, Runyombyi and Murunda. There are also
other hydro-electric power potentials that are not exploited due to factors such as the
seasonality of rivers, presence of rapids inaccessibility of the river, political differences,
lack of capital and technological advancement. These potentials are on rives such as
Musumo, Rukarara, Mwaka, santiskyi and Akanyaru.
Advantages
1. Once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free. .
2. No waste or pollution produced.
3. Much more reliable than wind, solar or wave power.

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 4. Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with peaks in demand.
5. Hydro-electric power stations can increase to full power very quickly, unlike other
power stations.
6. Electricity can be generated constantly.
Disadvantages
1. The dams are very expensive to build. However, many dams are also used for flood
control or irrigation, so building costs can be shared.
2. Building a large dam will flood a very large area upstream, causing problems for
animals that used to live there.
3. Finding a suitable site can be difficult - the impact on residents and the environment
may be unacceptable.
4. Water quality and quantity downstream can be affected, which can have an impact on
plant life.
2. Methane gas: In Lake Kivu. Currently, smaller reserves are being exploited for use in
brewing industry (BRALIRWA) but plans are under way to exploit large reserves of
methane gas.
3. Solar energy
This is from power tapped from direct sun rays by using solar panels to generate electricity.
This is another source of energy in RWANDA which cannot be blindly talked about as we
get a high number of people who are using such energy. Among the leading distributors of
solar energy in RWANDA are MOBISOL, BBOX.
Advantages
1. Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution.
2. In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is no easy way to get
electricity to a remote place.
3. Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and battery chargers,
or for helping your home energy bills.
Disadvantages
1. Doesn't easily work at night.
2. Very expensive to build solar power stations, although the cost is coming down as
technology improves. In the meantime, solar cells cost a great deal compared to the
amount of electricity they'll produce in their lifetime.
3. Can be unreliable unless you're in a very sunny climate. In the United Kingdom, solar
power isn't much use for high-power applications, as you need a large area of solar
panels to get a decent amount of power. However, technology has now reached the
point where it can make a big difference to your home fuel bills.
Other types of energy used in RWANDA include fuel wood 80% used in RWANDA both
rural and urban areas, peat coal (used in small scale industries especially brick making)
biogas and bio mass, thermal energy (paraffin, petrol, diesel, benzene, etc for locomotives),
and geo thermal energy

19.3 factor that influence of power and energy production in Rwanda

 Presence of waterfalls
 Large volume of water
 Regular and reliable water supply
 Presence of space for a reservoir
 The level of technology. High level of technology encourages the development of HEP
while low level of technology discourages the development of HEP

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 Presence of capital to invest in production of HEP
 Presence of market for power
 Political climate. Political stability encourages the development of HEP
 Availability of skilled labour
 Favourable government policy

Importance of power in development of Rwanda

• Energy sector creates direct job opportunities for those in construction of the dams,
production and supply of the energy
• Power is a source of revenue to the government through tax
• Development in the energy leads to the growth of urban centres as well as trade and
commerce
• Production of power in Rwanda reduces the dependence on imported fuel such as
petroleum
• Power is used for lighting and heating purpose
• Power potentials facilitate the growth of industries

19.4 Problems of power and energy production in Rwanda

 High demand for power in RWANDA due to rapid growth of heavy industries and
urbanization
 Many water falls in RWANDA are not yet exploited due to seasonal changes
(variability) in the volume of water
 There is inadequate capital to invest in power production and maintenance
 There is no feasibility study in accessibility, exploitation and marketing of power services
 There is lack of technical knowhow in exploitations and management of power
 There is a problem of political differences between countries such as Tanzania and
RWANDA that has delayed the exploitation of power at Rusumo falls.

19.5 Future prospects for power and energy in Rwanda

Different measures have been put forward to improve the future of power and energy.
 Intensifying regional cooperation in eastern Africa to expand the shared hydropower
projects.
 Strengthening education and training to gradually get more skilled personnel required
in the energy sector.
 Giving subsidies to those wishing to produce energy
 Lowering the energy pricing to levels that are affordable by most people.
 Increasing access to electricity by households with particular emphasis on remote and
rural areas.
 Working with banks and private agencies to supplement funds for diversifying energy
sector.
 Diversifying sources of alternative energy such as wind, methane gas and solar so as
that most people can afford and reduce the reliance on wood fuel.

19.6 Efficient utilisation of power and energy resources in Rwanda

 Development of other sources of energy such as solar, geothermal, wind, methane gas, etc
to supplement the available power sources
 Improvement in road quality and repair to reduce the consumption of fuel by vehicles
 Use of efficient stoves (energy saving stoves) to limit the use of fuel wood for industrial
and domestic purposes

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 Construction of other HEP potentials to supplement the existing ones
 Importation of power from other countries e.g. methane gas to ease the problem of power
shortage
 Research on planning for appropriate management of existing forests and other energy
sources
 Extension of services to educate the local population on energy making, conservation and
management through the introduction of cash power and other services
 Encourage investors to invest their capital in energy exploitation

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. a) Explain how water is a renewable source of energy.
b) Give three examples of non-renewable energy sources.
2. Suggest four reasons why most people in Rwanda mainly use wood fuel.
3. In which ways could the communities use wood fuel effectively?
4. Describe the problems that Rwanda experiences in the production of Hydro-electric power.

UNIT 20. INDUSTRY IN RWANDA

industry is an economic activity that leads to the production of goods or services.
Industrialisation is the process by which an economy is transformed from primarily
agricultural to one based on the manufacturing of goods. Or refer to development of
industrialization.

Manufacturing is the processing and changing of materials in order to make new products of
greater value to man
There are three types of economic activities also referred to as industries.
These are:
a. Primary activities are the activities that deal with extraction of natural resources, raw
materials, like mining, fishing, agriculture and forestry. Primary industries deliver goods to
secondary industries which turn these products into consumable goods.
b. Secondary activities deal with the processing of raw materials and production of
semi-good or finished goods for consumption. They are known as manufacturing industries.

c. Tertiary industries
They provide services such banking, insurance, transport and recreation. They are known
as services industries.

In Rwanda, we have two classes of industries namely small scale industries and large scale
industries.
 Small scale industries
They are industries whose inputs and outputs are in small quantities and they deal with light
commodities. These industries are privately owned as they do not require a large capital to
start.
 Large scale industries
They are industries whose inputs and outputs are in big quantities, they occupy a large scale,
and they require a big capital to start. These industries are mostly owned by the government

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or big private companies. Example of such industries in Rwanda is BRALIRWA,
CIMERWA, UTEXIRWA, POSITIVO etc.
 Generally these are the types of industries you can find in RWANDA
 Agro based industries: these ones use agricultural raw materials and there are two
categories: food processing industries and agricultural non-food processing
industries.
 Chemical industries : they make the commodities like paints, plastics, soaps,
mattresses, fertilizers, etc
 Construction/Mechanical industries  Furniture making industries
 Mineral based industries.  Printing industries
 Textile industries

20.2 Factors for location, growth and development of industries in Rwanda

1. Availability of power: the presence of HEP is a very important factor in the development
of industries. All industries in RWANDA have developed due to enough power potentials
2. Availability of raw materials: RWANDA has enough industrial raw materials such as
agricultural raw materials, animal raw materials and some mineral raw materials. All
these have led to rapid industrial development
3. Human resource factors (management skills and labor supply) RWANDA is among the
most densely populated countries in Africa. It therefore has abundant cheap labour that is
employed in industrial development
4. Market opportunities
5. Availability of Capital : Industrialization in RWANDA is also encouraged by availability
of money to invest in industries
6. Availability of site and enough land for expansion
7. Availability of market: The availability of market centers has encouraged industrialization
in RWANDA. Urban areas such as Kigali with high populations provide a ready market
for finished manufactured goods. These areas therefore have encouraged rapid industrial
development because of increased demand for industrial products
8. Security and political stability.
9. Government policies: The government of RWANDA encourages investments in
industries. It calls for foreign industrial expatriates to establish industries in RWANDA
10. Transport: all provinces in RWANDA are linked to each other by tarmac roads. The
transportation of raw materials and finished products to markets is therefore easy
11. Climate: RWANDA has good tropical climate that favours the growth and development
of industries
12. Water: Some industries use water as raw materials. RWANDA has enough water sources
such as lakes and rivers.

20.3 Importance of industries in Rwanda

 Industries provide self-sufficiency in essential goods rather than the need for
imports and dependency on foreign aid. In other words, it causes import substitution
and export promotion which encourages development.
 Industries make RWANDA self-sufficient in terms of manufactured goods. This
gives greater political and economic strength and makes RWANDA more independent
on foreign political or economic domination.
 Industrialization creates employment to large numbers of Rwandan population.
They employ both skilled and unskilled laborers.

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 Industrialization earns RWANDA foreign exchange. It increases the country’s revenue
obtained from exportation.
 It raises the people’s living standards because some industrial people have a higher
disposable income.
 They contribute to the diversification of the economy and reduce reliance on one or
two primary production, which may fluctuate in prices.
 Industries create market for primary materials such as coffee, tea and sugarcane.
 Industrial growth can stimulate growth in other sectors of the economy.
 It provides infrastructure (electricity, transport and communication).
 It improves the social amenities (schools and hospitals).
 Industrialization helps to limit rural-urban migration.
20.4 Problems and effects of industrial development in Rwanda
Problems and effects of industrial
development in Rwanda
1. New ways of life on traditional value;  Promoting local industries by
2. Limited capital; levying/imposing heavy import duties
3. Shortage of energy; (taxes, tariffs) on goods produced outside
4. Insufficient in transport and but are similar to those produced in
communication networks; RWANDA
5. Shortage of skilled labour ;  Putting a ban on importation of goods
6. Competition between industries and other which are locally produced
regional industries which produce similar  Subsidizing viable industries
products;  Giving low interest rates or long term
7. Low level of technology; loans to industrial investors
8. Political instability ;  Formation of large trading blocs such as
Rural-urban migration leads to increase of EAC, COMESA, NEPAD, etc
crime, insecurity, accidents  Training skilled in industrial development
 Improvement in road networks, water and
air transport

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Outline the major types of industries in Rwanda.
2. Explain some of the factors that influence the location, growth and development of
industries in Rwanda.
3. Describe the importance of industrial development to the economy of Rwanda. 4
4. Explain the problems and effects of industrial growth and development in Rwanda.

UNIT 21. TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATION AND TRADE

These are the terms which are closely related and affected each other as you cannot trade
without proper means of transport and by default you need to communicate.
Transport: it refers to the movement of goods and people from one place to another.
Communication: refers to conveying or passing information from one person to another.
Trade: it is the exchange (buying and selling) of goods and services.

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21.1 Types of transport and communication in Rwanda
Transport systems in Rwanda
There are 3 types of transport commonly used in Rwanda.
i) Land transport
ii) Water transport
iii) Air transport
i. Land transport
There exist 3 types of routes used in land transport i.e. footpaths, roads, pipeline.
a. Roads
Roads are the most universal forms of transport and communication in Rwanda. Roads vary
from Tarmac, Murrum to feeder roads. All provinces in Rwanda are linked together by main
roads (tarmac) which are linked to districts and sectors by murrum roads. Feeder roads link
cellules to sectors and villages are linked together by foot paths.
Advantages of road transport in Rwanda
 Roads can be used in areas which are inaccessible by other means of transport like
waterways and air transport systems
 Road transport is flexible hence goods can be delivered any time or they can reach almost
every part of the country
 Road transport is cheaper and faster for short distances
 Vehicles can be used to carry a wide range of goods ranging from parcels to large loads
 Road transport is suitable for delivering perishable goods for short distances. For
example, vegetables, milk, fruit, cabbages, etc that are produced in most parts of
RWANDA
 Road transport does not require a large capital base for its successful construction in
RWANDA because most areas are almost flat like the central, southern and eastern parts
 Vehicles that use roads in RWANDA do not need to run on time scheduled like in their
air transport
 It can be built over gentle gradients where airports would normally avoid

Disadvantages of roads transport in Rwanda

 It usually handles specific and limited quantities of goods and services and this may not
be economically viable
 Usually heavily loaded lorries are too slow to cover up their expected distance in time
having no time table and this is rather uneconomical
 Weather conditions tend to disrupt some roads especially in mountainous areas during the
rainy season
 Road transport is usually too congested (traffic jam) especially in Kigali city during the
rush hours

b. Footpaths
In our country this is vastly used especially by using human portage. Bicycles and
motorbikes sometimes use footpaths in the case there are no roads.
Advantages of Footpaths
 Extend to the doorstep.
 It is flexible, can be changed as need arises.
 Can be made on steep slopes like the hill sides in Rwanda.
 No cost in construction.

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  Cheap or free to use.
Disadvantages of Footpaths
 Is only used by pedestrians and simple carriages such as animal drawn carts, bicycles
and motorbikes.
 Only light goods are transported carried by humans or animals.
 Time consuming moving from one place to another
c. Pipelines
This is a kind of land transport which includes transportation of liquids or gas. It is not
commonly used in RWANDA but some cases can be mentioned like transport of gas from
Rubona on Lake Kivu to Rubavu, underground laid pipes which distribute water in rural and
urban areas.
Advantages of Pipeline
 Cheap to use.
 Do not cause obstruction and are not easily damaged when underground.
 Transports large volumes of liquids within a short time.
 Little labour required once construction is over.
 Goods are relatively safe in a pipeline.
Disadvantages of Pipeline
 Only used for liquids and gas.
 Expensive to construct.
 Fire accidents for gas pipes spread very rapidly.
 Pipelines are fixed and not flexible.
ii. Water transport in Rwanda
Water transport simply means moving of goods and people on water using water transport
vessels. Water transport is not fully developed in RWANDA because the rivers such as
Nyabarongo and Akagera have rapids and waterfalls. It is only practiced on some lakes using
canoes and some engine powered boats. It is mostly developed on Lake Kivu, Cyohoha
south, Mugesera, Burera and Ruhondo.
Advantages of water transport in Rwanda
 It is the cheapest for the transportation on bulky and low quantity goods
 Usually little time is wasted in the traffic control as in the case of other types of transport
 It is suitable for the transportation of fragile or breakable goods. For example, glasses,
beverages from BRALIRWA, Burundi, etc since there will be very limited shaking and
jolting on the water ways
 Usually costs of collection and delivery are minimized since there is no traffic
 There are limited chances for the attacks of robbers such as in the case of highways on the
other countries
Disadvantages of water transport in Rwanda
 Perishable or urgently needed goods such as newspapers cannot be transported through
this means of transport because of being too slow.
 Unlike roads, which can be constructed to serve various parts of RWANDA , this is not
possible because water sources cover specific areas.
 Some water ways in RWANDA are used by different countries. They are not safe to use
especial during the periods of insecurity in a user country e.g Congo and Burundi.
 Water animals like crocodiles and hippopotami hinder effective water transport especially
on Lakes Ihema, Nasho, etc, and river Akagera.
iii. Air transport in Rwanda

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This involves the movement of goods and passengers by aircrafts. This type of transport is
not commonly used in Rwanda compared to road and water transport. This is because:
 It requires a large capital base for the establishment of its facilities
 It needs highly skilled manpower which is still limited in Rwanda
 It is sensitive to political instabilities
 Transport fees is still claimed to be high
 Airport takes a large land scale.
Advantages of air transport in Rwanda
 Very fast and ideal for perishable products.
 Flights are programmed to avoid delays.
 International flights link different countries.
Disadvantages of air transport in Rwanda
 Storage space is inadequate and therefore transportation of bulky and poorly packed
goods is not possible
 Some commodities especially those likely to catch fire, for example, petrol, paraffin,
diesel and others cannot be transported using air means
 Usually weather conditions such as fog or must greatly influences/interferes with the
schedules compared to other means of transport
 The construction of the airfields in Rwanda is very expensive and this makes even fares
to be paid in order to use air transport fairly high to be afforded by ordinary people
 Usually, considerable time is wasted in air traffic control over the airfields like checking,
booking and mechanical checking
 There are only two small airports in Rwanda and these are not sufficient in terms of
parking space and transporting large numbers of people.
Problems of transport and Possible solutions to these problems
communication in Rwanda

1) Lack of capital Advantages Disadvantages

2) Relief conditions.
3) Our country is landlocked
4) Political instabilities in
neighboring countries
like Burundi and DRC
5) Poverty
6) Limited electricity supply
7) Low level of education
8) Climate change
9) Remoteness of some
areas.

RWANDA should join more

economic integrations so as
to solve the problem of being
landlocked
RWANDA has started to
invest in electrification
especially in rural areas
Free education for all which
goes with putting a focus on

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ICT
RWANDA should maintain
security and political stability
In order to increase capital,
RWANDA should borrow
loans

21.2 Communication
systems in Rwanda
Communication refers to the
transmission of words and
messages from one person to
another.
Mass communication
involves enabling a large
number of people to receive
the same information.
Among the types of mass
communication used in
Rwanda are:
 Radio and television
 Newspapers and
magazines
 Telephone services
 Internet
 Postal services
 Facsimile
21.3 Advantages and
disadvantages of
communication systems in
Rwanda
Each of the transport and
communication systems
discussed has its own
advantages and
disadvantages. Some of the
advantages and
disadvantages are outlined
below.
Type of communication
Radio and television 1. News read far away is 1. Television requires signals
received at the same time and electricity which are not
throughout by all listeners available in some rural areas.
even in other parts of the 2. Televisions are not
world. affordable by the poor.
2. Television uses pictures
which give real events as

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 they occur.
3. Radios are fairly cheap to
buy.
Newspapers and magazines 1. Provide daily news. 1. Not useful for illiterate
2. Records of events can be people.
retained for long. 2. Limited to only people
3. Can be in different with enough money to
languages. purchase.
Telephone 1. Passes information 1. Some phones require
instantly regardless of electricity for charging.
distance. 2. Mobile phones are not
2. Mobile phones are potable affordable by low income
and used anywhere where the people.
signals are available. 3. Requires some level of
3. Some mobile phone literacy.
models are very cheap and
affordable by people of low
income.
Internet 1. It is a global network that 1. Requires electricity thus
connects to every part of the many rural areas have no
world. access
2. No charge to use once the 2. One must have a computer
computer is connected. or other gargets such as
3. Messaged are received mobile tablets.
instantly. 3. Cannot be used by
illiterate people.
Postal services 1. Ideal for delivery of letters 1. Letters take long to reach
and parcels. the receiver
2. Cheap to use. 2. Relies on different forms
3. Does not require electricity of transport to deliver letters
to operate. and parcels.
3. Operates only at a post
office.
4. Some letters and parcels
get lost
Facsimile 1. Messages are received as 1. Must have fixed telephone
written by the sender. line connection.
2. Can connect to any part of 2. Only written messages are
the world. sent.

Importance of communication
 Creation of employment opportunities
 It enhances trade by transmitting information on market and commodity prices
 It facilitates education, trade and industry
 It increases government revenue through taxation
 It increases the level of technology
21.4 Problems and solutions of transport and communication in Rwanda
Problems of communication

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 Low level of technology
 Shortage of capital
 Illiterate people do not easily use the communication networks, read newspapers, etc
 Poverty of people to afford the cost of communication: telephones are likely expensive
 Shortage of communication networks.
21.5 Trade in Rwanda
Trade simply means the exchange of commodities all levels. The earliest type of trade was
barter trade in which one type of commodity was being exchanged for another of equal value.
This was before the introduction of money which acts as a medium of exchange.
21.5.1 Types of Trade
i) Internal trade which involves exchange of goods and services within the same
country. It is divided into:
Retail trade: This is where traders sell their commodities in small quantities to the customers
Wholesale trade: This is where traders sell their commodities in bulk to the retailers

ii) International trade: This involves exchange of commodities on global scale. This is
based on the principle of comparative advantages which stipulates that no country can
be self-sufficient

Importation and exportation

 Import trade: This is buying of commodities from abroad. This is the major trade in
RWANDA where nearly 90% of the commodities consumed in RWANDA are
brought from other countries. This is because of low levels of industrialization
 Export trade: This is the selling of locally produce commodities to other countries. This
trade constitutes a very big percentage and this is why it always faces balance of payment
problems (BOP)

Major imports of RWANDA

 Oil (petrol diesel, paraffin)
 Cars, computers, bicycles, motorcycles, building materials especially metal bars, tiles and
cement, food stuffs, rice, maize floor, tinned fish, parked milk, cooking oil and luxuries
(golden watches, earrings and other expensive commodities and clothes especially second
hand clothes and shores)
Exports of RWANDA
 Animal products (skin hides, coffee, tea, minerals, pyrethrum, bananas, flowers and local
made crafts. But all in all RWANDA ’s imports are more than its exports
21.5.2 Importance of trade in Rwanda
For Rwanda, the following are some of the reasons international trade is such an
important sector of the economy.
a) Rwanda like any other country is not self-sufficient with all the requirements. The
country does not produce goods like machinery, petroleum and chemicals. To meet
their need, the country must import these items.
b) Rwanda requires foreign currency to be able to pay for her imports. The country
earns some of the foreign exchange by selling exports like tea, coffee and minerals.
c) Maintaining friendly relations with other countries. Trade facilitates good relations
between Rwanda and her trading partners both in Africa and the rest of the world.
d) It promotes development of transport and communication systems between Rwanda
and her trading partners. Rwanda is linked to the neighbouring countries by well-
maintained tarmac roads which provide ease in movement of trade goods.
Internal trade is important to both the individual traders and the government.

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 a) The government gains by levying taxes on the trade goods. For instance, large scale
traders pay income tax for doing the business. The goods sold are charged Value
Added Tax (VAT) which is an income for the government.
b) International trade encourages good relationship between trading partner countries.
Rwanda is friendly to countries that are members of COMESA and East African
Community who are her main trading partners.
c) Individuals generate income which enables them to improve their standard of living.
d) Trade creates employment opportunities where some of those seeking jobs get
employed. For instance some people are employed as shop managers, cashiers and
shop attendants.
e) Trade promotes local production of commodities. For example, farmers are assured
of market for their produce. This makes them put effort to increase the output.
f) Trade encourages development of transport facilities. For instance, feeder roads have
been extended to the rural areas in Rwanda to enable farmers to transport farm
produce to the markets.
21.5.3 Problems affecting trade and possible solutions in Rwanda
Internal trade problems
 Poor transport and communication: many area of RWANDA are very far from roads.
In these areas, people depend on trade in agricultural commodities on small internal
markets
 Poor relief: the biggest part of RWANDA is mountainous. It has steep and rugged
landscape that cannot favour the construction of roads. It is therefore not very easy to
carry out trade in these areas
 Poor agricultural products: the biggest proportion of the population in RWANDA
depends on agricultural commodities. The crops grown however are mostly subsistence
and do not end in market. This has hindered internal trade
 Poor climate: RWANDA suffers from long dry season (drought). This retards trade in
many parts of the country. Likewise during the rainy season, roads became over flooded,
muddy and impassable
 Low capital: the biggest percentage of the population in RWANDA is poor. This is
because the level of education is very low and there is no investment in trade. It is
specially composed of women, mostly widows who are poor and cannot involve in trade
 Price fluctuation: this is the case where the prices keep on changing (increasing or
decreasing) which can make some businessmen not attracted of investing in RWANDA.
 High interest rate: in different commercial banks of RWANDA the interest paid to the
loans is still claimed to be high which discourage development of trade.

External trade problems

 Land lockedness: RWANDA is a landlocked country. It faces problems of transportation
of its exports and imports. Being landlocked, it suffers from high taxes and tariffs
 Lack of capital: RWANDA is poor and does not have enough capital to invest in trade
internationally
 Poor relations: some countries are not good terms with RWANDA. This may impose
embargoes/trade barriers. This limits international trade
 Competition: RWANDA like any other country competes with other countries in terms
of trades. The terms of trade and prices on the world market are not favoured. This brings
about the balance of payment problems hence limiting international trade.

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Possible solutions to the above problems
 Strengthening international relationship through tightening security between member
countries of trade
 Improving education of all masses. This can increase/improve on the level of trade both
internationally and internally
 Developing roads and constructing feeder roads leading to richer areas especially those
which are agriculturally rich and mineral rich areas.
 Improving on the quality of goods produced in RWANDA. Especially goods produced
for export promotion
 Investing in trade and setting up trade centres more especially collecting and marketing
centres
21.5.4 Regional and international trade partners with Rwanda
Rwanda is not trade alone, has gone far to cooperate with other countries mostly those ones
in ghe same economic communities or integrations like CEPGL, EAC, COMESA etc.
Rwanda is signing different trade agreements with some countries like MOROCCO, CHINA,
INDIA, BENIN.
It is s not only regional cooperation but also international where RWANDA is cooperating
with other countries abroad so as to facilitate international trade by facilitating importation of
non- locally produced material. Those countries are like USA, GERMAY, UK, ISRAEEL,
JAPAN, BELIGIUM, THAILAND, FRANCE.

END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Describe the different types of transport and communication systems in Rwanda.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of:
3. (i) Air transport
(ii) Road transport
(iii) Telephone
(iv) Radio and television
4. Explain three problems that Rwanda experiences due to being landlocked.
5. Describe the internal types of trade in Rwanda.
6. Explain the problems that Rwanda experiences in carrying out overseas trade.

UNIT22. TOURISM IN RWANDA

Introduction
Tourism is one of the many economic activities carried out in Rwanda. It involves people
travelling within a country or visiting other countries for relaxation or adventure. Tourism is
an important economic activity because tourists from other countries are a source of foreign
exchange. Tourists come with money to buy goods and pay for services. Without foreign
exchange, a country would not be able to buy imports since they are not paid for using local
currency. Local tourists on the other hand are charged fees as they visit tourist sites. The
government gets part of the money through taxes.

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22.1 Definition of tourism
Tourism is travelling to visit a place for relaxation, recreation and leisure, usually for a short
period of time. When people travel as tourists within their own country, this is referred to as
domestic tourism. When people travel to another country as tourists, is referred to as
international tourism. Rwanda’s tourist sites are visited by both domestic and international
tourists.
22.2 Tourist sites in Rwanda (Historical and natural sites)
 Musanze cave  Gishwati forest, Mukura forest,
 Loyal hut at Rukari, NYANZA Cyamudongo forest.
 Kamegeri Rock  Rutare royal burial site.
 Museum pit
 Geological Museum
 Ndaba falls
 National parks: Nyungwe forest National park, Birunga National park, Akagera
national park.
 Kabgayi church museum
 Rivers and waterfalls , lakes, etc
 Kibeho religious holy place
22.3 Factors for tourism development in Rwanda
Rwanda is blessed with many animal species such as crocodiles, hippopotami, apes, zebras,
Buffaloes, Gorillas, etc and a variety of beautiful birds. These are formal in national parks
and forests.
i) The relief features: RWANDA has got a wide range of physical features that
resulted from various endogenic and exogenic processes. These include
volcanicity and the associated features, faulting and its associated features,
weathering and its associated features, folding and its features and man-made
landscapes.
ii) The flora (plant life): RWANDA ’s natural beauty is supplemented by a variety
of different vegetation types. These include savannah grass lands, tropical
rainforest trees in Nyungwe, Bamboo vegetation on the slopes of Birunga and
many others
iii) Cultural factors: RWANDA ’s culture is attractive to a number of tourists. The
cultural dances such as “Intore” and “Amaraba’ play an important role in the
cultural set up of RWANDA . It has got many cultural centres such as the
National Miseum in Huye, the French cultural Centre in Kigali, etc
iv) Climate: RWANDA has a favourable temperate climate that is conducive to
tourists especially those from temperate countries. The climate in mountainous
areas is also favourable for mountain climbers, plants and animal life
v) Historical factors: RWANDA ’s historical factors also attract large numbers of
tourists. The ancient Kingdoms such as the King’s place in Nyanza (Huye),
Gasabo, Rubona, etc
vi) The Genocide memorial sites such as Gisozi, in Kigali, Murambi in Nyamagabe,
Ntarama in Nyamata also act as centres of tourist attractions
vii) Presence of water bodies. RWANDA is dominated by very many water bodies
like Kivu, Muhazi, Cyohoha, Ihema, Sake and Ruhondo, etc. Rivers include
Akagera, Muvumba, Nyabarongo, waterfalls include Ntaruka, Rusizi, Rusumo,
Mukungwa, and others.
Others things which may attract tourists in RWANDA many include

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 viii) Good hospitality:,naturally RWANDA ns are blessed with a welcoming heart
which is another factor why are most of the tourists preferring to come to visit
RWANDA .
ix) Political stability it is doubtless that RWANDA is country with security and
political stability in Africa which is a factor for the current influx of tourists.
x) Landforms like rocks of Ngarama, Ndaba in Kibuye, Kamegeri in Southern
Province and others.
xi) There is more touristic facilities like Canopy walk way in Nyungwe
xii) RWANDA is rushing with technology which helps in widening and boosting of
touristic sector like advertisement through internet.
22.4 Importance of tourism industry to the economy of Rwanda
 It provides potential market for industrial produce as well as local markets produce
 It facilitates the improvement of infrastructures, more especially roads, schools, hospitals,
cultural centres
 It provides employment opportunities due to high demand for cooks, hotel personnel,
administrative staff, drivers, guides and game rangers
 It contributes to the appreciation of local cultures various historical objects such as the
history of genocide, King’s place, cultural dances and music etc. are viewed
 It is a source of foreign exchange which can be used for buying imports and developing
other sectors of the economy
 The entrance fees to game parks helps to ensure the conservation of the environment
especially wild game (fauna) and natural vegetation (flora)
 Tourism leads to expansion of local handcraft industry because foreign holiday makers by
large amount of baskets (uduseke) and wood carvings
 Tourism leads to improvement in international relations between RWANDA from the
dependence on agriculture and industry.
 This is another source of national income which can help in development of the country.
22.5 Problems affecting tourism and possible solutions in Rwanda
Problems affecting tourism in Rwanda
1. RWANDA lacks enough good transportation facilities and good roads to make all tourist
areas accessible especially in the rainy season.
2. There is inadequate publicity or advertisement which makes tourists unaware of the
existing touristic potentials in RWANDA
3. There is inadequate accommodation (large standard hotels and lodges) especially in
tourist regions
4. Lack of security in neighboring countries like Democratic Republic of Congo, has been
for long a problem to the development of Rwanda’s tourist industry as some tourists put
RWANDA in the same basket with these neighboring insecure countries.
5. The harsh climate especially the rainy season which makes roads impassable as in
Akagera and Birunga National park
6. Lack of initiative on the part of the Rwandan businessmen to invest in tourist activities
7. There is lack of capital among the Rwandan people and this limits their interests and
information on tourist activities
8. There is a problem of Competition from East African countries where by some touristic
features are found in both countries.
9. Diseases: Wild animals are affected by diseases like Nagona, rinder pest and foot month
diseases. These lead to the death of many animals which were attracting tourists.
10. Poaching: illegal hunting of wild animals in National Parks an game reserves

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11. Remoteness of the national parks or other touristic sites
12. Increasing population results to shortage of living space and responds by encroaching
animal Kingdom for settlement
13. Lack of skilled personnel in tourism industry (receptionists, environmentalists,
sociologists, biologists and other technical manpower to work in different sectors of the
industry
14. There is a poor understanding of more Rwandans who think that tourism is reserved for
the foreigners.
Solutions to the above problems
1. Building more hotels or reequip and rehabilitate the existing hotels and lodges so as to be
more attractive to the visitors
2. Comprehensive training should be given to those who are engaged in tourism industry in
order to work to the expectation of the visitors
3. Massive campaigns should be launched to the local people so as to appreciate the
importance of gazettes areas, so that they should not look at them as wasted land but as
areas reserved for other useful economic activities
4. The government should encourage development of private tour (transporter) operators
which can subsidize the government existing transport this can be derived through giving
them loans to invest in transport at minimal interests.
5. RWANDA should invest more in constructing roads and rehabilitate the damaged ones
so as to solve the problem of transport.
6. RWANDA should focus on marketing of the existing touristic features through different
channels like internet and other types of media without forgetting to put a focus on
different campaigns.
7. The government should establish anti-poaching units to counter effect poachers. This can
be realized though close cooperation between neighboring countries since there is always
smuggling of animal products
8. Extensive advertisement to the outside countries should be emphasized in order to attract
foreign investors
9. The government should emphasize political stability and sell it outside such that visitors
can come without fear of losing their lives.
10. RWANDA should put an emphasize on the law punishing the poachers
11. There should be an improved and innovative way of tourism so as to cater with
competition like through shifting to culture based tourism.
12. Private sector is advised to invest in tourism
13. Different discounts should be taken into consideration so as to promote local tourism
14. Different campaigns like TEMBERA U RWANDA should be appreciated and made
periodically so as to change the mindset of some citizens who think tourism is for the
foreigners.

22.6 Relationship between tourism in Rwanda and regional countries: Kenya, Uganda
and Tanzania
RWANDA shares the membership of East African Community with these countries
whereby so as to ease tourism among them they have launched a program of Single Tourism
Visa to mean someone who has this touristic visa will be allowed to travel in all of these
countries without other requirements.

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  The tourism in both countries is mostly enjoyed by the foreigners rather than the local
citizens
 The climate of these countries seems to be the same which balance the level of
tourism in these countries
 They are both sharing the factor of being mountainous and these mountains are
attracting tourists. For example in RWANDA we have Volcanoes, in Uganda there
is Mt Rwenzori and Kilimandjaro in Tanzania
 The most visited places in both countries are national parks like Akagera and Birunga
national parks in RWANDA , Serengeti national park , Elisabeth national park
 Some touristic features are shared by the two of the countries for example: Rusumo
falls between RWANDA and Tanzania, Volcanoes between RWANDA and Uganda.
 RWANDA has got a speedy move in this sector more than these countries especially
due to her increased security, political stability and hospitality.
END OF UNIT REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Identify the different tourist attractions in Rwanda.
2. Give four reasons why tourism is an important economic sector in Rwanda.
3. Explain the problems that affect tourism in Rwanda and suggest how each can be
solved.
4. How does Rwanda relate with the other East African Community member countries
in the area of tourism?

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